af-wikipedia-org-6678	----	Sisufos - Wikipedia Sisufos in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie Jump to navigation Jump to search Sisufos se straf, deur Franz von Stuck (1920). Sisufos (Grieks: Σίσυφος), ook Sisuphos, was in die Griekse mitologie ’n koning wie se straf in Tartaros was om ’n groot rots tot in ewigheid teen ’n heuwel uit te stoot. Skelmstreke[wysig | wysig bron] Sisufos was die seun van koning Aiolos van Thessalië en Enarete, en die stigter en eerste koning van Korinthe. Hy het navigasie en handel bevorder, maar was gierig en skelm. Hy het dit geniet om reisigers en besoekers dood te maak omdat dit hom toegelaat het om ander te oorheers. Sedert Homeros word Sisufos uitgebeeld as die skelmste van alle mense. Hy het sy niggie verlei, sy broer se troon afgeneem en Zeus se geheime verklap. Hy het onder andere vir die riviergod Asopus vertel waar sy dogter, Aigina, is nadat Zeus haar ontvoer het. Zeus het Tanatos (die verpersoonliking van die Dood) toe opdrag gegee om Sisufos in kettings na Tartaros te neem. Sisufos het Tanatos skelm gevra om die kettings uit te toets om te kyk hoe hulle werk. Toe het hy Tanatos vasgebind en hom gedreig. Dit het ’n groot bohaai veroorsaak en niemand kon doodgaan nie totdat Ares tussenbeide getree en die Dood bevry het. (Hy was kwaad omdat sy oorloë nie meer pret was nie, want geen van sy teenstanders kon doodgaan nie.) Daarna is Sisufos na Tartaros gestuur. Voordat hy gesterf het, het hy egter sy vrou gevra om sy liggaam ná sy dood in die middel van ’n openbare plein te gooi in ’n poging om sy vrou se liefde vir hom te toets. Ontsteld omdat sy vrou hom gehoorsaam het, het Sisufos die koningin van die onderwêreld, Persefone, oorreed om hom toe te laat om terug te gaan en sy vrou te gaan uitskel omdat sy nie sy liggaam begrawe het soos ’n liefdevolle vrou sou doen nie. Toe hy eers in Korinthe was, het hy geweier om terug te gaan na die onderwêreld. Hermes moes hom eindelik terugsleep daarheen. Sisufos se straf[wysig | wysig bron] As straf vir sy skelmstreke is Sisufos gedwing om ’n groot rots teen ’n steil heuwel uit te stoot, maar net voor hy die spits bereik, het die rots weer teruggerol en dan moes hy van voor af begin.[1] Verwysings[wysig | wysig bron] Hierdie artikel is merendeels vertaal vanaf die Engelse Wikipedia-artikel en:Sisyphus ↑ Odussee, xi. 593 l b w Gode, helde en ander wesens in die Griekse mitologie Oergode Eter Chaos Chronos Erebos Gaia Hemera Nyx Pontos Tartaros Uranos Titane Eerste geslag: Huperion Iapetos Koios Krios Kronos Mnemosune Okeanos Foibe Rea Tetis Teia Temis Tweede geslag: Asteria Atlas Eos Epimeteus Helios Leto Menoitios Prometeus Selene Olimpiese gode Afrodite Apollo Atena Ares Artemis Demeter Dionusos Hefaistos Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus • (Hestia) Ander gode Adonis Alfeus Asklepios Eros Hades Hebe Herakles Pan Persefone Plouton Halfgode Achilles Antiope Daidalos Ganumedes Ikaros Jason Oidipus Orion Orfeus Peleus Penelope Perseus Sisufos Tantalos Teseus Ander wesens Amasones Charon Chtoniese gode Eriniërs Gigante Gorgone Grasieë Honderdhandiges Hidra Kerberos Minotourus Muses Nimfe Saters Sentoure Siklope Skikgodinne Styx Normdata BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67258418 Ontsluit van "https://af.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisufos&oldid=2368613" Kategorie: Karakters in die Griekse mitologie Versteekte kategorieë: Artikels met BNF-identifiseerders Artikels met GND-identifiseerders Artikels met LCCN-identifiseerders Artikels met NKC-identifiseerders Artikels met SUDOC-identifiseerders Artikels met VIAF-identifiseerders Artikels met WorldCat-identifiseerders Normdata met 6 elemente Navigasie-keuseskerm Persoonlike gereedskap Nie ingeteken nie Bespreking Bydraes Skep gebruiker Meld aan Naamruimtes Bladsy Bespreking Variante Weergawes Lees Wysig Wysig bron Wys geskiedenis More Soek Navigasie Tuisblad Gebruikersportaal Geselshoekie Onlangse wysigings Lukrake bladsy Hulp Sandput Skenkings Gereedskap Skakels hierheen Verwante veranderings Spesiale bladsye Permanente skakel Bladinligting Haal dié blad aan Wikidata-item Druk/eksporteer Skep boek Laai af as PDF Drukbare weergawe Ander projekte Wikimedia Commons Ander tale العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Wysig skakels Die bladsy is laas op 5 Februarie 2021 om 08:16 bygewerk. Die teks is beskikbaar onder die lisensie Creative Commons Erkenning-Insgelyks Deel. Aanvullende voorwaardes kan moontlik ook van toepassing wees. Sien die Algemene Voorwaardes vir meer inligting. Privaatheidsbeleid Inligting oor Wikipedia Vrywaring Selfoonweergawe Ontwikkelaars Statistieke Koekieverklaring 
aleph-nkp-cz-4386	----	AUT - Full View of Record   Databases of the National Library CR Base:  AUT   Logout | Login | Databases | Preferences | Feedback | Help Search / Browse | Results list | Previous searches | My e-Shelf | History |     Add to Basket  |  Save / Mail   AUT - Full View of Record Choose format:   Standard  --  MARC Record 1 out of 1 Control no. jo2016908762 Heading Sisyfos (mytologická postava) Seen from Sisyphus (mytologická postava) Broader term mytologické postavy Broader term řecká mytologie More info Wikipedie (Sisyfos)  Permalink http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000908762&local_base=AUT System no. 000908762 More info: © 2014 Ex Libris, NL CR 
ar-wikipedia-org-5426	----	سيزيف - ويكيبيديا سيزيف من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث لوحة لسيسفوس رسمه تيتيان سيزيف أو سيسيفوس كان أحد أكثر الشخصيات مكراً بحسب الميثولوجيا الإغريقية، حيث استطاع أن يخدع إله الموت ثاناتوس مما أغضب كبير الآلهة زيوس، فعاقبه بأن يحمل صخرة من أسفل الجبل إلى أعلاه، فإذا وصل القمة تدحرجت إلى الوادي، فيعود إلى رفعها إلى القمة، ويظل هكذا حتى الأبد، فأصبح رمز العذاب الأبدي. محتويات 1 الأسطورة 2 التحدي السيزيفي أو المهمة السيزيفية 3 تفسيرات 4 المصادر الأسطورة[عدل] و سيزيف هو ابن الملك أيولوس ملك ثيساليا وإيناريت، وأول ملك ومؤسس مملكة إيفيرا (كورينثة).وهو شقيق سالمونيوس ووالد غلاوكوس من الحورية ميروبي، وجد بيليروفون. وتقول مصادر متأخرة بأن سيزيف هو والد أوديسيوس من أنتيكلي، قبل أن تتزوج بزوجها اللاحق ليرتيس. ويقال إن سيزيف هو مخترع وموجد الألعاب البرزخية على شرف ميليسرتيس اشتغل سيزيف بالتجارة والإبحار، لكنه كان مخادعا وجشعا، وخرق قوانين وأعراف الضيافة بأن قتل المسافرين والضيوف (النزلاء).و قد صوره هوميروس ومن تلاه من الكتاب واشتهر لديهم بأنه أمكر وأخبث البشر على وجه الأرض قاطبة وأكثرهم لؤما. أغرى ابنة أخيه، واغتصب عرش أخيه وأفشى أسرار زيوس (خصوصا اغتصاب زيوس لإيجينا، ابنة إله النهر أسوبوس، وفي روايات أخرى ابنة والده أيولوس، وبالتالي تكون أخت سيزيف الشقيقة أو نصف الشقيقة) ثم أمر زيوس هادس أن يسلسل سيزيف في الجحيم. وطلب سيزيف بمكر من ثانتوس أن يجرب الأصفاد والسلاسل ليختبر مدى كفاءتها. وعندما فعل ثانتوس ذلك أحكم عليه سيزيف الأصفاد وتوعد هادس. وأحدث ذلك تمردا وانقلابا وثورة وهياجا ولم يعد أحد من البشر يموت، حتى انزعج آريس لأنه فقد المتعة من معاركه لأن خصومه فيها لا يموتون لذلك تدخل وأطلق سراح وفك أسر ثانتوس وأرسل سيزيف إلى الجحيم وعلى أية حال، قبل موت سيزيف، أخبر زوجته أنه عندما يموت فعليها أن تمتنع عن تقديم أضحيتها المعتادة. وفي العالم السفلي، شكا من أن زوجته تهجره وتهمله وتتجاهله وأقنع برسيفوني، ملكة العالم السفلي، بالسماح له بالصعود للعالم العلوي ويطلب من زوجته أن تؤدي واجبها وتقدم أضحيتها. عندما عاد سيزيف إلى كورينث، رفض أن يعود ولذلك حُمل إلى العالم السفلي بواسطة هادس. وفي رواية أخرى للأسطورة، اقتنعت برسيفوني مباشرة أنه قد قيد إلى الجحيم بطريق الخطأ وأمرت بإطلاق سراحه التحدي السيزيفي أو المهمة السيزيفية[عدل] وكعقاب من الآلهة على خداعه، أرغم سيزيف على دحرجة صخرة ضخمة على تل منحدر، ولكن قبل أن يبلغ قمة التل، تفلت الصخرة دائما منه ويكون عليه أن يبدأ من جديد مرة أخرى.و كانت العقوبة ذات السمة الجنونية والمثيرة للجنون التي عوقب بها سيزيف جزاء لاعتقاده المتعجرف كبشر بأن ذكاءه يمكن أن يغلب ويفوق ذكاء زيوس ومكره. لقد اتخذ سيزيف الخطوة الجريئة بالإبلاغ عن فضائح ونزوات زيوس الغرامية، وأخبر إله النهر أسوبوس بكل ما يتعلق من ظروف وملابسات بابنته إيجينا. وقد أخذها زيوس بعيدا، وبصرف النظر عن كون نزوات زيوس غير لائقة، فإن سيزيف تجاوز وخرق بشكل لا تخطئه العين حدوده لأنه اعتبر نفسه ندا للآلهة حتى يٌبلغ عن حماقاتهم وطيشهم ونزقهم. وكنتيجة لذلك، أظهر زيوس ذكاءه الخاص بأن ربط سيزيف بعقوبة وحيرة أبدية. وطبقا لذلك فإن الأنشطة عديمة الهدف أو اللامتناهية توصف بأنها سيزيفية. وقد كان سيزيف وقصته يشكلان موضوعا شائعا للكتاب القدامى، وقد صوره الرسام بوليغنوتوس على جدران الليش في دلفي تفسيرات[عدل] و طبقا للنظرية الشمسية، فإن سيزيف هو قرص الشمس الذي يطلع كل صباح من الشرق ويهوى غاربا في الغرب. ويعتبره باحثون آخرون تجسيما وتشخيصا للأمواج المائجة ارتفاعا وانخفاضا أو للبحر الغدار. وفي القرن الأول قبل الميلاد فسر الفيلسوف الأبيقوري لوكريتوس أسطورة سيزيف كتجسيم للساسة الذين يطمحون ويسعون باستماتة إلى الكرسي والمنصب السياسي وأنهم مهزومون مغلوبون في مسعاهم بصفة دائمة مستمرة، وأن السطوة والسلطة مجرد شيء فارغ خاو في حقيقتها، تماما مثل دحرجة الجلمود لأعلى التل. وقد اقترح فيلكر أنه يرمز إلى الصراع العبثي للإنسان في سبيل المعرفة، وقال رايناخ أن عقابه تم بناء على صورة يظهر فيها سيزيف مدحرجا حجرا ضخما هو أكروكورنثوس، وهو رمز الكدح والمشقة والحنكة والمهارة التي استخدمها في بناء السيزيفيوم ورأي ألبير كامو في مقاله المنشور عام 1942 والمسمى أسطورة سيزيف، أن سيزيف يجسد هراء وسخف ولا منطقية ولا عقلانية الحياة الإنسانية، ولكنه يختم بقوله أن المرء لابد أن يتخيل أن سيزيف سعيد مسرور. تماما كما أن النضال والصراع والكفاح ذاته نحو الأعالي والمرتفعات كاف وكفيل بملأ فؤاد الإنسان حيث بقول عنه ليس هناك عقاب افظع من عمل متعب لا أمل فيه ولا طائل منه[1] المصادر[عدل] ^ مقاله عن الاسطورة وراي كامي فيها نسخة محفوظة 22 أغسطس 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين. بوابة علم الأساطير ضبط استنادي WorldCat BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 سيزيف في المشاريع الشقيقة صور وملفات صوتية من كومنز مجلوبة من "https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=سيزيف&oldid=38163033" تصنيفان: ملوك كورينث القديمة مؤسسو مدن تصنيفات مخفية: قالب أرشيف الإنترنت بوصلات واي باك بوابة علم الأساطير/مقالات متعلقة جميع المقالات التي تستخدم شريط بوابات صفحات تستخدم خاصية P268 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P227 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P244 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P691 صفحات تستخدم خاصية P214 قائمة التصفح أدوات شخصية غير مسجل للدخول نقاش مساهمات إنشاء حساب دخول نطاقات مقالة نقاش المتغيرات معاينة اقرأ عدل تاريخ المزيد بحث الموسوعة الصفحة الرئيسية الأحداث الجارية أحدث التغييرات أحدث التغييرات الأساسية تصفح المواضيع أبجدي بوابات مقالة عشوائية تصفح بدون إنترنت مشاركة تواصل مع ويكيبيديا مساعدة الميدان تبرع أدوات ماذا يصل هنا تغييرات ذات علاقة رفع ملف الصفحات الخاصة وصلة دائمة معلومات الصفحة استشهد بهذه الصفحة عنصر ويكي بيانات طباعة/تصدير إنشاء كتاب تحميل PDF نسخة للطباعة في مشاريع أخرى ويكيميديا كومنز لغات Afrikaans مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 عدل الوصلات آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان يوم 5 سبتمبر 2019، الساعة 09:53. النصوص منشورة برخصة المشاع الإبداعي. طالع شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. سياسة الخصوصية حول ويكيبيديا إخلاء مسؤولية نسخة المحمول المطورون إحصائيات بيان تعريف الارتباطات 
arz-wikipedia-org-6546	----	سيزيف - ويكيبيديا سيزيف من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعه الحره اذهب إلى التنقل اذهب إلى البحث سيزيف او سيزيفوس (يونانى: Σίσυφος |sísypʰos|; انجليزى: Sisyphus) شخصيه اسطوريه و ملك . بيعتبر امكر الشخصيات فى الميثولوچى اليونانى زى ما قال عليه هوميروس ، معروف انه اللى اتحكم عليه انه يشيل صخره كبيره من تحت جبل و يطلع بيها لفوق و اول ما يوصل توقع منه و تقع فى وادى تحت و ينزل يجيبها و يطلع تانى و يفضل على الحال دا على طول و مش بيموت كعقاب ليه. الأسطورة[تعديل] سيزيف كان ابن الملك ايولوس , ملك تيساليا و ايناريت، و مؤسس مملكة ايفيرا.فى الاول اشتغل فى التجاره و فى البحر, بس كان غشاش و طماع و جشع و خالف قوانين الضيافه اللى كانت لازم تحترم و قتل المسافرين و الضيوف و أغرى بنت اخوه و بعدين سرق عرش أخوه فى الحكم و عمل حاجات غلط كتير , و من أكبر الغلطات اللى عملها انه قال الاسرار اللى زيوس كان مئتمنه عليها. كعقاب ليه على قول اسرار و خيانه امانة زيوس و على كل جرايمه, امر زيوس اخوه هيديس , ملك العالم السفلى , انه يحبس سيزيف عنده فى العالم السفلى ,فى الجحيم, وحصل دا فعلا , بس سيزيف بمكره و خبثه ضحك على تانتوس , المسئول على الموت , لما طلب منه انه يجرب السلاسل و الكلبشات بتاعته عشان يتئكد انها سليمه ولا لاء ولما تانتوس عمل كدا قفل عليه سيزيف و هرب من العالم السفلى و اعلن انه حينتقم من هيديس و زيوس و عمل تمرد و ثوره فى العالم السفلى و بقى مفيش حد بيموت و خرج الموضوع عن ايد الالهة لحد ما تدخل اريس, اله الحرب, عشان انقلاب سيزيف دا خلى خصومه ميموتوش لما يقتلهم و حرر تانتوس و قبضوا على سيزيف و سجنوه تانى فى العالم السفلى. بس قبل ما سيزيف يموت و يروح العالم السفلى طلب من مراته انه لما يموت ترمى جثته فى الشارع و متدفنهوش, و لما مات و نزل العالم السفلى , اشتكى لپرسفون ملكة العالم السفلى ان مراته بتهمل اقل واجباتها نحيته اللى انها تدفن جثته و فضل وراها لحد ما اقنعها و ساعدته انه يطلع بره العالم السفلى , بحجة انه يروح يقنع مراته انها تقوم بدورها و تدفنه زى ما القوانين بتقول, و لما طلع هرب على مملكته و رفض انه يرجع تانى و هدد سلطة الالهة من تانى, و فضل كدا لحد ما الاله هيرميس رجعه بالعافيه. المهمة السيزيفيه[تعديل] كعقاب لسيزيف من الالهة قرروا ان سيزيف لازم غصب عنه يشيل صخره كبيره من وادى و يطلع بيها جبل عالى و اول ما يقرب يوصل فوق , الصخره دايما تفلت منه و تقع و ينزل يجيبها تانى , و يفضل كدا على الطول. العقوبة نفسها مجنونة و تجنن الواحد , و دا كان مقصود عشان ان سيزيف افتكر ان ذكائه و مكره , مهما كان رهيب , بس هو كانسان مش حيقدر يغلب ذكاء و مكر زيوس و بقية الالهة. فى الاخر زيوس بين ذكائه لما اختار العقوبه دى بالذات و ربط سيزيف بعقوبة و حيره اباديه و فى نفس الوقت تدمر عقله. بقت الاعمال و الحاجات اللى ملهاش لازمه او فايده او اللى مش بتخلص بقت بتتوصف بالسيزيفيه, نسبه لسيزيف و عقوبته. قصة و اسطورة سيزيف الهمت كتاب و راسمين من زمان اوى و لحد دلوقتى و فيه اكتر من فيلم يعتبر مقتبس افكار من اسطورة سيزيف زى فيلم 1000 مبروك و فيلم Groundhog Day. فيه فايلات فى تصانيف ويكيميديا كومونز عن: سيزيف اتجابت من "https://arz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=سيزيف&oldid=3435225" تصانيف: ميثولوجيا يونانيه لستة التصفح ادوات شخصيه انت مش مسجل دخولك المناقشة مع عنوان الأيبى دا مساهمات افتح حساب دخول النطاقات صفحه مناقشه المتغيرات مناظر قرايه تعديل استعراض التاريخ اكتر تدوير استكشاف الصفحه الرئيسيه بوابات ويكيبيديا مصرى اخر التعديلات صفحة عشوائيه مساعده تواصل صالون المناقشه طريقة الكتابه احداث دلوقتى التبرعات علبة العده ايه بيوصل هنا تعديلات ليها علاقه ارفع فايل (upload file) صفح مخصوصه لينك دايم معلومات عن الصفحه استشهد بالصفحة دى عنصر ويكيداتا اطبع/صدّر إعمل كتاب تنزيل PDF نسخه للطبع مشاريع تانيه ويكيميديا كومنز بلغات تانيه Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 عدل الوصلات الصفحه دى اتعدلت اخر مره فى 11 اكتوبر 2020,‏ 05:55. النصوص متوفرة تحت رخصة التشارك الإبداع العزو/المشاركة بالمثل; ممكن تطبيق شروط إضافية. بص على شروط الاستخدام للتفاصيل. بوليسة الخصوصيه عن ويكيبيديا تنازل عن مسئوليه نسخة المحمول مطورين احصائيات بيان الكوكيز 
ast-wikipedia-org-842	----	Sísifu - Wikipedia Sísifu De Wikipedia Saltar a navegación Saltar a la gueta Esti artículu o seición necesita referencies qu'apaezan nuna publicación acreditada, como revistes especializaes, monografíes, prensa diaria o páxines d'Internet fiables. Pues añadiles tu mesmu o avisar al autor principal del artículu na so páxina d'alderique pegando: {{subst:Avisu referencies|Sísifu}} ~~~~ Sísifu Personaxe de Hades Información Sexu masculín Nacimientu fecha desconocida Cónxugue Mérope (es) y Tiro (es) Padres Eolo (es) Enareta (es) Fíos Ornizione (es) , Metapontus (en) , Glauco (es) , Thersander (en) , Almo (es) , Sinón (es) y Odiseo Familiares Perieres (es) [editar datos en Wikidata] Sísifu yera na Mitoloxía Griega el fundador y rei d'Éfira, asina como esposu de Merope. Fíu d'Eolu y Enarete foi'l padre d'Odiseu con Anticlea; tamién foi padre del marín Glaucu cola so muyer. Yera consideráu'l más astutu ente los homes y tanto foi asina que cuando la Muerte (Tánatos) llegó pa buscalu, decidió apresala con arcoxos; poro, naide morría nel Mundiu hasta qu'Ares la lliberó y unvió a Sísifu al Hades. Enantes de marchar dixo a la so muyer que nun fixera ofrendes a los dioses pola so muerte, asina cuando llegó, en viendo que la so muyer cumplía'l mandáu, convenció a Hades pa que lu dexara tonar al mundiu los vivos pa convencer a la so esposa. Pero namái regresar nun quixo volver al Hades hasta qu'Hermes foi buscalu y devolviólu pal inframundiu. La so conderga, ensin dulda la más famosa de la mitoloxía, consistía n'emburriar una piedra hasta lo más cimero d'un monte y cuando llegaba, volvía a cayer, teniendo que facer esti trabayu per tola eternidá. Enxamás nun se supo bien cuálu fuera'l pecáu cometíu pa que-y aplicaren esti castigu pero paez ser que desveló a los humanos los designios de los dioses. La conderga de Sísifu foi, y inda ye, un tema recurrente na filosofía y lliteratures occidentales, como, por exemplu, el llibru d'Albert Camus "El mitu de Sísifu", onde l'escritor francés lu punxo de símbolu pa lo que llamaba, "el sentimientu absurdu": la llucha del home escontra un mundiu que nun pescancia. Control d'autoridaes Proyeutos Wikimedia Datos: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus Identificadores WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 BNF: 12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 Diccionarios y enciclopedies Britannica: url Datos: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus Sacáu de «https://ast.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sísifu&oldid=3209818» Categoría: Personaxes de la mitoloxía griega Categoríes anubríes: Wikipedia:Artículos que necesiten referencies dende mayu de 2020 Wikipedia:Páxines con etiquetes de Wikidata ensin traducir Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN Menú de navegación Ferramientes personales Nun aniciasti sesión Alderique Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Entrar Espacios de nome Páxina Alderique Variantes Vistes Lleer Editar Editar la fonte Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidá Fechos actuales Cambeos recientes Páxina al debalu Ayuda Ferramientes Lo qu'enllaza equí Cambios rellacionaos Xubir ficheru Páxines especiales Enllaz permanente Información de la páxina Citar esta páxina Elementu de Wikidata Imprentar/esportar Crear un llibru Descargar como PDF Versión pa imprentar N'otros proyeutos Wikimedia Commons N'otres llingües Afrikaans العربية مصرى Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Editar los enllaces La última edición d'esta páxina foi el 30 xin 2021, a les 13:38. El testu ta disponible baxo la Llicencia Creative Commons Reconocimientu/CompartirIgual 3.0; puen aplicase otres cláusules más. Llei les condiciones d'usu pa más detalles. Política d'intimidá Tocante a Wikipedia Avisu llegal Vista pa móvil Desendolcadores Estadístiques Declaración de cookies 
az-wikipedia-org-6183	----	Sizif — Vikipediya Sizif Vikipediya, azad ensiklopediya Jump to navigation Jump to search Frans fon Ştuk. Sizif Sizif (və ya Sisif,q.yun. Σίσυφος) — qədim yunan mifologiyasında Tanrıların ittihamından sonra böyük qaya parçasını dağın başına qaldırmağa məhkum edilmiş şəxs. Daş yuxarı qalxdıqda öz ağırlığı ilə aşağı düşürdü. Bu cəzanın mahiyyəti isə odur ki, "faydasız əmək"dən daha ağır cəza yoxdur. Homerə əsasən Sizif — ölümə məhkum edilənlərin ən ağıllısı, ən hiyləgəri idi. Mündəricat 1 Mif 2 Həyatı 3 Sizifin vəzifəsi, ya da Sizifin meydan oxuması 4 İstinadlar 5 Xarici keçidlər Mif[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Bu haqda bir sıra miflər mövcuddur. Əvvəla Sizifə bəslənən müxtəlif münasibətlərin, bəlkə də, hamısı onun nəyə görə yeraltı dünyanın faydasız qara fəhləsi olmasının səbəblərini aydınlaşdırır. Gəlin bir balaca əvvələ nəzər salaq. Birincisi, o, tanrılara naşükür, laqeyd münasibətinə görə ittiham olunur. Sizif tanrıların sirlərini oğurlayır. Asopun qızı Aegina Zevs tərəfindən qaçırılır. Bu qaçırılmadan sarsılmış ata dərdini Sizifə açıb şikayətlənir. Oğurlanmanı bilən Sizif təklif edir ki, əgər Asop Korinfin qalasına su verməyə razılıq verərsə, onda o bu barədə danışa bilər. Göylərin ildırım vurmalarının əvəzinə o, suyun xeyir-dua verməsini üstün tuturdu. Sizif yeraltı dünyada bunun üçün cəzalandırılır. Homer həmçinin belə nəql edir ki, Sizif Ölümün özünü zəncirləyib qandallamışdı. Pluton onun səltənətinin görünüşünə, sakit imperiyasına dözə bilmirdi. Buna görə də o, fatehinin əllərindən Ölümü azad etmək üçün müharibə tanrısını göndərdi. Bu da deyilir ki, ölümünə yaxın Sizif həyat yoldaşının sevgisini sınağa çəkməyə can atır. Arvadına əmr edir ki, öləndən sonra onun dəfn olunmamış cəsədini ictimai meydanın ortasına atsın. Bundan sonra, Sizif yeraltı dünyada oyanır. İnsan sevgisinə zidd itaətkarlıqla qəzəbləndirilən Sizif arvadını cəzalandırmaq üçün Plutondan yerə qayıtmağa icazə əldə edir. Ancaq o bu dünyanın üzünü yenidən gördükdə sudan, günəşdən, isti daşlardan və dənizdən zövq alır; cəhənnəm qaranlığına bir də qayıtmaq istəmir. Geri çağırmalar, qəzəb əlamətləri, xəbərdarlıqların heç biri fayda vermir. Bir neçə il o, körfəzin, parlayan dəniz və yerin, torpağın təbbəssümü ilə üz-üzə yaşayır. Tanrıların fərmanı zərurət idi. Hermes gəlib bu sırtıq, azmış kişini zəncirləyib, zövqündən ayıraraq zorla yeraltı dünyaya apardı. Orada isə Sizifin yuvarlayacağı qaya parçası – dövri taleyi onu gözləyirdi[1]. Var oluş qayğısı özü olmaq ya da olmamaq qayğısıdır. "Kierkegaard. Sizifi gördüm qorxunc işkəncələr çəkərkən: tutmuş iki ovcuyla böyük bir qayanı və qollarıyla, ayaqlarıyla dayanmışdı qayaya, durmadan itələyirdi onu bir təpəyə doğru, budur qaya təpəyə çata-çatdadır, budur bitir, ama təpəyə çatmasına bir barmaq qalmış, bir güc itələyirdi onu təpədən geri, aşağıya qədər yuvarlanırdı yenidən baş bəlası qaya, o da yenidən itələyirdi qayanı, qan tər içində..." Homer Sizif (yun. Σίσυφος; ing. Sisyphus) qədim yunan mifologiyasında sonsuza qədər böyük bir qayanı bir təpənin ən yüksək nöqtəsinədək yuvarlamağa məhkum edilmiş yeraltı dünya kralıdır. Sizif adı ənənəvi olaraq sophos (bilgə) sözü ilə əlaqələndirilir; ancaq bu əlaqələndirmə özündə bəzi etimoloji problemlər ehtiva edir. Aiolosun oğlu, Korint kralı Sizof tanrı-çay Asoposa, qızı Aiginanın Zevs tərəfindən qaçırılmış olduğunu söyləyərək Zevsi ələ verməsinə qarşılıq qalası içində bir çeşmə axıdılmasını təmin edir. Bu xainlik Zevsin öfkəsinə səbəb olur. Zevs ona ölüm mələyi Tanatı göndərir. Sizif Tanatı zəncirləyir; onu azadlığına qovuşdurmaq üçün Zevs müdaxilə etmək məcburiyyətində qalır. Ölülər ölkəsinə aparılan Sizif taleyi ilə barışmaq istəmir. Özünə cənazə mərasimi təşkil edilməməsini həyat yoldaşından ölmədən əvvəl istəmişdir. Mərasimsiz gəlişi xoş qarşılamayan Hades, dinsiz həyat yoldaşını cəzalandırmağı üçün Sizifin yerüzünə qayıtma təklifini qəbul edir... Sizif daha illərlə yerüzündə yaşayacaqdır. Nəhayət, o gerçək ölümlə cəzalandırılır. Ölülər ölkəsi tanrıları onu sonsuza qədər daş yuvarlamağa məhkum edirlər; hədəfə hər yaxınlaşmada daş yenə aşağıya düşür. Həyatı[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Sizif Eol ilə Enaretanın oğlu, Meropenin əri və Ephyra (Korint) şəhərinin qurucu kralıdır, lakin sonrakı qaynaqlar Sizifin Antiklea ilə bərabərliyindən Odiseusun atası olduğunu iddia etməkdədir. Sizifin Melikertes şərəfinə ilk İsthmian oyunlarını təşkil etdiyi rəvayət edilir. Sizif dənizçilik və ticarətin inkişafına böyük yardımlar göstərmişdir, ancaq qonaqpərvərlik qanunlarını pozaraq yolçuları ve qonaqları öldürəcək qədər acgözlü və hiyləgər bir kraldır. Homerin dediyinə görə, Sizif ən hünərli insan olmağı ilə şöhrət tapmışdı. Qardaşının qızını başdan çıxarmış, qardaşının taxtını ələ keçirmiş və Zevsin sirrlərini – xüsusən Zevsin çay tanrısı Asopusun qızı Aeginaya təcavüz etdiyi sirrinə xəyanət etmişdir. Bunun üzərinə Zevs Hadesdən Sizifi cəhənnəmdə zəncirləməsini istəmişdir. Sizif Tanatdan hiyləgərliklə zəncirin necə işlədiyini görmək üçün öz üzərində sınaqdan keçirməyini istəmiş, Tanat özünü zəncirləyəndə Sizif zənciri yaxşıca sıxmış və sonra Hadesi təhdid etmişdir. Bu vəziyyət qarışıqlığa və bu vaxt ərzində heç bir insanın ölməməsinə səbəb olmuşdur. Bunun üzərinə, rəqibləri ölmədiyi üçün etdiyi müharibələrdən zövq alamayan və bu vəziyyətə bir xeyli canı sıxılan Ares vəziyyətə müdaxilə etmiş, Tanatı sərbəst buraxıb Sizifi Tartarusa göndərmişdir. Ancaq Sizif ölmədən öncə, həyat yoldaşına öldüyü zaman adət olduğu halda qurban verməməyini söyləmişdir. Beləcə Sizif Yeraltı dünyada həyat yoldaşının ona laqeyd yanaşdığından şikayət etmiş və Yeraltı kraliçası Persefonanı həyat yoldaşından vəzifələrini yerinə yetirməyi istəmək üçün dünyaya qayıtmasına icazə verməsi üçün razı salmışdır. Sizif Korintə çatanda geri dönməyi rəddetmiş və sonunda Hermes tərəfindən Yeraltı dünyaya geri aparılmışdır.[2] Sizifin vəzifəsi, ya da Sizifin meydan oxuması[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Hiyləgərliyinin cəzası olaraq Sizif tanrılar tərəfindən böyük bir qayanı dik bir təpənin zirvəsinə yuvarlamağa məhkum olundu. Sizif tam təpənin zirvəsinə çatanda qaya hər zaman əlindən çıxıb aşağı yuvarlanırdı və Sizif hər şeyə yenidən başlamaq məcburiyyətində qalırdı. Rəsim Sizifin boş səylərinin canlı nümunəsidir. Bu cəza Sizifin Çay tanrısı Asopusun qızı Aeginanın yerini dediyi üçün verilmişdir. Zevs Aeginayı uzaqlara aparmış və etmiş olduğu şeydən ötrü Sizifə öfkələnmişdir.[3]. Bu səbəbdən, anlamsız və ya bitmək tükənmək bilməyən işlərə ingilis dilində "Sisyphean" deyilir. Sizif antik dövr yazıçıları üçün ortaq bir mövzudur və Polygnotus adlı rəssam Delfinin divarlarına onun rəsmini çəkmişdir. Günəş tanrıçılığına görə, Sizif hər gün şərqdən doğub qərbdən batan günəşi təmsil etməkdədir. Mövzunun digər araşdırmaçıları onu dalğaların yüksəlişi və alçalışının, ya da xain dənizin bir şəxsləşdirilməsi olaraq görürlər. Fridrix Qottlib Uelker Sizifin bilginin ardınca boşa səy göstərən bir insanı simvollaşdırdığını deyirl.[4]. İstinadlar[redaktə | əsas redaktə] ↑ Albert Camus. "Sizif haqqında əfsanə". N.İbrahimov. ↑ The Plague, The Fall, Exile and the Kingdom, and Selected Essays, Albert Camus, Alfred A. Knopf 2004, ISBN 1-4000-4255-0 ↑ Edith Hamilton's Mythology, 312-313 ↑ Albert Camus. "Sizif haqqında əfsanə". N.İbrahimov. Xarici keçidlər[redaktə | əsas redaktə] Sisyphus www.mythweb.com/Sisyphus King/Sisyphus The Myth of Sisyphus Le mythe de Sisyphe Rüfət Əhmədzadə - Zəmanəmizin Sizifi Mənbə — "https://az.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizif&oldid=5091767" Kateqoriya: Qədim yunan miflərinin qəhrəmanları Gizli kateqoriya: ISBN sehrli keçidlərinin istifadə olunduğu səhifələr Naviqasiya menyusu Alətlər sandığı Daxil olmamısınız Müzakirə Fəaliyyətim Hesab yarat Daxil ol Adlar fəzası Məqalə Müzakirə Variantlar Görünüş Oxu Redaktə Əsas redaktə Tarixçə More Axtar Bələdçi Ana Səhifə Kənd meydanı Aktual hadisələr Son dəyişikliklər Təsadüfi səhifə Layihələr Seçilmiş məqalələr Seçilmiş siyahılar Seçilmiş portallar Yaxşı məqalələr Məqalə namizədləri Mövzulu ay Xüsusi Maddi kömək Qaralama dəftəri Kömək Alətlər Səhifəyə keçidlər Əlaqəli redaktələr Fayl yüklə Xüsusi səhifələr Daimi keçid Səhifə məlumatları Bu məqaləyə istinad et Vikiverilənlər elementi Çap et/ixrac Kitab yarat PDF olaraq yüklə Çap variantı Digər layihələrdə Vikianbar Başqa dillərdə Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Keçidlərin redaktəsi Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 23 mart 2020 tarixində, saat 16:15-də redaktə edilib. Mətn Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike lisenziyası altındadır, bəzi hallarda əlavə şərtlər tətbiq oluna bilər. Ətraflı məlumat üçün istifadə şərtlərinə baxın. Məxfilik siyasəti Vikipediya haqqında İmtina etmə Mobil görüntü Tərtibatçılar Statistics Kökə məlumatı 
bar-wikipedia-org-3171	----	Sisyphos – Boarische Wikipedia Sisyphos Aus Wikipedia Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Sisyphos vom Franz von Stuck, 1920 Sisyphos (griachisch : Σίσυφος) oda Sisyphus (latinisiat) is a Hejd vo da griachischen Mythologie. Bekannt is da Sisyphos vor oim duach sei Bestrofung in da Hej, de sognennte Sisyphusoabat. Ea wor dazua vadammt an Fejsblock af an Higl imma wieda afe z roin, nua um nacha z segn, wiara wieda obe roit. Und dees fia olle Ewigkeit. In da remischn Mythologie hoasst a Sisyphus. Da Sisyphos is da Voda vom Odysseus und guit ois da listigste und vaschloganste vo oin Menschn. Wei a an Plan vom Zeus varodn hod, hod eam da Zeus an Thanatos, an Doud, gschickt. Da Siyphos hod oba an Doud bsoffa gmocht und gfesslt. So hod neamd mea af da ganzn Wejd steam miassn. Da Kriagsgod Ares wor oba afn Sisyphos saua, wei neamd mea afn Schlochtfejd gstorbm is. Deshoib hod a an Thanatos befreit und an Sisyphos in de Hej brocht. Da Sisyphos hod oba no vorhea seina Frau gsogt, dass de koa Doudnopfa mocha soit. In da Hej hod a nacha an God vo da Untawejd Hades ibaredd, dass a hoamgeh muass und sei Frau befejn miassat, eam Doundopfa z bringa. Wia a oba wieda dahoam wor, hod a sei Lebm wieda genossn und gor ned dro denkt in de Untawejd zruck z geh und hod si iban God Hades lustig gmocht. Z guada letzt hod eam da Thanatos mit Gwoit in de Unawejd zruck ghoit. Sei Strof wor dees ewige sinnlose Stoanaroin. Afgobm wo trotz grossa Ostrengung nia ned ealedigt wean kena, nennt ma deshoib heit Sisyphusorbat. Literatua[VE | Weakln] Erich Wilisch: Sisyphos. In: Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher (Hrsg.): Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie. Band 4, Leipzig 1915, Sp. 958–972. Digitalisat Bernd Seidensticker & Antje Wessels: Sisyphos. Texte von Homer bis Günter Kunert. Reclam Bibliothek Nr. 1718, Leipzig 2001 ISBN 3-379-01738-8 kpl. Inhaltsverzeichnis Anthologie, uma 100 Texte Im Netz[VE | Weakln]  Commons: Sisyphos – Oibum mit Buidl, Videos und Audiodateien Sisyphos im Greek Myth Index (englisch) Sisyphos im Greek Mythology Link (englisch) Vh „https://bar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=734518“ Kategorina: Person der griechischen Mythologie Mythologischer König (Korinth) Navigationsmenü Mei Weakzeig Ned ogmejd. Dischkriaseitn vo dera IP Beiträge Nutzakonto ooleng Omejdn Namasram Artikl dischkrian Variantn Osichtn Lesn VE Weakln Gschicht oschaugn Weitere Suach Navigation Hoamseitn ThemenPortal Lezde Endarunga Neie Artike Gmoa Autorencafé Stammdisch Mir fehlt ein Wort AutornPortal Qualitätssicherung Etz spendn! Sunstigs Links auf de Seitn Valinkts priafm Spezialseitn Permanenta Link Seitninformation Seitn zitian Wikidata-Item Drucka/exportian Buach erstöin Ois PDF owerloon Seitn ausdrucka In anderen Projekten Wikimedia Commons Andane Sprochn Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Links beorwatn De Seitn is zletzt am 27. Dezemba 2019 um 07:33 gändert worn. Abruafstatistik Dea Text is unta da Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike“ vafigbor; zuasätzliche Bedingunga kennan owendbor sei. Oazlheitn san in de Nutzungsbedingunga bschriebm. Datnschutz Iba Wikipedia Hoftungsausschluss Mobile Osicht Entwickla Statistiken Stellungnahme zu Cookies 
be-wikipedia-org-7155	----	Сізіф — Вікіпедыя Сізіф З пляцоўкі Вікіпедыя Jump to navigation Jump to search Франц фон Штук. Сізіф Сізіф (Сісіф, стар.-грэч.: Σίσυφος) — у старажытнагрэчаскай міфалогіі будаўнік і цар Карынфа, пасля смерці (у Аідзе) прысуджаны багамі закатваць на гару цяжкі камень, які, ледзь дасягнуўшы вяршыні, кожны раз каціўся ўніз. Адсюль выразы «сізіфава праца», «сізіфавы камень», якія азначаюць цяжкую, бясконцую і безвыніковую працу і пакуты. Згодна з Гамерам - хітры, заганны і карыслівы чалавек. Першым сярод элінаў скарыстаўся хітрасцю і ашуканствам. Літаратура[правіць | правіць зыходнік] Беларуская энцыклапедыя: У 18 т. Т.14: Рэле — Слаявіна / Рэдкал.: Г. П. Пашкоў і інш. — Мн.: БелЭн, 2002. — Т. 14. — 512 с. — 10 000 экз. — ISBN 985-11-0238-5 (Т. 14). Спасылкі[правіць | правіць зыходнік] На Вікісховішчы ёсць медыяфайлы па тэме Сізіф Шаблон:Кіраўнікі Карынфа Узята з "https://be.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сізіф&oldid=1552766" Катэгорыі: Героі старажытнагрэчаскіх міфаў Міфы Карынфа Схаваныя катэгорыі: Старонкі з нелікавымі аргументамі formatnum Старонкі, на якіх ужыты чароўныя спасылкі ISBN Навігацыя Асабістыя прылады Не ўвайшоў Размовы Уклад Стварыць уліковы запіс Увайсці Прасторы назваў Артыкул Размовы Варыянты Віды Чытаць Правіць Правіць зыходнік Паказаць гісторыю More Знайсці Навігацыя Галоўная старонка Супольнасць Апошнія змены Новыя старонкі Форум Выпадковая старонка Даведка Ахвяраванні Паведаміць пра памылку Прылады Сюды спасылаюцца Звязаныя праўкі Адмысловыя старонкі Нязменная спасылка Звесткі пра старонку Цытаваць гэту старонку Элемент Вікідадзеных Друк/экспарт Стварыць кнігу Загрузіць як PDF Для друку У іншых праектах Вікісховішча На іншых мовах Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Правіць спасылкі Апошняе змяненне старонкі адбылося 02:36, 10 сакавіка 2013. Тэкст даступны на ўмовах ліцэнзіі Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike, у асобных выпадках могуць дзейнічаць дадатковыя ўмовы. Падрабязней гл. Умовы выкарыстання. Палітыка прыватнасці Пра Вікіпедыю Адмова ад адказнасці Мабільная версія Распрацоўшчыкі Statistics Cookie statement 
bg-wikipedia-org-1970	----	Сизиф – Уикипедия Сизиф от Уикипедия, свободната енциклопедия Направо към навигацията Направо към търсенето Персефона надзирава Сизиф в Подземното царство, Атическа чернофигурна амфора, ок. 530 пр.н.е., Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 1494), Мюнхен Сизиф, Франц фон Щук, 1920. Сизиф (на старогръцки: Σίσυφος; Sisyphos, Sísiuphos; на латински: Sisyphus) в древногръцката митология е около 1400 пр.н.е. строител и цар на Коринт, който след смъртта си е осъден да търкаля по стръмен склон огромен камък, който едва добутан догоре, отново падал. Син е на Еол [1] и Енарета. Основал град Ефир (древното име на Коринт). По-късно се оженил за плеядата Меропа и заедно имали следните синове: Главк, Орнитион, Терсандър и Алм [2]. Дядо е на Белерофонт чрез Главк. Брат е на Салмоней, Атамант и Кретей. Според поема на Евмел, получил властта в Ефир от Медея[3]. Според някои по-късни извори е баща на Одисей от Антиклея, преди тя да се омъжи за втория си съпруг Лаерт. Сизиф, (1548 – 49 г.) от Тициан, музей Прадо, Мадрид, Испания Сизиф бил най-хитрият сред хората. Забелязал, че Зевс похищава тайно нимфата Егина и го издал на баща ѝ – речния бог Азоп. Според друг мит Зевс изпратил при Сизиф бога на смъртта Танатос, но той успял да го окове във вериги. Тогава хората спрели да умират и затова богът на войната Арес бил пратен да освободи Танатос и да отведе виновника в подземното царство. Но преди да последва Арес, Сизиф поръчал на съпругата си да не го погребва и да не принася жертви над трупа му. Така и станало и Сизиф се оплакал за това на Персефона и помолил Хадес да го пусне обратно на земята, за да накаже светотатницата. Веднъж озовал се на земята обаче, Сизиф не бързал да накаже жена си и живял още дълги години и умрял от старост. За делата си бил наказан от боговете да търкаля огромен камък в подземното царство по висок хълм и щом достигне до върха на хълма, камъкът да се претълкулва надолу. Митът за наказанието на Сизиф принадлежи на орфическата гръцка митология, основана на тракийските вярвания, понеже в класическите гръцки представи не съществува живот след смъртта, в който мъртвите могат да бъдат наказвани или награждавани. Сизиф, търкалящ камъка нагоре, често се изобразява в южноиталийски гръцки вази с орфически сюжет, представящ подземното царство на Хадес и Персефона, в което „грешниците“ са наказвани, а следвалите орфически живот живеят заедно с боговете. В тези сюжети Сизиф винаги е изобразявани в долния фриз, заедно с други съгрешили митични герои като Данаидите, Тантал. Оттам идва изразът сизифов труд, което означава безполезен труд, безсмислено усилие. В по-ново време писателят Албер Камю посвещава своето философско произведение „Митът за Сизиф“ на този герой от древногръцката митология. Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] ↑ Омир, Илиада VI 153 ↑ Павзаний, „Описание на Елада“ II 4, 3 ↑ Павзаний, „Описание на Елада“ II 3, 11 Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] Общомедия разполага с мултимедийно съдържание за Сизиф. Sisyphos, Greek Myth Index Sisyphos, Greek Mythology Link Взето от „https://bg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сизиф&oldid=10099890“. Категории: Древногръцки герои Царе на Коринт Навигация Лични инструменти Не сте влезли в системата Беседа Приноси Създаване на сметка Влизане Именни пространства Статия Беседа Варианти Прегледи Преглед Редактиране Редактиране на кода История Още Търсене Навигация Начална страница Случайна статия За Уикипедия Блог на общността Фейсбук страница Страница за контакт Направете дарение Участвайте Защо? Помощ Изпробване Последни промени Нова статия GitHub Общувайте Общи разговори Обсъждани статии Фейсбук група Телеграм Дискорд IRC Инструменти Какво сочи насам Свързани промени Качване на файл Специални страници Постоянна препратка Информация за страницата Цитиране на статията Обект в Уикиданни Отпечатване/изнасяне Създаване на книга Изтегляне като PDF Версия за печат В други проекти Общомедия На други езици Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Редактиране Последната промяна на страницата е извършена на 17 април 2020 г. в 11:59 ч. Текстът е достъпен под лиценза Creative Commons Признание-Споделяне на споделеното; може да са приложени допълнителни условия. За подробности вижте Условия за ползване. Поверителност За контакт с Уикипедия Предупреждение Мобилен изглед За разработчици Статистика Използване на „бисквитки“ 
bn-wikipedia-org-6111	----	সিসিফাস - উইকিপিডিয়া সিসিফাস উইকিপিডিয়া, মুক্ত বিশ্বকোষ থেকে পরিভ্রমণে ঝাঁপ দিন অনুসন্ধানে ঝাঁপ দিন এই নিবন্ধটির সাথে অন্য কোন উইকিপিডিয়া নিবন্ধের সংযোগ নেই। অনুগ্রহ করে বাক্যের তথ্যসমূহের সাথে ও বিষবস্তুর সাথে সামঞ্জস্য রয়েছে এমন নিবন্ধসমূহের সাথে উইকিসংযোগ প্রদানের মাধ্যমে নিবন্ধটির উন্নয়নে সাহায্য করুন গ্রিক পুরাণে দেবতাদের দ্বারা অভিশপ্ত চরিত্র সিসিফাস, যাকে একটা পাথরকে গড়িয়ে গড়িয়ে পাহাড়ের চূড়ায় নিয়ে যেতে হয় যেখানে থেকে ওটা নিজের ভারে আপনা থেকেই আবার গড়িয়ে পড়ে যায়। সিসিফাসকে এই কাজ করে যেতে হয় অনন্তকাল ধরে। এর চেয়ে ভয়ঙ্কর কোনো শাস্তি আর হয় না। ধারণা করা হয় সিসিফাস ডাকাতি করত। সিসিফাস করিন্থের রাজা ছিলেন, এরকম ধারণাও বিদ্যমান। 'https://bn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=সিসিফাস&oldid=2022514' থেকে আনীত বিষয়শ্রেণী: গ্রিক পুরাণ লুকানো বিষয়শ্রেণী: উইকিলিংক নেই এমন পাতাসমূহ উইকিফাই প্রয়োজন এমন পাতা পরিভ্রমণ বাছাইতালিকা নিজস্ব সরঞ্জামসমূহ আপনি সংযুক্ত নন আলাপ অবদান অ্যাকাউন্ট তৈরি করুন প্রবেশ করুন নামস্থানসমূহ নিবন্ধ আলোচনা বিকল্পসমূহ দৃষ্টিকোণ পড়ুন সম্পাদনা ইতিহাস দেখুন আরও অনুসন্ধান পরিভ্রমণ প্রধান পাতা সম্প্রদায়ের প্রবেশদ্বার সম্প্রদায়ের আলোচনাসভা সাম্প্রতিক পরিবর্তন অজানা যেকোনো পাতা সাহায্য দান করুন সরঞ্জাম সংযোগকারী পৃষ্ঠাসমূহ সম্পর্কিত পরিবর্তন আপলোড করুন বিশেষ পৃষ্ঠাসমূহ স্থায়ী সংযোগ পাতার তথ্য এই নিবন্ধটি উদ্ধৃত করুন সংক্ষিপ্ত ইউআরএল উইকিউপাত্ত আইটেম মুদ্রণ/রপ্তানি বই তৈরি করুন PDF ডাউনলোড মুদ্রণযোগ্য সংস্করণ অন্যান্য প্রকল্পে উইকিমিডিয়া কমন্স অন্যান্য ভাষাসমূহ Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 আন্তঃউইকি সংযোগ সম্পাদনা এ পৃষ্ঠায় শেষ পরিবর্তন হয়েছিল ১৩:৫৯টার সময়, ৬ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৬ তারিখে। লেখাগুলো ক্রিয়েটিভ কমন্স অ্যাট্রিবিউশন/শেয়ার-আলাইক লাইসেন্সের আওতাভুক্ত; এর সাথে বাড়তি শর্ত প্রযোজ্য হতে পারে। এই সাইট ব্যবহার করার মাধ্যমে, আপনি এটি ব্যবহারের শর্তাবলী ও এর গোপনীয়তা নীতির সাথে সম্মত হচ্ছেন। উইকিপিডিয়া®, অলাভজনক সংস্থা উইকিমিডিয়া ফাউন্ডেশনের একটি নিবন্ধিত ট্রেডমার্ক। গোপনীয়তার নীতি উইকিপিডিয়া বৃত্তান্ত দাবিত্যাগ মোবাইল সংস্করণ উন্নয়নকারী পরিসংখ্যান কুকির বিবৃতি 
books-google-com-4734	----	Classical Mythology - Mark P. O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Oxford University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » 4 ReviewsWrite review Classical Mythology By Mark P. O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon   About this book Get Textbooks on Google Play Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. Go to Google Play Now » Published by Oxford University Press. Copyright.  Page 491      Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 
books-google-com-5193	----	Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology - Bernard Evslin - Google Books Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search View eBook Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology Bernard Evslin Bloomsbury Academic, 2006 - History - 218 pages 3 Reviews "Gods, Demigods and Demons" is a concise, yet wide-ranging encyclopedia of Greek mythology that promises hours of delight for the classics enthusiast. Names, places and events are described in exciting, briefly-told tales of the gods of the Olympian pantheon. Here too are the demigods, demons, heroes, and many of the great cycles, fables and nature myths. The entries are well-balanced, readable and informative. They evoke the majesty, as well as the all-too-human foibles, of the Greek deities and their acolytes. At the same time, they bring the colourful world of Greek myth to life without providing more detail than is required for maximum enjoyment of the stories. Whether they find themselves caught up by the single combat of Hector and Achilles before the looming walls of Troy; or find themselves transported, like Odysseus, by the haunting and deadly song of the Sirens; or are thrilled by the quest of Jason and his Argonauts for the fabled Golden Fleece - fans of ancient history will find countless tales here to appreciate and return to again and again. "Gods, Demigods and Demons" is both a helpful guide and a treasure-trove of pleasurable reading. It will be an indispensable companion to the ancient Greeks' religion and the gods that they worshipped. What people are saying - Write a review LibraryThing Review User Review  - AnarchicQ - LibraryThingI've actually had this book since Elementary school. I got it through the Scholastic book order things Elementary Schools offer. I was a geek, sue me. As a kid I would read the entries and re-read my ... Read full review LibraryThing Review User Review  - Literate.Ninja - LibraryThingI've had this book since I was 12 years old, and I still occasionally break it out for a simple reference to Greek mythology. It is a good resource for people who are relatively unfamiliar with the ... Read full review Other editions - View all Gods, Demigods and Demons: An Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology Bernard Evslin Limited preview - 2012 Gods, Demigods and Demons: An Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology Bernard Evslin No preview available - 2012 Gods, Demigods and Demons: An Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology Bernard Evslin No preview available - 2014 About the author (2006) Bernard Evslin (1922-1993), a graduate of Rutgers University, was an award-winning screenwriter and producer of documentary films before turning to writing in the mid-1960s. He wrote more than 30 books which re-told the great Greek myths and legends. Bibliographic information Title Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology Author Bernard Evslin Edition illustrated Publisher Bloomsbury Academic, 2006 ISBN 1845113217, 9781845113216 Length 218 pages Subjects History  › Ancient  › Greece History / Ancient / Greece Social Science / Folklore & Mythology Social Science / Reference     Export Citation BiBTeX EndNote RefMan About Google Books - Privacy Policy - Terms of Service - Information for Publishers - Report an issue - Help - Google Home 
br-wikipedia-org-6266	----	Sisyfos - Wikipedia Sisyfos Eus Wikipedia Aller à la navigation Aller à la recherche Skeudenn Sisyfos gant e vaen hag an dorgenn (1732). Sisyfos (gregach : Σίσυφος, Sísyphos) a zo un den eus mitologiezh Hellaz kozh. Hervez ar vojenn e oa bet rediet da ruilhal ur pezh mell maen bras betek krec'h un dorgenn, met ar maen-se a ziruilhe bep tro hag e ranke Sisyfos adober al labour bep gwech, ul labour didermen ha da viken eta. Adtapet diwar « https://br.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=1771656 » Rummad : Mojennoù Hellaz Lañser merdeiñ Ostilhoù personel Digevreet Kaozeal Ma degasadennoù Krouiñ ur gont Kevreañ Esaouennoù anv Pajenn Kaozeadenn Adstummoù Gweladennoù Lenn Kemmañ Kemmañ ar vammenn Gwelet an istor Muioc'h Klask Merdeiñ Degemer Kemmoù diwezhañ Ur bajenn dre zegouezh Meneger hollek Kemer perzh Skoazell Porched ar gumuniezh Tavarn Reiñ Ostilhoù Pajennoù liammet Heuliañ ar pajennoù liammet Kargañ war ar servijer Pajennoù dibar Chomlec'h ar stumm-mañ Titouroù ar bajenn Menegiñ ar pennad-mañ Elfenn Wikidata Moullañ/ezporzhiañ Sevel ul levr Pellgargañ evel PDF Stumm da voullañ E raktresoù all Wikimedia Commons Yezhoù all Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Kemmañ al liammoù Kemmoù diwezhañ degaset d'ar bajenn-mañ d'an 2 Her 2017, da 11:46. Gallout a reer implijout an testennoù zo dindan an Aotre-Implijout Creative Commons Dereiñ/Kenrannañ diouzh an hevelep divizoù; divizoù ouzhpenn a c'hall bezañ ivez. Gwelet an Doareoù Implijout evit gouzout hiroc'h. Reolennoù prevezded Diwar-benn Wikipedia Kemennoù Gwel evit an hezoug Diorroerien Statistiques Diskrêriadur war an toupinoù 
bs-wikipedia-org-9418	----	Sizif - Wikipedia Sizif S Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Ovaj članak ili neki od njegovih odlomaka nije dovoljno potkrijepljen izvorima (literatura, veb-sajtovi ili drugi izvori). Ako se pravilno ne potkrijepe pouzdanim izvorima, sporne rečenice i navodi mogli bi biti izbrisani. Pomozite Wikipediji tako što ćete navesti validne izvore putem referenci te nakon toga možete ukloniti ovaj šablon. Franz von Stuck: Sizif, 1920. Sizif (grč. Σίσυφος, Sísuphos) Eolov je i Enaretin sin. Prema nekim izvorima bio je Odisejev otac, prije nego što se Odisejeva majka Antikleja udala za Laerta. Poznat je po personifikaciji uzaludnog posla. Naime Sizif je bio osuđen da veliku kamenu kuglu gura uz planinsku strminu da bi ga postavio na vrh. No, svaki put kada bi se primaknuo vrhu, kamena bi mu kugla izmaknula i sunovratila se u podnožje brda. Sizif je tako pokušavao, iznova i iznova, ali neuspješno. Sadržaj 1 Mitologija 1.1 Život 1.2 Sizifov posao 2 Također pogledajte 3 Vanjski linkovi Mitologija[uredi | uredi izvor] Život[uredi | uredi izvor] Tiziano: Sizif, 1548. - 1549. Sizif gura kamenu gromadu, 1732. godina Sizif je bio osnivač i kralj Efira (Korinta). Promovisao je navigaciju i trgovinu, ali bio je pohlepan i sklon prijevari te je ubijao putnike i goste. Zaveo je svoju nećakinju, preuzeo bratovo prijestolje i izdao Zeusovu tajnu - da je silovau Eginu, kći riječnog boga Ezopa ili, u drugoj verziji mita, Eola. Zeus je naredio Hadu da ga okuje u podzemlju. Sizif je ondje pitao Tanatosa da isproba lance da vidi kako rade, a kad je to učinio, Sizif ga je ostavio okovanog i prijetio Hadu. Budući da je Tanatos bio bog smrti, niko nije mogao umrijeti sve dok se nije umiješao Ares. Naime, Aresa je živciralo to što ga bitke i ratovi nisu zabavaljali jer nije bilo smrti pa je oslobodio Tanatosa i poslao Sizifa u Tartar. No, prije nego što je Sizif umro, bješe rekao svojoj ženi da ne prinosi uobičajene žrtve kad bude mrtav. Potom se u Hadu požalio Perzefoni da ga žena zanemaruje i nagovorio je da ga pusti na zemaljski svijet da je zatraži da učini svoje dužnosti. Kad je Sizif stigao u Korint, odbio se vratiti te ga je na posljetku Hermes vratio u Tartar. Sizifov posao[uredi | uredi izvor] Bogovi su ga za sve njegove prijevare kaznili. Morao je gurati veliku stijenu do vrha brijega, ali prije nego što bi stigao do vrha, kamen bi se otkotrljao te je morao početi iznova. O ovome priča i Homer u svojoj Odiseji. Stoga se danas koristi metafora Sizifov posao za uzaludan posao ili besmislene radnje. Prema solarnoj teoriji, Sizif je Sunčev disk koji se svakoga dana diže na istoku, a potom pada na zapadu. Drugo učenje tvrdi da je Sizif personifikacija čovjekove borbe u potrazi za znanjem. Također pogledajte[uredi | uredi izvor] Tantal (mitologija) Vanjski linkovi[uredi | uredi izvor] Sizif na Wikimedia Commonsu. Sizif u grčkoj mitologiji (en) Preuzeto iz "https://bs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizif&oldid=3081706" Kategorija: Mitološki Grci Sakrivena kategorija: Članci koji trebaju izvor Navigacija Lični alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Napravi korisnički račun Prijavi me Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija Više Pretraga Navigacija Početna strana Odabrani članci Portali Kategorije Nedavne izmjene Nasumična stranica Interakcija Pomoć Igralište Vrata zajednice Čaršija Novosti Donacije Alati Šta vodi ovamo Srodne izmjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajni link Informacije o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Na Wikipodacima Štampanje / izvoz Napravi knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Za štampanje Na drugim projektima Wikimedia Commons Drugi jezici Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Uredi veze Ova stranica je posljednji put izmijenjena na datum 27 decembar 2019 u 20:59. Tekst je dostupan pod slobodnom licencom Autorstvo-Dijeliti pod istim uvjetima; mogu se primijeniti i dodatni uvjeti. Korištenjem ovog sajta slažete se s uvjetima korištenja i pravilima o privatnosti. Wikipedia® je zaštitni znak neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Politika privatnosti O Wikipediji Odricanje odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvojni programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
catalogue-bnf-fr-3093	----	Notice RAMEAU "Sisyphe (mythologie grecque)" | BnF Catalogue général - Bibliothèque nationale de France Aller au contenu Espace personnel Utilisez votre espace personnel pour :   Réserver vos places et documents sur   le site François-Mitterrand.   Réserver vos documents sur les sites  Richelieu-Louvois (y compris les Cartes et plans), Opéra, Arsenal.   Ajouter vos notices et les classer.   Voir vos achats de reproductions. Se connecter Aide Aide à la consultation du catalogue Une question ? Historique Mon panier Tout Gallica Haut-de-jardin Lancer la recherche    Recherche avancée Recherches ciblées Autres recherches Recherches ciblées Auteurs A-Z SUJETS A-Z PÉRIODIQUES COTE  Notices d'autorité dans univers Dans les univers jeunesse images et cartes musique Accueil Rameau Notice RAMEAU Notice Au format public Au format Intermarc Au format Unimarc Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Vedette matière nom de personne. S'emploie en tête de vedette. <<Terme(s) générique(s) : Mythologie grecque Source(s) :  Grand Larousse universel Domaine(s) : 200. - 930 Correspondance(s) :  - LCSH  (Library of Congress Subject Headings) :  Sisyphus (Greek mythology)  http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85123014 Correspondance(s) exacte(s) :  - RVMLaval  (Répertoire Vedettes-Matière de l'Université Laval (Québec)) :  Sisyphe  Notice n° :  FRBNF12078609 Création :  88/06/28 Mise à jour :  15/03/16 Fermer ce volet Ouvrir ce volet Outils Citer la notice : Voir la notice dans le catalogue actuel Télécharger/Imprimer Envoyer par courriel Ajouter à mes notices Information Afin de voir une sélection de notices, veuillez sélectionner au moins une notice dans la liste de résultats. Signaler une erreur sur cette notice Notices bibliographiques liées Voir les notices liées en tant que : sujet (9) Voir toutes les notices liées (9) Ajouter à mes notices Les notices sélectionnées ont bien été ajoutées dans votre espace personnel. > Voir mes notices dans mon espace personnel Haut de page Conditions d'utilisation | À propos | Écrire à la BnF | V 12.1.5 
ca-wikipedia-org-5195	----	Sísif - Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure Sísif De Viquipèdia Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Sísif Sísif, de Max Klinger. Tipus rei de la mitologia grega ésser humà possiblement fictici Context Present a l'obra Hades (en) i El mite de Sísif Dades Sexe home Naixement cap valor Família Parella Anticlea Cònjuge Mèrope i Tiro Mare Enàrete Pare Èol Fills Ornytion (en) , Metapont, Glaucos, Thersander (en) , Halmos, Sinó i Odisseu Germans Perieres Altres Càrrec rei de Corint Equivalent Wu Gang (en) En la mitologia grega, Sísif (Σίσυφος) fou fundador i rei d'Efira (nom antic de Corint). Era fill d'Èol i d'Enàrete. Es va casar amb la plèiade Mèrope. Va ser el pare de Glauc (déu marí) i d'Halmos, juntament amb Mèrope; i segons algunes fonts (posteriors) fou també pare d'Odisseu amb Anticlea, abans que aquesta es casés amb el seu últim marit, Laertes. Es deia que havia fundat els Jocs ístmics en honor a Melicertes, el cos del qual havia trobat estès a la platja de l'istme de Corint. Va ser promotor de la navegació i el comerç, però també avariciós i mentider. Va recórrer a mètodes il·lícits, entre els quals l'assassinat de viatgers i caminants, per augmentar la seva riquesa. Des dels temps d'Homer, Sísif tingué fama de ser el més astut dels humans. Quan Tànatos anà a buscar-lo, Sísif li va posar grillons, per la qual cosa ningú morí fins que Ares vingué, alliberà Tànatos, i posà Sísif sota la seva custòdia. Però Sísif encara no havia esgotat tots els seus recursos. Abans de morir, digué a la seva muller que quan ell marxés no oferís el sacrifici habitual als morts. Així ho va fer i a l'infern es queixà que la seva dona no complia amb els deures habituals, i va convèncer Hades perquè li permetés tornar al món superior i així dissuadir-la. Però, quan anà a Corint, refusà de qualsevol manera retornar a l'infern, fins que Hermes a la força l'obligà a tornar-hi.[1] A l'infern, Sísif va ser obligat a empènyer una pedra enorme pendent amunt per un vessant costerut, però abans d'arribar al cim de la muntanya la pedra sempre rodava cap avall, i Sísif havia de tornar a començar de nou des del principi (L'Odissea, xi. 593). El motiu d'aquest càstig és esmentat per Homer, i resulta obscur (alguns suggereixen que és un càstig irònic de part de Minos: Sísif no volia morir i mai morirà, però a canvi d'un alt preu i només descansarà en pau fins a haver-ho pagat). Segons alguns, havia revelat els designis dels déus als mortals. D'acord amb d'altres, es deu al seu hàbit d'atacar i assassinar viatgers. També es diu que encara després de vell i cec seguiria amb el seu càstig. Aquest assumpte va ser un tòpic freqüent en els escriptors antics, i va ser representat pel pintor Polignot als seus frescos de Delfos (Pausànies, x. 31). D'acord amb la teoria solar, Sísif és el disc del sol que surt cada matí i després s'enfonsa sota l'horitzó. D'altres hi veuen una personificació de les ones pujant fins a certa alçada i llavors caient bruscament, o del perillós mar. Welcker ha suggerit que la llegenda és un símbol de la vana lluita humana per assolir la saviesa. S. Reinach (Revue archéologique, 1904) situa l'origen de la història en una pintura, en què Sísif era representat pujant una enorme pedra per l'Acrocorint, símbol del treball i el talent involucrat en la construcció del Sisypheum. Quan es va fer una distinció entre les ànimes de l'infern, es va suposar que Sísif estava empenyent perpètuament la pedra vessant amunt com a càstig per alguna ofensa comesa a la Terra, i es van inventar diferents raons per explicar-la. El mite de Sísif s'explicava també d'una manera diferent, segons un fragment d'Higí, força incomplet, que no aclareix totalment la història. Narra Higí que Sísif odiava profundament el seu germà Salmoneu, i que va preguntar a l'oracle d'Apol·lo de quina manera podia matar el seu "enemic", referint-se al seu germà. Apol·lo li va respondre que trobaria qui el vengés si donava fills a la seva pròpia neboda Tiro, filla de Salmoneu. Sísif es va convertir en amant de Tiro i aquesta li va donar dos bessons. Però Tiro va conèixer l'oracle i va matar els seus fills acabats de néixer. Aquí hi ha una llacuna al text, i quan s'acaba, trobem Sísif empenyent la pedra als inferns "per culpa de la seva impietat".[2] Vegeu també[modifica] El mite de Sísif d'Albert Camus. Hades. No s'ha de confondre amb Sísif, el personatge principal de la vinyeta quotidiana de Jordi Soler i Font al diari El Punt Avui des del 1982. Referències[modifica] ↑ «Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?». Mlahanas.de. [Consulta: 19 febrer 2014]. ↑ Grimal, Pierre. Diccionari de mitologia grega i romana. Barcelona: Edicions de 1984, 2008, p. 494-495. ISBN 9788496061972.  En altres projectes de Wikimedia: Commons (Galeria) Commons (Categoria) Registres d'autoritat WorldCat BNF: cb12078609k GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 VIAF: 67258418 SUDOC: 078600707 NKC: jo2016908762 Bases d'informació GEC: 0062974 Obtingut de «https://ca.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sísif&oldid=25973022» Categories: Herois fills d'Èol Descensos a l'Hades Categories ocultes: Pàgines amb etiquetes de Wikidata sense traducció Pàgines amb enllaç commonscat des de Wikidata Control d'autoritats Menú de navegació Eines personals Sense sessió iniciada Discussió per aquest IP Contribucions Crea un compte Inicia la sessió Espais de noms Pàgina Discussió Variants Vistes Mostra Modifica Mostra l'historial Més Cerca Navegació Portada Article a l'atzar Articles de qualitat Comunitat Portal viquipedista Agenda d'actes Canvis recents La taverna Contacte Xat Donatius Ajuda Eines Què hi enllaça Canvis relacionats Pàgines especials Enllaç permanent Informació de la pàgina Citau aquest article Element a Wikidata Imprimeix/exporta Crear un llibre Baixa com a PDF Versió per a impressora En altres projectes Commons En altres idiomes Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Modifica els enllaços La pàgina va ser modificada per darrera vegada el 11 gen 2021 a les 12:02. El text està disponible sota la Llicència de Creative Commons Reconeixement i Compartir-Igual; es poden aplicar termes addicionals. Vegeu les Condicions d'ús. Wikipedia® (Viquipèdia™) és una marca registrada de Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Política de privadesa Quant al projecte Viquipèdia Renúncies Versió per a mòbils Desenvolupadors Estadístiques Declaració de cookies 
ckb-wikipedia-org-9847	----	سیزیف - ویکیپیدیا، ئینسایکڵۆپیدیای ئازاد سیزیف لە ئینسایکڵۆپیدیای ئازادی ویکیپیدیاوە Jump to navigation Jump to search وێنەی سئزئف لە کاتی بەسەربردنی سزاکەی. سیزیف یان سیزیفیۆس (بەگریکی: Σίσυφος)، لە میتیۆلۆژیای گریکی دا، بەیەکێک لەفیڵبازترین کەسەکانی دادەنرێت کە توانی خواوەندی مردن تاناتۆس هەڵخڵەتێنێ ئەمەش وای کرد کە زیۆس ی گەورەی خواوەندەکان توڕە بکات و سزای بدات بەوەی کە بەردێکی گەورە لە خوارەوەی چیایەک بۆ سەرەوە چیایەک ببات و هەرکاتێک بەردەکە دەگەیشتە لووتکە جارێکی تر خل دەبۆوە بۆ دۆڵەکە و جارێکی دی سیزیف دەیبردەوە سەرەوە، ئەم کارە بۆ هەمیشە بەردەوام بوو. بەم جۆرە سیزیف بووە هێمای ئەشکەنجە و سزای هەمیشەیی. ئەم وتارە کۆلکەیەکە. دەتوانیت بە فراوانکردنی یارمەتیی ویکیپیدیا بدەیت. ب و د وەرگیراو لە «https://ckb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=سیزیف&oldid=207233» پۆل: میتۆلۆژیای کۆرینتی پۆلە شارداوەکان: ھەموو کۆلکەوتارەکان کۆلکە مێنۆی ڕێدۆزی ئامڕازە تاکەکەسییەکان لە ژوورەوە نیت لێدوان بەشدارییەکان ھەژمار دروست بکە بچۆ ژوورەوە شوێنناوەکان وتار وتووێژ شێوەزارەکان بینینەکان خوێندنەوە دەستکاری مێژوو زیاتر گەڕان ڕێدۆزی دەستپێک ڕووداوە ھەنووکەیییەکان وتارێک بە ھەڵکەوت بەخشین بە ویکیپیدیا ھەڵسوکەوت یارمەتی دەربارەی ویکیپیدیا دەروازەی کۆمەڵگە دوایین گۆڕانکارییەکان پەڕەی پەیوەندی ئامرازەکان بەستەرەکان بە ئێرەوە گۆڕانکارییە پەیوەندیدارەکان پەڕگەیەک بار بکە پەڕە تایبەتەکان بەستەری ھەمیشەیی زانیاریی پەڕە ئەم پەڕەیە بکە بە ژێدەر بەندی ویکیدراوە چاپ/ھەناردن دروستکردنی کتێبێک داگرتن بە PDF وەشانی ئامادەی چاپ لە پڕۆژەکانی تر ویکیمیدیا کۆمنز بە زمانەکانی تر Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 دەستکاریی گرێدانەکان ئەم پەڕەیە دواجار لە ‏٢٣:٠١ی ‏٧ی ئازاری ٢٠١٣ نوێ کراوەتەوە. دەق لەژێر Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License لە بەردەستدایە؛ لەوانەیە مەرجی تریشی پێ زیاد ببێ. بۆ وردەکارییەکان مەرجەکانی بەکارھێنان ببینە. سیاسەتی تایبەتێتی دەربارەی ویکیپیدیا نابەرپرسییەکان بینینی مۆبایلی پەرەپێدەران ئامارەکان ڕوونکردنەوەی کوکی 
commons-wikimedia-org-7885	----	Category:Sisyphus - Wikimedia Commons Help Category:Sisyphus From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Jump to navigation Jump to search See also: Category:Sisyphus (Scarabaeidae) English: Sisyphus (also Sísyphos or Sisuphos), in Greek mythology, was the son of Aeolus and Enarete, husband of Merope, and King/Founder of Ephyra, Corinth. According to some (later) sources, he was the father of Odysseus by Anticlea, before she married her later husband, Laertes. Français : Sisyphe est le fondateur mythique de Corinthe dans la mythologie grecque. Il est condamné pour avoir outragé les dieux à rouler éternellement un rocher dans les Enfers. Map of all coordinates on Bing (1 level) Map of all coordinates on OSM (1 level) Export all coordinates as KML Sísifo (es); Sísýfos (is); Sisyphus (en-gb); Сизиф (bg); Sisif (ro); 西西弗斯 (zh-hk); Sizyfos (sk); Sisif (oc); 西西弗斯 (zh-hant); 西西弗斯 (zh-cn); 시시포스 (ko); Сизиф (kk); Sizifo (eo); Sisyfos (cs); Sizif (bs); সিসিফাস (bn); Sisyphe (fr); Sisifos (jv); Сизиф (cv); Sisyphus (vi); Sisyphos (af); Сизиф (sr); 西西弗斯 (zh-sg); Sisyphos (lb); Sisyfos (nn); Sisyfos (nb); Sizif (az); سیزیف (ckb); Sisyphus (en); سيزيف (ar); Sisyphos (br); ဆီစီဖက် (my); Sziszüphosz (hu); Sisifo (eu); Sísifu (ast); Сизиф (ru); Sisyphos (de); Сізіф (be); سیزیف (fa); 西西弗斯 (zh); Sisyfos (da); სიზიფე (ka); シーシュポス (ja); سيزيف (arz); סיזיפוס (he); Sisyphus (la); 西西弗斯 (wuu); Sisyfos (fi); Σίσυφος (grc); Sisifo (it); Sisyphos (et); 西西弗斯 (zh-hans); Sizif (hr); 薛西弗斯 (zh-tw); Сизиф (mk); Sizif (sh); Sisyphos (nds); Sizif (sr-el); Sisifos (id); Sisyfos (sv); Sisifeas (ga); Sizifas (lt); Sizif (sl); Sisyphos (bar); Sisifos (tr); ซิซิฟัส (th); Sisyphus (mitolohiya) (war); Syzyf (pl); Сизиф (sr-ec); Sisyphos (nl); Sísif (ca); Sisyphus (sco); Սիսիփոս (hy); Sísifo (pt); Sísifo (gl); Сізіф (uk); Σίσυφος (el); Sizifi (sq) re di Efira nella mitologia greca, figlio di Eolo (it); görög mitológiai alak, király (hu); Postać z mitologii greckiej (pl); figuur uit de Griekse mythologie (nl); в древнегреческой мифологии строитель и царь Коринфа (ru); personnage de la mythologie grecque, fondateur de Corinthe, fils d'Eole et époux de Mérope (fr); König der griechischen Mythologie (de); filho do rei Éolo na mitologia grega (pt); king of Ephyra in Greek mythology (en); rolulo de la greka mitologio (eo); fundador y rey de Éfira en la mitología griega (es); اسطورة اغريقية (ar) Sisifo (es); Sisiphe, Sysyphe, Sysiphe, Sesephos (fr); سيزيفوس (arz); Σίσσυφος (el); Сисиф, Сизифов труд (ru); Sisiphus, Sisyphus (lb); Sisyphos-Arbeit, Sisiphos, Sisyphus-Arbeit, Sisyphus, Sisiphus, Sysiphus (de); Trabalho de Sísifo (pt); Sisyphus, Siosafas (ga); سیسیفوس (fa); 薛西佛斯, 薛西弗斯, 西绪福斯, 西敘福斯, 西緒福斯, 西绪弗斯 (zh); Sizifo darbas (lt); עבודה סיזיפית, סיזיפי (he); シシュポス, シシュフォス, シジフォス (ja); Sisif (ca); Сісіф (be); Sisyphus (sv); Sisyphos, Syzyfowa praca (pl); Sisyfosarbeid (nb); Sysiphos, Sisyphusarbeid, Sisyphus, Sisyfus, Sisiphus (nl); Sisifus, Sisyphus (id); Sísyfos (sk); Сізіфів труд, Сісіф, Сізіфова праця (uk); 시지프스, 시지프, 시지푸스, 시쉬포스 (ko); Sisyphos (en); Sisyphus (nds); Sysifos, Sísyfos (cs); Sisyphos, Sisyphus, Sisyfosarbejde (da) Sisyphus  king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Сізіф, Тіціан, Національний музей Прадо Upload media   Wikipedia   Wikiquote Instance of king in Greek mythology, human who may be fictional Present in work Hades (non-player character) The Myth of Sisyphus Said to be the same as Wu Gang (task, recurring event) Authority control  Q102561 VIAF ID: 67258418 GND ID: 118614797 Library of Congress authority ID: no2014082839 Bibliothèque nationale de France ID: 12078609k IdRef ID: 078600707 NKCR AUT ID: jo2016908762 Reasonator PetScan Scholia Statistics OpenStreetMap Locator tool Search depicted Subcategories This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total. ► Sculptures of Sisyphus‎ (3 C, 4 F) C ► Sisyphus in cartoons and metaphors‎ (4 F) G ► Sisyphus in ancient Greek pottery‎ (4 F) K ► Kristek House‎ (9 F) S ► Sisyphus, Ixion and Tantalus‎ (3 F) T ► Punishment of Sisyph by Titian‎ (3 F) Media in category "Sisyphus" The following 29 files are in this category, out of 29 total. Pietro della Vecchia - Sisyphus.jpg 400 × 322; 115 KB Bloemaert - Sisyphus.jpg 2,736 × 4,008; 2.9 MB Dante - sisyphus (detail).jpg 2,442 × 799; 1.53 MB Dante - sisyphus.jpg 2,506 × 1,738; 1.2 MB Ell-Sisyfos.ogg 3.8 s; 159 KB En-us-Sisyphean.ogg 1.2 s; 14 KB Friedrich John nach Matthäus Loder Sisyphus ubs G 0825 II.jpg 750 × 1,230; 659 KB Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif 3,646 × 5,201; 54.29 MB K(H)annidé. Le Mythe Sisyphe d'aujourd'hui. Cultiver sa servitude l'amour violet et la raison.jpg 400 × 348; 27 KB Life routine - act 2 - Flickr - José Encarnação.jpg 2,048 × 1,536; 898 KB Meyers b5 s0785 b2.png 406 × 391; 42 KB Meyers b5 s0785.jpg 800 × 1,275; 370 KB Midevil sysiphus.jpeg 2,965 × 2,250; 6.28 MB Reconstruction of Nekyia by Polygnotus.JPG 9,444 × 2,387; 3.08 MB Rogers - Sisyphuse's endless task.jpg 723 × 698; 144 KB Sisifo.jpg 800 × 581; 110 KB Sisifus the faculties.jpg 440 × 650; 110 KB Sisyphos 1732.jpg 279 × 369; 92 KB Sisyphus - Le Roman de la Rose.jpeg 4,200 × 2,764; 1.58 MB Sisyphus and four Danaides.jpg 2,321 × 1,329; 208 KB Sisyphus Pushing His Stone up a Mountain (486x640).jpg 486 × 640; 135 KB Sisyphus S.png 3,992 × 3,900; 11.35 MB Sisyphus tries the other way - panoramio.jpg 1,944 × 1,296; 1.23 MB Spoelberch de Lovenjoul - Le Rocher de Sisyphe, 1879.djvu 2,133 × 3,200, 245 pages; 4.07 MB Franz Von Stuck - Sisyphus.jpg 1,000 × 1,400; 1.27 MB Sisyphus by von Stuck.jpg 1,552 × 1,793; 545 KB Sísifo, copia del original de José de Ribera (Museo del Prado).jpg 1,920 × 1,596; 1.91 MB Tantalus-and-sisyphus-in-hades-august-theodor-kaselowsky.jpg 2,500 × 1,756; 1.75 MB Zanchi - Sisyphus.jpg 8,949 × 8,163; 8.7 MB Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Sisyphus&oldid=331366582" Categories: People of Greek mythology by name Greek underworld Characters in the Odyssey Non-topical/index: Uses of Wikidata Infobox Uses of Wikidata Infobox providing interwiki links Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Discussion Variants Views View Edit History More Search Navigate Main page Welcome Community portal Village pump Help center Participate Upload file Recent changes Latest files Random file Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikipedia Wikiquote In Wikipedia Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2018, at 18:36. 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cs-wikipedia-org-53	----	Sisyfos – Wikipedie Sisyfos Z Wikipedie, otevřené encyklopedie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Další významy jsou uvedeny na stránce Sisyfos (rozcestník). Sisyfos Sisyfos, autor: Tizian Manžel(ka) Meropé Tyró Partner(ka) Antikleia Děti Ornytión Metapontus Glaukos Thersandros Almus Sinón Odysseus Rodiče Aiolos a Enareté Příbuzní Periérés (sourozenec) Thoas a Phocus (vnoučata) Funkce král Korinthu multimediální obsah na Commons Některá data mohou pocházet z datové položky. Sisyfos (latinsky Sisyphus) byl v řecké mytologii syn Aiola a jeho manželky Enareté. Jeho dědem byl Hellén, praotec všech Řeků. Stal se zakladatelem a prvním králem Korinthu. Jeho bratry byli: Krétheus založil město Iólkos Salmóneus založil Salmónii Magnés vládl v Magnésii Athamás vládl v Orchomenu Deión vládl ve Fókidě Periérés vládl v Messéně. O Sisyfovi se říkalo, že je nejchytřejší z lidí, nebo také, že je ze všech nejprohnanější. Oženil se s Meropou, jednou ze sedmi dcer Titána Atlanta. Jejich synové se jmenovali Glaukos, Ornytión a Sinón. Meropé měla pěkné stádo dobytka, ovšem Sisyfos brzy vypozoroval, že stádo je stále menší, zatímco stáda blízkého souseda Autolyka se rozrůstají. Jelikož Autolykos byl v kraji známý jako mistr krádeží (pomáhala mu schopnost měnit podobu ukradených zvířat, schopnost, kterou ho obdaroval otec Hermés), snažil se Sisyfos na něho vyzrát. Povedlo se mu to tak, že na kopyta dobytka vyryl a olovem zalil slova „Ukradl Autolykos“. Když následující den šel po jasných stopách zanechaných dobytkem, došel do Autolykových stájí. Zloděj byl usvědčen. Zatímco se sousedé dohadovali se zlodějem, Sisyfos vstoupil do domu a svedl Autolykovu dceru Antikleiu, která se krátce nato stala ženou argejského krále Láerta.[1] Antikleia otěhotněla a porodila chlapce – Odyssea. Jak jeho příznačná lstivost, tak vytrvalost byly dědictvím po otci. Sisyfos založil město Efyru, později zvanou Korinth, zasloužil se o rozvoj loďstva a obchodu, avšak jeho současníci ho znali spíše jako darebáka. Pomstil se svému bratru Salmóneovi, který mu sebral thessalský trůn. Udělal to tak, že svedl jeho dceru Tyró, ta mu zplodila dvě děti, ale když se později dozvěděla, že jeho motivem nebyla láska, nýbrž nenávist k jejímu otci, obě děti zabila. Sisyfos ovšem vznesl proti Salmóneovi falešné obvinění z incestu a vraždy a vyhnal ho z Thessálie. Na svůj prospěch hleděl i tehdy, když říční bůh Asópos hledal ztracenou dceru Aigínu. Sisyfos věděl, že ji unesl nejvyšší bůh Zeus, a věděl také, kde ji schovává, ale Asópovi to prozradil až po slibu, že mu dá na korinthském hradě nevysychající studnu. Zeus se musel zuřivému Asópovi ubránit metáním blesků. Zeus Sisyfovi neprominul a za prozrazení tajemství bohů ho navěky potrestal. Nařídil svému bratru Hádovi, bohu podsvětí, aby Sisyfa odvlekl do Tartaru, propasti věčné temnoty. Jenže Sisyfos Háda přelstil, nasadil mu jeho vlastní pouta a několik dnů ho držel ve svém domě jako vězně. To způsobilo na světě chaos, protože nikdo nemohl zemřít. Háda vysvobodil bůh války Arés a Sisyfa Hádovi vydal. Sisyfos se však nevzdával. Než ho Hádés odvedl do podsvětí, stačil nařídit své ženě, aby ho nepohřbívala. V Hádově paláci vyhledal Hádovou manželku Persefonu, namítal, že jako nepohřbeného ho v podsvětí nemohou držet, a lstivými řečmi ji přesvědčil, že se vrátí na zem jenom potrestat málo truchlící ženu a do tří dnů bude zpět. Protože slib nesplnil a nevrátil se, byl povolán Hermés[2], posel bohů, aby ho přivedl, třeba násilím. Sisyfos byl přiveden a příkladně a krutě potrestán. Soudci mrtvých mu přikázali, aby tlačil obrovský kámen na kopec a na druhé straně ho skutálel dolů. Jenže to se Sisyfovi nepodařilo, kámen mu vždy těsně pod vrcholem vyklouzl a valil se zpátky dolů. Sisyfos musí začínat stále znovu. A tak je navěky k smrti unaven, trpí marností svého počínání a bezvýchodností situace, na niž je i jeho příslovečná chytrost krátká. Symbolem nesmyslné, otupující a bezvýchodné činnosti, ze které nikdy nemůže být užitek, se stal pojem „sisyfovská práce“. Rčení „sisyfovská práce“ znamená marnou práci, marnou snahu. Obsah 1 Odraz v umění a filozofii 2 Odkazy 2.1 Reference 2.2 Související články 2.3 Literatura 2.4 Externí odkazy Odraz v umění a filozofii[editovat | editovat zdroj] Stefan Žeromski pod pseud. Maurycy Zych – autobiografický román Sisyfovy práce (Syzyfowe prace, 1897); 2000 zfilmován, rež. Paweł Komorowski Robert Merle zpracoval téma v divadelní hře Sisyfos a smrt (Sisyphe et la mort). Albert Camus je autorem filozofického eseje Mýtus o Sisyfovi (Le Mythe de Sisyphe, 1942). Hudební skladatel Karl-Birger Blomdahl je autorem hudby k baletu Sisyfos (1957). Výtvarné umění: Guercino (asi 1638), Tizian (1548–1549), Franz von Stuck (1920), Claude Verlinde (1927), Odd Nerdrum (?) a mnozí další. Odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Reference[editovat | editovat zdroj] ↑ GRAVES, Robert. Řecké mýty I. Praha: Odeon, 1982, s. 226. ↑ GRAVES, Robert. Řecké mýty I. Praha: Odeon, 1982, s. 227. Související články[editovat | editovat zdroj] Řecká mytologie Mytologie Literatura[editovat | editovat zdroj] BAHNÍK, Václav. Slovník antické kultury. Praha: Svoboda, 1974. 717 s. Členská knižnice nakl. Svoboda. GRAVES, Robert. Řecké mýty I. Praha: Odeon, 1982. 396 s., 56 s. obr. příl. LÖWE, Gerhard a STOLL, Heinrich Alexander. ABC antiky: [2457 hesel: mytologie, dějiny, umění]. 3., přeprac. vyd. Praha: Ivo Železný, 2005. 467 s. Edice Malá moderní encyklopedie, sv. 6. ISBN 80-237-3938-7. MERTLÍK, Rudolf. Starověké báje a pověsti. 4. vyd., v Argu 1. Praha: Argo, 2014. 457 s. ISBN 978-80-257-1087-6. OVIDIUS. Proměny. Překlad Ivan Bureš. 3. vyd., v nakl. Plot 1. Praha: Plot, 2005. 480 s. Edice Koloseum, sv. 6. ISBN 80-86523-63-2. ZAMAROVSKÝ, Vojtěch. Bohové a hrdinové antických bájí. 6., upr. vyd. Praha: Brána, 2005. 454 s. ISBN 80-7243-266-4. Externí odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Sisyfos na Wikimedia Commons Encyklopedické heslo Sisyfos v Ottově slovníku naučném ve Wikizdrojích Autoritní data: AUT: jo2016908762 | GND: 118614797 | LCCN: no2014082839 | VIAF: 67258418 | WorldcatID: lccn-no2014082839 Citováno z „https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=19411307“ Kategorie: Řečtí mytičtí králové Skrytá kategorie: Monitoring:Články s autoritní kontrolou Navigační menu Osobní nástroje Nejste přihlášen(a) Diskuse Příspěvky Vytvoření účtu Přihlášení Jmenné prostory Článek Diskuse Varianty Zobrazení Číst Editovat Editovat zdroj Zobrazit historii Více Hledání Navigace Hlavní strana Nápověda Potřebuji pomoc Nejlepší články Náhodný článek Poslední změny Komunitní portál Pod lípou Podpořte Wikipedii Nástroje Odkazuje sem Související změny Načíst soubor Speciální stránky Trvalý odkaz Informace o stránce Citovat stránku Položka Wikidat Tisk/export Vytvořit knihu Stáhnout jako PDF Verze k tisku Na jiných projektech Wikimedia Commons V jiných jazycích Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Upravit odkazy Stránka byla naposledy editována 28. 1. 2021 v 11:44. 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cv-wikipedia-org-3047	----	Сизиф — Википеди Сизиф «Википеди» ирĕклĕ энциклопединчи материал Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Сизиф (тӗрӗсрех Сиси́ф, ав.-греч. Σίσυφος) — Авалхи грек халаплăхӗн паттӑрӗ, Коринфа туса лартаканӗ тата патши, вилнӗ хыҫҫӑн турӑсем ӑна Тартарта йывӑр чула ту ҫине хӑпартма хушнӑ, чулӗ вара сӑрт тӑррине хӑпартсанах каялла ӳксе аннӑ. Ҫавӑнтан йывӑр, вӗҫӗ-хӗррисӗр тата уссӑр ӗҫе «Сизиф ӗҫӗ» теҫҫӗ. Сизиф ӳнерте[тӳрлет | кодне тӳрлет] Авалхи грексен хура кӗлеткеллӗ амфора. Тициан Франц фон Штук Вуламалли[тӳрлет | кодне тӳрлет] Мифы народов мира. М., 1991-92. В 2 т. Т. 2. С. 439. Каҫӑсем[тӳрлет | кодне тӳрлет] А. Камю. Миф о Сизифе. Эссе об абсурде. п • с • т Авалхи грек халаплăхĕ тата тĕнĕ Географи · Хронологи · Зефир · Фауна · Лашасем · Катастеризм · Генеалоги çыхăнăвĕсем Малтанхи турăлăхсем Протогенсем Мгла · Хаос · Хронос · Ананке · Эрот/Фанет · Гея · Уран · Понт/Таласса · Тартар · Эфир · Гемера · Эреб · Нюкта · Офион Мойрасем (Судьбы) Клото · Лахесис · Атропос Титансем Титансем Океан · Гиперион · Кой · Кронос · Крий · Иапет Титанидсем Тефида · Тейя · Феба · Рея · Мнемосина · Фемида · Диона Титансен ачисем Гиперионсем: Гелиос · Селена · Эос · Кеянидăсем: Лето · Астерия · Криянидăсем: Астрей · Паллант · Перс · Иапетсем: Атлант · Прометей · Эпиметей · Менетий Олимп туррисем Додекатеон Зевс · Гера · Посейдон · Деметра · Гестия · Афина · Арес · Афродита · Гефест · Гермес · Аполлон · Артемида Урăх олимпсем Аид · Дионис · Геракл · Асклепий · Эрот · Ирида · Геба · Илифия · Энио · Фобос · Деймос · Гармония · Ганимед · Гермафродит · Эрида · Гипнос · Эол Мусăсем Каллиопа · Клио · Эрато · Эвтерпа · Мельпомена · Полигимния · Терпсихора · Талия · Урания Харитасем Аглая · Евфросина · Талия Орсем Дике · Эвномия · Эйрена · Фалло Стикссем Ника · Кратос · Бия · Зел Шыв пăтăрмахлăхĕн туррисем Тĕп Посейдон · Амфитрита · Тритон · Океан · Тефида · Понт/Таласса · Нерей · Тинĕс Главкĕ · Протей · Форкий · Кето · Фетида Океанидсем Асия · Гесиона · Дорида · Евринома · Метида · Немесида · Стикс · Электра · Филира · Перса · Плейона · Климена · Каллироя Нереидсем Амфитрита · Фетида · Галатея · Немертея · Галена · Сао Хтони турăлăхĕсем Тĕп Аид · Персефона · Гея · Деметра · Геката · Танатос Эринисем Тисифона · Алекто · Мегера Грайсем Энио · Дейно · Пемфредо Çĕр çинче çуралнисем Гекатонхейрсем · Циклопсем · Гигантсем · Корибантсем · Мелисем · Тельхинсем · Тифон · Тӳресем: Минос · Эак · Радамант Çĕр Ушкӑнсем Амазонсем · Çилсем · Кентаврсем · Драконсем · Гарписем · Сатирсем · Нимфăсем · Сиренăсем Нимфăсем Ореадăсем · Дриадăсем тата Гамадриадăсем · Наядăсем · Нереидăсем · Напеи · Лимониадăсем · Плеядăсем Паттăрсем Геракл · Ахилл, Гектор тата Троя вăрçи · Одиссей тата Одиссея · Ясон тата Аргонавтсем · Персей тата Горгона Медуза · Эдип Фива хирĕç · Тесей тата Минотавр · Триптолем Категорисем: Тĕн тата халаплăх · Турăсем тата турă амисем · Паттӑрсем тата паттăр амасем · Халапри халăхсем · Халаплă чĕрчунсем Портал Çăлкуç — «https://cv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сизиф&oldid=683652» Категорисем: Мифологи Авалхи грек мифологийĕ Авалхи грек халаплăхĕ Авалхи грек тĕнĕ Навигаци Ман хатĕрсем Кĕмен Сӳтсе явни Хушни Аккаунт тумалли Кĕмелли Ят хушшисем Страница Сӳтсе яв Вариантсем Пурĕ пăхнă Вула Тӳрлет Кодне тӳрлет Истори Ещё Шырамалли Меню Тĕп страницă А-Я индекс Çĕнĕ страницăсем Улăшăннисем Ăнсăртран лекнĕ страница Хыпарсем Хутшăнасси Портал Канашлу Пулăшу Пулăшăр Хатĕрсем Кунта каçаканнисем Çыхăннă улшăнусем Файл хушмалли Ятарлă страницăсем Яланхи вырăн Страници çинчен Страницăна цитатăла Wikidata Пичет/экспорт Кĕнеке тумалли PDF пек тиесе антар Пичет версийĕ В других проектах Викисклад Урăх чĕлхесем Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Каҫӑсене тӳрлет Ку страницăна .юлашки хут хӑҫан улӑштарни: 30 Авăн уйăхĕн 2020 12:27. Текст Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike лицензиллӗ, Хӑшпӗр чух урӑхла пулма пултарать. Туллин пӗлме. Условия использования пӑх. Конфиденциальность йĕркисем Википеди çинчен Яваплăха тивĕçтерменни Мобильная версия Система тӑвакансем Статистика Заявление о куки 
data-bnf-fr-6275	----	Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Data Télécharger les données Le modèle de données SPARQL Endpoint Contact français english deutsch Thèmes reliés Documents sur Auteurs liés Voir aussi Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Thème : Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Origine : RAMEAU Domaines : Religion Archéologie. Préhistoire. Histoire ancienne Notices thématiques en relation (1 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Termes plus larges (1) Mythologie grecque Documents sur ce thème (9 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Documents multimédia (1) Sisyphe et Asclépios (2015) Livres (4) The myth of Sisyphus (2007) Sisyphe, le jour se lève (2006) Sisyphe et son rocher (2004) Sisyphos (1987) Images (4) Sisyphe (1975) [Portrait de l'artiste I] (1972) [Portrait de l'artiste II] (1972) Alors monsieur Sisyphe, encore vous !.. Auteurs en relation avec ce thème (9 ressources dans data.bnf.fr) Graveur (2) Louis-René Berge (1927-2013) André Masson (1896-1987) Auteur du texte (6) Aeneas Bastian Pierre Brunel Luc Ferry Verena Kast Musée des arts contemporains. Hornu, Belgique Elliot M. Simon Dessinateur (1) Bosc (1924-1973) Voir aussi À la BnF (1) Notice correspondante dans Catalogue général Sur le Web (5) Notice correspondante dans Dbpedia Notice correspondante dans Bibliothèque du Congrès Notice correspondante dans VIAF Notice correspondante dans Wikidata Notice correspondante dans Wikipedia Francophone Services BnF Poser une question à un bibliothécaire Venir à la BnF Reproduire un document Autres bases documentaires Recherche dans Gallica Retronews Catalogue général BnF archives et manuscrits BnF Image Catalogue collectif de France Europeana OCLC WorldCat Sudoc Outils Imprimer la page Exporter la page en PDF Signaler un problème sur la page Citer la page Permalien : Télécharger les données Télécharger en RDF ( xml | nt | n3 ) Télécharger en JSON-LD Télécharger en JSON Le Web sémantique dans data.bnf.fr informations mises à jour le 2020-09-22 |  À propos | Informations légales | Avertissements | Posez votre question | version 2.9.8 
data-perseus-org-7990	----	Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 11, line 13 Homer, The Odyssey Samuel Butler, Based on public domain edition, revised by Timothy Power and Gregory Nagy., Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: Scroll 1 Scroll 2 Scroll 3 Scroll 4 Scroll 5 Scroll 6 Scroll 7 Scroll 8 Scroll 9 Scroll 10 Scroll 11 Scroll 12 Scroll 13 Scroll 14 Scroll 15 Scroll 16 Scroll 17 Scroll 18 Scroll 19 Scroll 20 Scroll 21 Scroll 22 Scroll 23 Scroll 24 card: lines 1-1lines 2-2lines 3-3lines 4-4lines 5-5lines 6-6lines 7-7lines 8-8lines 9-9lines 10-10lines 11-11lines 12-12lines 13-13lines 14ff. 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Scroll 22 lines 1-1 lines 2-2 lines 3-3 lines 4-4 lines 5-5 lines 6-6 lines 7-7 lines 8-8 lines 9-9 lines 10-10 lines 11-11 lines 12-12 lines 13ff. Scroll 23 lines 1-1 lines 2-2 lines 3-3 lines 4-4 lines 5-5 lines 6-6 lines 7-7 lines 8ff. Scroll 24 lines 1-1 lines 2-2 lines 3-3 lines 4-4 lines 5-5 lines 6-6 lines 7-7 lines 8-8 lines 9-9 lines 10-10 lines 11-11 lines 12ff. Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. "After him I saw huge Orion in a meadow full of asphodel driving the ghosts of the wild beasts that he had killed upon the mountains, and he had a great bronze club in his hand, unbreakable for ever and ever. "And I saw Tityus son of Gaia stretched upon the plain and covering some nine acres of ground. Two vultures on either side of him were digging their beaks into his liver, and he kept on trying to beat them off with his hands, but could not; for he had violated Zeus’ mistress Leto as she was going through Panopeus on her way to Pytho. "I saw also the dreadful fate of Tantalus, who stood in a lake that reached his chin; he was dying to quench his thirst, but could never reach the water, for whenever the poor creature stooped to drink, it dried up and vanished, so that there was nothing but dry ground - parched by a daimôn. There were tall trees, moreover, that shed their fruit over his head - pears, pomegranates, apples, sweet figs and juicy olives, but whenever the poor creature stretched out his hand to take some, the wind tossed the branches back again to the clouds. "And I saw Sisyphus at his endless task raising his prodigious stone with both his hands. With hands and feet he tried to roll it up to the top of the hill, but always, just before he could roll it over on to the other side, its weight would be too much for him, and the pitiless stone would come thundering down again on to the plain. Then he would begin trying to push it up hill again, and the sweat ran off him and the steam rose after him. Homer. The Odyssey. Rendered into English prose for the use of those who cannot read the original. Samuel Butler. Based on public domain edition, revised by Timothy Power and Gregory Nagy. A. C. Fifield, London. 1900 (?). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Notes (W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, 1886) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Pytho (Greece) (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (4 total) Commentary references to this page (3): W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 10.508 W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 12.51 Walter Leaf, Commentary on the Iliad (1900), 23.73 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (1): LSJ, πεῖÏ�αÏ� hide Search Searching in English. More search options Limit Search to:  The Odyssey (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2:11.13-11.13 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
da-wikipedia-org-7344	----	Sisyfos - Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Sisyfos Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi Spring til navigation Spring til søgning Persefone betragter Sisyfos i underverdenen, amfora fra omkring 530 f.Kr., Staatliche Antikensammlungen, München. Sisyfos i færd med at rulle en sten op ad bjerget. Sisyfos (1548–49), maleri af Tizian, Pradomuseet, Madrid. Sisyfos er i græsk mytologi en helt og konge af Korinth, søn af Aiolos og Enarete. Han var dømt til i evig tid at rulle en sten op ad en bjergside. Hver gang han næsten er ved toppen, ruller stenen fra ham og ender ved bjergets fod. Han må så begynde forfra igen med sit sisyfosarbejde.[1] Sisyfos blev sagt at have grundlagt byen Ephyra, og befolket den med mennesker, der spirede frem som svampe. Senere blev Ephyra omdøbt til Korinth. Hans samtidige beskrev ham ellers som den værste kæltring i verden, da han levede af plyndring og ofte slog sagesløse rejsende ihjel; kun fik han ros for at have fremmet handelen i Korinth.[2] Dog siges det også, at han fik sit kongedømme forærende af Medea.[3] Indholdsfortegnelse 1 I antikkens litteratur 2 Salmoneus og hans datter 3 Far til Odyssevs 4 Zeus' hævn 5 Enken Merope 6 Noter 7 Eksterne henvisninger I antikkens litteratur[redigér | redigér wikikode] Homer omtaler Sisyfos i Iliaden kap. 6 og i Odysseen kap. 11. Ovid omtaler Sisyfos i Metamorfoserne. I historien om Orfeus og Eurydike skriver Ovid, at da Orfeus sang for Hades og Persefone i håb om at få sin elskede levende med tilbage, blev Sisyfos så rørt, at han et øjeblik tog en pause og satte sig ned: inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo (= og du sad, Sisyfos, på din sten).[4] I Platos Apologi ser Sokrates frem til en samtale med skikkelser som Sisyfos i livet efter dette.[5] Salmoneus og hans datter[redigér | redigér wikikode] Efter Aiolos' død var Sisyfos arving til tronen i Thessalien, men hans bror Salmoneus kom ham i forkøbet. Sisyfos bad oraklet i Delfi om råd. Oraklet svarede: "Få børn med din niece, og de vil hævne dig!" Derfor forførte Sisyfos sin brordatter, Tyro, der fødte ham to sønner. Men så opdagede hun, at Sisyfos var motiveret, ikke af kærlighed til hende, men af had til hendes far, og valgte at dræbe de to børn.[6] Sisyfos fik efterfølgende Salmoneus fordrevet fra Thessalien; måske med baggrund i, at Salmoneus havde forlangt, at Tyros børn skulle sættes ud som nyfødte.[3] Tyro fik senere tvillinger med Poseidon, Pelias og Neleus, der voksede op hos fosterforældre. Salmoneus giftede sin datter bort til sin anden bror, Kretheus, som hun fik tre børn med. Da de blev voksne, vendte tvillingesønnerne tilbage og overtog Kretheus' kongedømme. De slog også hans nye kone, Sidero, ihjel, da hun havde mishandlet Tyro. [7] Far til Odyssevs[redigér | redigér wikikode] Sisyfos var gift med Atlas' datter Merope, en af Plejaderne. Parret havde tre børn og en flok kvæg, der græssede på landtangen over til Peloponnes. Deres nabo var imidlertid Autolykos (= Ulven selv), en søn af Hermes og Khione, og som sin far en mestertyv. Fra Hermes havde Autolykos fået evnen til at omskabe ethvert kvæg til ugenkendelighed - en hvid ko til en sort ko, en hornet til en ko uden horn, osv. Sisyfos bemærkede, at hans egen kvægflok blev mindre, samtidig som Autolykos' flok voksede. Men han kunne ikke bevise, hvad han mistænkte, før han skar monogrammet SS eller - siger nogen - ordene "stjålet af Autolykos" under sine køers hove. Ved daggry kunne Sisyfos så ved selvsyn se i vejstøvet, at Autolykos havde ført nogle af hans køer hen til sin egen ejendom. I en fart mobiliserede han nogle naboer som vidner og fik dem med hen i Autolykos' kostald, hvor han udpegede sine sidst stjålne køer ved hjælp af indskriften under deres hove. Mens vidnerne diskuterede med Autolykos, skyndte Sisyfos sig rundt om bygningen, ind gennem porten, og forførte i hast Autolykos' datter Antiklea, gift med Laertes. Hun blev derved gravid med Odyssevs, som kom til at arve sin fars snuhed.[8] Zeus' hævn[redigér | redigér wikikode] Et kort over Plejaderne med Merope blandt de synlige stjerner. Zeus bortførte Asopos' datter Aigina, og på sin søgen efter datteren kom hendes far også til Korinth. Sisyfos vidste godt, hvor pigen befandt sig; men ville intet sige, før Asopos gik med til en genydelse, nemlig at skabe et kildevæld til at forsyne Korinths citadel med drikkevand. Asopos skabte så kilden Peirene bagved Afrodites tempel; dér var det, Bellerofon fangede Pegasus, da han kom for at drikke. Sisyfos røbede så Aiginas affære med Zeus, der i hast måtte flygte for den vrede fars hævn. Til gengæld for Sisyfos' svig sendte Zeus sin bror Hades for at hente Sisyfos ned til underverdenen. I stedet fik Sisyfos lagt Hades i håndjern, ved at bede ham om at demonstrere, hvordan de virkede, og derefter smække dem i lås, mens guden sad med dem på. Dermed sad Hades flere dage fanget i Sisyfos' hjem; en slem situation, for dermed kunne ingen dø, ikke engang de halshuggede. Til sidst dukkede Ares op, befriede Hades og udleverede ham Sisyfos for at få ham ned i dødsriget og sat i gang med sit evighedsslæb, sisyfosarbejdet. Sisyfos nåede dog at instruere sin kone Merope om ikke at begrave hans lig; og straks han var ankommet dødsriget, gik han lige til Persefone og sagde, at uden begravelse havde han ingen ret til at opholde sig i underverdenen: "Lad mig tage hjem og arrangere min gravfærd, jeg er tilbage om tre dage," sagde han til gudinden, der lod ham gå. Så snart han var oppe i de levendes verden igen, havde Sisyfos naturligvis ingen tanke om at holde sit løfte. Til sidst måtte Hermes hale ham ned i dødsriget igen.[9] Enken Merope[redigér | redigér wikikode] Hans enke Merope kan stadig ses i stjernehoben Plejaderne. Merope er ikke blandt de mest lysstærke af stjernerne, fordi hun giftede sig med en dødelig, mens hendes seks søstre havde affærer med guderne og fik sønner med dem. Stjernen Merope kaldes iblandt "den tabte Plejade", fordi den først ikke blev opdaget af astronomerne. Det blev sagt, at Merope var så skamfuld over sin mands forbrydelser, at hun vendte sit ansigt bort, også på stjernehimlen. Hendes navn har været tolket som "Bortvendt ansigt" af græsk meros (= dreje sig bort) og ops (= ansigt).[10] Noter[redigér | redigér wikikode] ^ sisyfosarbejde — Den Danske Ordbog ^ Robert Graves: The Greek Myths 1. bind (s. 217), Pelican books, 0-14-020508-X ^ a b Sisyphus - Greek Mythology Link ^ Ovid: Metamorfoser ^ Plato, The Apology of Socrates -SB ^ Robert Graves: The Greek Myths 1. bind (s. 217) ^ TYRO - Thessalian Princess of Greek Mythology ^ Robert Graves: The Greek Myths 1. bind (s. 216) ^ Robert Graves: The Greek Myths 1. bind (s. 217-18) ^ MEROPE - Corinthian Pleiad Nymph of Greek Mythology Eksterne henvisninger[redigér | redigér wikikode] Wikimedia Commons har flere filer relateret til Sisyfos Sisyfos i Norsk Haandlexikon for almennyttige Kundskaber, Chr. Johnsens Forlag (3. bind, 1888) v d r Græsk religion og mytologi Græske guder De tolv olympiske guder Afrodite Apollon Ares Artemis Athene Demeter Hefaistos Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus andre større græske guder Asklepios Dionysos Eos Eros Gaia Hades Hebe Hekate Helios Herakles Pan Persefone Selene Uranus mindre guder og personificeringer Boreas Eileithyia Eris Faeton Forkys Hemera Hesperos Hybris Hypnos Iris Morfeus Nemesis Nereus Nike Nyx Psyke Thanatos Thetis Triton Zefyr Héros-fortællinger Herakles og hans tolv arbejder Achilleus og den trojanske krig Odysseus og Odysseen Jason og argonauterne Perseus og Medusa Ødipus og de syv mod Theben Theseus og Minotauren Triptolemos Bellerofon og Kimæren Figurer og sagnhelte Adonis Achilleus Aiakos Aias Aigina Andromache Bellerofon Chiron Dafnis Daidalos Deifobos Diomedes Euforbos Europa Filoktetes Hektor Helene Herakles Herostratos Ikaros Jason Kassandra Kirke Medusa Minotauros Neoptolemos Nessos Odysseus Orfeus Orion Paris Pandora Patroklos Peleus Perseus Polyfemos Theseus Ødipus Andre væsner Amazoner Anemoi Charybdis Chimaira Dryader Erinyer Gorgon Harpyer De hundredearmede Hydra Kentaurer Kerberos Kronider Ktoniske guder Kykloper Meliader Mænader Najader Nereider Nymfer Okeanider Pegasus Python Satyrer Sirener Skylla Sylfider Tyfon Titaner De oprindelige tolv Foibe Hyperion Iapetos Koios Krios Kronos Mnemosyne Okeanos Rheia Tethys Theia Themis Andre titaner Asteria Atlas Leto Menoitios Metis Prometheus De ni Muser Erato Euterpe Kalliope Klio Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Sagnkonger Agamemnon Eurystheus Kreon Krøsus Laios Lykomedes Menelaos Midas Minos Priamos Rhadamantys Sisyfos Tantalos Steder og seværdigheder Delfi Elysion Erebos Dødsriget Hades Hyperborea Ida Olympen Styx Tartaros Thule Ilion Genstande Den trojanske hest Det Gyldne Skind Merkurstav Pandoras æske Trefork Ægide Æskulapstav Græsk litteratur og andre kilder Argonautika De eleusinske mysterier Den episke cyklus De homeriske hymner Iliaden Odysseen Orestien Oxyrhynchos papyri Theogonien Værker og dage Æneiden Se også De græske guders stamtræ, Græske gudenavne vs. romerske Autoritetsdata WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (data) NKC: jo2016908762 Hentet fra "https://da.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=10522851" Kategorier: Personer i græsk mytologi Konger i græsk mytologi Skjulte kategorier: Commons-kategori på Wikidata er ens med lokalt link Wikipedia artikler med VIAF autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med LCCN autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med GND autoritetsdata-ID Wikipedia artikler med BNF autoritetsdata-ID Navigationsmenu Personlige værktøjer Ikke logget på Diskussion Bidrag Opret konto Log på Navnerum Artikel Diskussion Varianter Visninger Læs Redigér Redigér wikikode Se historik Mere Søg Navigation Forside Kategorier Fremhævet indhold Tilfældig side Tilfældige artikler Aktuelt Deltagelse Velkommen Skribentforside Landsbybrønden Projekter Portaler Ønskede artikler Oprydning Kalender Seneste ændringer Hjælp Værktøjer Hvad henviser hertil Relaterede ændringer Læg en fil op Specialsider Permanent link Oplysninger om siden Referér til denne side Wikidata-emne Organisation Donation Kontakt Wikipedia Wikimedia Danmark GLAM Udskriv/eksportér Lav en bog Download som PDF Udskriftsvenlig udgave I andre projekter Wikimedia Commons På andre sprog Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Redigér links Denne side blev senest ændret den 20. november 2020 kl. 15:14. 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de-wikipedia-org-842	----	Sisyphos – Wikipedia Sisyphos aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Dieser Artikel behandelt die Person der griechischen Mythologie. Zu weiteren Bedeutungen siehe Sisyphos (Begriffsklärung). Persephone beaufsichtigt Sisyphos in der Unterwelt, schwarzfigurige attische Amphora, um 530 v. Chr., Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 1494) Sisyphos (altgriechisch Σίσυφος, latinisiert Sisyphus) ist eine Figur der griechischen Mythologie. Er soll um das Jahr 1400 v. Chr. gelebt haben, König zu Korinth und Sohn des Aiolos gewesen sein sowie sich durch große Weisheit ausgezeichnet und stark zur Vergrößerung Korinths beigetragen haben. Heute bekannt ist er vor allem in seiner Funktion im Volksglauben als Schalk, gerissenes Schlitzohr und Urbild des Menschen und Götter verachtenden „Frevlers“, dem es durch skrupellose Schlauheit mehrfach gelingt, trickreich den Tod zu überlisten und den Zustrom zum Hades zu sperren, indem er den Todesgott Thanatos fesselt. Nach dessen Befreiung wird Sisyphos festgesetzt, aber es gelingt dem Toten mit einer List erneut ins Leben zurückzukehren: Er befiehlt seiner Frau, der Plejade Merope, ihn nicht zu bestatten und keine Totenopfer für ihn darzubringen. Um dieses Ärgernis zu regeln, entlässt Thanatos ihn noch einmal ins Leben, wodurch Sisyphos dem Tod ein weiteres Mal entgeht. Sprichwörtlich ist die Sisyphos ereilende Strafe geworden. Homer nennt keinen Grund für die Strafe, weshalb schon in der Antike verschiedene Autoren unterschiedliche Gründe dafür angeben: Einmal wird Sisyphos für seine Renitenz dem Gott Thanatos gegenüber bestraft, einmal für seine Verschlagenheit, einmal weil er den Göttervater Zeus an den Flussgott Asopos verrät, weil jener dessen Tochter Aigina geraubt hat. Schließlich wird er von Hermes für seinen Frevel in die Unterwelt gezwungen, wo er zur Strafe einen Felsblock auf ewig einen Berg hinaufwälzen muss, der, fast am Gipfel, jedes Mal wieder ins Tal rollt. Dieses Motiv ist schon in der Antike prägend für die Sisyphosrezeption gewesen, heute ist Sisyphusarbeit bzw. Sisyphusaufgabe ein geflügeltes Wort für eine ertraglose und dabei schwere Tätigkeit ohne absehbares Ende.[1] In der Neuzeit wurde Sisyphos durch Albert Camus’ Essay Der Mythos des Sisyphos zu einer Leitfigur des Absurdismus. Diese radikale Neuinterpretation belebte die Sisyphos-Rezeption und regte viele weitere neue Deutungen der Sisyphosfigur an. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Mythos 2 Rezeption 2.1 Allgemein 2.2 Nach Camus 2.3 DDR 3 Naranath Bhranthan 4 Quellen 5 Literatur 6 Weblinks 7 Anmerkungen Mythos Sisyphos-Darstellung Tizians Sisyphos gilt in der griechischen Mythologie als Sohn des thessalischen Königs Aiolos, als Gründer und König von Korinth und als Großvater des Bellerophon. Ino hatte im Wahn Melikertes, ihren eigenen Sohn, getötet und sich mit dem Leichnam ins Meer gestürzt, als sie wieder zu Sinnen kam. Ein Delphin brachte den Knaben an Land. Sisyphos fand ihn, begrub ihn auf dem Isthmus von Korinth und stiftete ihm laut Pindar und anderen zu Ehren die Isthmischen Spiele,[2] für die auch Theseus und Poseidon als Stifter genannt werden. Sisyphos befragte das Orakel von Delphi, wie er seinen Bruder Salmoneus töten könne. Darauf erhielt er die Antwort, dass er Kinder mit Tyro, der Tochter des Salmoneus, zeugen solle. Diese würden dann Salmoneus töten. Er ließ sich mit Tyro ein, und sie schenkte zwei Söhnen das Leben. Als sie jedoch von dem Orakel hörte, tötete sie ihre eigenen Kinder. Autolykos stahl heimlich Rinder, Schafe und Ziegen des Sisyphos. Der bemerkte, dass seine Herden kleiner wurden, während die des Autolykos weiter zunahmen. Er markierte seine Tiere an den Hufen und konnte so den Diebstahl nachweisen. Er begab sich zu Autolykos, um ihn zur Rede zu stellen. Da er diesen aber nicht antraf, verführte er dessen Tochter Antikleia, die kurze Zeit später Laertes heiratete und Odysseus gebar. Sisyphos wird als der verschlagenste aller Menschen bezeichnet; er verriet die Pläne des Zeus, indem er dem Flussgott Asopos mitteilte, dass es Zeus sei, der seine Tochter Aigina entführt habe. Zeus beschloss daraufhin, Sisyphos zu bestrafen, und schickte Thanatos, den Tod, zu ihm. Aber Sisyphos überwältigte ihn, indem er ihn betrunken machte und ihm so starke Fesseln anlegte, dass des Todes Macht gebrochen war und niemand mehr starb. Erst als der Kriegsgott Ares den Tod aus der Gewalt von Sisyphos befreite (da es ihm keinen Spaß machte, dass seine Gegner auf dem Schlachtfeld nicht mehr starben), konnte Thanatos wieder seines Amtes walten. Sisyphos aber wurde vom Kriegsgott ins Schattenreich entführt. Doch bevor Ares das tat, verbot Sisyphos seiner Frau Merope, ihm ein Totenopfer darzubringen. Als keine Opfer für ihn dargebracht wurden, überredete er den Gott der Unterwelt, Hades, ihn schnell in die Menschenwelt zurückkehren zu lassen, um seiner Frau zu befehlen, für ihn ein Totenopfer zu halten. Wieder zu Hause, genoss der Listige das Leben an der Seite seiner Frau und spottete über den Gott der Unterwelt. Doch plötzlich tauchte Thanatos vor ihm auf und brachte ihn mit Gewalt ins Totenreich. Sisyphos von Franz von Stuck, 1920 Sisyphos’ Strafe in der Unterwelt bestand darin, einen Felsblock einen steilen Hang hinaufzurollen. Ihm entglitt der Stein jedoch stets kurz vor Erreichen des Gipfels und er musste immer wieder von vorne anfangen. Heute nennt man deshalb eine Aufgabe, die trotz großer Mühen nie abgeschlossen wird, Sisyphusarbeit. „Und weiter sah ich den Sisyphos in gewaltigen Schmerzen: wie er mit beiden Armen einen Felsblock, einen ungeheuren, fortschaffen wollte. Ja, und mit Händen und Füßen stemmend, stieß er den Block hinauf auf einen Hügel. Doch wenn er ihn über die Kuppe werfen wollte, so drehte ihn das Übergewicht zurück: von neuem rollte dann der Block, der schamlose, ins Feld hinunter. Er aber stieß ihn immer wieder zurück, sich anspannend, und es rann der Schweiß ihm von den Gliedern, und der Staub erhob sich über sein Haupt hinaus.“ – Homer: Odyssee 11. Gesang, 593–600. Übersetzung Wolfgang Schadewaldt Rezeption Allgemein Spätestens seit der römischen Antike steht bei der Rezeption des Sisyphos vor allem seine Strafe im Mittelpunkt der Rezeption. In der Neuzeit dient die Sisyphosfigur als allgemeinsprachliche Metapher für sinnlose Mühe: Diese Bedeutung taucht immer wieder in Karikaturen auf; die sprichwörtlich gewordene Sisyphusarbeit bezeichnet eine durch wiederkehrende Muster geprägte, sinnlose Arbeit ohne Ziel und Erfolg. Diese feststehende Redewendung existiert auch im Englischen (Sisyphean task, Sisyphian task[3]), Französischen (travail de Sisyphe[4]), Polnischen (syzyfowa praca[5]), Spanischen (trabajo de Sísifo[6]), Italienischen (fatica di sisifo, lavoro di sisifo[7]) und Russischen (сизи́фов труд[8]). Nach Camus 1942 entwickelt der französische Autor Albert Camus Sisyphos in dem philosophischen Essay Der Mythos des Sisyphos (Originaltitel: Le mythe de Sisyphe. Essai sur l’Absurde) eine Philosophie des Absurden, die eng mit dem Existentialismus verwandt ist. Der Essay ist im Zusammenhang mit dem Bühnenstück Caligula (Uraufführung 1945) und dem Roman Der Fremde (L’Étranger, 1942) zu sehen, da Camus in diesen drei Werken das gleiche Thema behandelt. Auch in Die Pest finden sich ähnliche Motive wieder. Die beiden letzten Sätze dieses Essays sind berühmt geworden: „Der Kampf gegen Gipfel vermag ein Menschenherz auszufüllen. Wir müssen uns Sisyphos als einen glücklichen Menschen vorstellen.“[9] Diese radikale Neuinterpretation der Sisyphosqualen hat eine existenzialistische Sichtweise auf den Mythos etabliert und den Umgang mit dem Mythos neu belebt. Von nun an findet sowohl in der Literatur als auch in der bildenden Kunst eine intensive Auseinandersetzung mit dem Mythos statt, die sehr verschiedene Deutungen der Sisyphos-Figur hervorbringt.[10] Sisyphos wird nun verstärkt als Allegorie auf die Conditio humana gelesen. Diese Deutung war zwar schon in der Antike vorhanden, in der Folge von Camus’ Neubewertung erhält sie aber nun oftmals einen affirmativen, bejahenden Gehalt, Sisyphos’ Tätigkeit wird in der Regel als sinnstiftend beschrieben. Nun tauchen Texte auf, in denen Sisyphos den Stein lobt, etwa Fred Portegies Zwarts 1988 veröffentlichtes Gedicht Sisyphus singt das Lob des Steines. Die Gestalt des Sisyphos wurde 1970 von Jacques Monod als Symbol ausgewählt, um die Wissenschaft – die sich immer in Frage stellen muss – darzustellen.[11] Eine häufig anzutreffende Denkfigur nach Camus betrachtet (und verwirft oftmals) die Möglichkeit, dass die Sisyphosqual an ein Ende kommt: So in dem Schlussabschnitt Sisyphos’ letzter Abstieg des Romans Feuerfunken von Elmar Dod (Münster 2009, S. 187 ff.), dem 3. Band der „nihilistischen“ Romantrilogie Bunte Schleier des Nichts (Bd. 1: Nachtfahrt, Bd. 2: Tag der Erleuchtung, Münster 2006 / 2007): Sisyphos erkennt, dass die Götter sein Traum sind, und entscheidet sich für einen letzten, befreienden Abstieg in den Abgrund, in den der Stein hinabgerollt war. Eine Variante dieser Lösung besteht darin, dass der Stein auf dem Gipfel liegenbleibt. Ulla Hahn beispielsweise stellt diese Lösung 1988 in der Ballade von S. in Frage. Sisyphos ist auf seine Qual angewiesen: „S. war // S. nur wenn er den Felsen rührte […] S. hatte überlebt. Zu leben / nicht gelernt. […]“[12] Ähnlich Günter Kunert, der 1992 in Neues von Sisyphos beschreibt, wie Sisyphos nach einer kurzen Phase des Triumphs den Stein selbst wieder hinabstößt, nachdem er sonst keine Arbeit bekommen kann.[13] Auch im ironischen Gedicht Sisyphus von Robert Garioch verursacht Sisyphus den Sturz des Steins selbst, um seine Tätigkeit und damit sein Einkommen zu sichern: „Aber wie kam’s nur, daß er dem Fels einen winzigen Schubs gab? / Rasant rumpelt runter zum Talgrund der herzlose Felsklotz, / Sisyphus wankt hinterdrein: seines Einkommens jedenfalls sicher.“[14] Günter Grass bezeichnet Sisyphus als seinen Privatheiligen und vergleicht das Ende der Sisyphusarbeit mit gefährlichen Utopien: „Sisyphus ist nichts anderes als das Wissen, dass der Stein oben nicht liegen bleibt – und dann das Jasagen dazu. Für mich gäbe es keine schrecklichere Vorstellung als die, dass der Stein eines Tages oben liegen bliebe. […] Alle Utopien arbeiten mit der Verheißung: Der Stein wird, wenn alles so läuft, wie es meine Utopie vorschreibt, eines Tages oben liegen.“[15] Eine andere Variante, wie die Qual zu ihrem Ende kommt, wird im Abnutzen des Steins gesehen: Erich Fried publiziert 1967 das Gedicht Vorahnung des Endsiegs, dessen Titel das Ende der Sisyphusarbeit mit dem Holocaust assoziiert. Es beschreibt die Angst Sisyphos’ vor der Abnutzung des Steins. Das Gedicht schließt mit der Frage „Was bleibt? // Nichts als die Qual / seine Qual / überlebt zu haben“. Auch in Heiner Müllers Fragment Traktor („Gegenseitige Abnutzung von Mann Stein Berg […] Oder bis zu dem denkbaren Nullpunkt: niemand bewegt auf einer Fläche nichts.“[16]) und in Hans-Ulrich Treichels Gedicht Sisyphos’ Dementi wird die Möglichkeit der Abnutzung thematisiert, wenn auch mit anderer Bewertung: „Und der Stein war schon bald / nur noch der Rest des Steins. / Vor ein paar Jahren ist er mir / in den Ausguß gerutscht.“[17] DDR Eine dritte Variante besteht darin, dass Sisyphos den Stein einfach liegenlässt. Diese wird oftmals in der Literatur der DDR als Parabel auf einen Ausweg aus dem Sozialismus verwendet. Günter Kunert bezieht die Sisyphusarbeit in seinem Gedicht Sisyphos 1982 auf den Kommunismus mit einem Zitat aus Brechts Lob des Kommunismus „[…] »Das Einfache / das schwer zu machen ist«: / Den Stein endlich zurückrollen lassen / wohin er gehört.“[18] Diese Hoffnung bringt auch Volker Braun in seinem 1965/68 publizierten Gedicht Das Vogtland. zum Ausdruck: Wie bei vielen Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftstellern in der DDR verkörpert Sisyphos den Alltagsmenschen. Die Werktätigen in der DDR in ihrem Alltag werden als „tüchtige Söhne / Sisyphos'“ bezeichnet. Dem den Alltagstrott verkörpernden Sisyphos setzt Braun die mythologische Figur des Herakles entgegen und die Hoffnung auf eine Veränderung: „bis wir am Hang / Verharren jetzt und lassen die Last / Rollen, den Zorn, ins Tal“.[19] Eine ähnliche Perspektive auf den Alltag der DDR findet sich, mit einer feministischen Wendung, im 1974 veröffentlichten Gedicht Frau Sisyphos von Christa Alten: Die Schilderung des Alltags der überarbeiteten Frau endet mit der Frage „Täglich Frau Sisyphos / ihr erschöpftes Gesicht, / bei Engels, Lenin, wie lange noch?“[20] Auch Manfred Jendryschik denkt an ein Ende der Sisyphusarbeit, indem er der Arbeit des Sisyphos den Sinn gibt, den Felsblock am Hang abzuschleifen, bis er die geeignete Größe hat, um als Waffe gegen seinen Wärter eingesetzt zu werden.[21] In der bildenden Kunst der DDR vollzieht sich um 1972 ein Wandel bei der mythologisierenden Darstellung von Arbeitern: Wurde Herakles als Sinnbild des Arbeiters aufgefasst, so wird nun Sisyphos zur paradigmatischen Metapher für den Arbeiter.[22] Die prägnantesten Beispiele dafür sind die Bilder Wolfgang Mattheuers: Die Flucht des Sisyphos,[23] Sisyphos behaut den Stein[24] und Der übermütige Sisyphos und die Seinen,[25] die auch zum Teil literarisch verarbeitet wurden. Naranath Bhranthan Statue von Naranath Branthan Wie anders die Interpretation desselben Bilds in einem anderen als dem abendländischen Kontext ausfallen kann, zeigt die altindische Legende von Naranath Bhranthan, auch „the madman of Naranam“ genannt: So wie Sisyphos wälzte auch er immer wieder, allerdings anders als dieser freiwillig, einen riesigen Stein einen hohen Berg hinauf, jedoch nur, um sich anschließend wie unbändig am Zurückrollen des Steins ins Tal zu erfreuen. Der nach ihm benannte Berg Naranathu Brandhan Mala im Distrikt Palakkad des südindischen Bundesstaats Kerala ist alljährlich Mitte Oktober Ziel zahlreicher Pilger.[26] Quellen Bibliotheke des Apollodor, 1, 50; 1, 85; 2, 30; 3, 29; 3, 110; 3, 157. Diodor: Bibliotheke, 6, 63. Diodor: Fragmente, 90; 120; 121; 123; 124. Hesiod: Eoien, 10, 26; 43a. Homer: Ilias, 6, 154. Homer: Odyssee, 11, 593. Hyginus Mythographus: Astronomica, 2, 21. Hyginus Mythographus: Fabulae, 60; 201; 239; 250. Lykophron: Alexandra, 3, 1027. Pausanias: Reisen in Griechenland, 2, 1, 3; 2, 2, 2; 2, 3, 11; 2, 4, 3; 2, 5, 1; 6, 20, 19; 9, 17, 6; 9, 24, 3; 9, 34, 7; 10, 4, 10; 10, 30, 5, 10, 31, 10. Albert Camus: Der Mythos des Sisyphos. Ein Versuch über das Absurde (Le mythe de Sisyphe, 1942). Rauch, Bad Salzig/Düsseldorf 1950. Literatur Erich Wilisch: Sisyphos. In: Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher (Hrsg.): Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie. Band 4, Leipzig 1915, Sp. 958–972 (Digitalisat). Bernd Seidensticker, Antje Wessels: Sisyphos. Texte von Homer bis Günter Kunert. Reclam, Leipzig 2001, ISBN 3-379-01738-8 (Anthologie, rund 100 Texte; Inhaltsverzeichnis). Berthold Hinz: Sisyphos. In: Maria Moog-Grünewald (Hrsg.): Mythenrezeption. Die antike Mythologie in Literatur, Musik und Kunst von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (= Der Neue Pauly. Supplemente. Band 5). Metzler, Stuttgart/Weimar 2008, ISBN 978-3-476-02032-1, S. 662–664. Weblinks Commons: Sisyphos – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien Sisyphos im Greek Myth Index (englisch) Sisyphos im Greek Mythology Link (englisch) Anmerkungen ↑ Duden: Sisyphusarbeit ↑ Bruno Snell, Herwig Maehler (Hrsg.): Pindari Carmina cum fragmentis. Pars 2: Fragmenta. Indices. Teubner, Leipzig 1989, Fragment 6,5 (1); so auch Bibliotheke des Apollodor 3,4,3; Pausanias 2,1,3. ↑ Merriam Webster: Sisyphean ↑ Dictionnaire de francais Littré: Sisyphe ↑ Wörterbuch PONS.de Sisyphusarbeit ↑ Wörterbuch Leo.org: Sísifo ↑ Wörterbuch Leo.org: Sisifo ↑ Wörterbuch Leo.org Sisyphusarbeit ↑ Übersetzung von Vincent Wroblewsky zit. n. Albert Camus: Der Mythos des Sisyphos. zit. n.: Mythos Sisyphos. S. 112–115. ↑ Für den gesamten Abschnitt vgl. auch den Abschnitt Der glückliche Mensch? Sisyphos nach Camus. von Antje Wessels, Bernd Seidensticker Nachwort. In: Mythos Sisyphos. S. 246–253. ↑ Jacques Monod: Zufall und Notwendigkeit. Philosophische Fragen der modernen Biologie. DTV Deutscher Taschenbuch, 1996, ISBN 3-423-01069-X, S. 17 – Als Motto vorangestelltes Zitat von Camus: Der Mythos von Sisyphos. ↑ Ulla Hahn: Ballade von S. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos S. 161. ↑ Günter Kunert: Neues von Sisyphos. In: Mythos Sisyphos. S. 135. ↑ Robert Garioch: Sisyphus. aus dem Schottischen übersetzt von Sabine Lucia Müller zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 227. ↑ Günter Grass in Die Zeit. vom 1. Juli 1999, zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 134. ↑ Heiner Müller: Traktor. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 215. ↑ Hans-Ulrich Treichel: Sisyphos Dementi. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S 156. ↑ Günter Kunert: Sisyphos 1982. In: Mythos Sisyphos. S. 194. ↑ Volker Braun: Das Vogtland. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 213–214. ↑ Christa Alten: Frau Sisyphos. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 187. ↑ Manfred Jendryschick: Die bekannte Situation, I. zit. n. Mythos Sisyphos. S. 158. ↑ Vgl. das Kapitel Real existierender Sisyphos. In: Peter Arlt: Die Flucht des Sisyphos. Griechischer Mythos und Kunst – Eine europäische Bildtradition, ihre Aktualität in der DDR und heute. Kunstverlag, Gotha 2008, S. 83–103. ↑ Wolfgang Mattheuer: Die Flucht des Sisyphos. 1972, Öl auf Hartfaser, 96 × 118 cm, Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Galerie Neue Meister. Abgebildet in Die Flucht des Sisyphos. S. 85. ↑ Wolfgang Mattheuer: Sisyphos behaut den Stein. 1974, Öl auf Hartfaser, 96 × 119,5 cm, Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Galerie Neue Meister. Abgebildet in Die Flucht des Sisyphos S. 86. ↑ Wolfgang Mattheuer: Der übermütige Sisyphos und die Seinen 1976, Öl auf Leinwand, 200 × 200 cm, Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Galerie Neue Meister. Abgebildet in Die Flucht des Sisyphos. S. 88. ↑ Introduction, zuletzt abgerufen 10. August 2013 (englisch). Vorgänger Amt Nachfolger Iason König von Korinth 14. Jahrh. v. Chr. (fiktive Chronologie) Glaukos Normdaten (Person): GND: 118614797 (OGND, AKS) | VIAF: 67258418 | Wikipedia-Personensuche Abgerufen von „https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=207169179“ Kategorien: Person der griechischen Mythologie Mythologischer König (Korinth) Mythologisches Wesen als Namensgeber für einen Asteroiden Versteckte Kategorie: Wikipedia:LCCN in Wikipedia fehlt, in Wikidata vorhanden Navigationsmenü Meine Werkzeuge Nicht angemeldet Diskussionsseite Beiträge Benutzerkonto erstellen Anmelden Namensräume Artikel Diskussion Varianten Ansichten Lesen Quelltext anzeigen Versionsgeschichte Weitere Suche Navigation Hauptseite Themenportale Zufälliger Artikel Mitmachen Artikel verbessern Neuen Artikel anlegen Autorenportal Hilfe Letzte Änderungen Kontakt Spenden Werkzeuge Links auf diese Seite Änderungen an verlinkten Seiten Spezialseiten Permanenter Link Seiten­informationen Artikel zitieren Wikidata-Datenobjekt Drucken/­exportieren Buch erstellen Als PDF herunterladen Druckversion In anderen Projekten Commons In anderen Sprachen Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Links bearbeiten Diese Seite wurde zuletzt am 2. 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el-wikipedia-org-1500	----	Σίσυφος - Βικιπαίδεια Σίσυφος Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μετάβαση στην πλοήγηση Πήδηση στην αναζήτηση Το λήμμα δεν περιέχει πηγές ή αυτές που περιέχει δεν επαρκούν. Μπορείτε να βοηθήσετε προσθέτοντας την κατάλληλη τεκμηρίωση. Υλικό που είναι ατεκμηρίωτο μπορεί να αμφισβητηθεί και να αφαιρεθεί. Η σήμανση τοποθετήθηκε στις 25/03/2015. Σίσυφος Η τιμωρία του Σισύφου στον Κάτω Κόσμο. Σύζυγος-οι Πλειάδα Μερόπη Σύντροφος-οι Αντίκλεια Γονείς Αίολος ο Θεσσαλός και Εναρέτη Τέκνα Γλαύκος, Όρνυτος, Άλμος και Θέρσανδρος wikidata (π) Ο Σίσυφος ήταν μια πολύ ξεχωριστή προσωπικότητα της ελληνικής μυθολογίας. Ο Σίσυφος ήταν ιδρυτής και βασιλιάς της αρχαίας Εφύρας, που στη συνέχεια ονομάστηκε Κόρινθος. Όλα άρχισαν όταν ο θεός Δίας αποπλάνησε την Αίγινα, η οποία ήταν κόρη του ποταμού και θεού Ασωπού. Παίρνοντας τη μορφή αετού, ο Δίας απήγαγε την Αίγινα και πήγε να κρυφτεί σ' ένα μικρό νησί του Αιγαίου. Ο Ασωπός ζήτησε από τον Σίσυφο να του πει τι γνώριζε και αυτός συμφώνησε, ζητώντας πρώτα για αντάλλαγμα, μια πηγή με νερό που θα ανάβλυζε ασταμάτητα από την ακρόπολη της πόλης του Ασωπού, για να ποτίζει την ξερή γη της Κορίνθου.  Ο Σίσυφος και ο Ασωπός συμφώνησαν. Ο Δίας όμως γνώριζε τα πάντα και αποφάσισε να τιμωρήσει τον Σίσυφο για την προδοσία του, στέλνοντάς τον στον Άδη. Όμως τότε ο Σίσυφος απέδειξε την εξυπνάδα και την πονηριά του καταφέρνοντας να ξεγελάσει και να φυλακίσει τον Θάνατο. Τότε όμως έγινε κάτι πρωτοφανές: ο Θάνατος αδυνατούσε να θερίσει τα καθημερινά του θύματα και η Γη άρχισε σταδιακά να γεμίζει, χωρίς να χωρά ο αυξανόμενος πληθυσμός. Οι θεοί αναστατώθηκαν και ο θεός Άρης ελευθέρωσε τον Θάνατο από τα δεσμά του, στέλνοντας ξανά τον Σίσυφο στον Άδη. Ο Σίσυφος όμως, είχε προνοήσει και είχε πει στη γυναίκα του, Μερόπη, να μη θάψει το σώμα του. Έτσι, όταν κατέβηκε στον Άδη, ζήτησε από την θεά Περσεφόνη, σύζυγο του θεού Πλούτωνα, τρεις μέρες για να επιστρέψει στη γη και να φροντίσει το ζήτημα της ταφής του. Η Περσεφόνη δέχτηκε το αίτημα του Σίσυφου, όμως αυτός δεν επέστρεψε. Έτσι, ήρθε η σειρά του θεού Ερμή να τον κατεβάσει στον Άδη. Ο Σίσυφος τιμωρήθηκε για την ασεβή του συμπεριφορά. Οι "Κριτές των νεκρών", του έβαλαν ως βασανιστήριο να κουβαλάει ένα βράχο στην κορυφή ενός βουνού. Φτάνοντας στην κορυφή, η πέτρα ξανακυλούσε κάτω και έπρεπε να την ανεβάσει ξανά. Αυτή η τιμωρία είναι αιώνια για τον «νικητή» του Άδη. Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Λογοτεχνία 2 Παραπομπές 3 Δείτε επίσης 4 Εξωτερικοί σύνδεσμοι Λογοτεχνία[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Η θεά Περσεφόνη επιτηρεί τον Σίσυφο. Ο Όμηρος περιγράφει το Σίσυφο και στην Ιλιάδα στη Ραψωδία Ζ΄ και στο Βιβλίο ΙΑ΄ της Οδύσσειας[1]. Ο Οβίδιος, αναφέρει τον Σίσυφο στην ιστορία του Ορφέα και της Ευρυδίκης. Όταν ο Ορφέας κατεβαίνει για να αντιμετωπίσει τον θεό Πλούτωνα και την θεά Περσεφόνη, τραγουδάει ένα τραγούδι ώστε να του πραγματοποιήσουν την επιθυμία του να φέρει την Ευρυδίκη πίσω από τους νεκρούς. Μετά το τραγούδι, ο Οβίδιος δείχνει πόσο συγκινητικό ήταν με το να σημειώνει ότι ο Σίσυφος, έχοντας επηρεαστεί συναισθηματικά, μόνο για μια στιγμή, σταματάει την αιώνια τιμωρία του και κάθεται επάνω στον βράχο, στα Λατινικά inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("κάθησες απάνω στο βράχο σου, Σίσυφε").[2] Στην Απολογία του Πλάτωνα, ο Σωκράτης ανυπομονεί για τη μετά θάνατον ζωή όπου μπορεί να συναντήσει μορφές όπως ο Σίσυφος, που θεωρούν τον εαυτό τους σοφό, ώστε να τους ρωτήσει και να ανακαλύψει ποιος είναι σοφός και ποιος "νομίζει ότι είναι ενώ δεν είναι"[3] Ο Αλμπέρ Καμύ, έχει γράψει ένα δοκίμιο με τον τίτλο Ο Μύθος του Σίσυφου, όπου ανυψώνει το Σίσυφο ως έναν "παράδοξο" ήρωα. Ο Φραντς Κάφκα αναφέρει επανειλημμένα τον Σίσυφο ως εργένη. Καφκικές ήταν για τον Κάφκα εκείνες οι ιδιότητες που του έβγαζαν τις ιδιότητες του Σίσυφου. σύμφωνα με τον Frederick Karl: "Ο άνθρωπος που αγωνίστηκε για να φτάσει στα ύψη μόνο και μόνο για να ριχθεί στα βάραθρα, ενσαρκώνει όλα τα ιδανικά του Κάφκα. Και παρέμεινε ο εαυτός του, μόνος, μοναχικός."[4]. Ο φιλόσοφος Richard Taylor χρησιμοποιεί το μύθο του Σίσυφου ως αντιπροσωπευτικό παράδειγμα μιας ζωής που καθίσταται χωρίς νόημα γιατί αποτελείται από μια στείρα επανάληψη[5]. Παραπομπές[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] ↑ Ραψωδία Ζ΄ ↑ Ovid. Μεταμορφώσεις, 10.44. ↑ Απολογία, 41a και εξής ↑ Frederick Karl. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 ↑ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. Δείτε επίσης[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Ο αστεροειδής 1866 Σίσυφος (1866 Sisyphus), που ανακαλύφθηκε το 1972, πήρε το όνομά του από τον μυθικό βασιλιά. Εξωτερικοί σύνδεσμοι[Επεξεργασία | επεξεργασία κώδικα] Το Βικιλεξικό έχει σχετικό λήμμα:   Σίσυφος Τα Wikimedia Commons έχουν πολυμέσα σχετικά με το θέμα    Σίσυφος π • σ • ε Μύθοι της Ελληνικής Μυθολογίας Άθλοι του Ηρακλή Αργοναυτική εκστρατεία Αρπαγή της Ευρώπης Αρπαγή των Λευκιππίδων Δαίδαλος και Ίκαρος Ηρώ και Λέανδρος Θεογονία Θησέας και Μινώταυρος Ιφίς και Αναξαρέτη Κατακλυσμός του Δευκαλίωνα Κοσμογονία Κυάνιππος και Λευκονόη Νιόβη Οδύσσεια Οινόμαος Σίσυφος Τάνταλος Τιτανομαχία Τρωικός Πόλεμος Φρίξος και Έλλη Χάος π • σ • ε Ηγεμόνες της αρχαίας Κορίνθου Μυθικοί Βασιλείς Αιήτης Βούνος Εποπέας Κόρινθος Πόλυβος Κρέοντας Μήδεια και Ιάσονας Σίσυφος Γλαύκος Βελλεροφόντης Ορνυτίων Θόας Δαμόφων Προπόδας Δωρίδας και Υανθίδας Ηρακλείδες Αλήτης Ιξίων Αγέλας Α' Πρύμνης Βάκχης Αγέλας Β' Εύδαιμος Αριστομήδης Αγήμων Αλέξανδρος Τελέστης Αυτομήνης Πρυτάνεις Τυραννίς Κυψέλος Περίανδρος Ψαμμέτιχος Σύνδεσμοι σε καταλόγους καθιερωμένων όρων WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (data) NKC: jo2016908762 Ανακτήθηκε από "https://el.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Σίσυφος&oldid=8282553" Κατηγορίες: Μύθοι της ελληνικής μυθολογίας Βασιλείς της Κορίνθου Κρυμμένες κατηγορίες: Λήμματα που χρειάζονται παραπομπές από 03/2015 Λήμματα που χρειάζονται παραπομπές Κατηγορία Commons με τίτλο σελίδας διαφορετικό από των Wikidata Commonscat που τραβάει δεδομένα από Wikidata Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά VIAF Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά LCCN Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά GND Λήμματα Βικιπαίδειας με αναγνωριστικά BNF Μενού πλοήγησης Προσωπικά εργαλεία Χωρίς Σύνδεση Συζήτηση για αυτή την IP Συνεισφορές Δημιουργία λογαριασμού Σύνδεση Ονοματοχώροι Λήμμα Συζήτηση Παραλλαγές Προβολές Ανάγνωση Επεξεργασία Επεξεργασία κώδικα Προβολή ιστορικού Περισσότερα Αναζήτηση Πλοήγηση Κύρια πύλη Κατάλογος λημμάτων Προβεβλημένα λήμματα Τρέχοντα γεγονότα Τυχαίο λήμμα Συμμετοχή Βοήθεια Πύλη Κοινότητας Αγορά Πρόσφατες αλλαγές Επικοινωνία Δωρεές Εργαλεία Συνδέσεις προς εδώ Σχετικές αλλαγές Ειδικές σελίδες Σταθερός σύνδεσμος Πληροφορίες σελίδας Παραπομπή Αντικείμενο Wikidata Εκτύπωση/εξαγωγή Δημιουργία βιβλίου Κατέβασμα ως PDF Εκτυπώσιμη έκδοση Σε άλλα εγχειρήματα Wikimedia Commons Άλλες γλώσσες Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Επεξεργασία συνδέσμων Τελευταία τροποποίηση 07:13, 3 Ιουνίου 2020. 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en-m-wikipedia-org-8359	----	Sisyphus - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Sisyphus Language Watch Edit For other uses, see Sisyphus (disambiguation). In Greek mythology Sisyphus or Sisyphos (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Ancient Greek: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) was the king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the classical influence on modern culture, tasks that are both laborious and futile are therefore described as Sisyphean (/sɪsɪˈfiːən/).[2] Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attica black-figure amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family 3 Mythology 3.1 Reign 3.2 Conflict with Salmoneus 3.3 Cheating death 3.4 Punishment in the underworld 4 Interpretations 4.1 Literary interpretations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links EtymologyEdit Linguistics Professor R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word sophos (σοφός, "wise").[3] German mythographer Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from sisys (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.[4] FamilyEdit Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete[5] and the brother of Salmoneus. He married the Pleiad Merope by whom he became the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus, Sinon and Porphyrion.[6] Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus,[7][8] and Minyas, founder of Orchomenus, through Almus.[6] MythologyEdit ReignEdit Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth).[7] King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. Conflict with SalmoneusEdit Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. Cheating deathEdit Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the Asopid Aegina to her father, the river god Asopus, in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis.[7] Zeus then ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Charon, whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and Ares, annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.[9] In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.[10] Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone, goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes.[11][12] In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.[13] In Philoctetes by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the Odyssey) upon having returned from the dead. Euripides, in Cyclops, also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. Punishment in the underworldEdit As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.[7][14][15] The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as Sisyphean. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.[16] InterpretationsEdit   Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649 According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.[17] Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.[17] The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[18] Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach[19] that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese,[20] building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.[21] In his book The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking,[22] German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. Literary interpretationsEdit   Sisyphus (1548–49) by Titian, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the Iliad and Book XI of the Odyssey.[8][15] Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").[23] In Plato's Apology, Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"[24] Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[25] The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.[26] Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons.[27] See alsoEdit The Hill (film) The Myth of Sisyphus, a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd Sisyphus cooling, a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth Sisyphus (dialogue), written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works Syzyfowe prace, a novel by Stefan Żeromski Triangle (2009 British film) Comparable characters: Naranath Bhranthan, a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore Wu Gang – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree NotesEdit ^ museum inv. 1494 ^ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ^ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ a b Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ a b c d Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.3 ^ a b Homer, Iliad VI 152ff ^ Morford & Lenardon 1999, p. 491. ^ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ "Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus". www.mythweb.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019. ^ "Sisyphus". www.greekmythology.com. ^ Evslin 2006, p. 209-210. ^ "Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 9 October 2014. ^ a b Odyssey, xi. 593 ^ Pausanias x. 31 ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ^ De Rerum Natura III ^ Revue archéologique, 1904 ^ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. ISBN 0-89281-409-8 ^ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7. ^ Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. ISBN 978-3-7438-7149-6 ^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44. ^ Apology, 41a ^ Karl, Frederick. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 ^ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. ^ Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. ReferencesEdit Evslin, Bernard (2006). Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84511-321-6. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Morford, Mark P. O.; Lenardon, Robert J. (1999). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514338-6. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External linksEdit Look up Sisyphean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sisyphus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sisyphus "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. "Sisyphus" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. 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en-m-wikipedia-org-9673	----	Sisyphus - Wikipedia Open main menu Home Random Nearby Log in Settings Donate About Wikipedia Disclaimers Search Sisyphus Language Watch Edit For other uses, see Sisyphus (disambiguation). In Greek mythology Sisyphus or Sisyphos (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Ancient Greek: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) was the king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the classical influence on modern culture, tasks that are both laborious and futile are therefore described as Sisyphean (/sɪsɪˈfiːən/).[2] Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attica black-figure amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen[1] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family 3 Mythology 3.1 Reign 3.2 Conflict with Salmoneus 3.3 Cheating death 3.4 Punishment in the underworld 4 Interpretations 4.1 Literary interpretations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links EtymologyEdit Linguistics Professor R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word sophos (σοφός, "wise").[3] German mythographer Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from sisys (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.[4] FamilyEdit Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete[5] and the brother of Salmoneus. He married the Pleiad Merope by whom he became the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus, Sinon and Porphyrion.[6] Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus,[7][8] and Minyas, founder of Orchomenus, through Almus.[6] MythologyEdit ReignEdit Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth).[7] King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. Conflict with SalmoneusEdit Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. Cheating deathEdit Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the Asopid Aegina to her father, the river god Asopus, in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis.[7] Zeus then ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Charon, whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and Ares, annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.[9] In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.[10] Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone, goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes.[11][12] In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.[13] In Philoctetes by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the Odyssey) upon having returned from the dead. Euripides, in Cyclops, also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. Punishment in the underworldEdit As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.[7][14][15] The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as Sisyphean. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.[16] InterpretationsEdit   Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649 According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.[17] Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.[17] The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[18] Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach[19] that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese,[20] building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.[21] In his book The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking,[22] German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. Literary interpretationsEdit   Sisyphus (1548–49) by Titian, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the Iliad and Book XI of the Odyssey.[8][15] Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").[23] In Plato's Apology, Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"[24] Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[25] The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.[26] Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons.[27] See alsoEdit The Hill (film) The Myth of Sisyphus, a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd Sisyphus cooling, a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth Sisyphus (dialogue), written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works Syzyfowe prace, a novel by Stefan Żeromski Triangle (2009 British film) Comparable characters: Naranath Bhranthan, a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore Wu Gang – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree NotesEdit ^ museum inv. 1494 ^ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ^ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ a b Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ a b c d Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.3 ^ a b Homer, Iliad VI 152ff ^ Morford & Lenardon 1999, p. 491. ^ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ "Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus". www.mythweb.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019. ^ "Sisyphus". www.greekmythology.com. ^ Evslin 2006, p. 209-210. ^ "Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 9 October 2014. ^ a b Odyssey, xi. 593 ^ Pausanias x. 31 ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ^ De Rerum Natura III ^ Revue archéologique, 1904 ^ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. ISBN 0-89281-409-8 ^ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7. ^ Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. ISBN 978-3-7438-7149-6 ^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44. ^ Apology, 41a ^ Karl, Frederick. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 ^ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. ^ Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. ReferencesEdit Evslin, Bernard (2006). Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84511-321-6. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Morford, Mark P. O.; Lenardon, Robert J. (1999). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514338-6. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External linksEdit Look up Sisyphean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sisyphus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sisyphus "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. "Sisyphus" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392" Last edited on 21 January 2021, at 08:51 Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 08:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Terms of Use Desktop Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Contents 1 About Wikipedia 1.1 History 1.2 Contributors 1.3 Trademarks and copyrights 1.4 Credits 2 Uses 2.1 Exploration 2.2 Basic navigation 2.3 Research 2.4 Versus paper encyclopedias 2.5 Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality 2.6 Disclaimers 3 Contributing 3.1 Editorial quality review 4 Technical attributes 5 Feedback and questions 5.1 Frequently asked questions (FAQ) 5.2 Static help 5.3 Giving feedback 5.4 Research help and similar questions 5.5 Community discussion 5.6 Contacting individual editors 6 Other languages 7 Sister projects 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links About Wikipedia For information on the administrative structure of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Administration. See also: Wikipedia:Purpose Further information: Wikipedia:Essay directory § About Wikipedia History Further information: History of Wikipedia The English edition of Wikipedia has grown to 6,243,916 articles, equivalent to around 2,800 print volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica. 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Eighth, being open to anyone to edit, articles on Wikipedia are subject to additions that might be erroneous or written poorly, which in turn are subject to being corrected or rewritten. It is a community effort, with most people involved helping to improve the work, fixing problems they encounter along the way. See more about Wikipedia's strengths and weaknesses below ... Strengths, weaknesses, and article quality Main pages: Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great and Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great See also: Reliability of Wikipedia and Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia The Wikipedia Monument (2014) by Mihran Hakobyan in Slubice, Poland, honors the Wikipedia community. Wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses, and differences arise because it is open to anyone. According to editorial guidelines and policies, it has a large contributor base, and its articles are written by consensus. Wikipedia is open to a large contributor base, drawing many editors from diverse backgrounds. This allows Wikipedia to reduce regional and cultural bias found in many publications significantly and makes it very difficult for any person or group to censor and impose bias. A large, diverse editor base also provides access and breadth on subject matter otherwise inaccessible or poorly documented. Many editors contributing at any moment can produce encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. Like any publication, Wikipedia may reflect the cultural, age, socio-economic, and other biases of its contributors. There is no systematic process to make sure "obviously important" topics are written about, so Wikipedia may suffer unexpected oversights and omissions. 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See also Help desk Help portal Internet portal For useful directories and indexes, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. Wikipedia:Formal organization Wikipedia:History of Wikipedian processes and people Wikipedia:Quality control Wikipedia:Ten things you may not know about Wikipedia Wikimedia power structure (Meta) References ^ "Wikistats - Statistics For Wikimedia Projects". stats.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved 9 January 2021. ^ "Milestones 2001". Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org. ^ Bill Thompson, "What is it with Wikipedia?" BBC, December 16, 2005. Further reading Main article: Bibliography of Wikipedia Phoebe Ayers; Charles Matthews; Ben Yates (2008). How Wikipedia Works. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55387-6. John Broughton (2008). Wikipedia: The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-55377-7. Dan O'Sullivan (24 September 2009). 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en-wikipedia-org-1116	----	Tantalus - Wikipedia Tantalus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mythological figure and son of Zeus For other uses, see Tantalus (disambiguation). Karagöl ("The black lake") in Mount Yamanlar, İzmir, Turkey, associated with the accounts surrounding Tantalus and named after him as Lake Tantalus Tantalus (Ancient Greek: Τάνταλος Tántalos) was a Greek mythological figure, most famous for his punishment in Tartarus. He was also called Atys. He was made to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches, with the fruit ever eluding his grasp, and the water always receding before he could take a drink. He was the father of Pelops, Niobe and Broteas, and was a son of Zeus[1] and the nymph Plouto. Thus, like other heroes in Greek mythology such as Theseus (his great-great-grandson) and the Dioskouroi, Tantalus had both a hidden, divine parent and a mortal one. The Greeks used the proverb "Tantalean punishments" (Ancient Greek: Ταντάλειοι τιμωρίαι), in reference to those who have good things but are not permitted to enjoy them.[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historical background 3 Mythology 4 Tantalus in art 5 Other characters with the same name 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Etymology[edit] Plato in the Cratylus (395e) interprets Tantalos as ταλάντατος talantatos (acc. ταλάντατον in the original), "who has to bear much" from τάλας talas "wretched". The word talas is held by some to be inherited from Proto-Indo-European, although R. S. P. Beekes rejects an Indo-European interpretation.[3] Historical background[edit] Genealogical tree of Tantalus There may have been a historical Tantalus, possibly the ruler of an Anatolian city named "Tantalís",[4] "the city of Tantalus", or of a city named "Sipylus".[5] Pausanias reports that there was a port under his name and a sepulcher of him "by no means obscure", in the same region. Tantalus is referred to as "Phrygian", and sometimes even as "King of Phrygia",[6] although his city was located in the western extremity of Anatolia, where Lydia was to emerge as a state before the beginning of the first millennium BC, and not in the traditional heartland of Phrygia, situated more inland. References to his son as "Pelops the Lydian" led some scholars to the conclusion that there would be good grounds for believing that he belonged to a primordial house of Lydia. Other versions name his father as Tmolus, the name of a king of Lydia and, like Sipylus, of another mountain in ancient Lydia. The location of Tantalus' mortal mountain-fathers generally placed him in Lydia;[7] and more seldom in Phrygia[8] or Paphlagonia,[9] all in Asia Minor. The identity of his wife is variously given: generally as Dione the daughter of Atlas;[10][11] the Pleiad Taygete, daughter of Atlas; Eurythemista, a daughter of the river-god Xanthus;[12] Euryanassa, daughter of Pactolus, another river-god of Anatolia, like the Xanthus;[13][14][12] Clytia, the child of Amphidamantes;[15][12] and Eupryto.[16] Tantalus was also called the father of Dascylus.[17] Tantalus, through Pelops, was the progenitor of the House of Atreus, which was named after his grandson Atreus. Tantalus was also the great-grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus. The geographer Strabo states that the wealth of Tantalus was derived from the mines of Phrygia and Mount Sipylus. Near Mount Sipylus are archaeological features that have been associated with Tantalus and his house since Antiquity. Near Mount Yamanlar in İzmir (ancient Smyrna), where the Lake Karagöl (Lake Tantalus) associated with the accounts surrounding him is found, is a monument mentioned by Pausanias: the tholos "tomb of Tantalus" (later Christianized as "Saint Charalambos' tomb") and another one in Mount Sipylus,[18] and where a "throne of Pelops", an altar or bench carved in rock and conjecturally associated with his son is found. Based on a similarity between the names Tantalus and Hantili, it has been suggested that the name Tantalus may have derived from that of these two Hittite kings.[19] COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TANTALUS' FAMILY Relation and Name Sources Pin. (Sch.) on Eur. Aris. Iso. Sch. on Apol. Lyco. Dio. Hor. Par. Ov. Str. Sta. Apol. Tac. Plu. Hyg. Pau. Clem. Ant. Non. Ser. Gr. Anth. Tzet. W. Smith R. Graves Parentage Tmolus and Pluto ✔️ ✔️ Zeus ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Zeus and Pluto ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Spouse Euryanassa ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Dione ✔️[20] ✔️ ✔️ Eupryto ✔️ Eurythemista ✔️ Children Pelops ✔️[21] ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️[21] ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Niobe ✔️[22] ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️[22] ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Dascylus ✔️ Broteas ✔️ Mythology[edit] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Print of the fall of Tantalus. Preserved in the Ghent University Library.[23] Tantalus became one of the inhabitants of Tartarus, the deepest portion of the Underworld, reserved for the punishment of evildoers; there Odysseus saw him.[24] The association of Tantalus with the underworld is underscored by the names of his mother Plouto ("riches", as in gold and other mineral wealth), and grandmother, Chthonia ("earth"). Tantalus was initially known for having been welcomed to Zeus' table in Olympus, like Ixion. There, he is said to have abused Zeus' hospitality and stolen ambrosia and nectar to bring it back to his people, and revealed the secrets of the gods.[25][26] Most famously, Tantalus offered up his son, Pelops, as a sacrifice. He cut Pelops up, boiled him, and served him up in a banquet for gods in order to the test their omniscience. The gods became aware of the gruesome nature of the menu, so they did not touch the offering; only Demeter, distraught by the loss of her daughter, Persephone, absentmindedly ate part of the boy's shoulder. Clotho, one of the three Fates, was ordered by Zeus to bring the boy to life again. She collected the parts of the body and boiled them in a sacred cauldron, rebuilding his shoulder with one wrought of ivory made by Hephaestus and presented by Demeter. The revived Pelops grew to be an extraordinarily handsome youth. The god Poseidon took him to Mount Olympus to teach him to use chariots. Later, Zeus threw Pelops out of Olympus due to his anger at Tantalus. The Greeks of classical times claimed to be horrified by Tantalus's doings; cannibalism and filicide were atrocities and taboo. Tantalus's punishment for his act, now a proverbial term for temptation without satisfaction (the source of the English word tantalise[27]), was to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches raised his intended meal from his grasp. Whenever he bent down to get a drink, the water receded before he could get any. Over his head towers a threatening stone (mentioned in Pindar's 8th Isthmian ode, lines 10–12.) like the one that Sisyphus is punished to roll up a hill.[28] This fate has cursed him with eternal deprivation of nourishment. In a different story, Tantalus was blamed for indirectly having stolen the dog made of gold created by Hephaestus (god of metals and smithing) for Rhea to watch over infant Zeus. Tantalus's friend Pandareus stole the dog and gave it to Tantalus for safekeeping. When asked later by Pandareus to return the dog, Tantalus denied that he had it, saying he "had neither seen nor heard of a golden dog." According to Robert Graves, this incident is why an enormous stone hangs over Tantalus's head. Others state that it was Tantalus who stole the dog, and gave it to Pandareus for safekeeping. Tantalus was also the founder of the cursed House of Atreus in which variations on these atrocities continued. Misfortunes also occurred as a result of these acts, making the house the subject of many Greek tragedies. Tantalus's grave-sanctuary stood on Sipylus[29] but honours were paid him at Argos, where local tradition claimed to possess his bones.[30] In Lesbos, there was another hero-shrine in the small settlement of Polion and a mountain named after Tantalos.[31] Tantalus in art[edit] Engraving by Hendrik Goltzius and C. Cornelius (1588) Oil painting by Gioacchino Assereto (circa 1640s) Etching by Francisco Goya (1797) Other characters with the same name[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In Greek mythology, there are three other characters named Tantalus — minor figures and descendants of the above Tantalus. Broteas is said to have had a son named Tantalus, who ruled over either the city of Pisa in the Peloponnesus or of Lydia in present-day Turkey. This Tantalus was the first husband of Clytemnestra. He was slain by Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, who made Clytemnestra his wife. The third Tantalus was a son of Amphion and Niobe, daughter of the infamous Tantalus. The fourth Tantalus was a son of Thyestes, who was murdered by his uncle Atreus, and fed to his unsuspecting father. See also[edit] Lycaon (Arcadia) Xenia (Greek), the Greek concept of hospitality, which Tantalus is described as breaking Notes[edit] ^ Euripides, Orestes. ^ Suda Encyclopedia, tau.78, § tau.78 ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1449. ^ George Perrot (2007). History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria And Lycia (in French and English). Marton Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-4067-0883-7. ^ This refers to Mount Sipylus, at the foot of which his city was located and whose ruins were reported to be still visible in the beginning of the Common Era, although few traces remain today. See Sir James Frazer, Pausanias, and other Greek sketches (later retitled Pausanias's Description of Greece. ^ Thomas Bulfinch. Bulfinch's Mythology. Kessinger Publishing Company. pp. 1855–2004. ISBN 1-4191-1109-4. ^ Pindar. Olympian Odes, 1.24–38, 9.9; Strabo 1.3.17; Pausanias 5.1.6, 9.5.7. ^ Strabo, xii.8.21 ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.74. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 82 & 83 ^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 6.174 ^ a b c Robert Graves. The Greek Myths, section 108 (1960) ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 52 ^ Scholia ad Euripides. Orestes, 5 ^ Scholia ad Euripides. Orestes, 11 ^ Apostol. Cent. 18.7 ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2. 752 ^ Various sites called the "tomb of Tantalus" have been shown to travellers since the time of Pausanias. ^ M. L. West (1999). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-19-815221-7. ^ This certainly pertains to her as the daughter of Atlas and thus, the sister of the Pleiades. Compare Hyginus. Fabulae, 82 & 83 & Ovid. Metamorphoses, 6.174 ^ a b Not named but certainly points out to him ^ a b Not named but certainly describes her ^ "De val van Tantalus". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 2020-10-02. ^ Odyssey xi.582-92; Tantalus' transgressions are not mentioned; they must already have been well known to Homer's late-8th-century hearers. ^ Pindar. Olympian Odes, 1.60 ff ^ Euripides, Orestes, 10. ^ "Tantalize - Define Tantalize at Dictionary.com". dictionary.com. Retrieved 2 April 2018. ^ This detail was added to the myth by the painter Polygnotus, according to Pausanias (10.31.12), noted in Kerenyi 1959:61. ^ Pausanias, 2.22.3. ^ Pausanias, 2.22.2. ^ Stephen of Byzantium, noted by Kerenyi 1959:57, note 218. References[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tantalus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 401. Gantz, Timothy (1993). Early Greek Myth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Graves, Robert (1960, 1962). The Greek Myths. Check date values in: |year= (help) Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. "Tantalus" p. 431 Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Kerenyi, Karl (1959). The Heroes of the Greeks. New York/London: Thames and Hudson.pp 57–61 et passim Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.   Smith, William, ed. (1848). "Ta'ntalus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. External links[edit] Media related to Tantalus at Wikimedia Commons Authority control GND: 119155060 SUDOC: 030827817 VIAF: 72197787 WorldCat Identities: viaf-72197787 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantalus&oldid=1005021496" Categories: Children of Zeus Kings of Phrygia Condemned souls into Tartarus Anatolian characters in Greek mythology Characters in Greek mythology Hidden categories: CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles needing additional references from July 2020 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 errors: dates Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 February 2021, at 15:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1087	----	Titans - Wikipedia Titans From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Titans (mythology)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Second order of divine beings in Greek mythology "Titans (mythology)" redirects here. For other uses, see Titan. The Fall of the Titans by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem (1596–1598) Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Titans The Twelve Titans Oceanus and Tethys, Hyperion and Theia, Coeus and Phoebe, Cronus and Rhea, Mnemosyne and Themis, Crius and Iapetus Children of Cronus Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, Chiron Children of Oceanus Oceanids, Potamoi Children of Hyperion Helios, Selene, Eos Children of Coeus Leto, Asteria Sons of Iapetus Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, Epimetheus Sons of Crius Astraeus, Pallas, Perses Personified concepts Adrasteia Apate Bia Charites Eris Eros Horae Kratos Metis Moirai Muses Nemesis Nike Themis Zelus v t e In Greek mythology, the Titans (Greek: Τιτᾶνες, Titânes, singular: Τιτάν, -ήν, Titân) were the pre-Olympian gods.[1] According to the Theogony of Hesiod, they were the twelve children of the primordial parents Uranus (Sky) and his mother, Gaia (Earth), with six male Titans: Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus, and six female Titans, called the Titanides (Greek: Τιτανίδες, Titanídes; also Titanesses): Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and Tethys. Cronus mated with his older sister Rhea and together they became the parents of the first generation of Olympians: The six siblings Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hestia, Demeter, and Hera. Some descendants of the Titans, such as Prometheus, Helios, and Leto, are sometimes also called Titans. The Titans were the former gods, the generation of gods preceding the Olympians. They were overthrown as part of the Greek succession myth, which told how Cronus seized power from his father Uranus, and ruled the cosmos with the Titans as his subordinates, and how Cronus and the Titans were in turn defeated and replaced as the ruling pantheon of gods, by Zeus and the Olympians, in a ten-year war called the Titanomachy. As a result of this war of the gods, Cronus and the vanquished Titans were banished from the upper world, being held imprisoned, under guard in Tartarus, although apparently, some of the Titans were allowed to remain free. Contents 1 Genealogy 1.1 Hesiod's genealogy 1.2 Variations 2 Former gods 3 Overthrown 3.1 Hesiod 3.2 Homer 3.3 Other early sources 3.4 Apollodorus 3.5 Hyginus 4 After the Titanomachy 4.1 Released? 5 Near East origins 6 Orphic literature 6.1 The sparagmos 6.2 The anthropogony 6.3 Modern interpretations 7 Etymology 8 In astronomy 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Genealogy[edit] Cronus armed with sickle; after a carved gem (Aubin-Louis Millin de Grandmaison, Galerie mythologique, 1811). Hesiod's genealogy[edit] According to Hesiod, the Titan offspring of Uranus and Gaia were Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and Cronus.[2] Eight of the Titan brothers and sisters married each other: Oceanus and Tethys, Coeus and Phoebe, Hyperion and Theia, and Cronus and Rhea. The other two Titan brothers married outside their immediate family. Iapetus married his niece Clymene, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, while Crius married his half-sister Eurybia, the daughter of Gaia and Pontus. The two remaining Titan sisters, Themis and Mnemosyne, became wives of their nephew Zeus. From Oceanus and Tethys came the three thousand river gods, and three thousand Oceanid nymphs.[3] From Coeus and Phoebe came Leto, another wife of Zeus, and Asteria.[4] From Crius and Eurybia came Astraeus, Pallas, and Perses.[5] From Hyperion and Theia came the celestial personifications Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon), and Eos (Dawn).[6] From Iapetus and Clymene came Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus.[7] From Cronus and Rhea came the Olympians: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.[8] By Zeus, Themis bore the three Horae (Hours), and the three Moirai (Fates),[9] and Mnemosyne bore the nine Muses.[10] While the descendants of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys, Cronus and Rhea, Themis, and Mnemosyne (i.e. the river gods, the Oceanids, the Olympians, the Horae, the Moirai, and the Muses) are not normally considered to be Titans, descendants of the other Titans, notably: Leto, Helios, Atlas and Prometheus, are themselves sometimes referred to as Titans.[11] The twelve Titan's parents, spouses, and children, according to Hesiod's Theogony [12] Uranus Gaia Pontus Oceanus Tethys Coeus Phoebe Crius Eurybia The Rivers The Oceanids Leto Asteria Astraeus Pallas Perses Hyperion Theia Iapetus Clymene [13] Helios Selene [14] Eos Atlas [15] Menoetius Prometheus [16] Epimetheus Cronus Rhea Hestia Demeter Hera Hades Poseidon Zeus Themis (Zeus) Mnemosyne The Horae The Moirai [17] The Muses Variations[edit] Rhea, both sister and wife to Cronus. Passages in a section of the Iliad called the Deception of Zeus suggest the possibility that Homer knew a tradition in which Oceanus and Tethys (rather than Uranus and Gaia, as in Hesiod) were the parents of the Titans.[18] Twice Homer has Hera describe the pair as "Oceanus, from whom the gods are sprung, and mother Tethys", while in the same passage Hypnos describes Oceanus as "from whom they all are sprung".[19] Plato, in his Timaeus, provides a genealogy (probably Orphic) which perhaps reflected an attempt to reconcile this apparent divergence between Homer and Hesiod, with Uranus and Gaia as the parents of Oceanus and Tethys, and Oceanus and Tethys as the parents of Cronus and Rhea and "and all that go with them", plus Phorcys.[20] In his Cratylus, Plato quotes Orpheus as saying that Oceanus and Tethys were "the first to marry", possibly also reflecting an Orphic theogony in which Oceanus and Tethys, rather than Uranus and Gaia, were the primeval parents.[21] To Hesiod's twelve Titans, the mythographer Apollodorus, adds a thirteenth Titan, Dione, the mother of Aphrodite by Zeus.[22] Plato's inclusion of Phorkys, apparently, as a Titan, and the mythographer Apollodorus's inclusion of Dione, suggests an Orphic tradition in which the canonical twelve Titans consisted of Hesiod's twelve with Phorkys and Dione taking the place of Oceanus and Tethys.[23] The Roman mythographer Hyginus, in his somewhat confused genealogy,[24] after listing as offspring of Aether (Upper Sky) and Earth (Gaia): Ocean [Oceanus], Themis, Tartarus, and Pontus, next lists "the Titans", followed by two of Hesiod's Hundred-Handers: Briareus and Gyges, one of Hesiod's three Cyclopes: Steropes, then continues his list with Atlas, Hyperion and Polus [Coeus], Saturn [Cronus], Ops [Rhea], Moneta [Mnemosyne], Dione, and the three Furies: Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone.[25] The geographer Pausanias, mentions seeing the image of a man in armor, who was supposed to be the Titan Anytus, who was said to have raised the Arcadian Despoina.[26] Former gods[edit] The Titans, as a group, represent a pre-Olympian order.[27] Hesiod uses the expression "the former gods" (theoi proteroi) in reference to the Titans.[28] They were the banished gods, who were no longer part of the upper world.[29] Rather they were the gods who dwelt underground in Tartarus,[30] and as such, they may have been thought of as "gods of the underworld", who were the antithesis of, and in opposition to, the Olympians, the gods of the heavens.[31] Hesiod called the Titans "earth-born" (chthonic),[32] and in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Hera prays to the Titans "who dwell beneath the earth", calling on them to aid her against Zeus, just as if they were chthonic spirits.[33] In a similar fashion, in the Iliad, Hera, upon swearing an oath by the underworld river Styx, "invoked by name all the gods below Tartarus, that are called Titans" as witnesses.[34] They were the older gods, but not, apparently, as was once thought, the old gods of an indigenous group in Greece, historically displaced by the new gods of Greek invaders. Rather, they were a group of gods, whose mythology at least, seems to have been borrowed from the Near East.[35] These imported gods gave context and provided a backstory for the Olympian gods, explaining where these Greek Olympian gods had come from, and how they had come to occupy their position of supremacy in the cosmos. The Titans were the previous generation, and family of gods, whom the Olympians had to overthrow, and banish from the upper world, in order to become the ruling pantheon of Greek gods. For Hesiod, possibly in order to match the twelve Olympian gods, there were twelve Titans: six males and six females, with some of Hesiod's names perhaps being mere poetic inventions, so as to arrive at the right number.[36] In Hesiod's Theogony, apart from Cronus, the Titans play no part at all in the overthrow of Uranus, and we only hear of their collective action in the Titanomachy, their war with the Olympians.[37] As a group, they have no further role in conventional Greek myth, nor do they play any part in Greek cult.[38] As individuals, few of the Titans have any separate identity.[39] Aside from Cronus, the only other figure Homer mentions by name as being a Titan is Iapetus.[40] Some Titans seem only to serve a genealogical function, providing parents for more important offspring: Coeus and Phoebe as the parents of Leto, the mother, by Zeus, of the Olympians Apollo and Artemis; Hyperion and Theia as the parents of Helios, Selene and Eos; Iapetus as the father of Atlas and Prometheus; and Crius as the father of three sons Astraeus, Pallas, and Perses, who themselves seem only to exist to provide fathers for more important figures such as the Anemoi (Winds), Nike (Victory), and Hecate. Overthrown[edit] The Titans play a key role in an important part of Greek mythology, the succession myth.[41] It told how the Titan Cronus, the youngest of the Titans, overthrew Uranus, and how in turn Zeus, by waging and winning a great ten-year war pitting the new gods against the old gods, called the Titanomachy ("Titan war"), overthrew Cronus and his fellow Titans, and was eventually established as the final and permanent ruler of the cosmos.[42] Hesiod[edit] The Mutilation of Uranus by Saturn: fresco by Giorgio Vasari and Cristofano Gherardi, c. 1560 (Sala di Cosimo I, Palazzo Vecchio) According to the standard version of the succession myth, given in Hesiod's Theogony, Uranus initially produced eighteen children with Gaia: the twelve Titans, the three Cyclopes, and the three Hecatoncheires (Hundred-Handers),[43] but hating them,[44] he hid them away somewhere inside Gaia.[45] Angry and in distress, Gaia fashioned a sickle made of adamant and urged her children to punish their father. Only her son Cronus was willing.[46] So Gaia hid Cronus in "ambush", gave him an adamantine sickle, and when Uranus came to lie with Gaia, Cronus reached out and castrated his father.[47] This enabled the Titans to be born and Cronus to assume supreme command of the cosmos, with the Titans as his subordinates.[48] Rhea presenting Cronus the stone wrapped in cloth Cronus, having now taken over control of the cosmos from Uranus, wanted to ensure that he maintained control. Uranus and Gaia had prophesied to Cronus that one of Cronus' own children would overthrow him, so when Cronus married Rhea, he made sure to swallow each of the children she birthed: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus (in that order), to Rhea's great sorrow.[49] However, when Rhea was pregnant with Zeus, Rhea begged her parents Gaia and Uranus to help her save Zeus. So they sent Rhea to Lyctus on Crete to bear Zeus, and Gaia took the newborn Zeus to raise, hiding him deep in a cave beneath Mount Aigaion.[50] Meanwhile, Rhea gave Cronus a huge stone wrapped in baby's clothes which he swallowed thinking that it was another of Rhea's children.[51] "Fall of the Titans". Oil on canvas by Jacob Jordaens, 1638. Zeus, now grown, forced Cronus (using some unspecified trickery of Gaia) to disgorge his other five children.[52] Zeus then released his uncles the Cyclopes (apparently still imprisoned beneath the earth, along with the Hundred-Handers, where Uranus had originally confined them) who then provide Zeus with his great weapon, the thunderbolt, which had been hidden by Gaia.[53] A great war was begun, the Titanomachy, for control of the cosmos. The Titans fought from Mount Othrys, while the Olympians fought from Mount Olympus.[54] In the tenth year of that great war, following Gaia's counsel, Zeus released the Hundred-Handers, who joined the war against the Titans, helping Zeus to gain the upper hand. Zeus cast the fury of his thunderbolt at the Titans, defeating them and throwing them into Tartarus,[55] with the Hundred-Handers as their guards.[56] Homer[edit] Only brief references to the Titans and the succession myth are found in Homer.[57] In the Iliad, Homer tells us that "the gods ... that are called Titans" reside in Tartarus.[58] Specifically, Homer says that "Iapetus and Cronos ... have joy neither in the rays of Helios Hyperion nor in any breeze, but deep Tartarus is round about them",[59] and further, that Zeus "thrust Cronos down to dwell beneath earth and the unresting sea."[60] Other early sources[edit] Brief mentions of the Titanomachy and the imprisonment of the Titans in Tartarus also occur in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo and Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound.[61] In the Hymn, Hera, angry at Zeus, calls upon the "Titan gods who dwell beneath the earth about great Tartarus, and from whom are sprung both gods and men".[62] In Prometheus Bound, Prometheus (the son of the Titan Iapetus) refers to the Titanomachy, and his part in it: When first the heavenly powers were moved to wrath, and mutual dissension was stirred up among them—some bent on casting Cronus from his seat so Zeus, in truth, might reign; others, eager for the contrary end, that Zeus might never win mastery over the gods—it was then that I, although advising them for the best, was unable to persuade the Titans, children of Heaven and Earth; but they, disdaining counsels of craft, in the pride of their strength thought to gain the mastery without a struggle and by force. ... That it was not by brute strength nor through violence, but by guile that those who should gain the upper hand were destined to prevail. And though I argued all this to them, they did not pay any attention to my words. With all that before me, it seemed best that, joining with my mother, I should place myself, a welcome volunteer, on the side of Zeus; and it is by reason of my counsel that the cavernous gloom of Tartarus now hides ancient Cronus and his allies within it.[63] Apollodorus[edit] The mythographer Apollodorus, gives a similar account of the succession myth to Hesiod's, but with a few significant differences.[64] According to Apollodorus, there were thirteen original Titans, adding the Titanide Dione to Hesiod's list.[65] The Titans (instead of being Uranus' firstborn as in Hesiod) were born after the three Hundred-Handers and the three Cyclopes,[66] and while Uranus imprisoned these first six of his offspring, he apparently left the Titans free. Not just Cronus, but all the Titans, except Oceanus, attacked Uranus. After Cronus castrated Uranus, the Titans freed the Hundred-Handers and Cyclopes (unlike in Hesiod, where they apparently remained imprisoned), and made Cronus their sovereign,[67] who then reimprisoned the Hundred-Handers and Cyclopes in Tartarus.[68] Although Hesiod does not say how Zeus was eventually able to free his siblings, according to Apollodorus, Zeus was aided by Oceanus' daughter Metis, who gave Cronus an emetic which forced him to disgorge his children that he had swallowed.[69] According to Apollodorus, in the tenth year of the ensuing war, Zeus learned from Gaia, that he would be victorious if he had the Hundred-Handers and the Cyclopes as allies. So Zeus slew their warder Campe (a detail not found in Hesiod) and released them, and in addition to giving Zeus his thunderbolt (as in Hesiod), the Cyclopes also gave Poseidon his trident, and Hades a helmet, and "with these weapons the gods overcame the Titans, shut them up in Tartarus, and appointed the Hundred-handers their guards".[70] Hyginus[edit] The Roman mythographer Hyginus, in his Fabulae, gives an unusual (and perhaps confused) account of the Titanomachy.[71] Jupiter's (Zeus') jealous wife Juno (Hera) was angry at her husband, on account of Jupiter's son Epaphus by Io (one of her husband's many lovers). Because of this Juno incited the Titans to rebell against Jupiter and restore Saturn (Cronus) to the kingship of the gods. Jupiter, with the help of Minerva (Athena), Apollo, and Diana (Artemis), put down the rebellion, and hurled the Titans (as in other accounts) down to Tartarus. After the Titanomachy[edit] Oceanus, Trevi Fountain, Rome After being overthrown in the Titanomachy, Cronus and his fellow vanquished Titans were cast into Tartarus: That is where the Titan gods are hidden under murky gloom by the plans of the cloud-gatherer Zeus, in a dank place, at the farthest part of huge earth. They cannot get out, for Poseidon has set bronze gates upon it, and a wall is extended on both sides.[72] However, besides Cronus, exactly which of the other Titans were supposed to have been imprisoned in Tartarus is unclear.[73] The only original Titan, mentioned by name, as being confined with Cronus in Tartarus, is Iapetus.[74] But, not all the Titans were imprisoned there. Certainly Oceanus, the great world encircling river, seems to have remained free, and in fact, seems not to have fought on the Titan's side at all.[75] In Hesiod, Oceanus sends his daughter Styx, with her children Zelus (Envy), Nike (Victory), Kratos (Power), and Bia (Force), to fight on Zeus' side against the Titans,[76] while in the Iliad, Hera says that, during the Titanomachy, she was cared for by Oceanus and his wife the Titaness Tethys.[77] Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound, has Oceanus free to visit his nephew Prometheus sometime after the war.[78] Like Oceanus, Helios, the Titan son of Hyperion, certainly remained free to drive his sun-chariot daily across the sky, taking an active part in events subsequent to the Titanomachy.[79] The freedom of Oceanus, along with Helios (Sun), and perhaps Hyperion (to the extent that he also represented the sun), would seem to be the result of cosmological necessity, for how could a world encircling river, or the sun, be confined in Tartarus?[80] The Torture of Prometheus, painting by Salvator Rosa (1646-1648). As for other male offspring of the Titans, some seem to have participated in the Titanomachy, and were punished as a result, and others did not, or at least (like Helios) remained free. Three of Iapetus' sons, Atlas, Menoetius, and Prometheus are specifically connected by ancient sources with the war. In the Theogony both Atlas and Menoetius received punishments from Zeus, but Hesiod does not say for what crime exactly they were punished.[81] Atlas was famously punished by Zeus, by being forced to hold up the sky on his shoulders, but none of the early sources for this story (Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, and Aeschylus) say that his punishment was as a result of the war.[82] According to Hyginus however, Atlas led the Titans in a revolt against Jupiter (Zeus).[83] The Theogony has Menoetius struck down by Zeus' thunderbolt and cast into Erebus "because of his mad presumption and exceeding pride".[84] Whether Hesiod was using Erebus as another name for Tartarus (as was sometimes done), or meant that Menoetius's punishment was because of his participation in the Titanomachy is unclear, and no other early source mentions this event, however Apollodorus says that it was.[85] Hesiod does not mention Prometheus in connection with the Titanomachy, but Prometheus does remain free, in the Theogony, for his deception of Zeus at Mecone and his subsequent theft of fire, for which transgressions Prometheus was famously punished by Zeus by being chained to a rock where an eagle came to eat his "immortal liver" every day, which then grew back every night.[86] However Aeschylus's Prometheus Bound (as mentioned above) does have Prometheus say that he was an ally of Zeus during the Titanomachy.[87] Apollo piercing with his arrows Tityos, who has tried to rape his mother Leto (c. 450–440 BC) The female Titans, to the extent that they are mentioned at all, appear also to have been allowed to remain free.[88] Three of these, according to the Theogony, become wives of Zeus: Themis, Mnemosyne, and Leto, the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe.[89] Themis gives birth to the three Horae (Hours), and the three Moirai (Fates), and Mnemosyne gives birth to the nine Muses. Leto, who gives birth to the Olympians Apollo and Artemis, takes an active part on the side of the Trojans in the Iliad, and is also involved in the story of the giant Tityos.[90] Tethys, presumably along with her husband Oceanus, took no part in the war, and, as mentioned above, provided safe refuge for Hera during the war. Rhea remains free and active after the war:[91] appearing at Leto's delivery of Apollo,[92] as Zeus' messenger to Demeter announcing the settlement concerning Persephone,[93] bringing Pelops back to life.[94] Released?[edit] While in Hesiod's Theogony, and Homer's Iliad, Cronus and the other Titans are confined to Tartarus—apparently forever[95]—another tradition, as indicated by later sources, seems to have had Cronus, or other of the Titans, being eventually set free.[96] Pindar, in one of his poems (462 BC), says that, although Atlas still "strains against the weight of the sky ... Zeus freed the Titans",[97] and in another poem (476 BC), Pindar has Cronus, in fact, ruling in the Isles of the Blessed, a land where the Greek heroes reside in the afterlife:[98] Those who have persevered three times, on either side, to keep their souls free from all wrongdoing, follow Zeus' road to the end, to the tower of Cronus, where ocean breezes blow around the island of the blessed, and flowers of gold are blazing, some from splendid trees on land, while water nurtures others. With these wreaths and garlands of flowers they entwine their hands according to the righteous counsels of Rhadamanthys, whom the great father, the husband of Rhea whose throne is above all others, keeps close beside him as his partner.[99] Prometheus Lyomenos, an undated lost play by Aeschylus (c. 525 – c. 455 BC), had a chorus composed of freed Titans. Possibly even earlier than Pindar and Aeschylus, two papyrus versions of a passage of Hesiods' Works and Days also mention Cronus being released by Zeus, and ruling over the heroes who go to the Isle of the Blessed; but other versions of Hesiod's text do not, and most editors judge these lines of text to be later interpolations.[100] Near East origins[edit] Ancient Hittite relief carving from chamber B of Yazılıkaya, a sanctuary at Hattusa,[101] possibly depicting the twelve underworld gods, which the Hittites called the "former gods" (karuilies siunes), and identified with the Babylonian Anunnaki.[102] It is generally accepted that the Greek succession myth was imported from the Near East, and that along with this imported myth came stories of a group of former ruling gods, who had been defeated and displaced, and who became identified, by the Greeks, as the Titans.[103] Features of Hesiod's account of the Titans can be seen in the stories of the Hurrians, the Hittites, the Babylonians, and other Near Eastern cultures.[104] The Hurro-Hittite text Song of Kumarbi (also called Kingship in Heaven), written five hundred years before Hesiod,[105] tells of a succession of kings in heaven: Anu (Sky), Kumarbi, and the storm-god Teshub, with many striking parallels to Hesiod's account of the Greek succession myth. Like Cronus, Kumarbi castrates the sky-god Anu, and takes over his kingship. And like Cronus, Kumarbi swallows gods (and a stone?), one of whom is the storm-god Teshub, who like the storm-god Zeus, is apparently victorious against Kumarbi and others in a war of the gods.[106] Other Hittite texts contain allusions to "former gods" (karuilies siunes), precisely what Hesiod called the Titans, theoi proteroi. Like the Titans, these Hittite karuilies siunes, were twelve (usually) in number and end up confined in the underworld by the storm-god Teshub, imprisoned by gates they cannot open.[107] In Hurrian, the Hittite's karuilies siunes were known as the "gods of down under" (enna durenna) and the Hittites identified these gods with the Anunnaki, the Babylonian gods of the underworld,[108] whose defeat and imprisonment by the storm-god Marduk, in the Babylonian poem Enûma Eliš (late second millennium BC or earlier),[109] parallels the defeat and imprisonment of the Titans.[110] Other collectivities of gods, perhaps associated with the Mesopotamian Anunnaki, include the Dead Gods (Dingiruggû), the Banished Gods (ilāni darsūti), and the Defeated (or Bound) Gods (ilāni kamûti).[111] Orphic literature[edit] Dionysus in a mosaic from the House of Poseidon, Zeugma Mosaic Museum The sparagmos[edit] In Orphic literature, the Titans play an important role in what is often considered to be the central myth of Orphism, the sparagmos, that is the dismemberment of Dionysus, who in this context is often given the title Zagreus.[112] As pieced together from various ancient sources, the reconstructed story, usually given by modern scholars, goes as follows.[113] Zeus had intercourse with Persephone in the form of a serpent, producing Dionysus. He is taken to Mount Ida where (like the infant Zeus) he is guarded by the dancing Curetes. Zeus intended Dionysus to be his successor as ruler of the cosmos, but a jealous Hera incited the Titans—who apparently unlike in Hesiod and Homer, were not imprisoned in Tartarus—to kill the child. The Titans whiten their faces with gypsum, and distracting the infant Dionysus with various toys, including a mirror, they seized Dionysus and tore (or cut)[114] him to pieces. The pieces were then boiled, roasted and partially eaten, by the Titans. But Athena managed to save Dionysus' heart, by which Zeus was able to contrive his rebirth from Semele. The anthropogony[edit] Commonly presented as a part of the myth of the dismembered Dionysus Zagreus, is an Orphic anthropogony, that is an Orphic account of the origin of human beings. According to this widely held view, as punishment for their crime, Zeus struck the Titans with his thunderbolt, and from the remains of the destroyed Titans humankind was born, which resulted in a human inheritance of ancestral guilt, for this original sin of the Titans, and by some accounts "formed the basis for an Orphic doctrine of the divinity of man."[115] However, when and to what extent there existed any Orphic tradition which included these elements is the subject of open debate.[116] The 2nd century AD biographer and essayist Plutarch makes a connection between the sparagmos and the punishment of the Titans, but makes no mention of the anthropogony, or Orpheus, or Orphism. In his essay On the Eating of Flesh, Plutarch writes of "stories told about the sufferings and dismemberment of Dionysus and the outrageous assaults of the Titans upon him, and their punishment and blasting by thunderbolt after they had tasted his blood".[117] While, according to the early 4th century AD Christian apologist Arnobius, and the 5th century AD Greek epic poet Nonnus, it is as punishment for their murder of Dionysus that the Titans end up imprisoned by Zeus in Tartarus.[118] The only ancient source to explicitly connect the sparagmos and the anthropogony is the 6th century AD Neoplatonist Olympiodorus, who writes that, according to Orpheus, after the Titans had dismembered and eaten Dionysus, "Zeus, angered by the deed, blasts them with his thunderbolts, and from the sublimate of the vapors that rise from them comes the matter from which men are created." Olympiodorus goes on to conclude that, because the Titans had eaten his flesh, we their descendants, are a part of Dionysus.[119] Modern interpretations[edit] Some 19th- and 20th-century scholars, including Jane Ellen Harrison, have argued that an initiatory or shamanic ritual underlies the myth of the dismemberment and cannibalism of Dionysus by the Titans.[120] Martin Litchfield West also asserts this in relation to shamanistic initiatory rites of early Greek religious practices.[121] Etymology[edit] The etymology of Τiτᾶνες (Titanes) is uncertain.[122] Hesiod in the Theogony gives a double etymology, deriving it from titaino [to strain] and tisis [vengeance], saying that Uranus gave them the name Titans: "in reproach, for he said that they strained and did presumptuously a fearful deed, and that vengeance for it would come afterwards".[123] But modern scholars doubt Hesiod's etymology.[124] Jane Ellen Harrison asserts that the word "Titan" comes from the Greek τίτανος, signifying white "earth, clay, or gypsum," and that the Titans were "white clay men", or men covered by white clay or gypsum dust in their rituals.[125] In astronomy[edit] The planet Saturn is named for the Roman equivalent of the Titan Cronus. Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is named after the Titans generally, and the other moons of Saturn are named after individual Titans, specifically Tethys, Phoebe, Rhea, Hyperion, and Iapetus. Astronomer William Henry Pickering claimed to have discovered another moon of Saturn which he named Themis, but this discovery was never confirmed, and the name Themis was given to an asteroid, 24 Themis. Asteroid 57 Mnemosyne was also named for the Titan. A proto-planet Theia is hypothesized to have been involved in a collision in the early solar system, forming the Earth's moon. In popular culture[edit] Main article: Titans in popular culture See also[edit] Vanir Asura Cyclopes Greek primordial deities Notes[edit] ^ Hansen, p. 302; Grimal, p. 457 s.v. Titans; Tripp, p. 579 s.v. Titans; Rose, p. 1079 s.v. Titan; Smith, s.v. Titan 1.. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 133–138. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 337–370. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 404–409. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 375–377. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 371–374. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 507–511. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 453–458. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 901–906, although at Theogony 217 the Moirai are said to be the daughters of Nyx (Night). ^ Hesiod, Theogony 915–920. ^ Parada, p. 179 s.v. TITANS; Smith, s.v. Titan 2.; Rose, p. 143 s.v. Atlas, p. 597 s.v. Leto, p. 883 s.v. Prometheus; Tripp, p. 120 s.v. Atlas, p. 266 s.v. Helius, p. 499 s.v. Prometheus. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–138, 337–411, 453–520, 901–906, 915–920; Caldwell, pp. 8–11, tables 11–14. ^ One of the Oceanid daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at Hesiod, Theogony 351. However, according to Apollodorus, 1.2.3, a different Oceanid, Asia was the mother, by Iapetus, of Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. ^ Although usually, as here, the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100, Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes. ^ According to Plato, Critias, 113d–114a, Atlas was the son of Poseidon and the mortal Cleito. ^ In Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 18, 211, 873 (Sommerstein, pp. 444–445 n. 2, 446–447 n. 24, 538–539 n. 113) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis. ^ Although, at Hesiod, Theogony 217, the Moirai are said to be the daughters of Nyx (Night). ^ Fowler 2013, pp. 8, 11; Hard, pp. 36–37, p. 40; West 1997, p. 147; Gantz, p. 11; Burkert 1995, pp. 91–92; West 1983, pp. 119–120. According to Epimenides (see Fowler 2013, pp. 7–8), the first two beings, Night and Aer, produced Tartarus, who in turn produced two Titans (possibly Oceanus and Tethys) from whom came the world egg. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.201, 302 [= 201], 245. According to West 1997, p. 147, these lines suggests a myth in which Oceanus and Tethys are the "first parents of the whole race of gods." And, although Gantz, p. 11, points out that, "mother" may simply refer to the fact that Tethys was Hera's foster mother for a time, as Hera tells us in the lines immediately following, while the reference to Oceanus as "the genesis of gods" might be a "formulaic epithet" referring to the innumerable rivers and springs who were the sons of Oceanus (compare with Iliad 21.195–197), Hypnos' description of Oceanus as "genesis for all" is hard to understand as meaning other than that, for Homer, Oceanus was the father of the Titans. ^ Gantz, pp. 11–12, 743; West 1983, pp. 117–118; Fowler 2013, p. 11; Plato, Timaeus 40d–e. ^ West 1983, pp. 118–120; Fowler 2013, p. 11; Plato, Cratylus 402b [= Orphic fr. 15 Kern]. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.3, 1.3.1. Dione is also the mother of Aphrodite by Zeus in the Iliad, 5.370, 3.374; but in the Theogony, 191–200, Aphrodite was born from the foam which formed around Uranus' severed genitals when Cronus threw them into the sea. ^ Gantz, p. 743. ^ Bremmer, p. 5, calls Hyginus' genealogy "a strange hodgepodge of Greek and Roman cosmogonies and early genealogies". ^ Hyginus, Fabulae Theogony 3. ^ Pausanias, 8.37.5. ^ Hansen, p. 302: "As a group the Titans are the older gods, the former gods, in contrast to the Oympians, who are the younger and present gods". ^ West 2007, p. 162; Hard, p. 35; West 1997, pp. 111, 298; Hesiod, Theogony 424, 486. As noted by Woodard, p. 154 n. 44, Theogony 486: Οὐρανίδῃ μέγ’ ἄνακτι, θεῶν προτέρων βασιλῆι, which some interpret as meaning Cronus "former king of the gods" (e.g. Evelyn-White), others interpret as meaning Cronus "king of the former gods" (e.g. Most, pp. 40, 41; Caldwell, p. 56; West 1988, p. 17), for an argument against "former king" see West 1966, p. 301 on line 486 θεῶν προτέρων. ^ Hard, p. 35: "The essential point is that the Titans [are] the former ruling gods who were banished from the upper world when the present devine order was established."; West 1983, p. 164: "The Titans are by definition the banished gods, the gods who have gone out of the world"; West 1966, p. 200 on line 133. ^ Gantz, pp. 45–46; West 1966, p. 200 on line 133; Hesiod, Theogony 729 ff., 807–814; Homer, Iliad 8.478–481, 14.274, 14.278–279; 15.225; Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 221. ^ Woodard, pp. 96–97; West 1966, p. 201. ^ Woodard, p. 97; Hesiod, Theogony 697. ^ Gantz, p. 46; Homeric Hymn to Apollo (3) 334–339. ^ Athanaassakis and Wolkow, p. 140; Burkert 1985, p. 200, which gives the Titans as an example of "chthonic gods"; Homer, Iliad 14.270–279. ^ Woodard, p. 92; Hard, pp. 34–35; Burkert 1995, p. 94; Caldwell, p. 36 on lines 133-137; West 1966, p. 200. ^ West 1966 p. 36, which, concerning Hesiod's list of names, says: "Its very heterogeneity betrays its lack of traditional foundation. Rhea, Zeus' mother, must be married to Kronos, Zeus' father. Hyperion, as father of Helios, must be put back to that generation; so must ancient and venerable personages as Oceanus and Tethys, Themis and Mnemosyne. By the addition of four more colourless names (Koios, Kreios, Theia, and Phoibe), the list is made up to a complement of six males and six females";cf. West 1966, p. 200 on line 133. ^ Hard, p. 34. ^ Hard, p. 35; West 1966 pp. 200–201 on line 133. ^ Caldwell, p. 36 on lines 133-137. ^ West 1966 pp. 36, 157–158 on line 18. ^ Hard, pp. 65–69; West 1966, pp. 18–19. ^ For a detailed account of Titanomachy and Zeus' rise to power see Gantz, pp. 44–56. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–153. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 154–155. Exactly which of these eighteen children Hesiod meant that Uranus hated is not entirely clear, all eighteen, or perhaps just the Cyclopes and the Hundred-Handers. Hard, p. 67; West 1988, p. 7, and Caldwell, p. 37 on lines 154–160, make it all eighteen; while Gantz, p. 10, says "likely all eighteen"; and Most, p. 15 n. 8, says "apparently only the ... Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers are meant" and not the twelve Titans. See also West 1966, p. 206 on lines 139–53, p. 213 line 154 γὰρ. Why Uranus hated his children is also not clear. Gantz, p. 10 says: "The reason for [Uranus'] hatred may be [his children's] horrible appearance, though Hesiod does not quite say this"; while Hard, p. 67 says: "Although Hesiod is vague about the cause of his hatred, it would seem that he took a dislike to them because they were terrible to behold". However, West 1966, p. 213 on line 155, says that Uranus hated his children because of their "fearsome nature". ^ Hesiod, Theogony 156–158. The hiding place inside Gaia is presumably her womb, see West 1966, p. 214 on line 158; Caldwell, p. 37 on lines 154–160; Gantz, p. 10. This place seems also to be the same place as Tartarus, see West 1966, p. 338 on line 618, and Caldwell, p. 37 on lines 154–160. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 159–172. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 173–182; according to Gantz, p. 10, Cronus waited in ambush, and reached out to castrate Uranus, from "inside [Gaia's] body, we will understand, if he too is a prisoner". ^ Hard, p. 67; West 1966, p. 19. As Hard notes, in the Theogony, although the Titans were freed as a result of Uranus' castration, apparently the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers remain imprisoned (see below), see also West 1966, p. 214 on line 158. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 453–467. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 468–484. Mount Aigaion is otherwise unknown, and Lyctus is nowhere else associated with Zeus' birth, later tradition located the cave on Mount Ida, or sometimes Mount Dikte, see Hard, pp. 74–75; West 1966, pp. 297–298 on line 477, p. 300 on line 484. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 485–491. ^ Gantz, p. 44; Hesiod, Theogony 492–500. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 501–506; Hard, pp. 68–69; West 1966, p. 206 on lines 139–153, pp. 303–305 on lines 501–506. According to Apollodorus, 1.1.4-5, after the overthrow of Uranus, the Cyclopes (as well as the Hundred-Handers) were rescued from Tartarus by the Titans, but reimprisoned by Cronus. ^ Gantz, p. 45; West 1966, p. 340 on line 632; Hesiod, Theogony 630–634. As noted by West, locating the Titan's on Othrys was "presumably ... simply because it was the principal mountain on the opposite side of the [Thessalian] plain: There is no evidence that it was really a seat of gods as Olympus was. Elsewhere it is said that the Titans formerly occupied Olympus itself". For Titans on Olympus, see Hesiod, Works and Days 110–111; Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 148; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.503–508, 2.1232–1233. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 624–721. This is the sequence of events understood to be implied in the Theogony by, for example, Hard, p. 68; Caldwell, p. 65 on line 636; and West 1966, p. 19. However according to Gantz, p. 45, "Hesiod's account does not quite say whether the Hundred-Handers were freed before the conflict or only in the tenth year. ... Eventually, if not at the beginning, the Hundred-Handers are fighting". ^ This is the usual interpretation of Theogony 734–735 (e.g. Hard, p. 68; Hansen, pp. 25, 159, adding the caveat "presumably"; Gantz, p. 45). However according to West 1966, p. 363 on lines 734–5: "It is usually assumed that the Hundred-Handers are acting as prison guards (so Tz. Th. 277 τοὺς Ἑκατόγχειρας αὺτοῖς φύλακας ἐπιστήσας). The poet does not say this—πιστοὶ φύλακες Διὸς probably refers to their help in battle, cf. 815 κλειτοὶ ἐπίκουροι". Compare with Theogony 817–819. ^ Gantz, pp. 1, 11, 45. ^ Hard, p. 36; Homer, Iliad 14.278–279. Compare with Iliad 14.274: "the gods that are below with Cronus", and repeated at Iliad 15.225. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.478–481. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.203–204. ^ Gantz, pp. 45–46. ^ Homeric Hymn to Apollo (3), 334–339. ^ Aeschylus(?), Prometheus Bound 201–223. ^ Hard, pp. 68–69; Gantz, pp. 2, 45; West 1983, p. 123; Apollodorus, 1.1.1–1.2.1. As for Apollodorus' sources, Hard, p. 68, says that Apollodorus' version "perhaps derived from the lost Titanomachia or from the Orphic literature"; see also Gantz, p. 2; for a detailed discussion of Apollodorus' sources for his account of the early history of the gods, see West 1983, pp. 121–126. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.3. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.1–1.1.2. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.4. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.5. The release and reimprisonment of the Hundred-Handers and Cyclopes, was perhaps a way to solve the problem in Hesiod's account of why the castration of Uranus, which released the Titans, did not also apparently release the six brothers, see Fowler 2013, p. 26; West 1966, p. 206 on lines on lines 139–53. In any case, as West 1983, pp. 130–131, points out, while the release is "logical, since it was indignation at their imprinsonment that led Ge to incite the Titans to overthrow Uranos," their reimprisonment is needed to allow for their eventual release by Zeus to help him overthrow the Titans. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.5–1.2.1. ^ Apollodorus, 1.2.1. ^ Gantz, p. 45; West 1966, p. 308 on line 509; Hyginus, Fabulae 150. According to Gantz: "Likely enough Hyginus has confused stories of Hera's summoning of the Gigantes to her aid (as in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo) with the overthrow of the Titans." ^ Hesiod, Theogony 729–734, translation by Glenn W. Most. ^ Gantz, pp. 45–46. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.478–481. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 11; Hard, p. 37; Gantz, pp. 28, 46; West 1983, p. 119. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 337–398. The translations of the names used here follow Caldwell, p. 8. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.200–204. ^ Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 286–289. ^ Gantz, pp. 30–31. ^ Gantz, p. 46; Hard, p. 37. ^ Gantz, pp. 46, 154. ^ Gantz, p. 46. ^ Gantz, p. 45; West 1966, p. 308 on line 509; Hyginus, Fabulae 150. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 514–516. ^ Gantz, pp. 40, 154; West 1966, p. 308 on line 510; Apollodorus, 1.2.3. ^ Gantz, pp. 40, 154–166; Hesiod, Theogony 521–534. ^ Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 201–223. ^ Gantz, p. 46. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 901–906, 915–920. ^ Gantz, pp. 38–39; Homer, Iliad 445–448, 20.72, 21.497–501, 21.502–504, Odyssey 576–581. ^ Gantz, p. 44. ^ Homeric Hymn to Apollo (3) 93. ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2) 441–444. ^ Bacchylides, fr. 42 Campbell, pp. 294, 295. ^ Gantz, p. 46; Burkert 1985, p. 221; West 1966, p. 358. ^ Gantz, pp. 46–48. ^ Pindar, Pythian 4.289–291. ^ Gantz, p. 47; West 1978, p. 195 on line 173a. ^ Pindar, Olympian 2.69–77. ^ Gantz, pp. 46–47; West 1988, p. 76, note to line 173; West 1978, pp. 194–196, on lines 173a–e. ^ Beckman, pp. 155–156, 162 fig. 7.7. ^ Rutherford, pp. 51–52; West 2007, p. 162; West 1997, p. 299; Archi, pp. 114–115. ^ Woodard, p. 92; Hard, pp. 34–35; Burkert 1995, p. 94; Caldwell, p. 36 on lines 133-137; West 1966, p. 200. Although the Titan's mythology seems certainly to have been imported, whether the Titans were originally a group of gods native to Mycenean Greece, upon whom this borrowed mythology was simply overlaid is unknown. According to West 1966, p. 200: "it is probable that the Titans were taken over from the Orient as part of the Succession Myth, or else that they were gods native to Mycenean Greece but similar enough to the ‘older gods’ of the Near East to be identified with them"; while according to Hard, p. 35: "There may have been an early group of native gods of that name who were identified with the former gods of the imported myth; or else the name Titan was simply a title that was applied by the Greeks to gods of eastern origin. There is no way of telling which alternative is true, and it makes no practical difference in any case, since we know nothing whatever of the original nature of the Titans if they had once enjoyed a separate existence in Greece.". ^ For detailed discussions of the parallels of the Greek succession myth in Near East mythology, see Woodard, pp. 92–103; West 1997, pp. 276–333; West 1966, pp. 19–31. ^ West 1997, p. 278; West 1966, p. 20. ^ Woodard, pp. 92–98; West 1997, pp. 278–280; West 1966, pp. 20–21; Burkert 1985, p. 127. ^ West 2007, p. 162; West 1997, p. 298; Archi, p. 114. ^ Rutherford, pp. 51–52; West 2007, p. 162; West 1997, p. 299; Archi, pp. 114–115. ^ Woodard, p. 99; West 1983, p. 102. ^ West 1997, p. 139; West 1966, p. 200. ^ West 1997, p. 299; Burkert 1995, p. 94, with p. 203 n. 24. ^ Nilsson, p. 202 calls it "the cardinal myth of Orphism"; Guthrie, p. 107, describes the myth as "the central point of Orphic story", Linforth, p. 307 says it is "commonly regarded as essentially and peculiarly Orphic and the very core of the Orphic religion", and Parker 2002, p. 495, writes that "it has been seen as the Orphic 'arch-myth'. ^ West 1983, pp. 73–74, provides a detailed reconstruction with numerous cites to ancient sources, with a summary on p. 140. For other summaries see Morford, p. 311; Hard, p. 35; Marsh, s.v. Zagreus, p. 788; Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 456; Burkert 1985, pp. 297–298; Guthrie, p. 82; also see Ogden, p. 80. For a detailed examination of many of the ancient sources pertaining to this myth see Linforth, pp. 307–364. The most extensive account in ancient sources is found in Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.562–70, 6.155 ff., other principle sources include Diodorus Siculus, 3.62.6–8 (= Orphic fr. 301 Kern), 3.64.1–2, 4.4.1–2, 5.75.4 (= Orphic fr. 303 Kern); Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.110–114; Athenagoras of Athens, Legatio 20 Pratten (= Orphic fr. 58 Kern); Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus 2.15 pp. 36–39 Butterworth (= Orphic frs. 34, 35 Kern); Hyginus, Fabulae 155, 167; Suda s.v. Ζαγρεύς. See also Pausanias, 7.18.4, 8.37.5. ^ West 1983, p. 160 remarks that while "many sources speak of Dionysus' being 'rent apart' ... those who use more precise language say that he was cut up with a knife". ^ Linforth, pp. 307–308; Spineto, p. 34. For presentations of the myth which include the anthropogony, see Dodds, pp. 155–156; West 1983, pp. 74–75, 140, 164–166; Guthrie, p. 83; Burkert 1985, pp. 297–298; Marsh, s.v. Zagreus, p. 788; Parker 2002, pp. 495–496; Morford, p. 313. ^ See Spineto pp. 37–39; Edmonds 1999, 2008, 2013 chapter 9; Bernabé 2002, 2003; Parker 2014. ^ Plutarch, On the Eating of Flesh 1.996 C; Linforth, pp. 334 ff. Edmonds 1999, pp. 44–47. ^ Arnobius, Adversus Gentes 5.19 (p. 242) (= Orphic fr. 34 Kern); Nonnus, Dionysiaca 6.206–210. ^ Edmonds 1999, p. 40; Olympiodorus, In Plato Phaedon 1.3 (= Orphic fr. 220 Kern); Spineto p. 34; Burkert 1985, p. 463 n. 15; West 1983, pp. 164–165; Linforth, pp. 326 ff.. ^ Harrison, p. 490. ^ West 1983. ^ Woodard, p. 97; Hard, p. 35; West 1966, p. 200; Rose, p. 1079 s.v. Titan. ^ Caldwell, p. 40 on lines 207-210; Hesiod, Theogony 207–210. For a discussion see West 1966, p. 225–226 on line 209 τιταίνοντας. ^ Rose, p. 1079 s.v. Titan, calls Hesiod's derivation "fanciful", while Hard, p. 35, describes it as "obviously factitious", adding that "there is some ancient evidence to suggest that it may have meant 'princes' or the like"; while West p. 225 on line 209 τιταίνοντας, says that "it is not clear how or why the Titans 'strained'". ^ Harrison, pp. 491 ff. 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en-wikipedia-org-1120	----	Epopeus - Wikipedia Epopeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Epopeus (/ɪˈpoʊpiːəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἐπωπεύς means 'all-seer', derived from epopao "to look out", "observe", from epi "over" and ops "eye") was the name of the following figures: Epopeus, was king of Sicyon.[1] Epopeus, king of Lesbos and both father and rapist of Nyctimene.[2] Epopeus, one of the sailors who tried to delude Dionysus, but were turned into dolphins.[3] Epopeus, a man from Lemnos, killed by the Lemnian women when these murdered all the men in the island. Epopeus was killed by his own mother.[4] Notes[edit] ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, Book 1.7.4, 3.5.5 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 204 & 253 ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, 134; Ovid. Metamorphoses, Book 3.581-691 ^ Statius. Thebaid, 5.225 References[edit] Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Papinius Statius, The Thebaid translated by John Henry Mozley. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Publius Papinius Statius, The Thebaid. Vol I-II. John Henry Mozley. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1928. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epopeus&oldid=910985832" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Characters in Greek mythology Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 August 2019, at 20:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1135	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: === Cheating death === Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the [[Asopides|Asopid]] [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]] to her father, the river god [[Asopus]], in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian [[acropolis]].<ref name=":0" /> Zeus then ordered [[Thanatos]] to chain Sisyphus in [[Tartarus]]. Sisyphus was curious as to why [[Charon]], whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and [[Ares]], annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|p=491}} In another version, [[Hades]] was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |title=Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? |publisher=Mlahanas.de |access-date=2014-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702053105/http://mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |archive-date=2 July 2014}}</ref> Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river [[Styx]]. Then, complaining to [[Persephone]], goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by [[Hermes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/sisyphus.html|title=Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus|website=www.mythweb.com|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref><!-- (This version is alluded to by [[Albert Camus|Camus]] without citation and also appears in [[Roberto Bolaño]]'s novel ''2666'', in a context that indicates it may have been made up rather than traditional.) --><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Sisyphus/sisyphus.html|title=Sisyphus|website=www.greekmythology.com}}</ref> In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to [[Tartarus]] by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.{{sfn|Evslin|2006|p=209-210}} In ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles play)|Philoctetes]]'' by [[Sophocles]], there is a reference to the father of [[Odysseus]] (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not [[Laërtes]], whom we know as the father in the ''[[Odyssey]]'') upon having returned from the dead. [[Euripides]], in ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1205	----	View source for Template:Rulers of Corinth - Wikipedia View source for Template:Rulers of Corinth ← Template:Rulers of Corinth Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{navbox | name = Rulers of Corinth | title = Rulers of [[Ancient Corinth]] | state = {{{state|autocollapse}}} | bodyclass = hlist | image = | group1 = Heleidae | list1 = * [[Aeëtes]] * [[Bounos]] * [[Epopeus]] * [[Corinthus]] * [[Polybus of Corinth|Polybus]] * [[Creon of Corinth|Creon]] * [[Jason]] | group2 = [[Sisyphidae]] | list2 = * [[Sisyphus]] * [[Glaucus of Corinth|Glaucus]] * [[Bellerophon]] * [[Ornytion]] * [[Thoas of Corinth|Thoas]] * [[Damophon (king of Corinth)|Damophon]] * [[Propodas]] {{Navbox|subgroup | groupwidth = 7em | group1 = two kings at the same time | list1 = * [[Doridas]] and [[Hyanthidas]] }} | group3 = [[Heracleidae]] | list3= {{Navbox|subgroup | groupwidth = 7em | group1 = [[Aletidae]] | list1 = * [[Aletes (Heraclid)|Aletes]] * [[Ixion (king of Corinth)|Ixion]] * [[Agelas I]] * [[Prymnes]] | group2 = [[Bacchiadae]] | list2 = * [[Bacchis]] * [[Agelas II]] * [[Eudaemus]] * [[Aristomedes]] * [[Agemon]] * [[Alexander of Corinth|Alexander]] * [[Bacchiadae|Telestes]] * [[Automenes]] * [[Pritanius]] }} | group4 = Cypselid tyrants | list4 = * [[Cypselus|Cypselus I]] * [[Periander]] * [[Psammetichus (tyran of Corinth)|Psammetichus]] (Cypselus II) |below = }}<noinclude> {{collapsible option}} [[Category:Ancient Greece templates]] [[Category:Ruler navigational boxes|Corinth]] </noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Big (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Collapsible option (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Para (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Template link expanded (view source) (protected) Template:Template other (view source) (protected) Template:Tlx (view source) (protected) Module:Arguments (view source) (protected) Module:Color contrast (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Color contrast/colors (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Navbar (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Template link general (view source) (protected) Return to Template:Rulers of Corinth. 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en-wikipedia-org-1211	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with SUDOC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P269. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-1264	----	Jason - Wikipedia Jason From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the hero from Greek mythology. For information on "Jason" as a human name, see Jason (given name). For other uses, see Jason (disambiguation). Jason Jason with the Golden Fleece by Bertel Thorvaldsen First appearance 'Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd century BC) Motion capture Todd Armstrong (1963), Jason London (2000) In-universe information Nickname "Amechanos" (incapable) Affiliation The Argonauts Family Aeson (father); Aeolus (ancestor) Spouse Medea Greek mythological hero Jason (/ˈdʒeɪsən/ JAY-sən; Greek: Ἰάσων, translit. Iásōn, Ancient: [i.ǎːsɔːn], Modern: [iˈason]) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Medea. He was also the great-grandson of the messenger god Hermes, through his mother's side. Jason appeared in various literary works in the classical world of Greece and Rome, including the epic poem Argonautica and the tragedy Medea. In the modern world, Jason has emerged as a character in various adaptations of his myths, such as the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts and the 2000 TV miniseries of the same name. Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Contents 1 Persecution by Pelias 2 The Argonauts and the Quest for the Golden Fleece 2.1 The Isle of Lemnos 2.2 Cyzicus 2.3 Phineas and the harpies 2.4 The Symplegades 2.5 The arrival in Colchis 3 The return journey 3.1 Sirens 3.2 Talos 3.3 Jason returns 3.4 Treachery of Jason 4 Family 4.1 Parentage 4.2 Children 5 In literature 6 Popular culture 7 Note 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Bibliography 10 External links Persecution by Pelias Pelias, king of Iolcos, stops on the steps of a temple as he recognises young Jason by his missing sandal; Roman fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD. Pelias (Aeson's half-brother) was power-hungry and sought to gain dominion over all of Thessaly. Pelias was the progeny of a union between their shared mother, Tyro ('high born Tyro'), the daughter of Salmoneus, and the sea god Poseidon. In a bitter feud, he overthrew Aeson (the rightful king), killing all the descendants of Aeson that he could. He spared his half-brother for unknown reasons. Aeson's wife Alcimede I had a newborn son named Jason whom she saved from Pelias by having female attendants cluster around the infant and cry as if he were still-born. Fearing that Pelias would eventually notice and kill her son, Alcimede sent him away to be reared by the centaur Chiron,;[1] she claimed that she had been having an affair with him all along. Pelias, fearing that his ill-gotten kingship might be challenged, consulted an oracle, who warned him to beware of a man wearing only one sandal. Many years later, Pelias was holding games in honor of Poseidon when the grown Jason arrived in Iolcus, having lost one of his sandals in the river Anauros ('wintry Anauros') while helping an old woman (actually the Goddess Hera in disguise) to cross.[1] She blessed him for she knew, as goddesses do, what Pelias had planned. When Jason entered Iolcus (present-day city of Volos), he was announced as a man wearing only one sandal. Jason, aware that he was the rightful king, so informed Pelias. Pelias replied, "To take my throne, which you shall, you must go on a quest to find the Golden Fleece." Jason readily accepted this condition. The Argonauts and the Quest for the Golden Fleece Jason assembled for his crew, a number of heroes, known as the Argonauts after their ship, the Argo.[1] The group of heroes included:[2]:485 Acatus; Admetus; Argus, the eponymous builder of the Argo; Atalanta; Augeas; the winged Boreads, Zetes & Calaïs; the Dioscuri, Castor & Polydeuces; Euphemus; Heracles; Idas; Idmon, the seer; Lynceus; Meleager; Orpheus; Peleus; Philoctetes; Telamon; and Tiphys, the helmsman The Isle of Lemnos The isle of Lemnos is situated off the Western coast of Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). The island was inhabited by a race of women who had killed their husbands. The women had neglected their worship of Aphrodite, and as a punishment the goddess made the women so foul in stench that their husbands could not bear to be near them. The men then took concubines from the Thracian mainland opposite, and the spurned women, angry at Aphrodite, killed all the male inhabitants while they slept. The king, Thoas, was saved by Hypsipyle, his daughter, who put him out to sea sealed in a chest from which he was later rescued. The women of Lemnos lived for a while without men, with Hypsipyle as their queen. During the visit of the Argonauts the women mingled with the men creating a new "race" called Minyae. Jason fathered twins with the queen. Heracles pressured them to leave as he was disgusted by the antics of the Argonauts. He had not taken part, which is truly unusual considering the numerous affairs he had with other women. [note 1] Cyzicus After Lemnos the Argonauts landed among the Doliones, whose king Cyzicus treated them graciously. He told them about the land beyond Bear Mountain, but forgot to mention what lived there. What lived in the land beyond Bear Mountain were the Gegeines, which are a tribe of Earthborn giants with six arms and wore leather loincloths. While most of the crew went into the forest to search for supplies, the Gegeines saw that few Argonauts were guarding the ship and raided it. Heracles was among those guarding the ship at the time and managed to kill most of them before Jason and the others returned. Once some of the other Gegeines were killed, Jason and the Argonauts set sail. The Argonauts departed, losing their bearings and landing again at the same spot that night. In the darkness, the Doliones took them for enemies and they started fighting each other. The Argonauts killed many of the Doliones, among them the king Cyzicus. Cyzicus' wife killed herself. The Argonauts realized their horrible mistake when dawn came and held a funeral for him. Phineas and the harpies Soon Jason reached the court of Phineus of Salmydessus in Thrace. Zeus had sent the harpies to steal the food put out for Phineas each day. Jason took pity on the emaciated king and killed the Harpies when they returned; in other versions, Calais and Zetes chase the harpies away. In return for this favor, Phineas revealed to Jason the location of Colchis and how to pass the Symplegades, or The Clashing Rocks, and then they parted. Jason bringing Pelias the Golden Fleece, Apulian red-figure calyx krater, ca. 340 BC–330 BC, Louvre The Symplegades The only way to reach Colchis was to sail through the Symplegades (Clashing Rocks), huge rock cliffs that came together and crushed anything that traveled between them. Phineas told Jason to release a dove when they approached these islands, and if the dove made it through, to row with all their might. If the dove was crushed, he was doomed to fail. Jason released the dove as advised, which made it through, losing only a few tail feathers. Seeing this, they rowed strongly and made it through with minor damage at the extreme stern of the ship. From that time on, the clashing rocks were forever joined leaving free passage for others to pass. The arrival in Colchis Jason arrived in Colchis (modern Black Sea coast of Georgia) to claim the fleece as his own. It was owned by King Aeetes of Colchis. The fleece was given to him by Phrixus. Aeetes promised to give it to Jason only if he could perform three certain tasks. Presented with the tasks, Jason became discouraged and fell into depression. However, Hera had persuaded Aphrodite to convince her son Eros to make Aeetes' daughter, Medea, fall in love with Jason. As a result, Medea aided Jason in his tasks. First, Jason had to plow a field with fire-breathing oxen, the Khalkotauroi, that he had to yoke himself. Medea provided an ointment that protected him from the oxen's flames. Then, Jason sowed the teeth of a dragon into a field. The teeth sprouted into an army of warriors (spartoi). Medea had previously warned Jason of this and told him how to defeat this foe. Before they attacked him, he threw a rock into the crowd. Unable to discover where the rock had come from, the soldiers attacked and defeated one another. His last task was to overcome the sleepless dragon which guarded the Golden Fleece. Jason sprayed the dragon with a potion, given by Medea, distilled from herbs. The dragon fell asleep, and Jason was able to seize the Golden Fleece.[3] He then sailed away with Medea. Medea distracted her father, who chased them as they fled, by killing her brother Apsyrtus and throwing pieces of his body into the sea; Aeetes stopped to gather them. In another version, Medea lured Apsyrtus into a trap. Jason killed him, chopped off his fingers and toes, and buried the corpse. In any case, Jason and Medea escaped. The return journey Jason and Medea - as depicted by John William Waterhouse, 1907. On the way back to Iolcus, Medea prophesied to Euphemus, the Argo's helmsman, that one day he would rule Cyrene. This came true through Battus, a descendant of Euphemus. Zeus, as punishment for the slaughter of Medea's own brother, sent a series of storms at the Argo and blew it off course. The Argo then spoke and said that they should seek purification with Circe, a nymph living on the island of Aeaea. After being cleansed, they continued their journey home. Sirens Chiron had told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens—the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which resulted in the crashing of their ship into the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was more beautiful and louder, drowning out the Sirens' bewitching songs. Talos The Argo then came to the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos. As the ship approached, Talos hurled huge stones at the ship, keeping it at bay. Talos had one blood vessel which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by only one bronze nail (as in metal casting by the lost wax method). Medea cast a spell on Talos to calm him; she removed the bronze nail and Talos bled to death. The Argo was then able to sail on. Jason returns Jason and the Snake Thomas Bulfinch has an antecedent to the interaction of Medea and the daughters of Pelias. Jason, celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece, noted that his father was too aged and infirm to participate in the celebrations. He had seen and been served by Medea's magical powers. He asked Medea to take some years from his life and add them to the life of his father. She did so, but at no such cost to Jason's life. Medea withdrew the blood from Aeson's body and infused it with certain herbs; putting it back into his veins, returning vigor to him.[4] Pelias' daughters saw this and wanted the same service for their father. Medea, using her sorcery, claimed to Pelias' daughters that she could make their father smooth and vigorous as a child by chopping him up into pieces and boiling the pieces in a cauldron of water and magical herbs. She demonstrated this remarkable feat with the oldest ram in the flock, which leapt out of the cauldron as a lamb. The girls, rather naively, sliced and diced their father and put him in the cauldron. Medea did not add the magical herbs, and Pelias was dead.[5] Pelias' son, Acastus, drove Jason and Medea into exile for the murder, and the couple settled in Corinth. Treachery of Jason In Corinth, Jason became engaged to marry Creusa (sometimes referred to as Glauce), a daughter of the King of Corinth, to strengthen his political ties. When Medea confronted Jason about the engagement and cited all the help she had given him, he retorted that it was not she that he should thank, but Aphrodite who made Medea fall in love with him. Infuriated with Jason for breaking his vow that he would be hers forever, Medea took her revenge by presenting to Creusa a cursed dress, as a wedding gift, that stuck to her body and burned her to death as soon as she put it on. Creusa's father, Creon, burned to death with his daughter as he tried to save her. Then Medea killed the two boys that she bore to Jason, fearing that they would be murdered or enslaved as a result of their mother's actions. When Jason came to know of this, Medea was already gone; she fled to Athens in a chariot of dragons sent by her grandfather, the sun-god Helios.[5] Although Jason calls Medea most hateful to gods and men, the fact that the chariot is given to her by Helios indicates that she still has the gods on her side. As Bernard Knox points out, Medea's last scene with concluding appearances parallels that of a number of indisputably divine beings in other plays by Euripides. Just like these gods, Medea “interrupts and puts a stop to the violent action of the human being on the lower level, … justifies her savage revenge on the grounds that she has been treated with disrespect and mockery, … takes measures and gives orders for the burial of the dead, prophesies the future,” and “announces the foundation of a cult.”[6] Later Jason and Peleus, father of the hero Achilles, attacked and defeated Acastus, reclaiming the throne of Iolcus for himself once more. Jason's son, Thessalus, then became king. As a result of breaking his vow to love Medea forever, Jason lost his favor with Hera and died lonely and unhappy. He was asleep under the stern of the rotting Argo when it fell on him, killing him instantly.[7] Family Parentage Jason's father is invariably Aeson, but there is great variation as to his mother's name. According to various authors, she could be: Alcimede, daughter of Phylacus[8][9][10] Polymede,[11][12] or Polymele,[13][14] or Polypheme,[15] a daughter of Autolycus Amphinome[16] Theognete, daughter of Laodicus[15] Rhoeo[13] Arne or Scarphe[17] Jason was also said to have had a younger brother Promachus.[16][18] Children Children by Medea: Alcimenes, murdered by Medea. Thessalus, twin of Alcimenes and king of Iolcus. Tisander, murdered by Medea Mermeros killed either by the Corinthians or by Medea Pheres, as above Eriopis, their only daughter Medus or Polyxemus, otherwise son of Aegeus Argus[19] seven sons and seven daughters[20] Children by Hypsipyle: Euneus, King of Lemnos and his twin Nebrophonus[21] or Deipylus[22] or Thoas[23] Comparative table of Jason's family Relation Name Source (Sch. on) Homer (Sch. on) Euripides (Sch. on) Apollonius Diodorus Valerius Apollodorus Ptolemy Pausanias Hyginus Tzetzes Smith Parentage Aeson and Polymele or ✓ ✓ Aeson and Polypheme or ✓ Aeson and Polymede ✓ ✓ Aeson and Alcimede ✓ ✓ ✓ Aeson and Theognete ✓ Aeson and Amphinome ✓ Aeson and Rhoe ✓ Aeson and Arne ✓ Aeson and Scarphe ✓ Sibling Promachus ✓ ✓ Consort Medea ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Hypsipyle ✓ ✓ ✓ Children Mermeros ✓ ✓ ✓ Pheres ✓ ✓ ✓ Alcimenes ✓ Thessalus ✓ Tisandrus ✓ 7 sons & 7 daughters ✓ Eriopis ✓ Medus or Polyxemus ✓ Argus ✓ Euneus ✓ ✓ ✓ Nebrophonus ✓ Deipylus ✓ Thoas ✓ In literature Though some of the episodes of Jason's story draw on ancient material, the definitive telling, on which this account relies, is that of Apollonius of Rhodes in his epic poem Argonautica, written in Alexandria in the late 3rd century BC. Another Argonautica was written by Gaius Valerius Flaccus in the late 1st century AD, eight books in length. The poem ends abruptly with the request of Medea to accompany Jason on his homeward voyage. It is unclear if part of the epic poem has been lost, or if it was never finished. A third version is the Argonautica Orphica, which emphasizes the role of Orpheus in the story. Jason is briefly mentioned in Dante's Divine Comedy in the poem Inferno. He appears in the Canto XVIII. In it, he is seen by Dante and his guide Virgil being punished in Hell's Eighth Circle (Bolgia 1) by being driven to march through the circle for all eternity while being whipped by devils. He is included among the panderers and seducers (possibly for his seduction and subsequent abandoning of Medea). The story of Medea's revenge on Jason is told with devastating effect by Euripides in his tragedy Medea. William Morris wrote an English epic poem, The Life and Death of Jason, published in 1867. The mythical geography of the voyage of the Argonauts has been connected to specific geographic locations by Livio Stecchini[24] but his theories have not been widely adopted. Popular culture Theatrical poster for Jason and the Argonauts (1963). Main article: Jason in popular culture Jason appeared in the Hercules episode "Hercules and the Argonauts" voiced by William Shatner. He is shown to have been a student of Philoctetes and takes his advice to let Hercules travel with him. In The Heroes of Olympus story The Lost Hero, there was a reference to the mythical Jason when Jason Grace and his friends encounter Medea. Note ^ Note: In "Hercules, My Shipmate" Robert Graves claims that Heracles fathered more children than anyone else of the crew. See also Cape Jason Jason in popular culture Mermeros and Pheres References Notes ^ a b c Wood, Michael. "Jason and the Argonauts", In Search of Myths & Heroes, PBS ^ Powell, Barry B. (2015). Classical Myth. with translations by Herbert M. Howe (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-321-96704-6. ^ "Metamorphoses". ^ William Godwin (1876). "Lives of the Necromancers". p. 41. ^ a b Godwin 1876, p. 42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGodwin1876 (help) ^ B.M.W. Knox. Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient Theatre. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, p. 303. ^ Euripides; Murray, Gilbert (1912). The Medea. Translated into English rhyming verse with explanatory notes by Gilbert Murray. Robarts - University of Toronto. New York Oxford University Press. pp. 77–78, 96. ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 45 ff, 233, 251 ff ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 3, 13, 14 ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, 1. 297 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, 1. 9. 16 ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 175 & 872 ^ a b Tzetzes, Chiliades, 6. 979 ^ Scholia on Homer, Odyssey, 12. 69 ^ a b Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 45 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 50. 2 ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 872 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 9. 27 ^ Smith, William (1870). "Medeia". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology: Vol 2. p. 1004. Retrieved 6 December 2016. Her children are, according to some accounts, Mermerus, Pheres or Thessalus, Alcimenes and Tisander, and, according to others, she had seven sons and seven daughters, while others mention only two children, Medus (some call him Polyxemus) and Eriopis, or one son Argos. ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, 2 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 9. 17 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 15 ^ Euripides, Hypsipyle (fragments) ^ The Voyage of the Argo Bibliography Publius Ovidius Naso. Metamorphoses. Powell, B. The Voyage of the Argo. In Classical Myth. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall. 2001. pp. 477–489. Alain Moreau, Le Mythe de Jason et Médée. Le Va-nu-pied et la Sorcière. Paris : Les Belles Lettres, collection « Vérité des mythes », 2006 ( ISBN 2-251-32440-2). Bulfinch's Mythology, Medea and Aeson. King, David. Finding Atlantis: A True Story of Genius, Madness, and an Extraordinary Quest for a Lost World. Harmony Books, New York, 1970. (Based on works of Olof Rudbeck 1630–1702.) External links Media related to Jason at Wikimedia Commons Jason and the Argonauts, extensive site by Jason Colavito Timeless Myths – Argonauts, a summary of Jason and his Quest for the Golden Fleece Argonautica at Project Gutenberg The Story of Jason and the Argonauts Read the classic heroic myth, in modern English prose. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) v t e Medea Family Aeëtes (father) Chalciope (sister) Circe (aunt) Apsyrtus (brother) Jason (1st husband) Aegeus (2nd husband) Mermerus and Pheres (sons) Alcimenes and Tisander (sons) Medus (son) Thessalus (son) Achilles (3rd husband) Films A Dream of Passion (1978) Medea (1969) Medea (1988) Médée (2001) Medea (2005) Medea Miracle (2007) Operas Médée (1693, Charpentier) Medea (1775, Benda) Médée (1797, Cherubini) Medea in Corinto (1813, Mayr) Medea (1843, Pacini) Medea (2010, Reimann) Plays Medea (431 BC) Médée (1635) Médée (1946) The Hungry Woman (1995) Ballets Jason et Médée (1763) La hija de Cólquide (1944) Medea (1946) Musicals Medea, the Musical (1994) Marie Christine (1999) Music Medea's Dance of Vengeance (1956) Art Medea (painting) Jason and Medea (painting) Medea statue Other depictions Medea (character) "Medea Culpa" v t e Jason and the Argonauts Characters and topics Aeson (father) Argonauts Medea (spouse) Argus Aeëtes (father-in-law) Pelias (uncle) Phineus (oracle) Cheiron (trainer) Argo (ship) Golden Fleece Ancient sources Medea by Euripides Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica (Latin) by Gaius Valerius Flaccus Argonautica Orphica Film/TV Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film) Medea Young Hercules (1998) Jason and the Argonauts (2000 miniseries) Atlantis (2013) Opera Giasone (1649) La toison d'or (1789) Other The Golden Fleecing (comic book story) Jason with the Golden Fleece (sculpture) Jason et Médée (ballet) Jason and Medea (painting) Rise of the Argonauts (video game) Related The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived Before Achilles Jason in popular culture Authority control GND: 118557092 LCCN: no2015142260 PLWABN: 9810691413205606 SUDOC: 030620554 VIAF: 12290832 WorldCat Identities: viaf-12290832 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jason&oldid=1000384410" Categories: Argonauts Greek mythological heroes Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 21:43 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-127	----	Polygnotus - Wikipedia Polygnotus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek painters Agatharchus Anaxandra Androcydes Antiphilus Apelles Apollodorus Aristides of Thebes Cimon of Cleonae Echion Euphranor Eupompus Melanthius Nealkes Nicomachus of Thebes Pamphilus Panaenus Parrhasius Pausias Polyidus Polygnotus Protogenes Theon of Samos Timanthes of Sicyon Timarete Timomachus Zeuxis v t e For other uses, see Polygnotus (disambiguation). Polygnotus /ˌpɒlɪɡˈnoʊtəs/ (Greek: Πολύγνωτος Polygnotos) was an ancient Greek painter from the middle of the 5th century BC. Contents 1 Life 2 References 2.1 Citations 2.2 Bibliography Life[edit] He was the son and pupil of Aglaophon.[1] He was a native of Thasos, but was adopted by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. Reconstruction of Nekyia by Polygnotus 1892 Reconstruction of Iliupersis by Polygnotus 1893 Reconstruction of Marathon by Polygnotus 1895 During the time of Cimon, Polygnotus painted for the Athenians a picture of the taking of Troy on the walls of the Stoa Poikile, and another of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus in the Anacaeum. Plutarch mentions that historians and the poet Melanthius attest that Polygnotus did not paint for the money but rather out of a charitable feeling towards the Athenian people. In the hall at the entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved.[2] The most important of his paintings were his frescoes in the Lesche of the Knidians, a building erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus and the taking of Troy. The traveller Pausanias recorded a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure.[3] The foundations of the building have been recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi. From this evidence, some archaeologists have tried to reconstruct the paintings, other than their colours. The figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller nor dimmer than the nearer. Therefore, it seems that the paintings of this time were executed on almost precisely the same plan as contemporary sculptural reliefs. Polygnotus employed only a few simple colours.[1] Technically his art was primitive. His excellence lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures, especially in the "ethical" and ideal character of his art. A contemporary and perhaps teacher of Pheidias, Polygnotus had the same grand manner. Simplicity, which was almost childlike, sentiment at once noble and gentle, extreme grace and charm of execution, marked his works, in contrast to the more animated, complicated and technically superior paintings of later ages. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Bieber, Margarete (1976). "Polygnotus". In William D. Halsey (ed.). Collier's Encyclopedia. 19. Macmillan Educational Corporation. p. 222. ^ "Photo guide of Polygnotus street near Archea Agora in Athens". ^ Pausanias, 10.25–31 Bibliography[edit] Pausanias, Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918).  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Polygnotus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-1374	----	Albert Camus - Wikipedia Albert Camus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search French author and journalist "Camus" redirects here. For other uses, see Camus (disambiguation). Albert Camus Portrait from New York World-Telegram and Sun Photograph Collection, 1957 Born (1913-11-07)7 November 1913 Mondovi, French Algeria (present-day Dréan, Algeria) Died 4 January 1960(1960-01-04) (aged 46) Villeblevin, France Alma mater University of Algiers Notable work The Stranger / The Outsider The Myth of Sisyphus The Rebel The Plague Region Western philosophy School Continental philosophy Absurdism Existentialism Anarchism Main interests Ethics, humanity, justice, politics, suicide Notable ideas Absurdism Influences Jean-Paul Sartre, Augustine, Karl Marx, Max Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Kafka, Søren Kierkegaard, Simone Weil, Jean Grenier, Arthur Schopenhauer Spouse(s) Simone Hié (1934-1936) Francine Faure (1940-1960; his death) Children 2 Signature Albert Camus (/kæˈmuː/ kam-OO, US also /kəˈmuː/ kə-MOO, French: [albɛʁ kamy] (listen); 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44 in 1957, the second-youngest recipient in history. His works include The Stranger, The Plague, The Myth of Sisyphus, The Fall, and The Rebel. Camus was born in Algeria (a French colony at the time) to French Pieds Noirs parents. His citizenship was French. He spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the University of Algiers. He was in Paris when the Germans invaded France during World War II in 1940. Camus tried to flee but finally joined the French Resistance where he served as editor-in-chief at Combat, an outlawed newspaper. After the war, he was a celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world. He married twice but had many extramarital affairs. Camus was politically active; he was part of the left that opposed the Soviet Union because of its totalitarianism. Camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarcho-syndicalism. He was part of many organisations seeking European integration. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), he kept a neutral stance, advocating for a multicultural and pluralistic Algeria, a position that caused controversy and was rejected by most parties. Philosophically, Camus's views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism, a movement reacting against the rise of nihilism. He is also considered to be an existentialist, even though he firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early years and education 1.2 Formative years 1.3 World War II, Resistance and Combat 1.4 Post-World War II 1.5 Death 2 Literary career 3 Political stance 4 Role in Algeria 5 Philosophy 5.1 Existentialism 5.2 Absurdism 5.3 Revolt 6 Legacy 7 Works 7.1 Novels 7.2 Short stories 7.3 Academic theses 7.4 Non-fiction books 7.5 Plays 7.6 Essays 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading 10.1 Selected biographies 11 External links Life[edit] Early years and education[edit] A 20th-century postcard of the University of Algiers Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day Dréan), in French Algeria. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus (née Sintès), was French with Spanish-Balearic ancestry. His father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker, died in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I. Camus never knew him. Camus, his mother and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. He was a second-generation French in Algeria, a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called pied-noir, ''black foot''—a slang term for French who were born in Algeria—and his identity and his poor background had a substantial effect on his later life.[1] Nevertheless, Camus was a French citizen, in contrast to the Arab or Berber inhabitants of Algeria who were kept under an inferior legal status.[2] During his childhood, Camus developed a love for football and swimming.[3] Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers.[4] In 1930, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis.[3] Because it is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time that Camus turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher Jean Grenier. He was impressed by ancient Greek philosophers and Friedrich Nietzsche.[3] During that time, he was only able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs: as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute.[5] In 1933, Camus enrolled at the University of Algiers and completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1936; after presenting his thesis on Plotinus.[6] Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as Stendhal, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Franz Kafka.[7] In 1933, he also met Simone Hié, then a partner of a friend of Camus, who would become his first wife.[5] Camus played goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930.[8] The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to Camus enormously.[9] In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis at the age of 17.[8] Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and Church.[8] Formative years[edit] In 1934, aged 20, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié.[10] Simone suffered from an addiction to morphine, a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight her addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced.[5] Camus was a womaniser throughout his life.[11] Camus joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria," even though he was not a Marxist. He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left the PCF a year later.[12] In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the Théâtre du Travail ("Workers' Theatre"). Camus was also close to the Parti du Peuple Algérien (Algerian People's Party (PPA)), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in the interwar period escalated, the Stalinist PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group Théâtre de l'Equipe ("Theatre of the Team"). Some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels.[13] In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper Alger républicain (founded by Pascal Pia) as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had developed strong feelings against authoritative colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the Arabs and Berbers by French authorities. Alger républicain was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at Paris-Soir as editor-in-chief. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless—the novel L'Étranger (The Outsider (UK), or The Stranger (US)), the philosophical essay Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus) and the play Caligula. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay and a theatrical play.[14] World War II, Resistance and Combat[edit] Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he had suffered from tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from Paris-Soir and ended up in Lyon, where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940.[15] Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria (Oran) where he taught in primary schools.[16] Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt—a novel La Peste (The Plague) and a play Le Malentendu (The Misunderstanding). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals including Simone de Beauvoir, André Breton, and others. Among them was the actress María Casares, who would later have an affair with Camus.[17] Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the French Occupation. Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper Combat. He continued writing for the paper after the liberation of France.[18] Camus used a pseudonym for his Combat articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. During that period he composed four Lettres à un Ami Allemand (Letters to a German Friend), explaining why resistance was necessary.[19] Post-World War II[edit] External video Presentation by Olivier Todd on Albert Camus: A Life, December 15, 1997, C-SPAN After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean in 1945.[20] Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in the United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the essay L'Homme révolté (The Rebel). Camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarcho-syndicalism.[21] Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with his rejection of communism, the book brought about the final split with Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the Algerian War.[22] Camus was a strong supporter of European integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end.[23] In 1944, he founded the Comité français pour la féderation européenne—(CFFE (French Committee for the European Federation))—declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation states become a federation."[23] In 1947–48, he founded the Groupes de liaison internationale (GLI) a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism ("syndicalisme révolutionnaire").[24] His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against the Soviet intervention in Hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of Franco's regime in Spain.[23] Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares, with whom he had an extensive correspondence.[25] Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time.[26] In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. This came as a shock to him. He was anticipating André Malraux would win the prestigious award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after Rudyard Kipling, who was 42. After this he began working on his autobiography Le Premier Homme (The First Man) in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to the theatre once more. [27] Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel Demons. The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris and was a critical success.[28] Simone Weil During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil, in the series "Espoir" ("Hope") which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard. Weil had great influence on his philosophy,[29] since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism.[30][31] Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times".[32] Death[edit] Albert Camus's gravestone The bronze plaque on the monument to Camus in the town of Villeblevin, France. Translated from French, it reads: "From the General Council of the Yonne Department, in homage to the writer Albert Camus whose remains lay in vigil at the Villeblevin town hall on the night of 4 to 5 January 1960" The monument to Camus built in Villeblevin, where he died in a car crash on 4 January 1960 Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin. He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in Lourmarin, Vaucluse with his family, and his publisher Michel Gallimard of Éditions Gallimard, along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious Facel Vega HK500. The car crashed into a plane tree on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the RN 6). Camus, who was in the passenger seat and not wearing a safety belt, died instantly.[33] Gallimard died a few days later, although his wife and daughter were unharmed. There has been speculation that Camus was assassinated by the KGB because of his criticism of Soviet abuses.[34][35] 144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled Le premier Homme (The First Man) were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work.[20] Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived. [36] His friend Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism".[37] William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death, is hoping to do: I was here."[38] Literary career[edit] Camus crowning Stockholm's Lucia on 13 December 1957, three days after accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature Camus's first publication was a play called Révolte dans les Asturies (Revolt in the Asturias) written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, L'Envers et l'Endroit (Betwixt and Between, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side). Both were published by Edmond Charlot's small publishing house.[39] Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of L'Étranger, Le Mythe de Sysiphe, and Caligula. The second was the cycle of the revolt which included La Peste (The Plague), L'Homme révolté (The Rebel), and Les Justes (The Just Assassins). The third, the cycle of the love, consisted of Nemesis. Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs.[40] The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936.[41] With this cycle, Camus aims to pose a question on the human condition, discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism.[42] Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa.[43] In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus, who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, its connection to politics, and examines it under the lens of modernity, of historicity and the absence of a God.[44] After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958 (Algerian Chronicles). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess Nemesis.[27] Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled La mort heureuse (A Happy Death) (1970), features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Stranger's Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, Le Premier homme (The First Man) (1995), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism.[45] Works of Camus by genre and cycle, according to Matthew Sharpe[46] Years Pagan myth Biblical motif Novel Plays 1937–42 Sisyphus Alienation, exile The Stranger (L'Étranger) Caligula, The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) 1943–52 Prometheus Rebellion The Plague (La Peste) The State of Siege (L'État de siège) The Just (Les Justes) 1952–58 Guilt, the fall; exile & the kingdom; John the Baptist, Christ The Fall (La Chute) Adaptations of The Possessed (Dostoevsky); Faulkner's Requiem for a Nun 1958– Nemesis The Kingdom The First Man (Le Premier Homme) Political stance[edit] Camus was a moralist; he claimed morality should guide politics. While he did not deny that morals change over time, he rejected the classical Marxist doctrine that history defines morality.[47] Camus was also strongly critical of authoritarian communism, especially in the case of the Soviet regime, which he considered totalitarian. Camus rebuked Soviet apologists and their "decision to call total servitude freedom".[48] As a proponent of libertarian socialism, he claimed the USSR was not socialist, and the United States was not liberal.[49] His fierce critique of the USSR caused him to clash with others on the political left, most notably with his friend Jean-Paul Sartre.[47] Active in the French Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, Camus wrote for and edited the famous Resistance journal Combat. Of the French collaboration with the German occupiers, he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people."[50] After France's liberation, Camus remarked, "This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just."[51] The reality of the bloody postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.[51] Camus leaned towards anarchism, a tendency that intensified in the 1950s, when he came to believe that the Soviet model was morally bankrupt.[52] Camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation, authority and property, bosses, the State and centralization.[53] Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an anarcho-syndicalist.[54] Graeme Nicholson considers Camus an existentialist anarchist.[55] The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes ("Anarchist Student Circle") in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La Révolution prolétarienne, and Solidaridad Obrera ("Workers' Solidarity"), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) ("National Confederation of Labor").[56] Camus kept a neutral stance during the Algerian Revolution (1954–62). While he was against the violence of the National Liberation Front (FLN) he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist France. He was supportive of Pierre Mendès' Unified Socialist Party (PSU) and its approach to the crisis;· Mendes advocated reconciliation. Camus also supported a like-minded Algerian militant, Aziz Kessous. Camus traveled to Algeria to negotiate a truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties.[57] His confrontation with an Algerian nationalist during his acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize caused a sensation. When confronted with the dilemma of choosing between his mother and justice, his response was: “People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother.”[58] According to David Sherman, Camus tried to highlight the false dichotomy of the two choices as the use of terrorism and indiscriminate violence could not bring justice under any circumstances.[59] However, his response has been widely misreported as: "I have always condemned terrorism, and I must condemn a terrorism that works blindly in the streets of Algiers and one day might strike at my mother and family. I believe in justice, but I will defend my mother before justice.”[60][59] Camus' critics have labelled the misquoted response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude.[61] He was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[62] In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain, under the leadership of the caudillo General Francisco Franco, as a member.[26] Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment entitled Réflexions sur la peine capitale, published by Calmann-Levy in 1957.[63] Role in Algeria[edit] Administrative organization of French Algeria between 1905 and 1955 Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; the Arab and Berbers majority of the country were not.[64] Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was a term he used to describe his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of the Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other Pieds-Noirs—or French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea.[65] His 1938 address on "The New Mediterranean Culture" represents Camus's most systematic statement of his views at this time. Camus also supported the Blum–Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds. [66] In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the Alger républicain on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands. He advocated for economic, educational and political reforms as a matter of emergency.[67] In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arab revolts against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions, and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people.[68] When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the Pieds-Noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new Arab imperialism" led by Egypt, and an "anti-Western" offensive orchestrated by Russia to "encircle Europe" and "isolate the United States".[69] Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed the Pieds-Noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war, he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians. It was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began working for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty.[70] His position drew much criticism from the left who considered colonialism unacceptable. In their eyes, Camus was no longer the defender of the oppressed.[71] Camus once confided that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs."[72] Philosophy[edit] Existentialism[edit] Even though Camus is mostly connected to Absurdism,[73] he is routinely categorized as an Existentialist, a term he rejected on several occasions.[74] Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists whereas existentialism arises from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Heidegger.[75] He also said his work, The Myth of Sisyphus, was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism.[76] Camus was rejecting existentialism as a philosophy, but his critique was mostly focused on Sartrean existentialism, and to a lesser extent on religious existentialism. He thought that the importance of history held by Marx and Sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom.[77] David Sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between Sartre and Camus also played a part in his rejection of existentialism.[78] David Simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence.[79] On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life, the inevitable ending (death) is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd—life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist—was something that man should embrace. His anti-Christianity, his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers.[80] More importantly, Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide." Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life.[47] Absurdism[edit] Many existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important. Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of religious truths prevents us from reaching God rationally.[81] Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience. Camus's thoughts on the Absurd begins with his first cycle of books and the literary essay The Myth of Sisyphus, (Le Mythe de Sisyphe), his major work on the subject. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an absurd life in L'Étranger. He also wrote a play about the Roman emperor Caligula, pursuing an absurd logic, which was not performed until 1945. His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers et l'endroit (Betwixt and Between) in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials), in 1938 and Betwixt and Between. In these essays, Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd.[82] Aspects of the notion of the Absurd can be found in The Plague.[83] Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification".[81] The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; or as Camus himself explains, the Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world."[84] Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism. But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it.[85] The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés, in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand (Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe. To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd".[86] Revolt[edit] Camus is known for articulating the case for revolting against any kind of oppression, injustice, or whatever disrespects the human condition. He is cautious enough, however, to set the limits on the rebellion.[87] L'Homme révolté (The Rebel) explains in detail his thoughts on the issue. There, he builds upon the absurd (described in The Myth of Sisyphus) but goes further. In the introduction, where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion, he concludes with the phrase "I revolt, therefore we exist" implying the recognition of a common human condition.[88] Camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebel's revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime; he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution.[89] Camus poses a crucial question: Is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner, in a silent universe? According to him the answer is yes, as the experience and awareness of the Absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions.[90] Camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes. First, there is the metaphysical rebellion, which is "the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation." The other mode, historical rebellion, is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world. In this attempt, the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries, and not cause any unjustifiable suffering.[91] Legacy[edit] Camus's novels and philosophical essays are still influential. After his death, interest in Camus followed the rise (and diminution) of the New Left. Following the collapse of Soviet Union, interest in his alternative road to communism resurfaced.[92] He is remembered for his skeptical humanism and his support for political tolerance, dialogue, and civil rights.[93] Although Camus has been linked to anti-Soviet communism, reaching as far as anarcho-syndicalism, some neo-liberals have tried to associate him with their policies; for instance, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy suggested that his remains be moved to the Panthéon, an idea that angered many on the Left.[94] Works[edit] The works of Albert Camus include:[95] Novels[edit] A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse) (written 1936–38, published 1971) The Stranger (L'Étranger, often translated as The Outsider. An alternate meaning of "l'étranger" is "foreigner" ) (1942) The Plague (La Peste) (1947) The Fall (La Chute) (1956) The First Man (Le premier homme) (incomplete, published 1994) Short stories[edit] Exile and the Kingdom (L'exil et le royaume) (collection, 1957), containing the following short stories: "The Adulterous Woman" (La Femme adultère) "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" (Le Renégat ou un esprit confus) "The Silent Men" (Les Muets) "The Guest" (L'Hôte) "Jonas, or the Artist at Work" (Jonas, ou l'artiste au travail) "The Growing Stone" (La Pierre qui pousse) Academic theses[edit] Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism (Métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme) (1935): the thesis that enabled Camus to teach in secondary schools in France Non-fiction books[edit] Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side) (collection, 1937) Nuptials (Noces) (1938) The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) (1942) The Rebel (L'Homme révolté) (1951) Algerian Chronicles (Chroniques algériennes) (1958, first English translation published 2013) Notebooks 1935–1942 (Carnets, mai 1935 — fevrier 1942) (1962) Notebooks 1942–1951 (Carnets II: janvier 1942-mars 1951) (1965) American Journals (Journaux de voyage) (1978) Notebooks 1951–1959 (2008). Published as Carnets Tome III: Mars 1951 – December 1959 (1989) Correspondance (1944–1959) The correspondence of Albert Camus and María Casares, with a preface by his daughter, Catherine Camus (2017). Plays[edit] Caligula (performed 1945, written 1938) The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) (1944) The State of Siege (L'État de Siège) (1948) The Just Assassins (Les Justes) (1949) Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne, adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956) The Possessed (Les Possédés, adapted from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Demons) (1959) Essays[edit] The Crisis of Man (Lecture at Columbia University) (28 March 1946) Neither Victims nor Executioners (Series of essays in Combat) (1946) Why Spain? (Essay for the theatrical play L'Etat de Siège) (1948) Summer (L'Été) (1954)[23] Reflections on the Guillotine (Réflexions sur la guillotine) (Extended essay, 1957)[96] Create Dangerously (Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation, lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden) (1957)[97] References[edit] ^ Sherman 2009, p. 10; Hayden 2016, p. 7; Lottman 1979, p. 11; Carroll 2007, pp. 2–3. ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 2–3. ^ a b c Sherman 2009, p. 11. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 8. ^ a b c Hayden 2016, p. 9. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 11: Camus' thesis was titled "Rapports de l'hellénisme et du christianisme à travers les oeuvres de Plotin et de saint Augustin" ("Relationship of Greek and Christian Thought in Plotinus and St. Augustine") for his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis). ^ Simpson 2019, Background and Influences. ^ a b c Clarke 2009, p. 488. ^ Lattal 1995. ^ Cohn 1986, p. 30; Hayden 2016. ^ Sherman 2009; Hayden 2016, p. 13. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 249–250; Sherman 2009, p. 12. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 10–11. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 12; Sherman 2009, pp. 12–13. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 13–14. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 13. ^ Hayden 2016; Sherman 2009, p. 13. ^ Hayden 2016; Sherman 2009, p. 23. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 15. ^ a b Willsher 2011. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 17. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 16–17. ^ a b c d Hayden 2016, p. 18. ^ Todd 2000, pp. 249–250; Schaffner 2006, p. 107. ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 14–17; Zaretsky 2018. ^ a b Sherman 2009, p. 17. ^ a b Hayden 2016, p. 19. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 18. ^ Jeanyves GUÉRIN, Guy BASSET (2013). Dictionnaire Albert Camus. Groupe Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-14017-8. ^ Stefan Skrimshire, 2006, A Political Theology of the Absurd? Albert Camus and Simone Weil on Social Transformation, Literature and Theology, Volume 20, Issue 3, September 2006, Pages 286–300 ^ Rik Van Nieuwenhove, 2005, Albert Camus, Simone Weil and the Absurd, Irish Theological Quarterly, 70, 343 ^ John Hellman (1983). Simone Weil: An Introduction to Her Thought. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-88920-121-7. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 19; Simpson 2019, Life. ^ Catelli 2019. ^ Flood 2019. ^ Bloom 2009, p. 52. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBloom2009 (help) ^ Simpson 2019, Life. ^ "Without God or Reason | Commonweal Magazine". www.commonwealmagazine.org. Retrieved 7 January 2021. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 11. ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 41–44. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 23. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 41. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 14. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 45–47. ^ Carroll 2007. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 44. ^ a b c Aronson 2017, Introduction. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 75–76. ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 185–87. ^ Bernstein 1997. ^ a b Bronner 2009, p. 74. ^ Dunwoodie 1993, p. 86; Marshall 1993, p. 445. ^ Dunwoodie 1993, p. 87. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 185. ^ Nicholson 1971, p. 14. ^ Dunwoodie 1993, pp. 87-87: See also appendix p 97; Hayden 2016, p. 18. ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 17–18 & 188; Cohn 1986, pp. 30 & 38. ^ "Resistance, Rebellion, and Writing". www.bookforum.com. Retrieved 23 September 2020. ^ a b Sherman 2009, p. 191. ^ "Resistance, Rebellion, and Writing". www.bookforum.com. Retrieved 23 September 2020. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 19; Simpson 2019; Marshall 1993, p. 584. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 87. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 73 & 85. ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 3–4. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 141-143. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 145. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 356. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 150–151. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 322. ^ Foley 2008, p. 161. ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 7–8. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 9. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 3. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 3; Sherman 2009, p. 3. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 1–2; Sharpe 2015, p. 29. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 2. ^ Foley 2008, p. 3; Sherman 2009, p. 3. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 4; Simpson 2019, Existentialism. ^ Simpson 2019, Existentialism. ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 5–6; Simpson 2019, Existentialism. ^ a b Foley 2008, pp. 5–6. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 23. ^ Sherman 2009, p. 8. ^ Foley 2008, p. 6. ^ Foley 2008, p. 7-10. ^ Curtis 1972, p. 335-348. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 18; Simpson 2019, Revolt. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 55–56. ^ Foley 2008, pp. 56–58. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 43–44. ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 50–55. ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 207–208. ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 241–242. ^ Zaretsky 2013, pp. 3–4; Sherman 2009, p. 208. ^ Hughes 2007, p. xvii. ^ Hayden 2016, p. 86. ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 20. Sources[edit] Aronson, Ronald (2017). "Albert Camus". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Bernstein, Richard (19 December 1997). "In Camus's notebooks and letters, as quoted in, 'Albert Camus: A Life', By Olivier Todd". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 May 2006. Bloom, Harold (2009). Albert Camus. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1515-3. Bronner, Stephen Eric (2009). Camus: Portrait of a Moralist. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-07567-9. Carroll, David (4 May 2007). Albert Camus the Algerian: Colonialism, Terrorism, Justice. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51176-6. Catelli, Giovanni (2019). La mort de Camus [The death of Camus] (in French). Balland. ISBN 978-2-940632-01-5. Clarke, Liam (2009). "Football as a metaphor: learning to cope with life, manage emotional illness and maintain health through to recovery". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. Wiley. 16 (5): 488–492. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2009.01403.x. ISSN 1351-0126. PMID 19538606. Cohn, Robert Greer (1986). "The True Camus". The French Review. 60 (1): 30–38. JSTOR 393607. Curtis, Jerry L. (1 August 1972). "The absurdity of rebellion". Man and World. 5 (3): 335–348. doi:10.1007/bf01248640. ISSN 0025-1534. S2CID 144571561. Dunwoodie, Peter (1993). "Albert Camus and the Anarchist Alternative". Australian Journal of French Studies. Liverpool University Press. 30 (1): 84–104. doi:10.3828/ajfs.30.1.84. ISSN 0004-9468. Flood, Alison (5 December 2019). "New book claims Albert Camus was murdered by the KGB". The Guardian. Foley, John (2008). Albert Camus: From the Absurd to Revolt. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-3467-4. Hayden, Patrick (9 February 2016). Camus and the Challenge of Political Thought: Between Despair and Hope. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-52583-3. Hughes, Edward J. (26 April 2007). The Cambridge Companion to Camus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-82734-8. Lattal, Ashley (1995). "Albert Camus". Users.muohio.edu. Retrieved 17 October 2009. Lottman, Herbert (1979). Albert Camus: A Biography. Axis. ISBN 978-1-870845-12-0. Marshall, Peter H. (1993). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. Fontana. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1. Nicholson, Graeme (1971). "Camus and Heidegger: Anarchists". University of Toronto Quarterly. 41: 14–23. doi:10.3138/utq.41.1.14. S2CID 154840020. Archived from the original on 4 May 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019. Schaffner, Alain (2006). Agnès Spiquel (ed.). Albert Camus: l'exigence morale : hommage à Jacqueline Lévi-Valensi (L'esprit des lettres) (in French). Editions Le Manuscrit. ISBN 978-2-7481-7101-3. Sharpe, Matthew (3 September 2015). Camus, Philosophe: To Return to our Beginnings. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-30234-1. Sherman, David (30 January 2009). Camus. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0328-5. Simpson, David (2019). "Albert Camus (1913–1960)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. Todd, Olivier (2000). Albert Camus: A Life. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-0739-3. Willsher, Kim (7 August 2011). "Albert Camus might have been killed by the KGB for criticising the Soviet Union, claims newspaper". The Guardian. Zaretsky, Robert (2018). "'No Longer the Person I Was': The Dazzling Correspondence of Albert Camus and Maria Casarès". Los Angeles Review of Books. Zaretsky, Robert (7 November 2013). A Life Worth Living. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72837-0. Further reading[edit] Selected biographies[edit] Thody, Philip Malcolm Waller (1957). Albert Camus: A Study of His Work. Hamish Hamilton. Brisville, Jean-Claude (1959). Camus. Gallimard. Parker, Emmett (1965). Albert Camus: The Artist in the Arena. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-03554-9. King, Adele (1964). Albert Camus. Grove Press. McCarthy, Patrick (1982). Camus: A Critical Study of His Life and Work. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-10603-7. Sprintzen, David (February 1991). Camus: A Critical Examination. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-0-87722-827-1. King, Adele (12 June 1992). Camus's L'Etranger: Fifty Years on. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-1-349-22003-8. Bloom, Harold (2009). Albert Camus. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1515-3. Pierre Louis Rey (2006). Camus: l'homme révolté. Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-031828-5. Hawes, Elizabeth (2009). Camus, a Romance. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1889-9. Carroll, Sean B. (2013). Brave Genius: A Scientist, a Philosopher, and Their Daring Adventures from the French Resistance to the Nobel Prize. Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-307-95234-9. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Albert Camus Albert Camus. Selective and Cumulative Bibliography Gay-Crosier Camus collection at University of Florida Library Albert Camus Society UK Works by Albert Camus at Faded Page (Canada) Albert Camus on Nobelprize.org v t e Albert Camus (works) Novels The Stranger The Plague The Fall A Happy Death The First Man Short stories Exile and the Kingdom "The Adulterous Woman" "The Renegade" "The Silent Men" "The Guest" "The Artist at Work" "The Growing Stone" Plays Caligula The Misunderstanding The State of Siege The Just Assassins The Possessed Requiem for a Nun Essays The Myth of Sisyphus The Rebel "Reflections on the Guillotine" Resistance, Rebellion, and Death Non-fiction Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism Betwixt and Between Neither Victims nor Executioners Notebooks 1935–1942 Notebooks 1942–1951 Notebooks 1951–1959 Nuptials Correspondance (1944-1959) Algerian Chronicles American Journals Related Francine Faure (second wife) Articles related to Albert Camus v t e Albert Camus's The Stranger (1942) Film adaptations The Stranger Fate Retelling The Meursault Investigation Other "Killing an Arab" A Happy Death v t e Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1901–1925 1901: Sully Prudhomme 1902: Theodor Mommsen 1903: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson 1904: Frédéric Mistral / José Echegaray 1905: Henryk Sienkiewicz 1906: Giosuè Carducci 1907: Rudyard Kipling 1908: Rudolf Eucken 1909: Selma Lagerlöf 1910: Paul Heyse 1911: Maurice Maeterlinck 1912: Gerhart Hauptmann 1913: Rabindranath Tagore 1914 1915: Romain Rolland 1916: Verner von Heidenstam 1917: Karl Gjellerup / Henrik Pontoppidan 1918 1919: Carl Spitteler 1920: Knut Hamsun 1921: Anatole France 1922: Jacinto Benavente 1923: W. B. Yeats 1924: Władysław Reymont 1925: George Bernard Shaw 1926–1950 1926: Grazia Deledda 1927: Henri Bergson 1928: Sigrid Undset 1929: Thomas Mann 1930: Sinclair Lewis 1931: Erik Axel Karlfeldt 1932: John Galsworthy 1933: Ivan Bunin 1934: Luigi Pirandello 1935 1936: Eugene O'Neill 1937: Roger Martin du Gard 1938: Pearl S. Buck 1939: Frans Eemil Sillanpää 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944: Johannes V. Jensen 1945: Gabriela Mistral 1946: Hermann Hesse 1947: André Gide 1948: T. S. Eliot 1949: William Faulkner 1950: Bertrand Russell 1951–1975 1951: Pär Lagerkvist 1952: François Mauriac 1953: Winston Churchill 1954: Ernest Hemingway 1955: Halldór Laxness 1956: Juan Ramón Jiménez 1957: Albert Camus 1958: Boris Pasternak 1959: Salvatore Quasimodo 1960: Saint-John Perse 1961: Ivo Andrić 1962: John Steinbeck 1963: Giorgos Seferis 1964: Jean-Paul Sartre (declined award) 1965: Mikhail Sholokhov 1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon / Nelly Sachs 1967: Miguel Ángel Asturias 1968: Yasunari Kawabata 1969: Samuel Beckett 1970: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1971: Pablo Neruda 1972: Heinrich Böll 1973: Patrick White 1974: Eyvind Johnson / Harry Martinson 1975: Eugenio Montale 1976–2000 1976: Saul Bellow 1977: Vicente Aleixandre 1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer 1979: Odysseas Elytis 1980: Czesław Miłosz 1981: Elias Canetti 1982: Gabriel García Márquez 1983: William Golding 1984: Jaroslav Seifert 1985: Claude Simon 1986: Wole Soyinka 1987: Joseph Brodsky 1988: Naguib Mahfouz 1989: Camilo José Cela 1990: Octavio Paz 1991: Nadine Gordimer 1992: Derek Walcott 1993: Toni Morrison 1994: Kenzaburō Ōe 1995: Seamus Heaney 1996: Wisława Szymborska 1997: Dario Fo 1998: José Saramago 1999: Günter Grass 2000: Gao Xingjian 2001–present 2001: V. S. Naipaul 2002: Imre Kertész 2003: J. M. Coetzee 2004: Elfriede Jelinek 2005: Harold Pinter 2006: Orhan Pamuk 2007: Doris Lessing 2008: J. M. G. Le Clézio 2009: Herta Müller 2010: Mario Vargas Llosa 2011: Tomas Tranströmer 2012: Mo Yan 2013: Alice Munro 2014: Patrick Modiano 2015: Svetlana Alexievich 2016: Bob Dylan 2017: Kazuo Ishiguro 2018: Olga Tokarczuk 2019: Peter Handke 2020: Louise Glück v t e 1957 Nobel Prize laureates Chemistry The Lord Todd (Great Britain) Literature Albert Camus (France) Peace Lester B. Pearson (Canada) Physics Chen Ning Yang (China) Tsung-Dao Lee (China) Physiology or Medicine Daniel Bovet (Italy) Nobel Prize recipients 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 v t e Continental philosophy Philosophers Theodor W. Adorno Giorgio Agamben Louis Althusser Hannah Arendt Raymond Aron Gaston Bachelard Alain Badiou Roland Barthes Georges Bataille Jean Baudrillard Zygmunt Bauman Walter Benjamin Simone de Beauvoir Henri Bergson Maurice Blanchot Pierre Bourdieu Martin Buber Judith Butler Albert Camus Georges Canguilhem Ernst Cassirer Cornelius Castoriadis Emil Cioran Benedetto Croce Paul de Man Guy Debord Gilles Deleuze Jacques Derrida Wilhelm Dilthey Hubert Dreyfus Umberto Eco Terry Eagleton Friedrich Engels Frantz Fanon Johann Gottlieb Fichte Michel Foucault Hans-Georg Gadamer Giovanni Gentile Félix Guattari Antonio Gramsci Jürgen Habermas G. W. F. Hegel Martin Heidegger Edmund Husserl Roman Ingarden Luce Irigaray Fredric Jameson Karl Jaspers Walter Kaufmann Søren Kierkegaard Ludwig Klages Pierre Klossowski Alexandre Kojève Alexandre Koyré Leszek Kołakowski Julia Kristeva Jacques Lacan Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe François Laruelle Bruno Latour Henri Lefebvre Claude Lévi-Strauss Emmanuel Levinas Niklas Luhmann György Lukács Jean-François Lyotard Gabriel Marcel Herbert Marcuse Karl Marx Quentin Meillassoux Maurice Merleau-Ponty Jean-Luc Nancy Antonio Negri Friedrich Nietzsche José Ortega y Gasset Jacques Rancière Paul Ricœur Edward Said Jean-Paul Sartre F. W. J. Schelling Carl Schmitt Arthur Schopenhauer Michel Serres Gilbert Simondon Peter Sloterdijk Oswald Spengler Edith Stein Leo Strauss Simone Weil Raymond Williams Slavoj Žižek Theories Absurdism Critical theory Deconstruction Existentialism Frankfurt School German idealism Hegelianism Hermeneutics Marxism Neo-Kantianism New Philosophers Non-philosophy Phenomenology Postmodernism Post-structuralism Psychoanalytic theory Romanticism Social constructionism Speculative realism Structuralism Western Marxism Concepts Alterity Angst Apollonian and Dionysian Authenticity Being in itself Boredom Class struggle Dasein Death of God Death drive Différance Difference Existence precedes essence Existential crisis Facticity Genealogy Habitus Historical materialism Ideology Intersubjectivity Leap of faith Master–slave dialectic Master–slave morality Oedipus complex Ontic Other Power Ressentiment Self-deception Totalitarianism Trace Transvaluation of values Will to power Category Index v t e Existentialism Concepts Abandonment Absurdism Angst Authenticity Bad faith Being in itself Existence precedes essence Existential crisis Facticity Meaning Nihilism Other Thinkers Nicola Abbagnano Hannah Arendt Abdel Rahman Badawi Hazel Barnes Karl Barth Nikolai Berdyaev Steve Biko Martin Buber Rudolf Bultmann Dino Buzzati Albert Camus Jane Welsh Carlyle Thomas Carlyle Emil Cioran Walter A. Davis Simone de Beauvoir Fyodor Dostoevsky William A. Earle Ralph Ellison Frantz Fanon Vilém Flusser Benjamin Fondane James Anthony Froude Alberto Giacometti Juozas Girnius Lewis Gordon Martin Heidegger Edmund Husserl Eugène Ionesco Nae Ionescu William James Karl Jaspers Franz Kafka Walter Kaufmann Søren Kierkegaard Ladislav Klíma Emmanuel Levinas Ash Lieb John Macquarrie Naguib Mahfouz Gabriel Marcel Vytautas Mačernis Maurice Merleau-Ponty Friedrich Nietzsche José Ortega y Gasset Viktor Petrov Franz Rosenzweig Jean-Paul Sartre Aous Shakra Lev Shestov Joseph B. Soloveitchik Paul Tillich Rick Turner Miguel de Unamuno John Daniel Wild Colin Wilson Richard Wright Peter Wessel Zapffe Related Phenomenology (philosophy) Continental philosophy Transcendentalism German idealism Western Marxism Existentialist anarchism Existential nihilism Atheistic existentialism v t e Social and political philosophy Ancient philosophers Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Plato Polybius Shang Socrates Sun Tzu Tertullian Thucydides Valluvar Xenophon Xunzi Medieval philosophers Alpharabius Augustine Averroes Baldus Bartolus Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Giles Hostiensis Ibn Khaldun John of Paris John of Salisbury Latini Maimonides Marsilius Nizam al-Mulk Photios Thomas Aquinas Wang William of Ockham Early modern philosophers Beza Bodin Bossuet Botero Buchanan Calvin Cumberland Duplessis-Mornay Erasmus Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Harrington Hayashi Hobbes Hotman Huang Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Malebranche Mariana Milton Montaigne More Müntzer Naudé Pufendorf Rohan Sansovino Sidney Spinoza Suárez 18th–19th-century philosophers Bakunin Bentham Bonald Bosanquet Burke Comte Constant Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Hamann Hegel Herder Hume Jefferson Justi Kant political philosophy Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Möser Nietzsche Novalis Paine Renan Rousseau Royce Sade Schiller Smith Spencer Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th–21st-century philosophers Adorno Ambedkar Arendt Aurobindo Aron Azurmendi Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Butler Camus Chomsky De Beauvoir Debord Du Bois Durkheim Dworkin Foucault Gandhi Gauthier Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Habermas Hayek Heidegger Irigaray Kautsky Kirk Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Mao Mansfield Marcuse Maritain Michels Mises Mou Mouffe Negri Niebuhr Nozick Nursî Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Pettit Plamenatz Polanyi Popper Qutb Radhakrishnan Rand Rawls Rothbard Russell Santayana Sartre Scanlon Schmitt Searle Shariati Simmel Simonović Skinner Sombart Sorel Spann Spirito Strauss Sun Taylor Walzer Weber Žižek Social theories Anarchism Authoritarianism Collectivism Communism Communitarianism Conflict theories Confucianism Consensus theory Conservatism Contractualism Cosmopolitanism Culturalism Fascism Feminist political theory Gandhism Individualism Islam Islamism Legalism Liberalism Libertarianism Mohism National liberalism Republicanism Social constructionism Social constructivism Social Darwinism Social determinism Socialism Utilitarianism Concepts Civil disobedience Democracy Four occupations Justice Law Mandate of Heaven Peace Property Revolution Rights Social contract Society War more... 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en-wikipedia-org-1423	----	Glaucus of Corinth - Wikipedia Glaucus of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Glaucus (mythology). In Greek and Roman mythology, Glaucus (/ˈɡlɔːkəs/; Ancient Greek: Γλαῦκος Glaukos means "greyish blue" or "bluish green" and "glimmering") was a son of Sisyphus whose main myth involved his violent death as the result of his horsemanship. He was a king of Corinth[1] and the subject of a lost tragedy by Aeschylus, Glaucus Potnieus (Glaucus at Potniae),[2] fragments of which are contained in an Oxyrhynchus Papyrus.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Mythology 3 Notes 4 References Biography[edit] The mother of Glaucus was Merope, a daughter of Atlas and one of the Pleiades.[4][5][6] By marrying Sisyphus, she became the only one of the Pleiades to mate with a mortal. At first Sisyphus had tried to arrange a marriage for Glaucus with the shape-shifting Mestra, a daughter of Erysichthon, but despite the payment of valuable bride-gifts, she eluded the marriage and was taken to an island by Poseidon.[7][8] Glaucus then married a daughter of Nisus named Eurymede[9] or Eurynome.[10] Zeus had declared that Glaucus would sire no children even by his own wife, perhaps because of his violations against Aphrodite. While Eurynome gave birth to the famed hero Bellerophon, Poseidon is usually seen as the true father.[8][11][12] The Iliad, however, names Glaucus as Bellerophon's father.[13] The equine theme continues: Poseidon was associated with horses, and Bellerophon was the rider of the winged horse Pegasus. Glaucus succeeded Sisyphus to the throne of Ephyra, the city he had built, which later became Corinth.[citation needed] He was the ancestor of the Glaucus in the Iliad.[14] Mythology[edit] Glaucus took part in the funeral games organized in honor of Pelias by his son Acastus, the famous Athla epi Pelia in which some of the foremost heroes of Greece competed, including the Argonauts.[15] Glaucus lost to Iolaus in the chariot race. A fragment from Aeschylus's tragedy has sometimes been taken to mean that Glaucus died in a chariot accident on the way home, but it seems more probable that the accident occurred during the race.[15] According to Pausanias,[16] Glaucus haunted the Isthmian Games as a form of Taraxippus, because he was killed by his horses during the funeral games. There are two main traditions concerning the death of Glaucus.[17] In one, he feeds his mares on human flesh in order to make them fierce in battle, but at the games he has no supply for them, and they turn on their master and devour him instead.[8][18][19][20] Servius, however, regards Glaucus as a doublet of Hippolytus: he offended the goddess Aphrodite (Venus) either by keeping his mares from mating in order to preserve their speed,[8][21] or by scorning her in general.[22] The goddess then brings retribution upon him through his horses.[23] In other sources, the mares are driven into their man-killing frenzy by consuming either an herb in their Boeotian pasture at Potniae[8][24][25] or water from a toxic well.[26][27][28] Gilbert Murray saw Hippolytus, Glaucus and their ilk as undergoing sparagmos as vegetation deities.[29] In the Georgics, Vergil casts the neglect of Venus as preventing the mares from mating.[30] That the Romans considered mating a hazard of horse husbandry is indicated by a strange anecdote from Vergil's older contemporary Varro: when a stallion kept refusing to mate, the handler succeeded by covering its head; when uncovered, the stallion attacked him and killed him by biting.[31] Notes[edit] ^ Gilbert Murray, The Eumenides of Aeschylus (Oxford University Press, 1925), p. 15. ^ A.F. Garvie, Aeschylus: Persae (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. xliii. ^ H.D. Broadhead, The Persae of Aeschylus (Cambridge University Press, 1960), p. lviii. ^ Asclepiades 12F1 ^ Homer, Iliad 6.154–155 (Merope is not named) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.3 ^ Hesiod, Ehoiai frg. 43a 2–83 ^ a b c d e Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 433, 663. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.3 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 157 ^ Hesiod, frg. 43a 2–83 ^ Pindar, Olympian Ode 13.66–69 ^ Homer, Iliad 6.154 ^ Lowell Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), p. 13. ^ a b Garvie, Aeschylus: Persae, p. xliv. ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.20.10–19, as noted by Stephen G. Miller, Arete: Greek Sports from Ancient Sources (University of California Press, 2004), p. 56. ^ Katharina Volk, Vergil's Georgics (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 60. ^ As recorded by Probus and attributed to Asclepiades Tragilensis; Volk, Vergil's Georgics, p. 60 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 250 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.20.19 ^ Vergil, Georgics 3.266–288, with Servius's note to line 268 ^ Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 432. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Volk, Vergil's Georgics, p. 60. ^ Scholium to Euripides, Orestes 318; "Porniades" in Et. Magn. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 25.94 ^ Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 432, 663. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 268 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 9.8.1 ^ Gilbert Murray, Aeschylus: The Creator of Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940), p. 113. ^ Vergil, Georgics 3.266–268 ^ Varro, On Agriculture 2.7.9 References[edit] Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Hesiod, Catalogue of Women from Homeric Hymns, Epic Cycle, Homerica translated by Evelyn-White, H G. Loeb Classical Library Volume 57. London: William Heinemann, 1914. Online version at theio.com Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 1855. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glaucus_of_Corinth&oldid=936365613" Categories: Ancient Eleans Kings of Corinth Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2020, at 10:51 (UTC). 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-1473	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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en-wikipedia-org-1498	----	Philoctetes (Sophocles play) - Wikipedia Philoctetes (Sophocles play) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek tragedy by Sophocles This article is about the play by Sophocles. For the mythological figure, see Philoctetes. Philoctetes Philoctetes by Jean-Germain Drouais Written by Sophocles Chorus Greek Sailors Characters Odysseus Neoptolemus Philoctetes a trader Heracles Date premiered 409 BC Place premiered Athens Original language Ancient Greek Genre Tragedy Setting Before a cave at Lemnos Trojan War Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC) The war Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194–1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260–1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy See also: Historicity of the Iliad Literary sources Iliad Epic Cycle Aeneid, Book 2 Iphigenia in Aulis Philoctetes Ajax The Trojan Women Posthomerica See also: Trojan War in popular culture Episodes Judgement of Paris Seduction of Helen Trojan Horse Sack of Troy The Returns Wanderings of Odysseus Aeneas and the Founding of Rome Greeks and allies Agamemnon Achilles Helen Menelaus Nestor Odysseus Ajax Diomedes Patroclus Thersites Achaeans Myrmidons See also: Catalogue of Ships Trojans and allies Priam Hecuba Hector Paris Cassandra Andromache Aeneas Memnon Troilus Penthesilea and the Amazons Sarpedon See also: Trojan Battle Order Participant gods Caused the war: Eris On the Greek side: Athena Hephaestus Hera Hermes Thetis Poseidon On the Trojan side: Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Leto Scamander Zeus Related topics Homeric Question Archaeology of Troy Mycenae Mycenaean warfare v t e Philoctetes (Ancient Greek: Φιλοκτήτης, Philoktētēs; English pronunciation: /ˌfɪləkˈtiːtiːz/, stressed on the third syllable, -tet-[1]) is a play by Sophocles (Aeschylus and Euripides also each wrote a Philoctetes but theirs have not survived). The play was written during the Peloponnesian War. It is one of the seven extant tragedies by Sophocles. It was first performed at the City Dionysia in 409 BC, where it won first prize. The story takes place during the Trojan War (after the majority of the events of the Iliad, but before the Trojan Horse). It describes the attempt by Neoptolemus and Odysseus to bring the disabled Philoctetes, the master archer, back to Troy from the island of Lemnos. Contents 1 Background 2 Synopsis 3 Themes and ideas 4 Contemporary adaptations 4.1 The Theatre of War Project 4.2 Fictional adaptations 5 Translations 6 Notes 7 Further reading 8 External links Background[edit] When Heracles was near his death, he wished to be burned on a funeral pyre while still alive. In the play Philoctetes, Sophocles references the myth in which no one but Philoctetes would light Heracles' funeral pyre, and in return for this favor Heracles gave Philoctetes his bow (seen in later texts, such as Ovid's Metamorphoses). Philoctetes left with the Greeks to participate in the Trojan War, but was bitten on the foot by a snake while walking on Chryse, a sacred ground. The bite caused him constant agony, and emitted a horrible smell. For this reason he was left by Odysseus and the Atreidai (sons of Atreus) on the desert island Lemnos. Ten years pass, and the Greeks capture the Trojan seer Helenus, son of Priam. He foretells that they will need the master archer Philoctetes and the bow of Heracles to win the war. Odysseus sails back to Lemnos with Neoptolemus (son of Achilles) to get Philoctetes. The task is not easy, as Philoctetes bitterly hates Odysseus and the Greeks for leaving him there. Synopsis[edit] Sophocles' Philoctetes begins with their arrival on the island. Odysseus explains to Neoptolemus that he must perform a shameful action in order to garner future glory—to take Philoctetes by tricking him with a false story while Odysseus hides. Neoptolemus is portrayed as an honorable boy, and so it takes some persuading to get him to play this part. To gain Philoctetes' trust, Neoptolemus tricks Philoctetes into thinking he hates Odysseus as well. Neoptolemus does this by telling Philoctetes that Odysseus has his father's (Achilles) armor. He tells Philoctetes that this armor was his right by birth, and Odysseus would not give it up to him. After gaining Philoctetes' trust and offering him a ride home, Neoptolemus is allowed to look at the bow of Heracles. Neoptolemus holds the bow while Philoctetes is going into an unbearable fit of pain in his foot. Feeling ashamed, Neoptolemus debates giving it back to him. Odysseus appears, and a series of arguments ensue. Eventually Neoptolemus' conscience gains the upper hand, and he returns the bow. After many threats made on both sides, Odysseus flees. Neoptolemus then tries to talk Philoctetes into coming to Troy by his own free will, but Philoctetes does not agree. In the end, Neoptolemus consents to take Philoctetes back to Greece, even though that will expose him to the anger of the army. This appears to be the conclusion of the play—however, as they are leaving, Heracles (now a deity) appears above them and tells Philoctetes that if he goes to Troy, he will be cured and the Greeks will win. Philoctetes willingly obeys him.[2] The play ends here. When Philoctetes later fights in Troy, his foot is healed, and he wins glory, killing many Trojans (including Paris). Themes and ideas[edit] The concept of having a moral high ground is a key aspect in this play. The play makes the spectator question what morality means to each man. Furthermore, the play makes one question the struggle between what is right for the individual versus what is right for the group. It is possible that this struggle is irreconcilable. More specifically, one can see this struggle by looking at what has happened to Philoctetes versus what the Greeks need. Another theme is that of trauma. Philoctetes suffers wounds that do not heal. Furthermore, Philoctetes' suffering is now what defines him, yet Neoptolemus pretends not to know Philoctetes at first. In other words, Philoctetes' suffering should at least make him known, but it is as if his story is dead.[3] Contemporary adaptations[edit] The Theatre of War Project[edit] Main article: Theatre of War Project The story of Philoctetes, dealing with the wounded man and the interwoven relationships with others, has been frequently noted. In 2005 Bryan Doerries, writer and director, began a series of readings of the play in the New York City area, noting the reactions of the audience to the reading, especially related to the reactions of audience members to the interaction of the suffering soldier and the conflicted caregiver. The project revolves around presenting such readings, especially to audiences of medical professionals and students. A number of readings were followed by a panel discussion about doctor-patient relationships, involving presenters in psychiatry, physicians, and military medical personnel.[4] The concept has also been extended to training of medical students, such as a presentation also in 2007 to the first year medical class at Weill Medical College of Cornell University.[5] In 2008, at a conference dedicated to finding new ways to help US Marines recover from post-traumatic stress and other disorders after serving in Iraq or Afghanistan, four New York actors presented a dramatic reading from Philoctetes and Ajax.[6] Fictional adaptations[edit] Philoctetes also figures in Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) by François Fénelon. The Cure at Troy by Seamus Heaney, based on Philoctetes Neutral Ground by Tom Stoppard, loosely based on Philoctetes (as stated in the introduction to Stoppard's collected television plays). The Man in the Maze by Robert Silverberg, a retelling of the play in a science fictional idiom. Heracles' Bow (short story) by Madeline Miller New Amsterdam (2018 TV series) season 2 episode 7 2019 episode Good Soldiers Translations[edit] Thomas Francklin, 1759 – verse: full text Richard C. Jebb, 1904 – prose: full text Francis Storr, 1912 – verse Kathleen Freeman, 1948 – verse OCLC 10111365[7] E.F. Watling, 1953 - verse and prose David Grene, 1957 – verse Kenneth McLeish, 1979 – verse Gregory McNamee, 1986 – prose: full text Christopher Webber, 1989 – verse and prose Desmond Egan, 1991 poetic prose Seth L. Schein, 2003 – verse and prose Carl Phillips, 2003 Ian C. Johnston, 2008 - verse: full text George Theodoridis, 2009 – prose: full text Bryan Doerries, 2014 – verse Notes[edit] ^ John C. Wells, Longman pronunciation dictionary, 3rd edition (2008), entry Philoctetes. ^ Summary description of the play; classics.uc.edu Archived 2008-09-05 at the Wayback Machine ^ Lines 255-263, Sophocles. Philoctetes. Electra and Other Plays. Transl. E. F. Watling. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1953. pp. 162–212. ^ Doerries, Bryan (Spring 2008). "About the Philoctetes Project, The Key Reporter (Phi Beta Kappa)". Archived from the original on 2006-11-29. ^ Zuger, Abigail (Spring 2008). "The Difficult Patient, a Problem as Old as History (or Older, The Key Reporter (Phi Beta Kappa)". Archived from the original on 2006-11-29. ^ latimes.com Story by Tony Perry, Los Angeles Times Staff Writer ^ Forster, Edward S. (1950). "Kathleen Freeman: The Philoctetes of Sophocles. A Modern Version. Pp. 67. London: Frederick Muller, 1948. Paper, 5s. net". The Classical Review. 64 (1): 34. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00092465. ISSN 1464-3561. Further reading[edit] Library resources about Sophocles's Philoctetes Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Austin, N. 2011. Sophocles' Philoctetes and the Great Soul Robbery. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. Doerries, B. 2015. The Theater of War: What Ancient Tragedies Can Teach us Today. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Falkner, T. M. 1998. "Containing Tragedy: Rhetoric and Self-representation in Sophocles’ Philoctetes". Classical Antiquity 17:25–58. Gardiner, C. P. 1987. The Sophoclean Chorus: A Study of Character and Function. Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press. Gill, C. 1980. "Bow, Oracle, and Epiphany in Sophocles' Philoctetes". Greece & Rome 27:137–146. Hall, E. 2012. "Ancient Greek Responses to Suffering: Thinking with Philoctetes". In Perspectives on Human Suffering. Edited by J. Malpas and N. Likiss, 155–169. Dordrecht, The Netherlands, and New York: Springer. Heaney, S. 1990. The Cure at Troy: A Version of Sophocles’s Philoctetes. London: Faber and Faber. Heath, M. 1999. "Sophocles’ Philoctetes: A Problem Play?" In Sophocles Revisited: Essays Presented to Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones. Edited by J. Griffin, 137–160. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Jameson, M. H. 1956. "Politics and the Philoctetes". Classical Philology 51:217–227. Long, A. A. 1968. Language and Thought in Sophocles: A Study of Abstract Nouns and Poetic Technique. University of London Classical Studies 6. London: Athlone. Schein, S. L. 2006. "The Iliad and Odyssey in Sophocles’ Philoctetes: Generic Complexity and Ethical Ambiguity". In Greek Drama III. Essays in Honour of Kevin Lee. Edited by J. F. Davidson, F. Muecke, and P. Wilson, 129–140. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies supplement 87. London: Institute of Classical Studies. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Philoctetes Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Φιλοκτήτης Philoctetes at Perseus Digital Library Theatre of War - Readings and Discussion from Philoctetes Philoctetes public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Plays by Sophocles Extant plays Ajax Antigone Women of Trachis Oedipus Rex Electra Philoctetes Oedipus at Colonus Fragmentary plays Amphiaraus Amycos Satyrykos Epigoni Ichneutae Odysseus Acanthoplex Tereus Triptolemos Authority control BNF: cb121942558 (data) GND: 4228578-1 LCCN: nr97034025 SUDOC: 029195462 VIAF: 269405278 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 269405278 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philoctetes_(Sophocles_play)&oldid=1001799610" Categories: Medical ethics in fiction Medical sociology Odysseus Plays by Sophocles Plays set in ancient Greece Trojan War literature Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 11:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1546	----	Huonville Football Club - Wikipedia Huonville Football Club From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Huonville Lions Names Full name Huonville Lions Football Club Nickname(s) Lions Club song "We are the pride of the Huon" 2020 season After finals 1st Home-and-away season 1st Leading goalkicker Ethan Brock Best and fairest Ethan Brock Club details Founded 1998; 23 years ago (1998) Colours     🟨⬜️ Competition Southern Football League President Todd Cordwell Coach Tim Lamprill Captain(s) Callum Rawson/James Mcindoe Premierships SFL 2008, 2020 Regional League Ground(s) Oval (capacity: 5,000) Uniforms Home The Huonville Lions Football Club, nicknamed The Lions, is an Australian rules football club currently playing in the Southern Football League in Huonville, Tasmania, Australia. Contents 1 History 2 Honours 2.1 Club 3 External links History[edit] The Huonville Lions Football Club was formed as a result of a merger between former Huon Football Association clubs Huonville Bulldogs (1887–1997) and the Franklin Lions (1887–1997) at the end of the 1997 season after the Huon Football Association's demise. The Lions then joined the Southern Football League in 1998. After a solid crack in 2019, finishing runners up to Lindisfarne, Huonville salvaged their grand final woes with a win over Cygnet in the 2020 SFL Grand Final. Honours[edit] Club[edit] Southern Football League Senior Premierships (2): 2008, 2020 Runners Up (3): 2007, 2018, 2019. Huonville FC – Huon FA Premierships (6): 1904, 1933, 1953, 1973, 1989, 1992 Franklin FC – Huon FA Premierships (10): 1903, 1907, 1932, 1958, 1959, 1963, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1997 Franklin FC – Tasmanian Country Football Champions (1): 1958 Club Record Score: Huonville Lions 57.20 (362) v. Triabunna 0.3 (3) on 24 July 2010 at Huonville Recreation Ground Peter Hodgeman Medal Winners Nick Doyle (2006). William Leitch Medal Winners James Lange (2010) Jarrod Lawler (2018) Club Games Record Holder 450+ - Steven "Runner" Reeve. External links[edit] Official Facebook v t e Clubs in the Southern Football League Current clubs Brighton Claremont Cygnet Dodges Ferry Hobart Huonville Lindisfarne New Norfolk Sorell Former clubs Central Hawks (2006–12) Channel (1996–2008) Clarence (2001–08) East Coast Bombers (2006–10) Kermandie (1998–2009) Kingborough (1996–2013) Lachlan (1996–97) Lauderdale (1996–2008) North Hobart (2001–08) This article about an Australian rules football team or club is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huonville_Football_Club&oldid=990845777" Categories: Australian rules football clubs in Tasmania 1998 establishments in Australia Australian rules football team stubs Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2018 Use Australian English from January 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Pages using Australian rules football kit with incorrect pattern parameters All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 20:54 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1556	----	Titian - Wikipedia Titian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Italian painter For other uses, see Titian (disambiguation). "Tiziano" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiziano (disambiguation). Titian Self-Portrait, c. 1567; Museo del Prado, Madrid. Born Tiziano Vecellio c. 1488/90 Pieve di Cadore, Republic of Venice Died 27 August 1576(1576-08-27) (aged 87–88) Venice, Republic of Venice Nationality Venetian Occupation Italian Renaissance artist Signature Tiziano Vecelli or Vecellio (pronounced [titˈtsjaːno veˈtʃɛlljo]; c. 1488/90[1] – 27 August 1576),[2] known in English as Titian (/ˈtɪʃən/ TISH-ən), was an Italian painter during the Renaissance, considered the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno, (then in the Republic of Venice).[3] During his lifetime he was often called da Cadore, 'from Cadore', taken from his native region.[4] Recognized by his contemporaries as "The Sun Amidst Small Stars" (recalling the final line of Dante's Paradiso), Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of colour, exercised a profound influence not only on painters of the late Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art.[5] His career was successful from the start, and he became sought after by patrons, initially from Venice and its possessions, then joined by the north Italian princes, and finally the Habsburgs and papacy. Along with Giorgione, he is considered a founder of the Venetian School of Italian Renaissance painting. During the course of his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically,[6] but he retained a lifelong interest in colour. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose brushwork and subtlety of tone were without precedent in the history of Western painting.[citation needed] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 1.2 Growth 1.3 Maturity 1.4 Final years 1.5 Death 2 Printmaking 3 Painting materials 4 Family and workshop 5 Present day 6 Gallery of works 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Biography[edit] Early years[edit] A Man with a Quilted Sleeve, c. 1509, National Gallery, London The exact time or date of Titian's birth is uncertain. When he was an old man he claimed in a letter to Philip II, King of Spain, to have been born in 1474, but this seems most unlikely.[7] Other writers contemporary to his old age give figures that would equate to birthdates between 1473 and after 1482.[8] Most modern scholars believe a date between 1488 and 1490 is more likely,[9] though his age at death being 99 had been accepted into the 20th century.[10] He was the son of Gregorio Vecellio and his wife Lucia, of whom little is known. Gregorio was superintendent of the castle of Pieve di Cadore and managed local mines for their owners.[11] Gregorio was also a distinguished councilor and soldier. Many relatives, including Titian's grandfather, were notaries, and the family were well-established in the area, which was ruled by Venice. At the age of about ten to twelve he and his brother Francesco (who perhaps followed later) were sent to an uncle in Venice to find an apprenticeship with a painter. The minor painter Sebastian Zuccato, whose sons became well-known mosaicists, and who may have been a family friend, arranged for the brothers to enter the studio of the elderly Gentile Bellini, from which they later transferred to that of his brother Giovanni Bellini.[11] At that time the Bellinis, especially Giovanni, were the leading artists in the city. There Titian found a group of young men about his own age, among them Giovanni Palma da Serinalta, Lorenzo Lotto, Sebastiano Luciani, and Giorgio da Castelfranco, nicknamed Giorgione. Francesco Vecellio, Titian's older brother, later became a painter of some note in Venice. A fresco of Hercules on the Morosini Palace is said to have been one of Titian's earliest works.[4] Others were the Bellini-esque so-called Gypsy Madonna in Vienna,[12] and the Visitation of Mary and Elizabeth (from the convent of S. Andrea), now in the Accademia, Venice.[4] A Man with a Quilted Sleeve is an early portrait, painted around 1509 and described by Giorgio Vasari in 1568. Scholars long believed it depicted Ludovico Ariosto, but now think it is of Gerolamo Barbarigo.[13] Rembrandt borrowed the composition for his self-portraits. Titian joined Giorgione as an assistant, but many contemporary critics already found his work more impressive—for example in exterior frescoes (now almost totally destroyed) that they did for the Fondaco dei Tedeschi (state-warehouse for the German merchants).[4] Their relationship evidently contained a significant element of rivalry. Distinguishing between their work at this period remains a subject of scholarly controversy. A substantial number of attributions have moved from Giorgione to Titian in the 20th century, with little traffic the other way. One of the earliest known Titian works, Christ Carrying the Cross in the Scuola Grande di San Rocco, depicting the Ecce Homo scene,[14] was long regarded as by Giorgione.[15] Portrait of a Man in a Red Cap, c. 1510. Frick Collection, New York. The two young masters were likewise recognized as the leaders of their new school of arte moderna, which is characterized by paintings made more flexible, freed from symmetry and the remnants of hieratic conventions still found in the works of Giovanni Bellini. In 1507–1508 Giorgione was commissioned by the state to create frescoes on the re-erected Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Titian and Morto da Feltre worked along with him, and some fragments of paintings remain, probably by Giorgione.[4] Some of their work is known, in part, through the engravings of Fontana. After Giorgione's early death in 1510, Titian continued to paint Giorgionesque subjects for some time, though his style developed its own features, including bold and expressive brushwork. Salome with the Head of John the Baptist c. 1515, or Judith; this religious work also functions as an idealized portrait of a beauty, a genre developed by Titian, supposedly often using Venetian courtesans as models. Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome. Titian's talent in fresco is shown in those he painted in 1511 at Padua in the Carmelite church and in the Scuola del Santo, some of which have been preserved, among them the Meeting at the Golden Gate, and three scenes (Miracoli di sant'Antonio) from the life of St. Anthony of Padua, The Miracle of the Jealous Husband, which depicts the Murder of a Young Woman by Her Husband,[16] A Child Testifying to Its Mother's Innocence, and The Saint Healing the Young Man with a Broken Limb. In 1512 Titian returned to Venice from Padua; in 1513 he obtained La Senseria (a profitable privilege much coveted by artists) in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi.[17] He became superintendent of the government works, especially charged with completing the paintings left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini in the hall of the great council in the ducal palace. He set up an atelier on the Grand Canal at S. Samuele, the precise site being now unknown. It was not until 1516, after the death of Giovanni Bellini, that he came into actual enjoyment of his patent. At the same time he entered an exclusive arrangement for painting. The patent yielded him a good annuity of 20 crowns and exempted him from certain taxes. In return, he was bound to paint likenesses of the successive Doges of his time at the fixed price of eight crowns each. The actual number he painted was five.[4] Growth[edit] Assumption of the Virgin, 1516–1518; it took Titian more than two years to complete this mural in the 'Frari' church in Venice. Its dynamic three-tier composition and colour scheme established him as the preeminent painter north of Rome. During this period (1516–1530), which may be called the period of his mastery and maturity, the artist moved on from his early Giorgionesque style, undertook larger, more complex subjects, and for the first time attempted a monumental style. Giorgione died in 1510 and Giovanni Bellini in 1516, leaving Titian unrivaled in the Venetian School. For sixty years he was the undisputed master of Venetian painting. In 1516, he completed his famous masterpiece, the Assumption of the Virgin, for the high altar of the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari,[4] where it is still in situ. This extraordinary piece of colourism, executed on a grand scale rarely before seen in Italy, created a sensation.[18] The Signoria took note and observed that Titian was neglecting his work in the hall of the great council,[4] but in 1516 he succeeded his master Giovanni Bellini in receiving a pension from the Senate.[19] The pictorial structure of the Assumption—that of uniting in the same composition two or three scenes superimposed on different levels, earth and heaven, the temporal and the infinite—was continued in a series of works such as the retable of San Domenico at Ancona (1520), the retable of Brescia (1522), and the retable of San Niccolò (1523), in the Vatican Museums, each time attaining to a higher and more perfect conception. He finally reached a classic formula in the Pesaro Madonna, better known as the Madonna di Ca' Pesaro (c. 1519–1526), also for the Frari church. This is perhaps his most studied work, whose patiently developed plan is set forth with supreme display of order and freedom, originality and style. Here Titian gave a new conception of the traditional groups of donors and holy persons moving in aerial space, the plans and different degrees set in an architectural framework.[20] Titian was then at the height of his fame, and towards 1521, following the production of a figure of St. Sebastian for the papal legate in Brescia (of which there are numerous replicas), purchasers pressed for his work.[4] To this period belongs a more extraordinary work, The Death of St. Peter Martyr (1530), formerly in the Dominican Church of San Zanipolo, and destroyed by an Austrian shell in 1867. Only copies and engravings of this proto-Baroque picture remain. It combined extreme violence and a landscape, mostly consisting of a great tree, that pressed into the scene and seems to accentuate the drama in a way that looks forward to the Baroque.[21] The artist simultaneously continued a series of small Madonnas, which he placed amid beautiful landscapes, in the manner of genre pictures or poetic pastorals. The Virgin with the Rabbit, in The Louvre, is the finished type of these pictures. Another work of the same period, also in the Louvre, is the Entombment. This was also the period of the three large and famous mythological scenes for the camerino of Alfonso d'Este in Ferrara, The Bacchanal of the Andrians and the Worship of Venus in the Museo del Prado, and the Bacchus and Ariadne (1520–23) in London,[22] "perhaps the most brilliant productions of the neo-pagan culture or "Alexandrianism" of the Renaissance, many times imitated but never surpassed even by Rubens himself."[23] Finally this was the period when Titian composed the half-length figures and busts of young women, probably courtesans, such as Flora of the Uffizi, or Woman with a Mirror in the Louvre (the scientific images of this painting are available, with explanations, on the website of the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France) Maturity[edit] Titian's skill with colour is exemplified by his Danaë, one of several mythological paintings, or "poesie" ("poems") as the painter called them. This painting was done for Alessandro Farnese, but a later variant was produced for Philip II, for whom Titian painted many of his most important mythological paintings. Although Michelangelo adjudged this piece deficient from the point of view of drawing, Titian and his studio produced several versions for other patrons. Bacchus and Ariadne, c. 1520–1523. National Gallery, London. Another famous painting is Bacchus and Ariadne, depicting Theseus, whose ship is shown in the distance and who has just left Ariadne at Naxos, when Bacchus arrives, jumping from his chariot, drawn by two cheetahs, and falling immediately in love with Ariadne. Bacchus raised her to heaven. Her constellation is shown in the sky. The painting belongs to a series commissioned from Bellini, Titian, and Dosso Dossi, for the Camerino d'Alabastro (Alabaster Room) in the Ducal Palace, Ferrara, by Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, who in 1510 even tried to commission Michelangelo and Raphael. During the next period (1530–1550), Titian developed the style introduced by his dramatic Death of St. Peter Martyr. In 1538, the Venetian government, dissatisfied with Titian's neglect of his work for the ducal palace, ordered him to refund the money he had received, and Il Pordenone, his rival of recent years, was installed in his place. However, at the end of a year Pordenone died, and Titian, who meanwhile applied himself diligently to painting in the hall the Battle of Cadore, was reinstated.[4] Portrait of Federico II Gonzaga, c. 1529. Museo del Prado, Madrid. This major battle scene was lost—with many other major works by Venetian artists—in the 1577 fire that destroyed all the old pictures in the great chambers of the Doge's Palace. It depicted in life-size the moment when the Venetian general d'Alviano attacked the enemy, with horses and men crashing down into a stream.[4] It was Titian's most important attempt at a tumultuous and heroic scene of movement to rival Raphael's Battle of Constantine, Michelangelo's equally ill-fated Battle of Cascina, and Leonardo da Vinci's The Battle of Anghiari (these last two unfinished). There remains only a poor, incomplete copy at the Uffizi, and a mediocre engraving by Fontana. The Speech of the Marquis del Vasto (Madrid, 1541) was also partly destroyed by fire. But this period of the master's work is still represented by the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin (Venice, 1539), one of his most popular canvasses, and by the Ecce Homo (Vienna, 1541). Despite its loss, the painting had a great influence on Bolognese art and Rubens, both in the handling of details and the general effect of horses, soldiers, lictors, powerful stirrings of crowds at the foot of a stairway, lit by torches with the flapping of banners against the sky. Less successful were the pendentives of the cupola at Santa Maria della Salute (Death of Abel, Sacrifice of Abraham, David and Goliath). These violent scenes viewed in perspective from below were by their very nature in unfavorable situations. They were nevertheless much admired and imitated, Rubens among others applying this system to his forty ceilings (the sketches only remain) of the Jesuit church at Antwerp. Venus of Urbino, 1538, Uffizi Museum At this time also, during his visit to Rome, the artist began a series of reclining Venuses: The Venus of Urbino of the Uffizi, Venus and Love at the same museum, Venus—and the Organ-Player, Madrid, which shows the influence of contact with ancient sculpture. Giorgione had already dealt with the subject in his Dresden picture, finished by Titian, but here a purple drapery substituted for a landscape background changed, by its harmonious colouring, the whole meaning of the scene. Equestrian Portrait of Charles V, 1548, Museo del Prado From the beginning of his career, Titian was a masterful portrait-painter, in works like La Bella (Eleanora de Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino, at the Pitti Palace). He painted the likenesses of princes, or Doges, cardinals or monks, and artists or writers. "...no other painter was so successful in extracting from each physiognomy so many traits at once characteristic and beautiful".[24] Among portrait-painters Titian is compared to Rembrandt and Velázquez, with the interior life of the former, and the clearness, certainty, and obviousness of the latter. These qualities show in the Portrait of Pope Paul III of Naples, or the sketch of the same Pope Paul III and his Grandsons, the Portrait of Pietro Aretino of the Pitti Palace, the Portrait of Isabella of Portugal (Madrid), and the series of Emperor Charles V of the same museum, the Charles V with a Greyhound (1533), and especially the Equestrian Portrait of Charles V (1548), an equestrian picture in a symphony of purples. This state portrait of Charles V (1548) at the Battle of Mühlberg established a new genre, that of the grand equestrian portrait. The composition is steeped both in the Roman tradition of equestrian sculpture and in the medieval representations of an ideal Christian knight, but the weary figure and face have a subtlety few such representations attempt. In 1532, after painting a portrait of the emperor Charles V in Bologna, he was made a Count Palatine and knight of the Golden Spur. His children were also made nobles of the Empire, which for a painter was an exceptional honor.[4] As a matter of professional and worldly success, his position from about this time is regarded as equal only to that of Raphael, Michelangelo and, at a later date, Rubens. In 1540 he received a pension from d'Avalos, marquis del Vasto, and an annuity of 200 crowns (which was afterwards doubled) from Charles V from the treasury of Milan. Another source of profit, for he was always aware of money, was a contract obtained in 1542 for supplying grain to Cadore, where he visited almost every year and where he was both generous and influential.[4] Titian had a favorite villa on the neighboring Manza Hill (in front of the church of Castello Roganzuolo) from which (it may be inferred) he made his chief observations of landscape form and effect. The so-called Titian's mill, constantly discernible in his studies, is at Collontola, near Belluno.[25][4] He visited Rome in 1546 and obtained the freedom of the city—his immediate predecessor in that honor having been Michelangelo in 1537. He could at the same time have succeeded the painter Sebastiano del Piombo in his lucrative office as holder of the piombo or Papal seal, and he was prepared to take Holy Orders for the purpose; but the project lapsed through his being summoned away from Venice in 1547 to paint Charles V and others in Augsburg. He was there again in 1550, and executed the portrait of Philip II, which was sent to England and was useful in Philip's suit for the hand of Queen Mary.[4] Final years[edit] Venus and Organist and Little Dog, c. 1550. Museo del Prado, Madrid. During the last twenty-six years of his life (1550–1576), Titian worked mainly for Philip II and as a portrait-painter. He became more self-critical, an insatiable perfectionist, keeping some pictures in his studio for ten years—returning to them and retouching them, constantly adding new expressions at once more refined, concise, and subtle. He also finished many copies that his pupils made of his earlier works. This caused problems of attribution and priority among versions of his works—which were also widely copied and faked outside his studio during his lifetime and afterwards. For Philip II, he painted a series of large mythological paintings known as the "poesie", mostly from Ovid, which scholars regard as among his greatest works.[26] Thanks to the prudishness of Philip's successors, these were later mostly given as gifts, and only two remain in the Prado. Titian was producing religious works for Philip at the same time, some of which—the ones inside Ribeira Palace—are known to have been destroyed during the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake. The "poesie" series contained the following works: Danaë, sent to Philip in 1553,[27] now Wellington Collection, with earlier and later versions Venus and Adonis, of which the earliest surviving version, delivered in 1554, is in the Prado, but several versions exist Perseus and Andromeda (Wallace Collection, now damaged) Diana and Actaeon, owned jointly by London's National Gallery and the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh Diana and Callisto, were dispatched in 1559, owned jointly by London's National Gallery and the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh The Rape of Europa (Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum), delivered in 1562 The Death of Actaeon, begun in 1559 but worked on for many years and never completed or delivered[28] Titian's poesie series for Philip II Danaë Venus and Adonis Diana and Actaeon Diana and Callisto Perseus and Andromeda The Rape of Europa The Death of Actaeon Another painting that apparently remained in his studio at his death, and has been much less well known until recent decades, is the powerful, even "repellent" Flaying of Marsyas (Kroměříž, Czech Republic).[29] Another violent masterpiece is Tarquin and Lucretia (Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum).[30] The Rape of Europa c. 1560–1562, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, is a bold diagonal composition that Rubens admired and copied. In contrast to the clarity of Titian's early works, it is almost baroque in its blurred lines, swirling colours, and vibrant brushstrokes. For each problem he undertook, he furnished a new and more perfect formula. He never again equaled the emotion and tragedy of The Crowning with Thorns (Louvre); in the expression of the mysterious and the divine he never equaled the poetry of the Pilgrims of Emmaus; while in superb and heroic brilliancy he never again executed anything more grand than The Doge Grimani adoring Faith (Venice, Doge's Palace), or the Trinity, of Madrid. On the other hand, from the standpoint of flesh tints, his most moving pictures are those of his old age, such as the poesie and the Antiope of the Louvre. He even attempted problems of chiaroscuro in fantastic night effects (Martyrdom of St. Laurence, Church of the Jesuits, Venice; St. Jerome, Louvre; Crucifixion, Church of San Domenico, Ancona). Titian had engaged his daughter Lavinia, the beautiful girl whom he loved deeply and painted various times, to Cornelio Sarcinelli of Serravalle. She had succeeded her aunt Orsa, then deceased, as the manager of the household, which, with the lordly income that Titian made by this time, placed her on a corresponding footing. Lavinia's marriage to Cornelio took place in 1554. She died in childbirth in 1560.[4] Titian was at the Council of Trent towards 1555, of which there is a finished sketch in the Louvre. His friend Aretino died suddenly in 1556, and another close intimate, the sculptor and architect Jacopo Sansovino, in 1570. In September 1565 Titian went to Cadore and designed the decorations for the church at Pieve, partly executed by his pupils. One of these is a Transfiguration, another an Annunciation (now in S. Salvatore, Venice), inscribed Titianus fecit, by way of protest (it is said) against the disparagement of some persons who caviled at the veteran's failing handicraft.[4] Around 1560,[31] Titian painted the oil on canvas Madonna and Child with Saints Luke and Catherine of Alexandria, a derivative on the motif of Madonna and Child. It is suggested that members of Titian's Venice workshop probably painted the curtain and Luke, because of the lower quality of those parts.[32] Pietà, c. 1576, his last painting. Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice. He continued to accept commissions to the end of his life. Like many of his late works, Titian's last painting, the Pietà, is a dramatic, nocturnal scene of suffering. He apparently intended it for his own tomb chapel. He had selected, as his burial place, the chapel of the Crucifix in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, the church of the Franciscan Order. In payment for a grave, he offered the Franciscans a picture of the Pietà that represented himself and his son Orazio, with a sibyl, before the Savior. He nearly finished this work, but differences arose regarding it, and he settled on being interred in his native Pieve.[4] Death[edit] Tomb of Titian in Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice While the plague raged in Venice, Titian died of a fever on 27 August 1576.[33] Depending on his unknown birthdate (see above), he was somewhere from his late eighties or even close to 100. Titian was interred in the Frari (Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari), as at first intended, and his Pietà was finished by Palma il Giovane. He lies near his own famous painting, the Madonna di Ca' Pesaro. No memorial marked his grave.[4] Much later the Austrian rulers of Venice commissioned Antonio Canova to sculpt the large monument still in the church. Very shortly after Titian's death, his son, assistant and sole heir Orazio, also died of the plague, greatly complicating the settlement of his estate, as he had made no will.[34] Printmaking[edit] Titian never attempted engraving, but he was very conscious of the importance of printmaking as a means to expand his reputation. In the period 1517–1520 he designed a number of woodcuts, including an enormous and impressive one of The Crossing of the Red Sea, intended as wall decoration in substitute for paintings;[35] and collaborated with Domenico Campagnola and others, who produced additional prints based on his paintings and drawings. Much later he provided drawings based on his paintings to Cornelis Cort from the Netherlands who engraved them. Martino Rota followed Cort from about 1558 to 1568.[36] Painting materials[edit] Titian employed an extensive array of pigments and it can be said that he availed himself of virtually all available pigments of his time.[37] In addition to the common pigments of the Renaissance period, such as ultramarine, vermilion, lead-tin yellow, ochres, and azurite, he also used the rare pigments realgar and orpiment.[38] Family and workshop[edit] The Allegory of Age Governed by Prudence (c. 1565–1570) is thought to depict (from left) Titian, his son Orazio, and his nephew, Marco Vecellio. National Gallery, London. Titian's wife, Cecilia, was a barber's daughter from his hometown village of Cadore. As a young woman she had been his housekeeper and mistress for some five years. Cecilia had already borne Titian two fine sons, Pomponio and Orazio, when in 1525 she fell seriously ill. Titian, wishing to legitimize the children, married her. Cecilia recovered, the marriage was a happy one, and they had another daughter who died in infancy.[39] In August 1530 Cecilia died. Titian remarried, but little information is known about his second wife; she was possibly the mother of his daughter Lavinia.[40] Titian had a fourth child, Emilia, the result of an affair, possibly with a housekeeper.[41] His favourite child was Orazio, who became his assistant. In August 1530, Titian moved his two boys and infant daughter to a new home and convinced his sister Orsa to come from Cadore and take charge of the household. The mansion, difficult to find now, is in the Biri Grande, then a fashionable suburb, at the extreme end of Venice, on the sea, with beautiful gardens and a view towards Murano. In about 1526 he had become acquainted, and soon close friends, with Pietro Aretino, the influential and audacious figure who features so strangely in the chronicles of the time. Titian sent a portrait of him to Gonzaga, duke of Mantua.[4] When he was very young, the famed Italian painter Tintoretto was brought to Titian's studio by his father. This was supposedly around 1533, when Titian was (according to the ordinary accounts) over 40 years of age. Tintoretto had only been ten days in the studio when Titian sent him home for good, because the great master observed some very spirited drawings, which he learned to be the production of Tintoretto; it is inferred that he became at once jealous of so promising a student. This, however, is mere conjecture; and perhaps it may be fairer to suppose that the drawings exhibited so much independence of manner that Titian judged that young Jacopo, although he might become a painter, would never be properly a pupil.[42] From this time forward the two always remained upon distant terms, though Tintoretto being indeed a professed and ardent admirer of Titian, but never a friend, and Titian and his adherents turned a cold shoulder to him. There was also active disparagement, but it passed unnoticed by Tintoretto. Several other artists of the Vecelli family followed in the wake of Titian. Francesco Vecellio, his older brother, was introduced to painting by Titian (it is said at the age of twelve, but chronology will hardly admit of this), and painted in the church of S. Vito in Cadore a picture of the titular saint armed. This was a noteworthy performance, of which Titian (the usual story) became jealous; so Francesco was diverted from painting to soldiering, and afterwards to mercantile life.[4] Diana and Actaeon, 1556–1559. National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh. Marco Vecellio, called Marco di Tiziano, born in 1545, was Titian's nephew and was constantly with the master in his old age, and learned his methods of work. He has left some able productions in the ducal palace, the Meeting of Charles V. and Clement VII. in 1529; in S. Giacomo di Rialto, an Annunciation; in SS. Giovani e Paolo, Christ Fulminant. A son of Marco, named Tiziano (or Tizianello), painted early in the 17th century.[4] From a different branch of the family came Fabrizio di Ettore, a painter who died in 1580. His brother Cesare, who also left some pictures, is well known by his book of engraved costumes, Abiti antichi e moderni. Tommaso Vecelli, also a painter, died in 1620. There was another relative, Girolamo Dante, who, being a scholar and assistant of Titian, was called Girolamo di Tiziano. Various pictures of his were touched up by the master, and are difficult to distinguish from originals.[4] Few of the pupils and assistants of Titian became well known in their own right; for some being his assistant was probably a lifetime career. Paris Bordone and Bonifazio Veronese were his assistants during at some point in their careers. Giulio Clovio said Titian employed El Greco (or Dominikos Theotokopoulos) in his last years. Polidoro da Lanciano is said to have been a follower or pupil of Titian. Other followers were Nadalino da Murano,[43] Damiano Mazza,[44] and Gaspare Nervesa.[45] Present day[edit] Contemporary estimates attribute around 400 works to Titian, of which about 300 survive.[46] Two of Titian's works in private hands were put up for sale in 2008. One of these, Diana and Actaeon, was purchased by London's National Gallery and the National Galleries of Scotland on 2 February 2009 for £50 million.[47] The galleries had until 31 December 2008 to make the purchase before the work would be offered to private collectors, but the deadline was extended. The other painting, Diana and Callisto, was for sale for the same amount until 2012 before it was offered to private collectors. The sale created controversy with politicians who argued that the money could have been spent more wisely during a deepening recession. The Scottish Government offered £12.5 million and £10 million came from the National Heritage Memorial Fund. The rest of the money came from the National Gallery and from private donations.[48] Gallery of works[edit] Portrait of a Sick Man, 1515, oil on canvas; Uffizi, Florence Annunciation, 1519–1520, oil on canvas; altar-painting in the Treviso Cathedral Venus Anadyomene, c. 1520, National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh The Aldobrandini Madonna, c 1530 Portrait of Clarissa Strozzi, 1542 Pope Paul III and His Grandsons, c. 1546; Museo di Capodimonte, Naples A monk with a book, c. 1550 Venus with a Mirror, c. 1555, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Altarpiece of James the Greater, 1558, altar-painting in the San Lio church, Venice Annunciation of the Lord, 1559–1564, oil on canvas; altar-painting in the San Savator church, Venice Tarquin and Lucretia, 1571 The Entombment, c. 1572, Prado Museum, Madrid Notes[edit] ^ See below; c. 1488/1490 is generally accepted despite claims in his lifetime that he was older, Getty Union Artist Name List and Metropolitan Museum of Art timeline, retrieved 11 February 2009 both use c. 1488. See discussion of the issue below and at When Was Titian Born?, which sets out the evidence, and supports 1477—an unusual view today. Gould (pp. 264–66) also sets out much of the evidence without coming to a conclusion. Charles Hope in Jaffé (p. 11) also discusses the issue, favoring a date "in or just before 1490" as opposed to the much earlier dates, as does Penny (p. 201) "probably in 1490 or a little earlier". The question has become caught up in the still controversial division of works between Giorgione and the young Titian. ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art timeline". Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ Wolf, Norbert (2006). I, Titian. New York and London: Prestel. ISBN 9783791333847. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Rossetti, William Michael (1911). "Titian". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Fossi, Gloria, Italian Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture from the Origins to the Present Day, p. 194. Giunti, 2000. ISBN 88-09-01771-4 ^ The contours in early works may be described as "crisp and clear", while of his late methods it was said that "he painted more with his fingers than his brushes." Dunkerton, Jill, et al., Dürer to Veronese: Sixteenth-Century Painting in the National Gallery, pp. 281–286. Yale University, National Gallery Publications, 1999. ISBN 0-300-07220-1 ^ Cecil Gould, The Sixteenth Century Italian Schools, National Gallery Catalogues, p. 265, London, 1975, ISBN 0-947645-22-5 ^ "When Was Titian Born?". Lafrusta.homestead.com. 4 November 2002. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ Hale, 5-6; also see references above ^ Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. The Story of Civilization. 5. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 667. ^ a b David Jaffé (ed), Titian, The National Gallery Company/Yale, p. 11, London 2003, ISBN 1-85709-903-6 ^ Jaffé No. 1, pp. 74–75 image ^ "Portrait of Gerolamo (?) Barbarigo, about 1510, Titian". National Gallery. Retrieved 26 May 2013. ^ Olga Mataev. "Ecce Homo". Abcgallery.com. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ Charles Hope, in Jaffé, pp. 11–14 ^ "New findings in Titian's Fresco technique at the Scuola del Santo in Padua", The Art Bulletin, March 1999, Volume LXXXI Number 1, Author Sergio Rossetti Morosini ^ explained here ^ Charles Hope in Jaffé, p. 14 ^ Charles Hope, in Jaffé, p. 15 ^ Charles Hope in Jaffé, pp. 16–17 ^ Charles Hope, in Jaffé, p. 17 Engraving of the painting ^ Jaffé, pp. 100–111 ^   Louis Gillet (1913). "Titian". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ "Titian", The Catholic Encyclopedia ^ R. F. Heath, Life of Titian, p. 5. ^ Penny, 204 ^ Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, p. 402, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, ISBN 84-87317-53-7 ^ Penny, 249–50 ^ Giles Robertson, in: Jane Martineau (ed), The Genius of Venice, 1500-1600, pp. 231–3, 1983, Royal Academy of Arts, London ^ Robertson, pp. 229–230 ^ "Titian Madonna and Child sells for record $16.9m". BBC News Online. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ "Art and the Bible". Artbible.info. Retrieved 30 January 2011. ^ Kennedy, Ian (2006). Titian. Taschen. p. 95. ISBN 9783822849125. ^ Hale, 722-723 ^ Schmidt, Suzanne Karr. "Printed Bodies and the Materiality of Early Modern Prints," Art in Print Vol. 1 No. 1 (May–June 2011), p. 26. ^ Landau, 304–305, and in catalogue entries following. Much more detailed consideration is given at various points in: David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, 1996, ISBN 0-300-06883-2 ^ Jill Dunkerton and Marika Spring, with contributions from Rachel Billinge, Kamilla Kalinina, Rachel Morrison, Gabriella Macaro, David Peggie and Ashok Roy, Titian’s Painting Technique to c.1540, National Gallery Technical Bulletin, volume 34, 2013, pp. 4–31. Catalog I and II. ^ Pigments used by Titian, ColourLex ^ Hale, 215 ^ Hale, 249 ^ Hale, 486 ^ Rossetti 1911. ^ [Le maraviglie dell'arte: ovvero Le vite degli illustri pittori], Volume 1, by Carlo Ridolfi, Giuseppe Vedova, page 288. ^ Ridolfi and Vedova, page 289. ^ Boni, Filippo de' (1852). Biografia degli Artisti, Emporeo biografico metodico, volume unico. Venice (1840); Googlebooks: Co' Tipi di Gondolieri. p. 703.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Mark Hudson, Titian: The Last Days, Walker and Company, NY, 2000, pp. 10–11. ^ Carrell, Severin (2 February 2009). "Titian's Diana and Actaeon saved for the nation". The Guardian. ^ "Yahoo.com". References[edit] Cole, Bruce, Titian and Venetian Painting, 1450-1590, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1999, ISBN 0-8133-9043-5 Gould, Cecil, The Sixteenth Century Italian Schools, National Gallery Catalogues, London, 1975, ISBN 0-947645-22-5 Hale, Sheila, Titian: His Life, HarperCollins, New York, NY, 2012, ISBN 978-0-00717582-6 Jaffé, David (ed.), Titian, The National Gallery Company/Yale, London, 2003, ISBN 1-85709-903-6 Landau, David, in Jane Martineau and Charles Hope (eds.), The Genius of Venice, 1500–1600, Royal Academy of Arts, London, 1983, ISBN 0810909855, ISBN 0297783238 Loh, Maria H., Titian's Touch: Art, Magic and Philosophy, Reakton Books, London, 2019, ISBN 978-1789140828, ISBN 178914082X Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540–1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd, ISBN 1-85709-913-3 Ridolfi, Carlo (1594–1658); The Life of Titian, translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter E. Bondanella, Penn State Press, 1996, ISBN 0-271-01627-2, ISBN 978-0-271-01627-6 Google Books External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Titian Wikimedia Commons has media related to Titian. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Titian. Titian at the Encyclopædia Britannica 139 paintings by or after Titian at the Art UK site A closer Look at the Madonna of the Rabbit multimedia feature, Musée du Louvre official site (English version) The Titian Foundation Images of 168 paintings by the artist. Titian's paintings Tiziano Vecellio at Web Gallery of Art Christies' sale blurb for the recently restored 'Mother and Child' Bell, Malcolm The early work of Titian, at Internet Archive Titian at Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery How to Paint Like Titian James Fenton essay on Titian from The New York Review of Books Tiziano Vecellio - one of the greatest artists of all time Interactive high resolution scientific imagery of Titian's Portrait of a Woman with a Mirror from the C2RMF Titian: general resources, his paintings, and pigments used, ColourLex Teresa Lignelli, “Archbishop Filippo Archinto by Titian (cat. 204),” in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication v t e Titian List of works Portraits Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter (1503–1506) A Man with a Quilted Sleeve (c. 1509) La Schiavona (1510–1512) Of a Man (1512) Shepherd with a Flute (c. 1510-1515) A Knight of Malta (c. 1515) Vincenzo Mosti (c. 1520) Young Woman in a Black Dress (c. 1520) Man with a Glove (c. 1520) Laura Dianti (c. 1520–1525) Alfonso I d'Este (1523) Federico II Gonzaga (c. 1529) Portrait of Alfonso d'Avalos with a Page (1533) Charles V with a Dog (1533) Ippolito de' Medici (1533) Giacomo Doria (1533–1535) Isabella d'Este (1534–1536) La Bella (c. 1536) Girl in a Fur (1536-1538) Eleonora Gonzaga della Rovere (1538) Francesco Maria della Rovere (1538) A Young Englishman (1540–1545) Clarissa Strozzi (1542) The Vendramin Family (1543–1547) Pietro Aretino (1545) Lavinia Vecellio (c. 1545) Pope Paul III (1545–46) Pope Paul III and His Grandsons (1545–46) Pier Luigi Farnese (1546) Charles V (on horseback) (1548) Charles V (seated) (1548) Isabella of Portugal (1548) A General (c.1550) Philip II in Armour (1550) Portrait of Philip II (1554) Christina of Denmark (1555–56) Jacopo Strada (1567–68) Portrait of a Lady in White (c. 1561) Self portraits Self-Portrait (1546–47) Self-Portrait (c. 1560) Secular Pastoral Concert (c. 1509 – also attributed to Giorgione) Dresden Venus (with Giorgione, c. 1510) Miracle of the Jealous Husband (1511) The Three Ages of Man (c. 1512–1514) Sacred and Profane Love (c. 1514) The Feast of the Gods (1514) Lucretia and her Husband (1515) The Bravo (c. 1515) Flora (c. 1515) Salome (c. 1515) Vanity (c. 1515) Violante (c. 1515) Woman with a Mirror (c. 1515) The Worship of Venus (1518–19) Venus Anadyomene (c. 1520) Bacchus and Ariadne (1520–1523) The Bacchanal of the Andrians (1523–1526) Eleven Caesars (1536-1540) Venus of Urbino (1538) Alfonso d'Avalos Addressing his Troops (1540) Venus and Musician (1540s on, series) The Punishment of Tythus (1549) Danaë (series) (1543–1565) Venus and Adonis (several versions) Pardo Venus (1551) Venus with a Mirror (1555) Perseus and Andromeda (1554-1556) Diana and Actaeon (1556–1559) Diana and Callisto (1556–1559) The Death of Actaeon (c. 1559–1575) The Rape of Europa (c. 1560–1562) Venus Blindfolding Cupid (c. 1565) Allegory of Prudence (c. 1565–1570) Tarquin and Lucretia (comp. 1571) Flaying of Marsyas (1570–1576) Religious Christ Carrying the Cross (c. 1505 – also attributed to Giorgione) Bache Madonna (c. 1508) Lochis Madonna (1508-1510) St. Mark Enthroned (c. 1510) The Gypsy Madonna (c. 1510) Holy Family with a Shepherd (c.1510) Rest on the Flight into Egypt (c. 1512) Balbi Holy Conversation (c. 1513) Noli me tangere (c. 1514) Madonna of the Cherries (1515) The Tribute Money (c. 1516) Assumption of the Virgin (1516–1518) The Virgin and Child with Saint George and Saint Dorothy (1516–1518) Pesaro Madonna (1519–1526) Gozzi Altarpiece (1520) Malchiostro Annunciation (c. 1520) The Entombment of Christ (c. 1520) Averoldi Polyptych (1520–1522) The Aldobrandini Madonna (1530) The Madonna of the Rabbit (1530) Madonna of the Roses (c.1530) Saint Jerome in Penitence (1531) Penitent Magdalene (1533) The Presentation of the Virgin at the Temple (1534-1538) Saint John the Baptist (1540) The Crowning with Thorns (1542–43) The Fall of Man (c. 1550) Saint Jerome in Penitence (1552) The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (c. 1548–1559) La Gloria (1554) Mater Dolorosa (c. 1555) Saint Jerome in Penitence (1575) Crucifixion (1558) The Entombment (1559) St Margaret and the Dragon (c. 1559) Annunciation (1559–1564) Madonna and Child with Saints Luke and Catherine of Alexandria (c. 1560) Penitent Magdalene (1565) Religion saved by Spain (1572-1575) Saint Sebastian (c. 1575) The Crowning with Thorns (1576) Pietà (1576) Related Orazio Vecellio (son) Francesco Vecellio (brother) Authority control AAG: 2002 AGSA: 12890 BNE: XX848989 BNF: cb11940043z (data) CANTIC: a11206731 DSI: 2191 GND: 118622994 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\004619 ISNI: 0000 0001 0787 9191 KulturNav: 44d8a621-b96f-4d9e-8e5b-75c75480f317 LCCN: n79074519 MBA: 3dcdd2cd-12b3-4670-8e6a-63830791849d NDL: 00458841 NGV: 3309 NKC: jn20010525038 NLA: 36049955 NLG: 133749 NLI: 000557468 NTA: 068686897 PLWABN: 9810701967005606 RKD: 77655 SELIBR: 97122 SNAC: w6d21w9d SUDOC: 027336530 TePapa: 32135 Trove: 1202169 ULAN: 500031075 VcBA: 495/52050 VIAF: 109266837 WorldCat Identities: viaf-109266837 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titian&oldid=999982138" Categories: Titian Italian Renaissance painters Painters from Venice 1480s births 1576 deaths 16th-century deaths from plague (disease) Deaths in Italy Italian male painters Italian Roman Catholics People from the Province of Belluno Republic of Venice artists 15th-century Venetian people 16th-century Venetian people Nude art 15th-century Italian painters 16th-century Italian painters Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-1684	----	Category:Corinthian mythology - Wikipedia Help Category:Corinthian mythology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corinthian mythology. Pages in category "Corinthian mythology" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Hera Alexandros B Bacchiadae Bellerophon Bounos C Chimera (mythology) Corinthus Creon of Corinth H Hellotia M Medea (play) Melicertes O Ornytion S Sisyphus T Thoas (king of Corinth) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Corinthian_mythology&oldid=958287529" Categories: Ancient Corinth Mythology of the Peloponnese Hidden categories: Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Башҡортса Беларуская Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Italiano Português Русский کوردی Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2020, at 23:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-1713	----	Angelos (mythology) - Wikipedia Angelos (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Look up Angelos in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Angelos (Ancient Greek: Ἄγγελος) or Angelia (Ἀγγελία) was a daughter of Zeus and Hera who became known as a chthonic deity. Mythology[edit] Angelos' story only survives in scholia on Theocritus' Idyll 2, and is as follows: Angelos was raised by nymphs to whose care her father had entrusted her. One day she stole her mother Hera's anointments and gave them away to Europa. To escape Hera's wrath, she had to hide first in the house of a woman in labor, and next among people who were carrying a dead man. Hera eventually ceased from prosecuting her, and Zeus ordered the Cabeiroi to cleanse Angelos. They performed the purification rite in the waters of the Acherusia Lake in the Underworld. Consequently, she received the world of the dead as her realm of influence, and was assigned an epithet katachthonia ("she of the underworld").[1] The story of Angelos is cited by the scholiast in a series of rare myths concerning the birth of Hecate, which makes it possible to think that Angelos was essentially equal to Hecate. This is to some extent confirmed by the fact that, according to Hesychius,[2] Angelos was a surname of Artemis in Syracuse, being that Artemis as goddess of the moon was identified with Hecate.[3] Angelos could be an early version of Hecate, the one that pertained both to the upper world and the underworld, similar to the position of Persephone.[4] References[edit] ^ Scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 2. 12 referring to Sophron ^ Hesychius s. v. Ἄγγελος, again referring to Sophron ^ Cf. e. g. scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 2. 33: "...she whom [the author] called Hecate above, is now referred to by him as Artemis, because there exists a certain similarity between the goddesses" ^ Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Band I, Halbband 2, Alexandrou-Apollokrates (1894), s. 2189 v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra This article relating to a Greek deity is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angelos_(mythology)&oldid=1000288207" Categories: Greek goddesses Greek death goddesses Underworld goddesses Children of Zeus Children of Hera Epithets of Artemis Greek underworld Greek deity stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Français עברית 日本語 Русский Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1725	----	Minos - Wikipedia Minos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Mythological king of Crete For other uses, see Minos (disambiguation). Gustave Doré's illustration of King Minos for Dante Alighieri's Inferno In Greek mythology, Minos (/ˈmaɪnɒs, -nəs/; Greek: Μίνως, Mī́nōs, Ancient: [mǐːnɔːs] Modern: [ˈminos]) was a King of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa. Every nine years, he made King Aegeus pick seven young boys and seven young girls[1] to be sent to Daedalus's creation, the labyrinth, to be eaten by the Minotaur. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in the underworld. The Minoan civilization of Crete was named after him by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Literary Minos 2.1 Later rationalization 2.2 Possible historical element 3 Family 4 Mythological Minos 4.1 Glaucus 4.2 Poseidon, Daedalus and Pasiphaë 4.3 Theseus 4.4 Nisus 4.5 Death 5 Minos in art 5.1 In poetry 5.2 In books 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Etymology[edit] "Minos" is often interpreted as the Cretan word for "king",[2] or, by a euhemerist interpretation, the name of a particular king that was subsequently used as a title. There is a name in Minoan Linear A mi-nu-te that may be related to Minos. According to La Marle's reading of Linear A,[3] which has been heavily criticised as arbitrary,[4] we should read mwi-nu ro-ja (Minos the king) on a Linear A tablet. The royal title ro-ja is read on several documents, including on stone libation tables from the sanctuaries, where it follows the name of the main god, Asirai (the equivalent of Sanskrit Asura, and of Avestan Ahura). La Marle suggests that the name mwi-nu (Minos) is expected to mean 'ascetic' as Sanskrit muni, and fits this explanation to the legend about Minos sometimes living in caves on Crete.[5] If royal succession in Minoan Crete descended matrilinearly— from the queen to her firstborn daughter— the queen's husband would have become the Minos, or war chief. Some scholars see a connection between Minos and the names of other ancient founder-kings, such as Menes of Egypt, Mannus of Germany, and Manu of India,[6][7] and even with Meon of Phrygia and Lydia (after him named Maeonia), Mizraim of Egypt in the Book of Genesis and the Canaanite deity Baal.[8] Literary Minos[edit] 17th-century engraving of Scylla falling in love with Minos Minos appears in Greek literature as the king of Knossos as early as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.[9] Thucydides tells us Minos was the most ancient man known to build a navy.[10] He reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean Sea three generations before the Trojan War. He lived at Knossos for periods of nine years, where he received instruction from Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval supremacy.[10][11] On the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant,[12] the heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed to the Minotaur; in revenge for the death of his son Androgeus during a riot (see Theseus).[13] Later rationalization[edit] To reconcile the contradictory aspects of his character, as well as to explain how Minos governed Crete over a period spanning so many generations, two kings of the name of Minos were assumed by later poets and rationalizing mythologists, such as Diodorus Siculus[14] and Plutarch— "putting aside the mythological element", as he claims— in his life of Theseus.[15] According to this view, the first King Minos was the son of Zeus and Europa and brother of Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon. This was the 'good' king Minos, and he was held in such esteem by the Olympian gods that, after he died, he was made one of the three 'Judges of the Dead',[16] alongside his brother Rhadamanthys and half-brother Aeacus. The wife of this 'Minos I' was said to be Itone (daughter of Lyctius) or Crete (a nymph or daughter of his stepfather Asterion), and he had a single son named Lycastus, his successor as King of Crete. Lycastus had a son named Minos, after his grandfather, born by Lycastus' wife, Ida, daughter of Corybas. This 'Minos II'— the 'bad' king Minos— is the son of this Lycastus, and was a far more colorful character than his father and grandfather. It would be to this Minos that we owe the myths of Theseus, Pasiphaë, the Minotaur, Daedalus, Glaucus, and Nisus. Unlike Minos I, Minos II fathered numerous children, including Androgeus, Catreus, Deucalion, Ariadne, Phaedra, and Glaucus — all born to him by his wife Pasiphaë. Through Deucalion, he was the grandfather of King Idomeneus, who led the Cretans to the Trojan War. Possible historical element[edit] Palace of Minos Doubtless there is a considerable historical element in the legend, perhaps in the Phoenician origin of Europa; it is possible that not only Athens, but Mycenae itself, were once culturally bound to the kings of Knossos, as Minoan objects appear at Mycenaean sites.[citation needed] Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily, where he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him while he was taking a bath.[17] Subsequently his remains were sent back to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which was inscribed: "The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus." The earlier legend knows Minos as a beneficent ruler, legislator, and suppressor of piracy.[18] His constitution was said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus for Sparta.[19] In accordance with this, after his death he became judge of the shades in the underworld.[20] In later versions, Aeacus and Rhadamanthus were made judges as well, with Minos leading as the "appeals court" judge.[21] Family[edit] By his wife, Pasiphaë (or some say Crete), he fathered Ariadne, Androgeus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Catreus, Acacallis and Xenodice. By a nymph, Pareia, he had four sons, Eurymedon, Nephalion, Chryses and Philolaus, who were killed by Heracles in revenge for the murder of the latter's two companions. By Dexithea, one of the Telchines, he had a son called Euxanthius.[22] By Androgeneia of Phaestus he had Asterion, who commanded the Cretan contingent in the war between Dionysus and the Indians.[23] Also given as his children are Euryale, possibly the mother of Orion with Poseidon,[24] and Pholegander, eponym of the island Pholegandros.[25] Minos, along with his brothers, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, were raised by King Asterion (or Asterius) of Crete. When Asterion died, his throne was claimed by Minos[26] who banished Sarpedon and, according to some sources, Rhadamanthys too. Mythological Minos[edit] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Asterion, king of Crete, adopted the three sons of Zeus and Europa: Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus. According to the Odyssey he spoke with Zeus every nine years for nine years. He got his laws straight from Zeus himself. When Minos' son Androgeos had won the Panathenaic Games the king, Aegeus, sent him to Marathon to fight a bull, resulting in the death of Androgeos. Outraged, Minos went to Athens to avenge his son, and on the way he camped at Megara where Nisos lived. Learning that Nisos' strength came from his hair, Minos gained the love of Scylla and her aid in cutting off her father's hair so that he could conquer the city. After his triumph, he punished Scylla for her treachery against her father by tying her to a boat and dragging her until she drowned. On arriving in Attica, he asked Zeus to punish the city, and the god struck it with plague and hunger. An oracle told the Athenians to meet any of Minos' demands if they wanted to escape the punishment. Minos then asked Athens to send seven boys and seven girls to Crete every nine years to be sacrificed to the Minotaur, the offspring from the zoophilic encounter of Minos' wife Pasiphaë with a certain bull that the king refused to sacrifice to Poseidon, which he had placed within a labyrinth he commanded his architect Daedalus to build. The Minotaur was defeated by the hero Theseus with the help of Minos' daughter Ariadne. Glaucus[edit] Main article: Glaucus (son of Minos) One day, Glaucus was playing with a ball[27] or mouse[28] and suddenly disappeared. The Curetes told the Cretans "A marvelous creature has been born amongst you: whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child." Polyidus of Argos observed the similarity of a newborn calf in Minos' herd, colored white and red and black, to the ripening of the fruit of the bramble plant, and so Minos sent him to find Glaucus. Searching for the boy, Polyidus saw an owl driving bees away from a wine-cellar in Minos' palace. Inside the wine-cellar was a cask of honey, with Glaucus dead inside. Minos demanded Glaucus be brought back to life, though Polyidus objected. Minos shut Polyidus up in the wine-cellar with a sword. When a snake appeared nearby, Polyidus killed it with the sword. Another snake came for the first, and after seeing its mate dead, the second serpent left and brought back an herb which brought the first snake back to life. Following this example, Polyidus used the same herb to resurrect Glaucus. Minos refused to let Polyidus leave Crete until he taught Glaucus the art of divination. Polyidus did so, but then, at the last moment before leaving, he asked Glaucus to spit in his mouth. Glaucus did so, and forgot everything he had been taught. Poseidon, Daedalus and Pasiphaë[edit] Minos justified his accession as king and prayed to Poseidon for a sign. Poseidon sent a giant white bull out of the sea.[29] Minos was committed to sacrificing the bull to Poseidon,[30] but then decided to substitute a different bull. In rage, Poseidon cursed Pasiphaë, Minos' wife, with a mad passion for the bull. Daedalus built her a wooden cow, which she hid inside. The bull mated with the wooden cow and Pasiphaë was impregnated by the bull, giving birth to a horrible monster, again named Asterius,[31] the Minotaur, half man half bull. Daedalus then built a complicated "chamber that with its tangled windings perplexed the outward way"[32] called the Labyrinth, and Minos put the Minotaur in it. To make sure no one would ever know the secret of who the Minotaur was and how to get out of the Labyrinth (Daedalus knew both of these things), Minos imprisoned Daedalus and his son, Icarus, along with the monster. Daedalus and Icarus flew away on wings Daedalus invented, but Icarus' wings melted because he flew too close to the sun. Icarus fell in the sea and drowned. Theseus[edit] Amphora showing Theseus slaying the Minotaur, 460 BC. Ref:1837,0609.57 . Minos' son Androgeus won every game in a contest hosted by Aegeas of Athens. Alternatively, the other contestants were jealous of Androgeus and killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace if they sent Minos seven young men and seven virgin maidens to feed the Minotaur every year (which corresponded directly to the Minoans' meticulous records of lunar alignments - a full moon falls on the equinoxes once every eight years). This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' lovestruck daughter. Nisus[edit] Minos was also part of the King Nisus story. Nisus was King of Megara, and he was invincible as long as a lock of crimson hair still existed, hidden in his white hair. Minos attacked Megara but Nisus knew he could not be beaten because he still had his lock of crimson hair.[33] His daughter, Scylla, fell in love with Minos and proved it by cutting the crimson hair off her father's head. Nisus died and Megara fell to Crete. Minos spurned Scylla for disobeying her father. She was changed into a shearer bird, relentlessly pursued by her father, who was a falcon. Death[edit] Minos searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle; he presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through. When he reached Camicus, Sicily, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, fetched the old man. He tied the string to an ant, which walked through the seashell, stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince him to take a bath first; then Cocalus' daughters and Daedalus, with Minos trapped in the bath, scalded him to death with boiling water. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades together with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus. Rhadamanthus judged the souls of Asians, Aeacus judged Europeans, and Minos had the deciding vote.[34] Minos in art[edit] Judge Minos in The Last Judgement. On Cretan coins, Minos is represented as bearded, wearing a diadem, curly-haired, haughty and dignified, like the traditional portraits of his reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarcophagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus as judges of the underworld and in connection with the Minotaur and Theseus. In Michelangelo's famous fresco, The Last Judgment (located in the Sistine Chapel), Minos appears as judge of the underworld, surrounded by a crowd of devils. With his tail coiled around him and two donkey ears (symbol of stupidity), Minos judges the damned as they are brought down to hell (see Inferno, Second Circle). In poetry[edit] Minos depicted by Romantic British artist William Blake as part of his illustrations of Dante's Divine Comedy. The original object for this image is held by the National Gallery of Victoria.[35] In the Aeneid of Virgil, Minos was the judge of those who had been given the death penalty on a false charge - Minos sits with a gigantic urn, and decides whether a soul should go to Elysium or Tartarus with the help of a silent jury. Radamanthus, his brother, is a judge at Tartarus who decides upon suitable punishments for sinners there.[36] In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy story Inferno, Minos is depicted as having a snake-like tail. He sits at the entrance to the second circle in the Inferno, which is the beginning of Hell proper. There, he judges the sins of each soul and assigns it to its rightful punishment by indicating the circle to which it must descend. He does this by circling his tail around his own body the appropriate number of times. He can also speak, to clarify the soul's location within the circle indicated by the wrapping of his tail.[37] In books[edit] Minos appeared as an antagonist against Percy Jackson in The Battle of the Labyrinth, the fourth book in the Percy Jackson series by Rick Riordan. Minos appeared to be helping the character Nico di Angelo raise his sister, who died in The Titan's Curse. It was later revealed that he was working with Luke Castellan to destroy Olympus. He revealed that he only helped Nico to trick him into killing Daedalus so he would come back instead of Bianca. King Minos and the Minotaur appear in In the Grip of the Minotaur by Farnham Bishop and Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, a novel which was serialized in Adventure magazine in 1916. Set around 1400 B.C., it tells the story of a group of Northmen who visit the ancient Mediterranean on a trading mission and become embroiled in intrigues between the rising power of Troy and the mistress of the Mediterranean, Crete. Brodeur was a professor at Berkeley who translated Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson and was a well-known Beowulf scholar. The novel was printed in book form for the first time in 2010 (ISBN 978-1-928619-98-7) by Black Dog Books. In Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves, the story of Minos and the Minotaur is referenced several times, both accurately and inaccurately, when Zampanó discusses the thematic similarities between it and the house's labyrinth. Minos appears as a sympathetic character in Mary Renault's "The King Must Die". Slowly succumbing to the rages of leprosy, he hides his face by wearing a bull mask. Having no heir but an illegitimate stepson nicknamed "The Minotaur", he sees in captive Theseus a future king and husband to his daughter, Ariadne. See also[edit] Minos, a dialogue attributed to Plato Menes a pharaoh of the Early Dynastic Period of ancient Egypt Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition Notes[edit] ^ Jennifer R. March, Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Oxbow Books, 2014[1998], p. 146 ^ "We call him Minos, but we do not know his name, probably the word is a title, like Pharaoh or Caesar, and covers a multitude of kings" (Will Durant, The Life of Greece [The Story of Civilization Part II), New York: Simon & Schuster), 1939:11). ^ Hubert La Marle, Linéaire A : la première écriture syllabique de Crete, Geuthner, Paris, 4 volumes, 1997–99 (in vol. 3, ch. XIV concerns kings and meetings) ^ Younger, John. Critique of Decipherments by Hubert La Marle and Kjell Aartun. University of Kansas. 15 August 2009; last update: 5 July 2010 (Retrieved 25 August 2011): [La Marle] "assigns phonetic values to Linear signs based on superficial resemblances to signs in other scripts (the choice of scripts being already prejudiced to include only those from the eastern Mediterranean and northeast Africa), as if "C looks like O so it must be O." ^ La Marle 1997–99. ^ Archivio veneto, Volume 16, 1878, p. 367. ^ Hesperien: zur Lösung des religiös-geschichtlichen Problems der alten Welt, Joseph Wormstall, 1878, p. 73. ^ On the origin and ramifications of the English language: Preceded by an inquiry into the primitive seats, early migrations, and final settlements of the principal European nations, Henry Welsford, 1845, pp. 11–12. ^ Homer, Iliad 13.450; Odyssey 11.321. ^ a b Thucydides, 1.4. ^ Herodotus 3.122 ^ Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998, p. 346. ^ William Godwin (1876). "Lives of the Necromancers". p. 40. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 4. 60. 3 ^ Plutarch, Theseus §16 notes the discrepancy: "on the Attic stage Minos is always vilified... and yet Minos is said to have been a king and a lawgiver..." Lemprière A Classical Dictionary, s.v. "Minos" and "Minos II". ^ Horace, Odes 4.7.21. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.79. ^ Thucydides 1.4. ^ Pausanias 3. 2, 4. ^ Odyssey, 11.568. ^ Plato, Gorgias; 524 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 3.1.2. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 13. 220ff. ^ Hyginus, Poetical Astronomy 2. 34 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Pholegandros ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.1.3. ^ Hyginus, Fabula 136. ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.3.1. ^ Bibliotheke 3.1.3; compare Diodorus Siculus 4.77.2 and John Tzetzes, Chiliades i.479ff. Lactantius Placidus, commentary on Statius, Thebaid v.431, according to whom the bull was sent, in answer to Minos's prayer, not by Poseidon but by Jupiter. ^ The act would have "returned" the bull to the god who sent it. ^ Bibliotheke 3.1.4. ^ Apparently a quotation, according to Sir James George Frazer, (Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation, 1921), commenting on Bibliotheke 3.1.4. ^ Bibliotheke 3.15.8 ^ Plato, Gorgias 523a and 524b ff (trans. Lamb) ^ Morris Eaves; Robert N. Essick; Joseph Viscomi (eds.). "Illustrations to Dante's "Divine Comedy", object 9 (Butlin 812.9) "Minos"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved 26 September 2013. ^ Aeneid VI, 568–572). ^ Inferno V, 4–24; XXVII, 124–127). References[edit] Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley, Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Minos 1.", "Minos 2." Thucydides, Thucydides translated into English; with introduction, marginal analysis, notes, and indices, Volume 1., Benjamin Jowett. translator. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1881. Ziolkowski, Theodore, Minos and the Moderns: Cretan Myth in Twentieth-century Literature and Art. (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). Pp. xii, 173 (Classical Presences). Kelides,Yianni Minos SA: A study of the mind. (Minos SA University: I love Greece Club, 2000 BC). Pp. xii, 173 (Classical Presences). External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Minos. Media related to Minos at Wikimedia Commons The death of Minos in Sicily v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the 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en-wikipedia-org-1835	----	Theseus - Wikipedia Theseus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search legendary king of Athens For other uses, see Theseus (disambiguation). Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Silver kylix with Theseus and the Marathon bull, 445–440 BCE, part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, Sofia, Bulgaria Theseus (UK: /ˈθiːsjuːs/, US: /ˈθiːsiəs/; Greek: Θησεύς [tʰɛːsěu̯s]) was the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. Like Perseus, Cadmus, or Heracles, Theseus battled and overcame foes that were identified with an archaic religious and social order. His role in history has been called "a major cultural transition, like the making of the new Olympia by Hercules."[1]:204 Theseus was a founding hero for the Athenians in the same way that Heracles was the founding hero for the Dorians. The myths surrounding Theseus—his journeys, exploits, and friends—have provided material for fiction throughout the ages. Theseus was responsible for the synoikismos ('dwelling together')—the political unification of Attica under Athens—represented emblematically in his journey of labors, subduing ogres and monstrous beasts. Because he was the unifying king, Theseus built and occupied a palace on the fortress of the Acropolis that may have been similar to the palace that was excavated in Mycenae. Pausanias reports that after the synoikismos, Theseus established a cult of Aphrodite Pandemos ('Aphrodite of all the People') and Peitho on the southern slope of the Acropolis. Plutarch's Life of Theseus (a literalistic biography) makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus' escape, and the love of Ariadne for Theseus.[i] Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included Pherecydes (mid-fifth century BCE), Demon (c. 400 BCE), Philochorus, and Cleidemus (both fourth century BCE).[2] As the subject of myth, the existence of Theseus as a real person has not been proven, but scholars believe that he may have been alive during the Late Bronze Age[3] possibly as a king in the 8th or 9th century BCE.[4] Contents 1 Birth and early years 2 The Six Labours 3 Medea, the Marathonian Bull, Androgeus, and the Pallantides 4 Theseus and the Minotaur 5 Ship of Theseus 6 Theseus and Pirithous 6.1 Abduction of Persephone and encounter with Hades 7 Phaedra and Hippolytus 8 Other stories and death of Theseus 9 Adaptations of the myth 9.1 Literature 9.2 Opera, film, television and video game 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 11 Further reading 12 External links Birth and early years[edit] Theseus and Aethra, by Laurent de La Hyre Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of Athens, was childless. Desiring an heir, he asked the Oracle of Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. He asked the advice of his host Pittheus, king of Troezen. Pittheus understood the prophecy, got Aegeus drunk, and gave Aegeus his daughter Aethra.[5] But following the instructions of Athena in a dream, Aethra left the sleeping Aegeus and waded across to the island of Sphairia that lay close to Troezen's shore. There she poured a libation to Sphairos (Pelops's charioteer) and Poseidon and was possessed by the sea god in the night. The mix gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double paternity, with one immortal and one mortal, was a familiar feature of other Greek heroes.[ii] After Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock[iii] and told Aethra that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were heroic enough, and take the tokens for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. In Athens, Aegeus was joined by Medea, who had left Corinth after slaughtering the children she had borne and had taken Aegeus as her new consort. Thus Theseus was raised in his mother's land. When Theseus grew up and became a brave young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father's tokens. His mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and that he must take the sword and sandals back to the king Aegeus to claim his birthright. To journey to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf, where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the Underworld,[iv] each guarded by a chthonic enemy. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to go alone by the land route and defeated a great many bandits along the way. The Six Labours[edit] Map of Theseus's labours Theseus and the Crommyonian Sow, with Phaea (detail of a kylix) At the first site, which was Epidaurus, sacred to Apollo and the healer Asclepius, Theseus turned the tables on the chthonic bandit, Periphetes, the Club Bearer, who beat his opponents into the Earth, taking from him the stout staff that often identifies Theseus in vase-paintings. At the Isthmian entrance to the Underworld was a robber named Sinis, often called "Pityokamptes" (Greek: Πιτυοκάμπτης, lit. "he who bends Pinetrees"). He would capture travelers, tie them between two pine trees that were bent down to the ground, and then let the trees go, tearing his victims apart. Theseus slew him by his method. He then had seduced Sinis' daughter, Perigune, fathering the child Melanippus. In another deed north of the Isthmus, at a place called Crommyon, he killed an enormous pig, the Crommyonian Sow, bred by an old crone named Phaea. Some versions name the sow herself as Phaea. The Bibliotheca by Pseudo-Apollodorus described the Crommyonian Sow as an offspring of Typhon and Echidna. Near Megara, a robber named Sciron forced travelers along the narrow cliff-face pathway to wash his feet. While they knelt, he kicked them off the cliff behind them, where they were eaten by a giant turtle (or, in some versions, a sea monster). Theseus pushed him off the cliff where he was eaten as well. Another of these enemies was Cercyon, king at the holy site of Eleusis, who challenged passers-by to a wrestling match and, when he had beaten them, killed them. Theseus beat Cercyon at wrestling and then killed him instead. The last bandit was Procrustes the Stretcher, who had two beds, one of which he offered to passers-by in the plain of Eleusis. He then made them fit into it, either by stretching them or by cutting off their feet. Since he had two beds of different lengths, no one would fit. Theseus turned the tables on Procrustes, cutting off his legs and decapitating him with his axe. Medea, the Marathonian Bull, Androgeus, and the Pallantides[edit] When Theseus arrived in Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. Aegeus gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus's consort Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son Medus. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull, an emblem of Cretan power. Theseus captures the Marathonian Bull (kylix painted by Aison, 5th century BCE) On the way to Marathon, Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named Hecale. She swore to make a sacrifice to Zeus if Theseus were successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children. When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals and the sword and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hands. Thus father and son were reunited, and Medea fled to Asia.[citation needed] When Theseus appeared in the town, his reputation had preceded him, as a result of his having traveled along the notorious coastal road from Troezen and slain some of the most feared bandits there. It was not long before the Pallantides' hopes of succeeding the childless Aegeus would be lost if they did not get rid of Theseus (the Pallantides were the sons of Pallas and nephews of King Aegeus, who was then living at the royal court in the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo).[6] So they set a trap for him. One band of them would march on the town from one side while another lay in wait near a place called Gargettus in ambush. The plan was that after Theseus, Aegeus, and the palace guards had been forced out the front, the other half would surprise them from behind. However, Theseus was not fooled. Informed of the plan by a herald named Leos, he crept out of the city at midnight and surprised the Pallantides. "Theseus then fell suddenly upon the party lying in ambush, and slew them all. Thereupon the party with Pallas dispersed," Plutarch reported.[7] Theseus and the Minotaur[edit] Pasiphaë, wife of King Minos of Crete, had several children. The eldest of these, Androgeus, set sail for Athens to take part in the Panathenaic Games, which were held there every four years. Being strong and skillful, he did very well, winning some events outright. He soon became a crowd favorite, much to the resentment of the Pallantides who assassinated him, incurring the wrath of Minos. Theseus and the Minotaur When King Minos heard what had befallen his son, he ordered the Cretan fleet to set sail for Athens. Minos asked Aegeus for his son's assassins, and if they were to be handed to him, the town would be spared. However, not knowing who the assassins were, King Aegeus surrendered the whole town to Minos' mercy. His retribution was that, at the end of every Great Year, which occurred after every seven cycles on the solar calendar, the seven most courageous youths and the seven most beautiful maidens were to board a boat and be sent as tribute to Crete, never to be seen again. Theseus and the Minotaur on 6th-century black-figure pottery In another version, King Minos had waged war with the Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine-year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster that lived in the Labyrinth created by Daedalus. On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to talk to the monster to stop this horror. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with a black sail, promising to his father, Aegeus, that if successful he would return with a white sail.[v] Like the others, Theseus was stripped of his weapons when they sailed. On his arrival in Crete, Ariadne, King Minos' daughter, fell in love with Theseus and, on the advice of Daedalus, gave him a ball of thread (a clew), so he could find his way out of the Labyrinth.[vi] That night, Ariadne escorted Theseus to the Labyrinth, and Theseus promised that if he returned from the Labyrinth he would take Ariadne with him. As soon as Theseus entered the Labyrinth, he tied one end of the ball of string to the doorpost and brandished his sword which he had kept hidden from the guards inside his tunic. Theseus followed Daedalus' instructions given to Ariadne: go forwards, always down, and never left or right. Theseus came to the heart of the Labyrinth and also upon the sleeping Minotaur. The beast awoke and a tremendous fight then occurred. Theseus overpowered the Minotaur with his strength and stabbed the beast in the throat with his sword (according to one scholium on Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode, Theseus strangled it).[8] After decapitating the beast, Theseus used the string to escape the Labyrinth and managed to escape with all of the young Athenians and Ariadne as well as her younger sister Phaedra. Then he and the rest of the crew fell asleep on the beach of the island of Naxos, where they stopped on their way back, looking for water. Athena woke Theseus and told him to leave early that morning and to leave Ariadne there for Dionysus, for Naxos was his island. Stricken with distress, Theseus forgot to put up the white sails instead of the black ones, so his father, the king, believing he was dead, committed suicide, throwing himself off a cliff of Sounion and into the sea, thus causing this body of water to be named the Aegean Sea. Ship of Theseus[edit] Main article: Ship of Theseus According to Plutarch's Life of Theseus, the ship Theseus used on his return from Minoan Crete to Athens was kept in the Athenian harbor as a memorial for several centuries. "The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus,[vii] for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place…"[9] The ship had to be maintained in a seaworthy state, for, in return for Theseus's successful mission, the Athenians had pledged to honor Apollo every year henceforth. Thus, the Athenians sent a religious mission to the island of Delos (one of Apollo's most sacred sanctuaries) on the Athenian state galley—the ship itself—to pay their fealty to the god. To preserve the purity of the occasion, no executions were permitted between the time when the religious ceremony began to when the ship returned from Delos, which took several weeks.[10] To preserve the ship, any wood that wore out or rotted was replaced; it was thus unclear to philosophers how much of the original ship remained, giving rise to the philosophical question of whether it should be considered "the same" ship or not. Such philosophical questions about the nature of identity are sometimes referred to as the "Ship of Theseus" paradox. Regardless of these issues, the Athenians preserved the ship. They believed that Theseus had been an actual, historical figure and the ship gave them a tangible connection to their divine provenance. Theseus and Pirithous[edit] Theseus Defeats the Centaur by Antonio Canova (1804–1819), Kunsthistorisches Museum Theseus's best friend was Pirithous, king of the Lapiths. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from Marathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other they took an oath of friendship and joined the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. In Iliad I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in the literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry Hippodamia. The centaurs were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle. In Ovid's Metamorphoses Theseus fights against and kills Eurytus, the "fiercest of all the fierce centaurs"[11] at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia. Abduction of Persephone and encounter with Hades[edit] Theseus carries off Helen, on an Attic red-figure amphora, c. 510 BCE Theseus, a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus.[12] Theseus, in an old tradition,[13] chose Helen, and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone, even though she was already married to Hades, king of the underworld. They left Helen with Theseus's mother, Aethra at Aphidna, whence she was rescued by the Dioscuri. On Pirithous's behalf they rather unwisely traveled to the underworld, domain of Persephone and her husband Hades. As they wandered through the outskirts of Tartarus, Theseus sat down to rest on a rock. As he did so he felt his limbs change and grow stiff. He tried to rise but could not. He was fixed to the rock. As he turned to cry out to his friend, he saw that Pirithous too was crying out. Around him gathered the terrible band of Furies with snakes in their hair, torches, and long whips in their hands. Before these monsters, the hero's courage failed and he was led away to eternal punishment. For many months in half-darkness, Theseus sat immovably fixed to the rock, mourning for both his friend and for himself. In the end, he was rescued by Heracles who had come to the underworld for his 12th task. There he persuaded Persephone to forgive him for the part he had taken in the rash venture of Pirithous. So Theseus was restored to the upper air but Pirithous never left the kingdom of the dead, for when Heracles tried to free Pirithous, the underworld shook. They then decided the task was beyond any hero and left. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the Dioscuri had taken Helen and Aethra to Sparta. Phaedra and Hippolytus[edit] Theseus saves Hippodameia, work by Johannes Pfuhl in Athens Phaedra, Theseus' second wife and the daughter of King Minos, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus, Theseus' son by the Amazon queen Hippolyta. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned Aphrodite to become a follower of Artemis, so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity. Alternatively, in Euripides' version, Hippolytus, Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from Poseidon against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus' horses to be frightened by a sea monster, usually a bull, and drag their rider to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite. In a version recounted by the Roman playwright Seneca, entitled Phaedra, after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus called upon Neptune (as he did Poseidon in Euripides' interpretation) to kill his son.[14] Upon hearing the news of Hippolytus' death at the hands of Neptune's sea monster, Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die.[15] In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself. Dionysus sent a wild bull that terrified Hippolytus's horses. A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of Aphrodite. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that Asclepius had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium. Other stories and death of Theseus[edit] A fresco depicting Theseus, from Herculaneum (Ercolano), Italy, 45–79 AD According to some sources[citation needed], Theseus also was one of the Argonauts, although Apollonius of Rhodes states in the Argonautica[citation needed] that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. Both statements are inconsistent with Medea being Aegeus' wife by the time Theseus first came to Athens. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered Acamas, who was one of those who hid in the Trojan Horse during the Trojan War. Theseus welcomed the wandering Oedipus and helped Adrastus to bury the Seven against Thebes. Lycomedes of the island of Skyros threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In 475 BCE, in response to an oracle, Cimon of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus "a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear-head by its side and a sword." (Plutarch, Life of Theseus).[16] The remains found by Cimon were reburied in Athens. The early modern name Theseion (Temple of Theseus) was mistakenly applied to the Temple of Hephaestus which was thought to be the actual site of the hero's tomb. Adaptations of the myth[edit] Theseus with the head of Minotaur Theseus Slaying Minotaur (1843), bronze sculpture by Antoine-Louis Barye The deeds of Theseus, on an Attic red-figured kylix, c. 440–430 BCE (British Museum) Literature[edit] Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus at Colonus features Theseus as a major character. Euripides' tragedy Hippolytus and Seneca's Phaedra revolve around the death of Theseus' son. In Geoffrey Chaucer's epic chivalric romance "The Knight's Tale," one of the Canterbury Tales, Theseus is the duke of Athens, husband of Ypolita, and protector of Emelye, Ypolita's sister, for whom the two knights of Thebes, Arcite and Palamon, do battle. Jakob Ayrer wrote the play Theseus (1618) Racine's Phèdre (1677) features Theseus as well as Hippolytus and the title character Phaedra. Theseus is a prominent character as the Duke of Athens in William Shakespeare's plays, A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Two Noble Kinsmen. Hippolyta also appears in both plays. F. L. Lucas's epic poem Ariadne (1932) is an epic reworking of the Labyrinth myth: Aegle, one of the sacrificial maidens who accompany Theseus to Crete, is Theseus's sweetheart, the Minotaur is Minos himself in a bull-mask, and Ariadne, learning on Naxos of Theseus's earlier love for Aegle, decides to leave him for the Ideal [Dionysus].[17] André Gide's Thésée (1946) is a fictional autobiography where the mythical hero of Athens, now elderly, narrates his life story from his carefree youth to his killing of the Minotaur. Mary Renault's The King Must Die (1958) is a dramatic retelling of the Theseus legend from his childhood in Troizen until the return from Crete to Athens. While fictional, it is generally faithful to the spirit and flavor of the best-known variations of the original story. The sequel is The Bull from the Sea (1962), about the hero's later career. Evangeline Walton's historical fiction novel The Sword is Forged (1983) chronicles the story of Theseus and Antiope.[18] Fran Ross' 1974 novel Oreo draws heavily from the Theseus myth.[19] Stephen Dobyns, wrote the poem Theseus within the Labyrinth (1986) which provides a retelling of the myth of Ariadne, Theseus and the Minotaur, in particular the feelings of Ariadne. In issue No. 12 of the Fright Night comic series, entitled Bull-Whipped, Theseus and the Minotaur are resurrected by the comic's Aunt Claudia Hinault, who is the reincarnation of Ariadne. Kir Bulychov's 1993 book An Attempt on Theseus' Life (Russian: Покушение на Тезея) is about a plot to assassinate a man during a virtual reality tour in which he lives through Theseus' life. Aleksey Ryabinin's book Theseus: The story of ancient gods, goddesses, kings, and warriors (2018) provides a retelling of the myths of Theseus, Aegeus, Minotaur, Ariadne, Pirithous and other personages of Greek mythology.[20][21] Troy Denning's 1996 novel Pages of Pain features an amnesic Theseus fighting to recover his past while interacting with some of the more colorful beings of the Planescape universe. Steven Pressfield's novel Last of the Amazons (2002) attempts to situate Theseus's meeting and subsequent marriage to Antiope, as well as the ensuing war, in a historically plausible setting. Jorge Luis Borges presents an interesting variation of the myth in a short story, "The House of Asterion" (Spanish: "La Casa de Asterión"). British comedian Tony Robinson wrote a version of the Theseus story entitled Theseus: Super Hero. Author Suzanne Collins was inspired by Theseus to write The Hunger Games trilogy (2008–2010).[22] Opera, film, television and video game[edit] Thésée (1675) is an early French opera by Jean-Baptiste Lully to a libretto by Philippe Quinault, based on Ovid. Teseo (1713) is an opera seria by George Frideric Handel to a libretto by Nicola Francesco Haym, based on Quinault. The opera Hippolyte et Aricie (1733) by Jean-Philippe Rameau, based on Racine, features Theseus as a character. Theseus is played by Bob Mathias in the film Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete (1960) Theseus is played by Tom Hardy in the film Minotaur (2006). The first episode of the 2001 children's television series MythQuest, entitled "Minotaur," features a story in which the modern-day teen-aged protagonist finds himself unexpectedly thrust into Theseus' role and must follow through with the events of the existing myth, including slaying the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne and Daedalus.[23][better source needed] The storyline was also adapted into a novelisation.[24] In the miniseries Helen of Troy (2003), Theseus, played by Stellan Skarsgård, kidnaps Helen with Pirithous and waits for her to reach marriageable age; however, he is slain by Pollux and she is returned to Sparta. In the video game God of War 2 (2007) Theseus, voiced by Paul Eiding, serves as a guardian to the Sisters of Fate. He wears a bronze armband that serves as a key across the Sisters lair. In the film Immortals (2011), directed by Tarsem Singh, Theseus, played by Henry Cavill, leads a war against King Hyperion of Heraklion, played by Mickey Rourke. The Indian film Ship of Theseus (2012), directed by Anand Gandhi, is an exploration of the philosophical idea underlying the myth. In 2013, the BBC series Atlantis was released. In the first episode of season one, The Earth Bull, Jason enters the labyrinth. He is helped by Ariadne to slay him, as the myth of the Minotaur. Jason is based on the characters of Theseus, Perseus and the myth of Jason And The Argonauts. In Season 2 Part 1, Medea is introduced. Pasiphaё seeks to take back Atlantis after Ariadne is made Queen. The plot seems to be leading to Jason and The Argonauts. In the video game Hades (video game), Theseus serves as a boss, accompanied by the Minotaur, attempting to keep the protagonist from escaping the underworld. References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ "May I therefore succeed in purifying Fable, making her submit to reason and take on the semblance of History. But where she obstinately disdains to make herself credible, and refuses to admit any element of probability, I shall pray for kindly readers, and such as receive with indulgence the tales of antiquity." (Plutarch, Life of Theseus, translated by Bernadotte Perrin). Plutarch's avowed purpose is to construct a life that parallels the Life of Romulus that embodies the founding myth of Rome. ^ The theory, expounded as natural history by Aristotle, was accepted through the nineteenth century and only proven wrong in modern genetics: see Telegony. Sometimes in myth, the result could be twins, one born divine of a divine father, the other human of a human sire: see Dioscuri. Of a supposed Parnassos, founder of Delphi, Pausanias observes, "Like the other heroes, as they are called, he had two fathers; one they say was the god Poseidon, the human father being Cleopompus." (Description of Greece x.6.1). ^ Rock "which had a hollow in it just large enough to receive these objects," Plutarch says. ^ Compared to Hercules and his Labours, "Theseus is occupied only with the sacred Entrances that are local to the lands of Athens" (Ruck and Staples 1994:204). ^ Plutarch quotes Simonides to the effect that the alternate sail given by Aegeus was not white, but "a scarlet sail dyed with the tender flower of luxuriant holm oak." (Plutarch, 17.5). ^ Ariadne is sometimes represented in vase-paintings with the thread wound on her spindle. ^ Demetrius Phalereus was a distinguished orator and statesman, who governed Athens for a decade before being exiled, in 307 BCE. Citations[edit] ^ Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples (1994). "Theseus: Making the New Athens." Pp. 203–222 in The World of Classical Myth. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. ^ Cueva, Edmund P. (1996). "Plutarch's Ariadne in Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe." American Journal of Philology, 117(3):473–84. ^ Greene, Andrew. "Theseus, Hero of Athens". Retrieved 25 November 2018. ^ Morford, Mark; Lenardon, Robert J.; Sham, Michael. "Classical Mythology Tenth Edition". Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 November 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2016. ^ Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, and Michael Sham. 2014. Classical Mythology (10th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Plutarch, Life of Theseus, XII ^ Plutarch Life of Theseus, XIII ^ Kerényi, Karl (1959). The Heroes of the Greeks. p. 232, note 532. ^ Plutarch. "Theseus". The Internet Classics Archive. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 17 January 2013. ^ Cooper, John M., ed. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Associate editor, D. S. Hutchinson. Indianapolis: Hackett. p. 37. ISBN 0-87220-349-2. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses XII: 217–153 ^ Scholia on Iliad III.144 and a fragment (#227) of Pindar, according to Kerenyi 1951:237, note 588. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 13.4 (557a); cf. Kerenyi (1959:234) and note. ^ Sen. Phaed. 941–949 ^ Sen. Phaed. 1159–1198. ^ Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press. p. 206. ISBN 9780674362819. ^ F. L. Lucas (2014). Ariadne. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107677524. ^ Evangeline Walton (1983). "The Sword is Forged". Kirkus Reviews. Retrieved 16 March 2016. ^ Mullen, Harryette Mullen (1 March 2002). ""Apple Pie with Oreo Crust": Fran Ross's Recipe for an Idiosyncratic American Novel". MELUS. 27 (1): 107–129. doi:10.2307/3250639. ISSN 0163-755X. ^ Ryabinin, Aleksey. 2018. Theseus.The story of ancient gods, goddesses, kings, and warriors. СПб.: Антология. ISBN 978-5-6040037-6-3. ^ O.Zdanov. Life and adventures of Theseus. // «KP», 14.02.2018. ^ Zeitchik, Steven (24 March 2012). "Which dystopian property does The Hunger Games most resemble?". Los Angeles Times. Boston Herald. Retrieved 24 March 2012. ^ TV Tropes – Recap: Myth Quest E 1 "The Minotaur" ^ The Minotaur (MythQuest #1) goodreads.com Further reading[edit] Primary sources Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Ovid, Metamorphoses Plutarch, Theseus Secondary sources Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion (1985) Stephen Dobyns, Theseus within the Labyrinth (1986) https://www.jstor.org/stable/20600617 Kerényi, Karl, The Heroes of the Greeks (1959) Price, Anne, The Quest for Theseus (London, 1970) examines the Theseus-Minotaur-Ariadne myth and its historical basis, and later treatments and adaptations of it in Western culture. Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth: ch. IX "Theseus: making the new Athens" (1994), pp. 203–222. Sideris, Athanasios, Theseus in Thrace. The silver lining on the clouds of the Athenian-Thracian relations in the 5th century BC (Sofia, 2015) presents new iconographical sources and examines the role of Theseus in the state ideology of Athens and its gift-diplomacy with Thrace. Walker, Henry J., Theseus and Athens, Oxford University Press (US 1995). The most thorough scholarly examination of Theseus's archaic origins and classical myth and cult, and his place in classical literature. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Theseus Wikisource has original text related to this article: Theseus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theseus. (Theoi Project) Plutarch: Life of Theseus Greek Myth Comix: The Story of Theseus, Pt. 1 Pt. 2 Pt. 3 The story of Theseus in comic-strip format, by Greek Myth Comix v t e Works of Plutarch Works Parallel Lives Moralia "De genio Socratis" "On the Malice of Herodotus" Pseudo-Plutarch Lives Alcibiades and Coriolanus1 Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar Aratus of Sicyon / Artaxerxes and Galba / Otho2 Aristides and Cato the Elder1 Crassus and Nicias1 Demetrius and Antony1 Demosthenes and Cicero1 Dion and Brutus1 Fabius and Pericles1 Lucullus and Cimon1 Lysander and Sulla1 Numa and Lycurgus1 Pelopidas and Marcellus1 Philopoemen and Flamininus1 Phocion and Cato the Younger Pompey and Agesilaus1 Poplicola and Solon1 Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius Romulus and Theseus1 Sertorius and Eumenes1 Agis / Cleomenes1 and Tiberius Gracchus / Gaius Gracchus Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus1 Themistocles and Camillus Translators and editors Jacques Amyot Arthur Hugh Clough John Dryden Philemon Holland Thomas North 1 Comparison extant 2 Four unpaired Lives Authority control GND: 11862184X LCCN: no2014083772 NKC: jn20000701799 SUDOC: 027385493 VIAF: 122737914 WorldCat Identities: viaf-122737914 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theseus&oldid=1003687156" Categories: Theseus Argonauts Attic mythology Characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Founding monarchs Greek mythological heroes Heroes who ventured to Hades Kings of Athens Male Shakespearean characters Mythological swordfighters Children of Poseidon Demigods Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata EngvarB from September 2017 Use dmy dates from October 2017 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019 Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from June 2017 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 05:25 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-1893	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Interpretations== [[File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Black and white etching of Sisyphus by Johann Vogel |Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. [[Johann Vogel (poet)|Johann Vogel]]: ''Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae'', 1649]] According to the [[solar theory]], King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.<ref name="eb1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus |volume=25 |page=161}}</ref> Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.<ref name="eb1911"/> The 1st-century BC [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosopher [[Lucretius]] interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.<ref>''[[De Rerum Natura]]'' III</ref> [[Friedrich Welcker]] suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and [[Salomon Reinach]]<ref>''Revue archéologique'', 1904</ref> that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone [[Acrocorinthus]], symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. [[Albert Camus]], in his 1942 essay ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, [[J. Nigro Sansonese]],<ref>[[J. Nigro Sansonese|Sansonese, J. Nigro]]. ''The Body of Myth''. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. {{ISBN|0-89281-409-8}}</ref> building on the work of [[Georges Dumézil]], speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ariely|first=Dan|title=The Upside of Irrationality|year=2010|isbn=0-06-199503-7}}</ref> In his book ''The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking'',<ref>Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. {{ISBN|978-3-7438-7149-6}}</ref> German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. ===Literary interpretations=== [[File:Punishment sisyph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Painting of Sisyphus by Titian |''Sisyphus'' (1548–49) by [[Titian]], [[Prado Museum]], [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]]] [[Homer]] describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the ''[[Iliad]]'' and Book XI of the ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref name="Homer Iliad VI 152ff"/><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593"/> [[Ovid]], the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of [[Orpheus]] and [[Eurydice]]. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being ''inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo'' ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").<ref>Ovid. ''Metamorphoses'', 10.44.</ref> In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"<ref>Apology, 41a</ref> [[Albert Camus]], the [[French Algeria|French]] [[absurdism|absurdist]], wrote an essay entitled ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. [[Franz Kafka]] repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; [[Kafkaesque]] for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."<ref>[[Frederick R. Karl|Karl, Frederick]]. ''Franz Kafka: Representative Man.'' New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2</ref> The philosopher [[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.<ref>Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." ''Review of Metaphysics'' 40 (June 1987): 675–686.</ref> [[Wolfgang Mieder]] has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them [[editorial cartoons]].<ref>Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens.</ref> Return to Sisyphus. 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en-wikipedia-org-1	----	WorldCat - Wikipedia WorldCat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from WorldCat Identities (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International union library catalog For information on using WorldCat links in Wikipedia articles, see Template:OCLC. WorldCat Screenshot WorldCat homepage as of June 2019 Type of site Network of library content and services Available in 13 languages[1] List of languages Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Traditional) Czech Dutch English French German Italian Korean Japanese Portuguese Spanish Thai Urdu Owner OCLC URL www.worldcat.org Commercial No Registration Optional, but some features require registration (such as writing reviews and making lists or bibliographies) Launched January 21, 1998; 23 years ago (1998-01-21)[2] Current status Online Content license Copyright policy OCLC number 756372754 WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 15,600 libraries in 107 countries[3] that participate in the OCLC global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC, Inc.[4] The subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCat's database, the world's largest bibliographic database.[5] The database includes other information sources in addition to member library collections.[6] OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscription OCLC services (such as resource sharing and collection management). WorldCat is used by the general public and by librarians for cataloging and research. Contents 1 History 2 Model 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History[edit] OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour.[7] That same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat; the first catalog records were added in 1971.[7][8] In 2003, OCLC began the "Open WorldCat" pilot program, making abbreviated records from a subset of WorldCat available to partner web sites and booksellers, to increase the accessibility of its subscribing member libraries' collections.[9][10] In October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record.[11] WikiD was later phased out, although WorldCat later incorporated user-generated content in other ways.[12][13] In 2006, it became possible for anyone to search WorldCat directly at its open website,[14] not only through the subscription FirstSearch interface where it had been available on the web to subscribing libraries for more than a decade before.[15] Options for more sophisticated searches of WorldCat have remained available through the FirstSearch interface.[14] In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million "identities", which are metadata about names—predominantly authors and persons who are the subjects of published titles.[16] In 2017, OCLC's WorldCat Search API was integrated into the cite tool of Wikipedia's VisualEditor, allowing Wikipedia editors to cite sources from WorldCat easily.[17][18] Beginning in 2017, OCLC and the Internet Archive have collaborated to make the Internet Archive's records of digitized books available in WorldCat.[19] As of July 2020, WorldCat contained almost 500 million bibliographic records in 483 languages, representing over 3 billion physical and digital library assets,[4] and the WorldCat persons dataset (mined from WorldCat) included over 100 million people.[20] Model[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) WorldCat contains records in MAchine Readable Cataloging (MARC) format contributed by library catalogers worldwide who use OCLC as a cataloging tool, and these MARC format records can also be downloaded into other libraries' local catalog systems. This allows libraries to find and download records for materials they are adding to their local catalog, without having to undergo the lengthy process of creating a new catalog entry from scratch for each new item. WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the underlying library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently: WorldCat shows that a particular item is owned by a particular library but does not provide that library's call number. WorldCat does not indicate whether an item is currently borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair, or moved to storage not directly accessible to patrons (thereby forcing interested patrons to submit a retrieval request and wait). Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether a library owns multiple copies of a particular title. As an alternative, WorldCat allows participating institutions to add direct links from WorldCat to their own catalog entries for a particular item, which enables the user to determine its real-time status.[21] However, this still requires users to open multiple Web pages, each pointing to a different online public access catalog with its own distinctive user interface design (which places item status in a different portion of the Web browser display), until they can locate a catalog entry that shows the item is currently available at a particular library. Library contributions to WorldCat are made via the Connexion computer program, which was introduced in 2001; its predecessor, OCLC Passport, was phased out in May 2005.[22] See also[edit] Copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) List of academic databases and search engines Open Library References[edit] ^ "Search for library items". WorldCat. OCLC. Retrieved March 29, 2017. ^ 1998 is the date of registry of the WorldCat.org domain; see: "WorldCat.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved January 21, 2017. However, the union catalog that became WorldCat was started three decades earlier, and it was already available on the web to subscriber libraries at OCLC.org several years before WorldCat.org was a registered domain name; see: "OCLC.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools". WHOIS. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "About OCLC". OCLC. Retrieved January 4, 2021. ^ a b "Inside WorldCat". www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved August 19, 2019. ^ Oswald, Godfrey (2017). "Largest unified international library catalog". Library world records (3rd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. p. 291. ISBN 9781476667775. OCLC 959650095. ^ "Content available through WorldCat Discovery" (XLS). www.oclc.org. OCLC. Retrieved September 22, 2020. ^ a b Margalit Fox (August 2, 2006). "Frederick G. Kilgour, Innovative Librarian, Dies at 92". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2009. Frederick G. Kilgour, a distinguished librarian who nearly 40 years ago transformed a consortium of Ohio libraries into what is now the largest library cooperative in the world, making the catalogs of thousands of libraries around the globe instantly accessible to far-flung patrons, died on Monday in Chapel Hill, N.C. He was 92. ^ "A brief history of WorldCat". oclc.org. February 10, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2014. ^ O'Neill, Nancy (November–December 2004). "Open WorldCat Pilot: A User's Perspective". Searcher. 12 (10): 54–60. ISSN 1070-4795. OCLC 201889986. ^ Quint, Barbara (October 27, 2003). "OCLC project opens WorldCat records to Google". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ "WikiD". OCLC. Retrieved March 5, 2015. ^ Storey, Tom (September 2007). "A WorldCat community: using WorldCat.org to build a social network of the world's library users" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (7): 16–17. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved June 26, 2019. Online ratings, tags, reviews, recommendations, lists, rankings, personal profiles—the social media revolution is here. It seems the world has exploded with Web 2.0, social networking tools and sites. ^ Bertot, John Carlo; Berube, Katy; Devereaux, Peter; Dhakal, Kerry; Powers, Stephen; Ray, Jennie (April 2012). "Assessing the usability of WorldCat Local: findings and considerations". The Library Quarterly. 82 (2): 207–221. doi:10.1086/664588. JSTOR 10.1086/664588. S2CID 61287720. Breeding [2] also makes the following observations about the benefits of the search system: the presence of a more visually appealing interface; the grouping of related material; faceted navigation; and the capability for user-generated content (e.g., reviews). Eden [3] also refers to the advantages of user-generated content possible in WCL... ^ a b Hane, Paula J. (July 17, 2006). "OCLC to open WorldCat searching to the world". infotoday.com. Information Today. Retrieved June 26, 2019. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1994). "National online library catalogs". Handbook for research in American history: a guide to bibliographies and other reference works (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 0803237014. OCLC 28018047. Online Computer Library Center has developed two new programs. One is called EPIC, a new command-driven full online service with sophisticated searching features, including subject searches, intended for librarians and other experienced users. The other, designed for end-users, is FirstSearch, which contains the database materials found in EPIC or subsets of them but has a menu interface that nonspecialists find easy to use. Both EPIC and FirstSearch make available the full OCLC Online Union Catalog (called WorldCat in FirstSearch), but they also function as online database services, offering their users a wide array of other databases. ^ Hickey, Thomas B. (April 15, 2007). "WorldCat Identities: Another View of the Catalog" (PDF). NextSpace. OCLC (6): 18–19. ISSN 1559-0011. Retrieved January 18, 2016. ^ "OCLC and Wikipedia Library link citations to millions of library materials, expanding access to quality sources". oclc.org. OCLC. May 11, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Orlowitz, Jake (May 11, 2017). "You can now add automatically generated citations to millions of books on Wikipedia". blog.wikimedia.org. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved April 25, 2020. ^ Michalko, Jim (October 12, 2017). "Syncing Catalogs with thousands of Libraries in 120 Countries through OCLC". blog.archive.org. Internet Archive. Retrieved July 18, 2020. ^ "Data strategy [WorldCat]". oclc.org. Archived from the original on February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 11, 2018. ^ "What is WorldCat?". worldcat.org. Retrieved February 13, 2015. ^ Dean, Becky (March 3, 2005). "OCLC Authorities migration timeline". bibco@listserv.loc.gov (Mailing list). Retrieved June 26, 2019. Further reading[edit] Blackman, Cathy; Moore, Erica Rae; Seikel, Michele; Smith, Mandi (July 2014). "WorldCat and SkyRiver: a comparison of record quantity and fullness". Library Resources & Technical Services. 58 (3): 178–186. doi:10.5860/lrts.58n3.178. Breeding, Marshall (May 2015). "Library services platforms: a maturing genre of products". Library Technology Reports. 51 (4): 1–38. doi:10.5860/ltr.51n4. Matthews, Joseph R. (July 2016). "An environmental scan of OCLC alternatives: a management perspective". Public Library Quarterly. 35 (3): 175–187. doi:10.1080/01616846.2016.1210440. McKenzie, Elizabeth (January 2012). OCLC changes its rules for use of records in WorldCat: library community pushback through blogs and cultures of resistance (Technical report). Boston: Suffolk University Law School. Research paper 12-06. What the OCLC online union catalog means to me: a collection of essays. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC. 1997. ISBN 1556532237. OCLC 37492023. Wilson, Kristen (August 2016). "The knowledge base at the center of the universe". Library Technology Reports. 52 (6): 1–35. doi:10.5860/ltr.52n6. "WorldCat data licensing" (PDF). oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. See also: "Data licenses & attribution". oclc.org. January 14, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information about licensing of WorldCat records and some other OCLC data. External links[edit] Official website "WorldCat". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Information on the OCLC website about WorldCat. What is WorldCat?—A shorter explanation at WorldCat "Bibliographic Formats and Standards". oclc.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. "WorldCat Identities". worldcat.org. Retrieved December 31, 2018. Authority control LCCN: no2006000525 VIAF: 176058852 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176058852 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WorldCat&oldid=1002545606#Identifier" Categories: Bibliographic databases and indexes Cooperatives Library catalogues OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from March 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from March 2017 Articles needing additional references from December 2018 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 23:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2101	----	Ancient Corinth - Wikipedia Ancient Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient city of Corinth. For the modern city, see Corinth. Coordinates: 37°54′19″N 22°52′49″E / 37.9053455°N 22.8801924°E / 37.9053455; 22.8801924 Corinth Κόρινθος Ϙόρινθος 900 BC–146 BC Silver tridrachm from Corinth, c. 345–307 BC Map of ancient Corinth Reconstruction of the city of Corinth Capital Corinth Common languages Doric Greek Religion Greek Polytheism Government Oligarchy Historical era Classical Antiquity • Founding 900 BC • Cypselus 657–627 BC • Captured and razed by Romans 146 BC Preceded by Succeeded by Greek Dark Ages Roman Republic Corinth (/ˈkɒrɪnθ/ KORR-inth; Ancient Greek: Κόρινθος, romanized: Kórinthos; Doric Greek: Ϙόρινθος; Turkish: Gördes Latin: Corinthus) was a city-state (polis) on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnese to the mainland of Greece, roughly halfway between Athens and Sparta. The modern city of Corinth is located approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northeast of the ancient ruins. Since 1896, systematic archaeological investigations of the Corinth Excavations by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens have revealed large parts of the ancient city, and recent excavations conducted by the Greek Ministry of Culture have brought to light important new facets of antiquity. For Christians, Corinth is well known from the two letters of Saint Paul in the New Testament, First and Second Corinthians. Corinth is also mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as part of Paul the Apostle's missionary travels. In addition, the second book of Pausanias' Description of Greece is devoted to Corinth. Ancient Corinth was one of the largest and most important cities of Greece, with a population of 90,000 in 400 BC.[1] The Romans demolished Corinth in 146 BC, built a new city in its place in 44 BC, and later made it the provincial capital of Greece. Contents 1 History 1.1 Prehistory and founding myths 1.2 Corinth under the Bacchiadae 1.3 Corinth under the tyrants 1.4 Archaic Corinth after the tyrants 1.5 Classical Corinth 1.5.1 Peloponnesian War 1.5.2 Corinthian War 1.5.3 379–323 BC 1.6 Hellenistic period 1.7 Roman era 1.7.1 Biblical Corinth 1.8 Byzantine era 1.9 Principality of Achaea 1.10 Ottoman rule 1.11 Independence 2 Modern Corinth 3 Ancient city and its environs 3.1 Acrocorinth, the acropolis 3.2 Two ports: Lechaeum and Cenchreae 4 Important monuments 5 Notable people 5.1 Ancient Greece 5.2 Medieval 6 Ancient Corinth in literature 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] Prehistory and founding myths[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Neolithic pottery suggests that the site of Corinth was occupied from at least as early as 6500 BC, and continually occupied into the Early Bronze Age,[2] when, it has been suggested, the settlement acted as a centre of trade.[3] However, there is a dramatic drop in ceramic remains during the Early Helladic II phase and only sparse ceramic remains in the EHIII and MH phases; thus, it appears that the area was very sparsely inhabited in the period immediately before the Mycenaean period. There was a settlement on the coast near Lechaion which traded across the Corinthian Gulf; the site of Corinth itself was likely not heavily occupied again until around 900 BC, when it is believed that the Dorians settled there.[4] According to Corinthian myth as reported by Pausanias, the city was founded by Corinthos, a descendant of the god Zeus.[5] However, other myths suggest that it was founded by the goddess Ephyra, a daughter of the Titan Oceanus, thus the ancient name of the city (also Ephyra). There is evidence that the city was destroyed around 2000 BC.[citation needed] Some ancient names for the place are derived from a pre-Greek "Pelasgian" language, such as Korinthos. It seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a Bronze Age Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, Tiryns, or Pylos. According to myth, Sisyphus was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, abandoned Medea.[6] During the Trojan War, as portrayed in the Iliad, the Corinthians participated under the leadership of Agamemnon. In a Corinthian myth recounted to Pausanias in the 2nd century AD,[7] Briareus, one of the Hecatonchires, was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios, between the sea and the sun. His verdict was that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) belonged to Helios. Thus, Greeks of the Classical age accounted for the archaic cult of the sun-titan in the highest part of the site.[citation needed] The Upper Peirene spring is located within the walls of the acropolis. "The spring, which is behind the temple, they say was the gift of Asopus to Sisyphus. The latter knew, so runs the legend, that Zeus had ravished Aegina, the daughter of Asopus, but refused to give information to the seeker before he had a spring given him on the Acrocorinthus." (Pausanias, 2.5.1).[8] Corinth under the Bacchiadae[edit] Main article: Bacchiadae View of Ancient Corinth Corinth had been a backwater in 8th-century Greece.[9] The Bacchiadae (Ancient Greek: Βακχιάδαι Bakkhiadai) were a tightly-knit Doric clan and the ruling kinship group of archaic Corinth in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, a period of expanding Corinthian cultural power. In 747 BC (a traditional date), an aristocratic ousted the Bacchiadai Prytaneis and reinstituted the kingship, about the time the Kingdom of Lydia (the endonymic Basileia Sfard) was at its greatest, coinciding with the ascent of Basileus Meles, King of Lydia. The Bacchiadae, numbering perhaps a couple of hundred adult males, took power from the last king Telestes (from the House of Sisyphos) in Corinth).[10] The Bacchiads dispensed with kingship and ruled as a group, governing the city by annually electing a prytanis (who held the kingly position[11] for his brief term),[12] probably a council (though none is specifically documented in the scant literary materials), and a polemarchos to head the army. During Bacchiad rule from 747 to 650 BC, Corinth became a unified state. Large scale public buildings and monuments were constructed at this time. In 733 BC, Corinth established colonies at Corcyra and Syracuse. By 730 BC, Corinth emerged as a highly advanced Greek city with at least 5,000 people.[13] Aristotle tells the story of Philolaus of Corinth, a Bacchiad who was a lawgiver at Thebes. He became the lover of Diocles, the winner of the Olympic games. They both lived for the rest of their lives in Thebes. Their tombs were built near one another and Philolaus' tomb points toward the Corinthian country, while Diocles' faces away.[14] In 657 BC, polemarch Cypselus obtained an oracle from Delphi which he interpreted to mean that he should rule the city.[15] He seized power and exiled the Bacchiadae.[16] Corinth under the tyrants[edit] Main article: Cypselus Cypselus or Kypselos (Greek: Κύψελος) was the first tyrant of Corinth in the 7th century BC. From 658–628 BC, he removed the Bacchiad aristocracy from power and ruled for three decades. He built temples to Apollo and Poseidon in 650 BC. Apollo Temple has been built in Doric style on the ruins of earlier temple, being a good example of peripteral temple, supported by 38 columns, 7 of which are still in place. Archeological site located close to Temple of Apollo. Archeological site of Ancient Theater first built in Corinth in 5th c. BC. The Theater could seat around 15000 spectators. Aristotle reports that "Cypselus of Corinth had made a vow that if he became master of the city, he would offer to Zeus the entire property of the Corinthians. Accordingly, he commanded them to make a return of their possessions."[17] The city sent forth colonists to found new settlements in the 7th century BC, under the rule of Cypselus (r. 657–627 BC) and his son Periander (r. 627–587 BC). Those settlements were Epidamnus (modern day Durrës, Albania), Syracuse, Ambracia (modern day town of Lefkas), Corcyra (modern day town of Corfu), and Anactorium. Periander also founded Apollonia in Illyria (modern day Fier, Albania) and Potidaea (in Chalcidice). Corinth was also one of the nine Greek sponsor-cities to found the colony of Naukratis in Ancient Egypt, founded to accommodate the increasing trade volume between the Greek world and pharaonic Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh Psammetichus I of the 26th Dynasty. Greek city-states tended to overthrow their traditional hereditary priest-kings, with increased wealth and more complicated trade relations and social structures. Corinth led the way as the richest archaic polis.[18] The tyrants usually seized power at the head of some popular support, like the signori of late medieval and Renaissance Italy. Often the tyrants calmed the populace by upholding existing laws and customs and strict conservatism in cult practices. A cult of personality naturally substituted for the divine right of the former legitimate royal house, as it did in Renaissance Italy. Temple of Apollo, Ancient Corinth. Periander (Περίανδρος) (r. 627–587 BC). Cypselus was the son of Eëtion and a disfigured woman named Labda. He was a member of the Bacchiad kin and usurped the power in archaic matriarchal right of his mother. According to Herodotus, the Bacchiadae heard two prophecies from the Delphic oracle that the son of Eëtion would overthrow their dynasty, and they planned to kill the baby once he was born. However, the newborn smiled at each of the men sent to kill him, and none of them could bear to strike the blow. Labda then hid the baby in a chest,[19] and the men could not find him once they had composed themselves and returned to kill him. (Compare the infancy of Perseus.) The ivory chest of Cypselus was richly worked and adorned with gold. It was a votive offering at Olympia, where Pausanias gave it a minute description in his 2nd century AD travel guide.[20] Cypselus grew up and fulfilled the prophecy. Corinth had been involved in wars with Argos and Corcyra, and the Corinthians were unhappy with their rulers. Cypselus was polemarch at the time (around 657 BC), the archon in charge of the military, and he used his influence with the soldiers to expel the king. He also expelled his other enemies, but allowed them to set up colonies in northwestern Greece. He also increased trade with the colonies in Italy and Sicily. He was a popular ruler and, unlike many later tyrants, he did not need a bodyguard and died a natural death. He ruled for thirty years and was succeeded as tyrant by his son Periander in 627 BC.[21] The treasury that Cypselus built at Delphi was apparently still standing in the time of Herodotus, and the chest of Cypselus was seen by Pausanias at Olympia in the 2nd century AD. Periander brought Corcyra to order in 600 BC. Periander was considered one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece.[22] During his reign, the first Corinthian coins were struck. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulfs. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties that he met, but he created the Diolkos instead (a stone-built overland ramp). The era of the Cypselids was Corinth's golden age, and ended with Periander's nephew Psammetichus, named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above). Periander killed his wife Melissa. His son Lycophron found out and shunned him, and Periander exiled the son to Corcyra.[23] Periander later wanted Lycophron to replace him as ruler of Corinth, and convinced him to come home to Corinth on the condition that Periander go to Corcyra. The Corcyreans heard about this and killed Lycophron to keep away Periander.[24][25] Archaic Corinth after the tyrants[edit] 581 BC: Periander's nephew and successor was assassinated, ending the tyranny. 581 BC: the Isthmian Games were established by leading families. 570 BC: the inhabitants started to use silver coins called 'colts' or 'foals'. 550 BC: Construction of the Temple of Apollo at Corinth (early third quarter of the 6th century BC).[26] 550 BC: Corinth allied with Sparta. 525 BC: Corinth formed a conciliatory alliance with Sparta against Argos. 519 BC: Corinth mediated between Athens and Thebes. Around 500 BC: Athenians and Corinthians entreated Spartans not to harm Athens by restoring the tyrant.[27] Just before the classical period, according to Thucydides, the Corinthians developed the trireme which became the standard warship of the Mediterranean until the late Roman period. Corinth fought the first naval battle on record against the Hellenic city of Corcyra.[28] The Corinthians were also known for their wealth due to their strategic location on the isthmus, through which all land traffic had to pass en route to the Peloponnese, including messengers and traders.[29] Classical Corinth[edit] Corinthian stater.Obverse:Pegasus with Koppa () (or Qoppa) beneath. Reverse:Athena wearing Corinthian helmet. Koppa symbolised the archaic spelling of the city name (Ϙόρινθος). Statues in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth. Corinthian order columns in ancient Corinth. In classical times, Corinth rivaled Athens and Thebes in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century, Corinth was a major exporter of black-figure pottery to city-states around the Greek world, later losing their market to Athenian artisans. In classical times and earlier, Corinth had a temple of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, employing some thousand hetairas (temple prostitutes) (see also Temple prostitution in Corinth). The city was renowned for these temple prostitutes, who served the wealthy merchants and the powerful officials who frequented the city. Lais, the most famous hetaira, was said to charge tremendous fees for her extraordinary favours. Referring to the city's exorbitant luxuries, Horace is quoted as saying: "non licet omnibus adire Corinthum" ("Not everyone is able to go to Corinth").[30] Corinth was also the host of the Isthmian Games. During this era, Corinthians developed the Corinthian order, the third main style of classical architecture after the Doric and the Ionic. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the city's wealth and the luxurious lifestyle, while the Doric order evoked the rigorous simplicity of the Spartans, and the Ionic was a harmonious balance between these two following the cosmopolitan philosophy of Ionians like the Athenians. The city had two main ports: to the west on the Corinthian Gulf lay Lechaion, which connected the city to its western colonies (Greek: apoikiai) and Magna Graecia, while to the east on the Saronic Gulf the port of Kenchreai served the ships coming from Athens, Ionia, Cyprus and the Levant. Both ports had docks for the city's large navy. Street in ancient Corinth. In 491 BC, Corinth mediated between Syracuse and Gela in Sicily. During the years 481–480 BC, the Conference at the Isthmus of Corinth (following conferences at Sparta) established the Hellenic League, which allied under the Spartans to fight the war against Persia. The city was a major participant in the Persian Wars, sending 400 soldiers to defend Thermopylae[31] and supplying forty warships for the Battle of Salamis under Adeimantos and 5,000 hoplites with their characteristic Corinthian helmets[citation needed]) in the following Battle of Plataea. The Greeks obtained the surrender of Theban collaborators with the Persians. Pausanias took them to Corinth where they were put to death.[32] Following the Battle of Thermopylae and the subsequent Battle of Artemisium, which resulted in the captures of Euboea, Boeotia, and Attica,[33] the Greco-Persian Wars were at a point where now most of mainland Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun.[34] Corinthian order. Herodotus, who was believed to dislike the Corinthians, mentions that they were considered the second best fighters after the Athenians.[35] In 458 BC, Corinth was defeated by Athens at Megara. Peloponnesian War[edit] In 435 BC, Corinth and its colony Corcyra went to war over Epidamnus.[36] In 433 BC, Athens allied with Corcyra against Corinth.[37] The Corinthian war against the Corcyrans was the largest naval battle between Greek city states until that time.[38] In 431 BC, one of the factors leading to the Peloponnesian War was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over Corcyra, which probably stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities. Three Syracusan generals went to Corinth seeking allies against Athenian invasion.[39] The Corinthians "voted at once to aid [the Syracusans] heart and soul". They also sent a group to Lacedaemon to rouse Spartan assistance. After a convincing speech from the Athenian renegade Alcibiades, the Spartans agreed to send troops to aid the Sicilians.[40] In 404 BC, Sparta refused to destroy Athens, angering the Corinthians. Corinth joined Argos, Boeotia, and Athens against Sparta in the Corinthian War.[citation needed][clarification needed] Demosthenes later used this history in a plea for magnanimous statecraft, noting that the Athenians of yesteryear had had good reason to hate the Corinthians and Thebans for their conduct during the Peloponnesian War,[41] yet they bore no malice whatever.[42] Corinthian War[edit] In 395 BC, after the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, dissatisfied with the hegemony of their Spartan allies, moved to support Athens against Sparta in the Corinthian War.[43][44] As an example of facing danger with knowledge, Aristotle used the example of the Argives who were forced to confront the Spartans in the battle at the Long Walls of Corinth in 392 BC.[45] 379–323 BC[edit] In 379 BC, Corinth, switching back to the Peloponnesian League, joined Sparta in an attempt to defeat Thebes and eventually take over Athens.[citation needed][clarification needed] In 366 BC, the Athenian Assembly ordered Chares to occupy the Athenian ally and install a democratic government. This failed when Corinth, Phlius and Epidaurus allied with Boeotia. Demosthenes recounts how Athens had fought the Spartans in a great battle near Corinth. The city decided not to harbor the defeated Athenian troops, but instead sent heralds to the Spartans. But the Corinthian heralds opened their gates to the defeated Athenians and saved them. Demosthenes notes that they “chose along with you, who had been engaged in battle, to suffer whatever might betide, rather than without you to enjoy a safety that involved no danger.”[46] These conflicts further weakened the city-states of the Peloponnese and set the stage for the conquests of Philip II of Macedon. Demosthenes warned that Philip's military force exceeded that of Athens and thus they must develop a tactical advantage. He noted the importance of a citizen army as opposed to a mercenary force, citing the mercenaries of Corinth who fought alongside citizens and defeated the Spartans.[47] In 338 BC, after having defeated Athens and its allies, Philip II created the League of Corinth to unite Greece (included Corinth and Macedonia) in the war against Persia. Philip was named hegemon of the League. In the spring of 337 BC, the Second congress of Corinth established the Common Peace. Hellenistic period[edit] By 332 BC, Alexander the Great was in control of Greece, as hegemon. During the Hellenistic period, Corinth, like many other Greece cities, never quite had autonomy. Under the successors of Alexander the Great, Greece was contested ground, and Corinth was occasionally the battleground for contests between the Antigonids, based in Macedonia, and other Hellenistic powers. In 308 BC, the city was captured from the Antigonids by Ptolemy I, who claimed to come as a liberator of Greece from the Antigonids. However, the city was recaptured by Demetrius in 304 BC.[48] Corinth remained under Antigonid control for half a century. After 280 BC, it was ruled by the faithful governor Craterus; but, in 253/2 BC, his son Alexander of Corinth, moved by Ptolemaic subsidies, resolved to challenge the Macedonian supremacy and seek independence as a tyrant. He was probably poisoned in 247 BC; after his death, the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas retook the city in the winter of 245/44 BC. The Macedonian rule was short-lived. In 243 BC, Aratus of Sicyon, using a surprise attack, captured the fortress of Acrocorinth and convinced the citizenship to join the Achaean League. Thanks to an alliance agreement with Aratus, the Macedonians recovered Corinth once again in 224 BC; but, after the Roman intervention in 197 BC, the city was permanently brought into the Achaean League. Under the leadership of Philopoemen, the Achaeans went on to take control of the entire Peloponnesus and made Corinth the capital of their confederation.[49] Roman era[edit] Further information: Roman Greece Scene of the Battle of Corinth (146 BC): last day before the Roman legions looted and burned the Greek city of Corinth. The last day on Corinth, Tony Robert-Fleury, 1870. Ancient Roman statue in the Archaeological Museum of Ancient Corinth In 146 BC, Rome declared war on the Achaean League and, after victories over league forces in the summer of that year, the Romans under Lucius Mummius besieged and captured Corinth. When he entered the city, Mummius killed all the men and sold the women and children into slavery before burning the city, for which he was given the cognomen Achaicus as the conqueror of the Achaean League.[50] There is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, but Corinth remained largely deserted until Julius Caesar refounded the city as Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (‘colony of Corinth in honour of Julius’) in 44 BC, shortly before his assassination. At this time, an amphitheatre was built. ( 37°54′35″N 22°53′31″E / 37.909824°N 22.892078°E / 37.909824; 22.892078 (Corinth (Corinth)) ) Under the Romans, Corinth was rebuilt as a major city in Southern Greece or Achaia. It had a large[51] mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. The city was an important locus for activities of the imperial cult, and both Temple E[52] and the Julian Basilica[53] have been suggested as locations of imperial cult activity. Biblical Corinth[edit] See also: Early centers of Christianity § Greece Pirene fountain Corinth is mentioned many times in the New Testament, largely in connection with Paul the Apostle's mission there, testifying to the success of Caesar's refounding of the city. Traditionally, the Church of Corinth is believed to have been founded by Paul, making it an Apostolic See. The apostle Paul first visited the city in AD 49 or 50, when Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was proconsul of Achaia.[54] Paul resided here for eighteen months (see Acts 18:11). Here he first became acquainted with Priscilla and Aquila with whom he later traveled. They worked here together as tentmakers (from which is derived the modern Christian concept of tentmaking), and regularly attended the synagogue. In AD 51/52, Gallio presided over the trial of the Apostle Paul in Corinth. This event provides a secure date for the book of the Acts of the Apostles within the Bible. Silas and Timothy rejoined Paul here, having last seen him in Berea (Acts 18:5). Acts 18:6 suggests that Jewish refusal to accept his preaching here led Paul to resolve no longer to speak in the synagogues where he travelled: 'From now on I will go to the Gentiles'.[55] However, on his arrival in Ephesus (Acts 18:19), the narrative records that Paul went to the synagogue to preach. Paul wrote at least two epistles to the Christian church, the First Epistle to the Corinthians (written from Ephesus) and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (written from Macedonia). The first Epistle occasionally reflects the conflict between the thriving Christian church and the surrounding community. Some scholars believe that Paul visited Corinth for an intermediate "painful visit" (see 2 Corinthians 2:1) between the first and second epistles. After writing the second epistle, he stayed in Corinth for about three months[Acts 20:3] in the late winter, and there wrote his Epistle to the Romans.[56] Based on clues within the Corinthian epistles themselves, some scholars have concluded that Paul wrote possibly as many as four epistles to the church at Corinth.[57] Only two are contained within the Christian canon (First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians); the other two letters are lost. (The lost letters would probably represent the very first letter that Paul wrote to the Corinthians and the third one, and so the First and Second Letters of the canon would be the second and the fourth if four were written.) Many scholars think that the third one (known as the "letter of the tears"; see 2 Cor 2:4) is included inside the canonical Second Epistle to the Corinthians (it would be chapters 10–13). This letter is not to be confused with the so-called "Third Epistle to the Corinthians", which is a pseudepigraphical letter written many years after the death of Paul. There are speculations from Bruce Winter that the Jewish access to their own food in Corinth was disallowed after Paul's departure. By this theory, Paul had instructed Christian Gentiles to maintain Jewish access to food according to their dietary laws. This speculation is contested by Rudolph who argues that there is no evidence to support this theory. He instead argues that Paul had desired the Gentile Christians to remain assimilated within their Gentile communities and not adopt Jewish dietary procedures.[58] Byzantine era[edit] Further information: Byzantine Greece and Peloponnese (theme) The walled gates of Acrocorinth The city was largely destroyed in the earthquakes of AD 365 and AD 375, followed by Alaric's invasion in 396. The city was rebuilt after these disasters on a monumental scale, but covered a much smaller area than previously. Four churches were located in the city proper, another on the citadel of the Acrocorinth, and a monumental basilica at the port of Lechaion.[59] During the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527–565), a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulfs, protecting the city and the Peloponnese peninsula from the barbarian invasions from the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named Hexamilion ("six-miles"). Corinth declined from the 6th century on, and may even have fallen to barbarian invaders in the early 7th century. The main settlement moved from the lower city to the Acrocorinth. Despite its becoming the capital of the theme of Hellas and, after c. 800, of the theme of the Peloponnese, it was not until the 9th century that the city began to recover, reaching its apogee in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was the site of a flourishing silk industry.[59] In November 856, an earthquake in Corinth killed an estimated 45,000.[60] The wealth of the city attracted the attention of the Italo-Normans under Roger of Sicily, who plundered it in 1147, carrying off many captives, most notably silk weavers. The city never fully recovered from the Norman sack.[59] Principality of Achaea[edit] Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, a group of Crusaders under the French knights William of Champlitte and Geoffrey of Villehardouin carried out the conquest of the Peloponnese. The Corinthians resisted the Frankish conquest from their stronghold in Acrocorinth, under the command of Leo Sgouros, from 1205 until 1210. In 1208 Leo Sgouros killed himself by riding off the top of Acrocorinth, but resistance continued for two more years. Finally, in 1210 the fortress fell to the Crusaders, and Corinth became a full part of the Principality of Achaea, governed by the Villehardouins from their capital in Andravida in Elis. Corinth was the last significant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the Duchy of Athens. The Ottomans captured the city in 1395. The Byzantines of the Despotate of the Morea recaptured it in 1403, and the Despot Theodore II Palaiologos, restored the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth in 1415. Ottoman rule[edit] In 1458, five years after the final Fall of Constantinople, the Turks of the Ottoman Empire conquered the city and its mighty castle. The Ottomans renamed it Gördes and made it a sanjak (district) centre within the Rumelia Eyalet. The Venetians captured the city in 1687 during the Morean War, and it remained under Venetian control until the Ottomans retook the city in 1715. Corinth was the capital of the Mora Eyalet in 1715–1731 and then again a sanjak capital until 1821. Independence[edit] "Corinth with Acrocorinth" by Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann, 1847 During the Greek War of Independence, 1821–1830 the city was destroyed by the Ottoman forces.[citation needed] The city was officially liberated in 1832 after the Treaty of London. In 1833, the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded Kingdom of Greece, due to its historical significance and strategic position. Nafplio was chosen initially, then Athens. Modern Corinth[edit] Main article: Corinth In 1858, the village surrounding the ruins of Ancient Corinth was destroyed by an earthquake, leading to the establishment of New Corinth 3 km (1.9 mi) NE of the ancient city. Ancient city and its environs[edit] Acrocorinth, the acropolis[edit] Main article: Acrocorinth Acrocorinthis, the acropolis of ancient Corinth, is a monolithic rock that was continuously occupied from archaic times to the early 19th century. The city's archaic acropolis, already an easily defensible position due to its geomorphology, was further heavily fortified during the Byzantine Empire as it became the seat of the strategos of the Thema of Hellas. Later it was a fortress of the Franks after the Fourth Crusade, the Venetians and the Ottoman Turks. With its secure water supply, Acrocorinth's fortress was used as the last line of defense in southern Greece because it commanded the isthmus of Corinth, repelling foes from entry into the Peloponnesian peninsula. Three circuit walls formed the man-made defense of the hill. The highest peak on the site was home to a temple to Aphrodite which was Christianized as a church, and then became a mosque. The American School began excavations on it in 1929. Currently, Acrocorinth is one of the most important medieval castle sites of Greece. Two ports: Lechaeum and Cenchreae[edit] Corinth had two harbours: Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf and Cenchreae on the Saronic Gulf. Lechaeum was the principal port, connected to the city with a set of long walls of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) length, and was the main trading station for Italy and Sicily, where there were many Corinthian colonies, while Cenchreae served the commerce with the Eastern Mediterranean. Ships could be transported between the two harbours by means of the diolkos constructed by the tyrant Periander. Important monuments[edit] Temple of Apollo Fountain of Glauke Sacred Spring Peirene Asklepieion South Stoa Odeion Bema (later Church of Apostle Paul) Temple E Julian Basilica Acrocorinth Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore Castle of Acrocorinth Notable people[edit] Ancient Greece[edit] Achaicus (1st century AD), Christian Adrian of Corinth (3rd century AD), Christian saint and martyr Archias (8th century BC), founder of Syracuse Desmon (8th century BC), athlete Dinarchus (4th century BC), orator and logographer Diocles (8th century BC), athlete Diogenes of Sinope, 4th century BC, one of the world's best known cynics Eumelus (8th century BC), poet Euphranor (4th century BC), sculptor and painter Periander (7th century BC), listed as one of the Seven Sages of Greece Quadratus (4th century AD), Christian saint and martyr Timoleon (4th century BC), statesman and general Xeniades (5th century BC), philosopher Xenophon (5th century BC), athlete Medieval[edit] Cyriacus the Anchorite (5th century), Christian saint William of Moerbeke (13th century), first translator of Aristotle's works into Latin. Ancient Corinth in literature[edit] Alcmaeon in Corinth, a play by Greek dramatist Euripides, premiered in 405 BC The Queen of Corinth, a play by English dramatist John Fletcher, published in 1647 See also[edit] Corinthian helmet Corinthian bronze Isthmian Games Temple of Isthmia References[edit] ^ Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (2000). Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of Socrates (c. 800–399 B.C.). Psychology Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0415217552. ^ Lavezzi, J. C. (2003). "Corinth before the Myceneans". Corinth. 20: 63–74. doi:10.2307/4390716. JSTOR 4390716. ^ Blegen, C. W. (1920). "Corinth in Prehistoric Times". American Journal of Archaeology. 24 (1): 1–13. doi:10.2307/497547. JSTOR 497547. ^ Dunbabin, T. J. (1948). "The Early History of Corinth". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 68: 59–69. doi:10.2307/626300. JSTOR 626300. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.1 ^ Euripides, Medea ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece ii. 1.6 and 4.7. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1–14 – Theoi Classical Texts Library". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2018-11-05. ^ Édouard Will, Korinthiaka: recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinth des origines aux guerres médiques (Paris: Boccard) 1955. ^ Telestes was murdered by two Bacchiads named Arieus and Perantas. (Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I p. 450). It has been debated what extent this early history is a genealogical myth. ^ ; (Stewart Irvin Oost, "Cypselus the Bacchiad" Classical Philology 67.1 (January 1972, pp. 10–30) p. 10f.) See: rex sacrorum. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.9.6; Pausanias 2.4.4. ^ Storey, Glenn (2006). Urbanism in the Preindustrial World: Cross-Cultural Approaches. University of Alabama Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0817352462. ^ Politics, 1274a ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.92 E ^ His mother had been of the Bacchiadae, but she was lame and married outside the clan. ^ Economics, Book 2. 1346a, Aristotle ^ Salmon, J. B. (1984). Wealthy Corinth. A History of the City to 338 B.C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 019814833X. ^ An etiological myth-element to account for the name Cypselus (cypsele, "chest") ^ Pausanias, 5.18.7. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.92F ^ Diogenes Laertius, i. 13. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 3.52 ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 3.53 ^ Herodotus relates that Arion the harpist was sailing home on a Corinthian vessel when the crew decided to rob and kill him. He begged them to let him sing a last song before killing him. He threw himself overboard and escaped to Taernarus on the back of a dolphin. He presented himself to Periander, who then condemned the sailors (Herodotus Histories Book 1.24). ^ Bookidis N., "Corinthian Terracotta Sculpture and the Temple of Apollo," Hesperia 69, 4, 2000, p. 386 ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 5.93 ^ Thucydides 1:13 ^ Thucydides, Book 1:13 ^ Stone, Jon R. (2004). The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations. p. 76. ISBN 0415969093. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 7:202 ^ Histories, Book 9:88, Herodotus ^ Lazenby, John Francis (1993). The Defence of Greece, 490–479 B.C. Aris & Phillips. pp. 248–253. ISBN 978-0856685910. ^ Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006). Warfare in the Ancient World. Pen and Sword. p. 32. ISBN 978-1848846302. ^ Histories, Herodotus, Book 9:105 ^ The Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, Book 1:29 ^ The Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, Book 1:45 ^ Thucycdides, Book 1, "The dispute over Corcyra", 50 ^ Thucydides, Book 6:73 ^ Thucydides, Book 6:88 ^ especially the latter part, the Decelan War ^ On The Crown Book 18.96 ^ On the Peace, Isocrates, Speech 68, section 68 ^ Hellenica, Books 3–7, Xenophon ^ Nicomachean Ethics, Book 3.8 ^ Demosthenes Against Leptines 20.52–20.53 ^ Philippic I, Book 4.24 ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 121–122). ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 137–138). ^ Shipley, G. 2000. The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge (pp. 384–385). ^ Josiah Russell, in "Late Ancient and Medieval Population", estimates 50,000 people in Roman Corinth. ^ Walbank, Mary (1989). "Pausanias, Octavia and Temple E at Corinth". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 84: 385–386. doi:10.1017/S0068245400021055. ^ Scotton, Paul; Vanderpool, Catherine; Roncaglia, Carolynn (2014). Actas VIII Congreso Internacional Arqueología Clásica. p. 1629. ISBN 978-8460679493. ^ Acts 18:12 ^ Paul and Barnabas had said the same thing to the Jews of Antioch in Acts 13:46 ^ Bryant, T. A. (1982). Today's Dictionary of the Bible. Bethany House Publishers, NY. ^ Orr, William F. and James Arthur Walther (1976). 1 Corinthians: A New Translation (Anchor Bible). Doubleday, p. 120. ^ David J. Rudolph (21 October 2016). A Jew to the Jews: Jewish Contours of Pauline Flexibility in 1 Corinthians 9:19–23. Second Edition. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 100–. ISBN 978-1498296168. ^ a b c Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Corinth". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 531–533. ISBN 978-0195046526. ^ Gunn, Angus Macleod (2007). Encyclopedia of Disasters: Environmental Catastrophes and Human Tragedies. p. 32. Further reading[edit] Adkins, Lesley and Roy A. Adkins. Handbook to Life in Ancient Greece. New York: Facts on File. 1997. Alcock, Susan E. and Robin Osborne (ed.s). Classical Archaeology Malden: Blackwell Publishing. 2007. Del Chiaro, Mario A (ed). Corinthiaca: Studies in Honor of Darrell A. Amyx. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. 1986. Dixon, M. Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Corinth: 338–196 BC. London: Routledge. 2014. Friesen, Steven J., Daniel N. Schowalter, James C. Walters (ed.), Corinth in Context: Comparative Studies on Religion and Society. Supplements to Novum Testamentum, 134. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2010. Gebhard, Elizabeth R. and Timothy E. Gregory (ed.), Bridge of the Untiring Sea: The Corinthian Isthmus from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Hesperia Supplement, 48. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2015. Grant, Michael. The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1987. Hammond, A History of Greece. Oxford University Press. 1967. History of Greece, including Corinth from the early civilizations (6000–850) to the splitting of the empire and Antipater's occupation of Greece (323–321). Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. New York: Cornell University Press. 1987. Romano, David Gilman. Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: the Origins of the Greek Stadion. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 206. 1993. Salmon, J. B. Wealthy Corinth: A History of the City to 338 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1984. Scahill, David. The Origins of the Corinthian Capital. In Structure, Image, Ornament: Architectural Sculpture in the Greek World. Edited by Peter Schultz and Ralf von den Hoff, 40–53. Oxford: Oxbow. 2009. Tartaron, Thomas F., Daniel J. Pullen, Timothy E. Gregory, Jay S. Noller, Richard M. Rothaus, William R. Caraher, Joseph L. Rife, David K. Pettegrew, Lisa Tzortzopoulou-Gregory, Dimitri Nakassis, and Robert Schon. "The Eastern Korinthia Archaeological Survey: Integrated Methods for a Dynamic Landscape." Hesperia 75:453–523, 2006. Will, E. Korinthiaka. Recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinthe des origines aux guerres médiques. Paris : de Boccard, 1955. British Admiralty charts: BA1085, BA1093, BA1600 Results of the American School of Classical Studies Corinth Excavations published in Corinth Volumes I to XX, Princeton. Excavation reports and articles in Hesperia, Princeton. Partial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Corinth. Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Corinth. Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Corinth. 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Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Konya (Iconium) 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Antalya 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey) Second journey 1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch Third journey 1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Corinth Municipal unit of Assos-Lechaio Assos Kato Assos Lechaio Perigiali Municipal unit of Corinth Ancient Corinth Corinth Examilia Solomos Xylokeriza Municipal unit of Saronikos Agios Ioannis Athikia Galataki Katakali Municipal unit of Solygeia Angelokastro Korfos Sofiko Municipal unit of Tenea Agionori Agios Vasileios Chiliomodi Klenia Koutalas Stefani Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Corinth&oldid=1003720030" Categories: Ancient Corinth 7th-century BC establishments in Greece Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Peloponnese (region) Greek city-states Pauline churches Populated places in ancient Corinthia Principality of Achaea Roman sites in Greece 4th-century BC disestablishments in Greece Hidden categories: Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters Articles containing Turkish-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles needing additional references from June 2011 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2011 Pages with numeric Bible version references Articles with unsourced statements from May 2008 Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Български Català Cebuano Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Malagasy Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 10:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2183	----	Aeneas - Wikipedia Aeneas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Trojan hero in Greco-Roman mythology This article is about the Greco-Roman hero. For other uses, see Aeneas (disambiguation). Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598 (Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy) In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (/ɪˈniːəs/,[1] Latin: [ae̯ˈneːaːs̠]; from Greek: Αἰνείας, Aineíās) was a Trojan hero, the son of the prince Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite (Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons of Ilus, founder of Troy), making Aeneas a second cousin to Priam's children (such as Hector and Paris). He is a character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's Iliad. Aeneas receives full treatment in Roman mythology, most extensively in Virgil's Aeneid, where he is cast as an ancestor of Romulus and Remus. He became the first true hero of Rome. Snorri Sturluson identifies him with the Norse god Vidarr of the Æsir.[2] Contents 1 Etymology 1.1 Epithets 2 Greek myth and epos 2.1 Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 2.2 Homer's Iliad 2.3 Other sources 3 Roman myth and literature 3.1 Virgil's Aeneid 3.2 Other sources 4 Medieval accounts 5 Family and legendary descendants 6 Character and appearance 7 Modern portrayals 7.1 Literature 7.2 Opera, film and other media 8 Depictions in art 8.1 Villa Valmarana 8.2 Aeneas flees Troy 8.3 Aeneas with Dido 9 Family tree 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Sources 14 Further reading 15 External links Etymology[edit] Coinage of Aenea, with portrait of Aeneas. c. 510–480 BCE. Aeneas is the Romanization of the Greek Αἰνείας (Aineías). Aineías is first introduced in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite when Aphrodite gives him his name from the adjective αὶνóν (ainon, "terrible"), for the "terrible grief" (αὶνóν ἄχος) he has caused her.[a][3] It is a popular etymology for the name, apparently exploited by Homer in the Iliad.[4] Later in the Medieval period there were writers who held that, because the Aeneid was written by a philosopher, it is meant to be read philosophically.[5] As such, in the "natural order", the meaning of Aeneas' name combines Greek ennos ("dweller") with demas ("body"), which becomes ennaios or "in-dweller"—i.e. as a god inhabiting a mortal body.[6] However, there is no certainty regarding the origin of his name. Epithets[edit] In imitation of the Iliad, Virgil borrows epithets of Homer, including: Anchisiades, magnanimum, magnus, heros, and bonus. Though he borrows many, Virgil gives Aeneas two epithets of his own in the Aeneid: pater and pius. The epithets applied by Virgil are an example of an attitude different from that of Homer, for whilst Odysseus is poikilios ("wily"), Aeneas is described as pius ("pious"), which conveys a strong moral tone. The purpose of these epithets seems to enforce the notion of Aeneas' divine hand as father and founder of the Roman race, and their use seems circumstantial: when Aeneas is praying he refers to himself as pius, and is referred to as such by the author only when the character is acting on behalf of the gods to fulfill his divine mission. Likewise, Aeneas is called pater when acting in the interest of his men.[7] Greek myth and epos[edit] Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite[edit] Painting Venus and Anchises by William Blake Richmond (1889 or 1890) The story of the birth of Aeneas is told in the "Hymn to Aphrodite", one of the major Homeric Hymns. Aphrodite has caused Zeus to fall in love with mortal women. In retaliation, Zeus puts desire in her heart for Anchises, who is tending his cattle among the hills near Mount Ida. When Aphrodite sees him she is smitten. She adorns herself as if for a wedding among the gods and appears before him. He is overcome by her beauty, believing that she is a goddess, but Aphrodite identifies herself as a Phrygian princess. After they make love, Aphrodite reveals her true identity to him and Anchises fears what might happen to him as a result of their liaison. Aphrodite assures him that he will be protected, and tells him that she will bear him a son to be called Aeneas. However, she warns him that he must never tell anyone that he has lain with a goddess. When Aeneas is born, Aphrodite takes him to the nymphs of Mount Ida. She directs them to raise the child to age five, then take him to Anchises.[3] According to other sources, Anchises later brags about his encounter with Aphrodite, and as a result is struck in the foot with a thunderbolt by Zeus. Thereafter he is lame in that foot, so that Aeneas has to carry him from the flames of Troy.[8] Homer's Iliad[edit] Aeneas carrying Anchises, black-figured oinochoe, c. 520–510 BCE, Louvre (F 118) Aeneas is a minor character in the Iliad, where he is twice saved from death by the gods as if for an as-yet-unknown destiny, but is an honorable warrior in his own right. Having held back from the fighting, aggrieved with Priam because in spite of his brave deeds he was not given his due share of honour, he leads an attack against Idomeneus to recover the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous at the urging of Deiphobus.[9] He is the leader of the Trojans' Dardanian allies, as well as a second cousin and principal lieutenant of Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam. Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield, and he is a favorite of Apollo. Aphrodite and Apollo rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even Poseidon, who usually favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue after he falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. Bruce Louden presents Aeneas as a "type": The sole virtuous individual (or family) spared from general destruction, following the mytheme of Utnapishtim, Baucis and Philemon, Noah, and Lot.[10] Pseudo-Apollodorus in his Bibliotheca explains that "... the Greeks [spared] him alone, on account of his piety."[11] Other sources[edit] The Roman mythographer Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 BCE – CE 17) in his Fabulae[12] credits Aeneas with killing 28 enemies in the Trojan War. Aeneas also appears in the Trojan narratives attributed to Dares Phrygius and Dictys of Crete. Roman myth and literature[edit] Aeneas and Anchises The history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors. One influential source was the account of Rome's founding in Cato the Elder's Origines.[13] The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil's day and appeared in various historical works, including the Roman Antiquities of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (relying on Marcus Terentius Varro), Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor, fl. 200 BCE), and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (now extant only in an epitome by Justin). Virgil's Aeneid[edit] Venus as Huntress Appears to Aeneas, by Pietro da Cortona The Aeneid explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy. Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island's western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully. Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno, who was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. Aeneas's mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met. After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome. Aeneas defeats Turnus, by Luca Giordano, 1634–1705. The genius of Aeneas is shown ascendant, looking into the light of the future, while that of Turnus is setting, shrouded in darkness Latinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their lives in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land – namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas's forces prevailed. Turnus was killed, and Virgil's account ends abruptly. Other sources[edit] The rest of Aeneas's biography is gleaned from other ancient sources, including Livy and Ovid's Metamorphoses. According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After Aeneas's death, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed. The river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with ambrosia and nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges.[14] Medieval accounts[edit] Snorri Sturlason, in the Prologue of the Prose Edda, tells of the world as parted in three continents: Africa, Asia and the third part called Europe or Enea.[2][15] Snorri also tells of a Trojan named Munon or Menon, who marries the daughter of the High King (Yfirkonungr) Priam called Troan and travels to distant lands, marries the Sybil and got a son, Tror, who, as Snorri tells, is identical to Thor. This tale resemble some episodes of the Aeneid.[16] Continuations of Trojan matter in the Middle Ages had their effects on the character of Aeneas as well. The 12th-century French Roman d'Enéas addresses Aeneas's sexuality. Though Virgil appears to deflect all homoeroticism onto Nisus and Euryalus, making his Aeneas a purely heterosexual character, in the Middle Ages there was at least a suspicion of homoeroticism in Aeneas. The Roman d'Enéas addresses that charge, when Queen Amata opposes Aeneas's marrying Lavinia, claiming that Aeneas loved boys.[17] Medieval interpretations of Aeneas were greatly influenced by both Virgil and other Latin sources. Specifically, the accounts by Dares and Dictys, which were reworked by the 13th-century Italian writer Guido delle Colonne (in Historia destructionis Troiae), colored many later readings. From Guido, for instance, the Pearl Poet and other English writers get the suggestion[18] that Aeneas's safe departure from Troy with his possessions and family was a reward for treason, for which he was chastised by Hecuba.[19] In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century) the Pearl Poet, like many other English writers, employed Aeneas to establish a genealogy for the foundation of Britain,[18] and explains that Aeneas was "impeached for his perfidy, proven most true" (line 4).[20] Family and legendary descendants[edit] Aeneas and the god Tiber, by Bartolomeo Pinelli Aeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta,[21] and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. Ascanius, also known as Iulus (or Julius),[22] founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology used by Virgil in the Aeneid, Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas the progenitor of the Roman people.[23] Some early sources call him their father or grandfather,[24] but once the dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BCE) and the founding of Rome (753 BCE) became accepted, authors added generations between them. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cæsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas,[25] thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain – including King Arthur – trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus.[26] Character and appearance[edit] Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeian Third Style (10 BCE – 45 CE), Pompeii, Italy Aeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is pius, a term that connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness. In the Aeneid, Aeneas is described as strong and handsome, but neither his hair colour nor complexion are described.[27] In late antiquity however sources add further physical descriptions. The De excidio Troiae of Dares Phrygius describes Aeneas as "auburn-haired, stocky, eloquent, courteous, prudent, pious, and charming".[28] There is also a brief physical description found in the 6th-century John Malalas' Chronographia: "Aeneas: short, fat, with a good chest, powerful, with a ruddy complexion, a broad face, a good nose, fair skin, bald on the forehead, a good beard, grey eyes."[29] Modern portrayals[edit] Literature[edit] Aeneas appears as a character in William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida, set during the Trojan War. Aeneas and Dido are the main characters of a 17th-century broadside ballad called "The Wandering Prince of Troy". The ballad ultimately alters Aeneas's fate from traveling on years after Dido's death to joining her as a spirit soon after her suicide.[30] In modern literature, Aeneas is the speaker in two poems by Allen Tate, "Aeneas at Washington" and "Aeneas at New York". He is a main character in Ursula K. Le Guin's Lavinia, a re-telling of the last six books of the Aeneid told from the point of view of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus of Latium. Aeneas appears in David Gemmell's Troy series as a main heroic character who goes by the name Helikaon. In Rick Riordan's book series The Heroes of Olympus, Aeneas is regarded as the first Roman demigod, son of Venus rather than Aphrodite. Will Adams' novel City of the Lost assumes that much of the information provided by Virgil is mistaken, and that the true Aeneas and Dido did not meet and love in Carthage but in a Phoenician colony at Cyprus, on the site of the modern Famagusta. Their tale is interspersed with that of modern activists who, while striving to stop an ambitious Turkish Army general trying to stage a coup, accidentally discover the hidden ruins of Dido's palace. Opera, film and other media[edit] Aeneas is a title character in Henry Purcell's opera Dido and Aeneas (c. 1688), and Jakob Greber's Enea in Cartagine (Aeneas in Carthage) (1711), and one of the principal roles in Hector Berlioz' opera Les Troyens (c. 1857), as well as in Metastasio's immensely popular[31] opera libretto Didone abbandonata. Canadian composer James Rolfe composed his opera Aeneas and Dido (2007; to a libretto by André Alexis) as a companion piece to Purcell's opera. Despite its many dramatic elements, Aeneas's story has generated little interest from the film industry. Ronald Lewis portrayed Aeneas in Helen of Troy, directed by Robert Wise, as a supporting character, who is a member of the Trojan Royal family, and a close and loyal friend to Paris, and escapes at the end of the film. Portrayed by Steve Reeves, he was the main character in the 1961 sword and sandal film Guerra di Troia (The Trojan War). Reeves reprised the role the following year in the film The Avenger, about Aeneas's arrival in Latium and his conflicts with local tribes as he tries to settle his fellow Trojan refugees there. Giulio Brogi, portrayed as Aeneas in the 1971 Italian TV miniseries series called Eneide, which gives the whole story of the Aeneid, from Aeneas escape from to Troy, to his meeting of Dido, his arrival in Italy, and his duel with Turnus.[32] The most recent cinematic portrayal of Aeneas was in the film Troy, in which he appears as a youth charged by Paris to protect the Trojan refugees, and to continue the ideals of the city and its people. Paris gives Aeneas Priam's sword, in order to give legitimacy and continuity to the royal line of Troy – and lay the foundations of Roman culture. In this film, he is not a member of the royal family and does not appear to fight in the war. In the role-playing game Vampire: The Requiem by White Wolf Game Studios, Aeneas figures as one of the mythical founders of the Ventrue Clan. in the action game Warriors: Legends of Troy, Aeneas is a playable character. The game ends with him and the Aeneans fleeing Troy's destruction and, spurned by the words of a prophetess thought crazed, goes to a new country (Italy) where he will start an empire greater than Greece and Troy combined that shall rule the world for 1000 years, never to be outdone in the tale of men (The Roman Empire). In the 2018 TV miniseries Troy: Fall of a City, Aeneas is portrayed by Alfred Enoch.[33] He also featured as an Epic Fighter of the Dardania faction in the Total War Saga: Troy in 2020.[34] Depictions in art[edit] Scenes depicting Aeneas, especially from the Aeneid, have been the focus of study for centuries. They have been the frequent subject of art and literature since their debut in the 1st century. Villa Valmarana[edit] The artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was commissioned by Gaetano Valmarana in 1757 to fresco several rooms in the Villa Valmarana, the family villa situated outside Vicenza. Tiepolo decorated the palazzina with scenes from epics such as Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid.[35] Aeneas Introducing Cupid Dressed as Ascanius to Dido, by Tiepolo (1757). Venus Appearing to Aeneas on the Shores of Carthage, by Tiepolo (1757). Mercury Appearing to Aeneas, by Tiepolo (1757). Venus and Vulcan, by Tiepolo (between 1762 and 1766). Aeneas flees Troy[edit] Flight of Aeneas from Troy, by Girolamo Genga (between 1507 and 1510). Aeneas and his Father Fleeing Troy, by Simon Vouet (c. 1635). Aeneas & Anchises, by Pierre Lepautre (c. 1697). Aeneas fleeing from Troy, by Pompeo Batoni (c. 1750). Aeneas with Dido[edit] Dido and Aeneas, by Rutilio Manetti (c. 1630) The Meeting of Dido and Aeneas, by Nathaniel Dance-Holland Landscape with Dido and Aeneas, by Thomas Jones (1769) Dido meeting Aeneas, by Johann Heinrich the Elder Tischbein (3 January 1780) Family tree[edit] v t e Family tree of Aeneas Oceanus Tethys Atlas Pleione Scamander Idaea Simoeis Zeus/Jupiter Electra Teucer Dardanus Batea Ilus Erichthonius Astyoche Callirrhoe Tros Ilus Ganymede Assaracus Hieromneme Laomedon Themiste Capys Priam Anchises Aphrodite/Venus Latinus Creusa of Troy Aeneas Lavinia Ascanius Silvius Silvius Aeneas Silvius Brutus of Britain Latinus Silvius Alba Atys Capys Capetus Tiberinus Silvius Agrippa Romulus Silvius Aventinus Procas Numitor Amulius Ares/Mars Rhea Silvia Hersilia Romulus Remus See also[edit] Cumaean Sibyl Lacrimae rerum The Golden Bough Latin kings of Alba Longa Notes[edit] ^ "His name will be Aineias [Aeneas], since it was an unspeakable [ainos] akhos that took hold of me – grief that I had fallen into the bed of a mortal man." (Nagy 2001, 198–99) References[edit] ^ "Aeneas". Merriam-Webster. 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-14. ^ a b The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue II at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed 11/14/17 ^ a b Nagy, Gregory, trans. (2001) Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, edited by C. Dué Hackney. Houston: University of Houston. ^ Andrew Faulkner, The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite: Introduction, Text, and Commentary (2008) p. 257 ^ Desmond, Marilynn (1994), Reading Dido: Gender, Textuality, and Medieval Aeneid. pp. 85–86. ^ John of Salisbury, Polycraticus 8.24–25; Bernard Sylvestris of Tours, Commentum supra sex libros Eneidos Vergilii ^ Parry, Milman (1971), The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, edited by A. Parry. p.169 ^ Virgil, Aeneid ^ Homer (2019) [1999]. The Iliad. Translated by Butler, Samuel. transcribed by A. Haines – via Project Gutenberg. ^ Louden, Bruce (2006). Aeneas in the Iliad: The one just man. 102nd Annual Meeting of Classical Association of the Middle West and South (CAMWS) (abstract). ^ Apollodorus. Frazer, James G. (ed.). Epitome. Persius. Tufts University. V, 21. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 115. ^ Stout, S.E. (1924). "How Vergil Established for Aeneas a Legal Claim to a Home and a Throne in Italy". The Classical Journal. 20 (3): 152–60. JSTOR 3288552. ^ Titus Livius. The History of Rome (Rev. Canon Roberts, trans.), Vol. I, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1905 ^ Edda Snorra Sturlusonar GUÐNI JÓNSSON bjó til prentunar. Prologus 2 ^ The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturlson Translated by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur [1916] Prologue III at Internet Sacred Texts Archive. Accessed November 14, 2017 ^ Eldevik, Randi (1991). "Negotiations of Homoerotic Tradition". PMLA. 106 (5): 1177–78. doi:10.2307/462692. JSTOR 462692. ^ a b Tolkien, J. R. R.; E. V. Gordon; Norman Davis, eds. (1967). Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford UP. p. 70. ISBN 9780198114864. ^ Colonne, Guido delle (1936). Griffin, N. E. (ed.). Historia destructionis Troiae. Medieval Academy Books. 26. Cambridge: Medieval Academy of America. pp. 218, 234. ^ Laura Howes, ed. (2010). Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Translated by Marie Boroff. New York: Norton. p. 3. ISBN 9780393930252. In Marie Boroff's translation, edited by Laura Howes, the treacherous knight of line 3 is identified as Antenor, incorrectly, as Tolkien argues. ^ Vergil Aeneid 7.1–4 ^ Vergil, Aeneid 1983 1.267 ^ C.F. L'Homond Selections from Viri Romae p.1 ^ Romulus by Plutarch ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities I.70.4 ^ Charles Selby Events to be Remembered in the History of Britain pp. 1–2 ^ Mark Griffith, "What Does Aeneas Look like?", Classical Philology, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Oct., 1985), p. 309. doi:10.1086/366939. JSTOR 269615. ^ "Classical E-Text: Dares Phrygius, The Fall Of Troy". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-08-28. ^ Lowden, John. Illuminated prophet books: a study of Byzantine manuscripts of the major and minor prophets Penn State Press, 1988, p. 62 ^ English Broadside Ballad Archive, ballad facsimile and full text ^ William Fitzgerald "Vergil in Music" in "A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and its Tradition" Joseph Farrell, Michael C. J. Putnam eds, p.344 : "Metastasio's Didone Abbandonata was set over eighty times in the period between 1724 and 1824" ^ Eneide at IMDb ^ "'Troy: Fall Of A City': Bella Dayne, Louis Hunter & More Join BBC/Netflix Epic". Deadline. March 30, 2017. Retrieved April 1, 2017. ^ "Total War Troy: Aeneas guide - bonuses, faction units, builds". Game Guides – Game Pressure. ^ Michael Collins, Elise K. Kirk ed. Opera and Vivaldi p. 150 Sources[edit] Homer, Iliad II. 819–21; V. 217–575; XIII. 455–544; XX. 75–352. Apollodorus, Bibliotheca III. xii. 2; Epitome III. 32–IV. 2; V. 21. Virgil, Aeneid. Ovid, Metamorphoses XIII. 623–715; XIV. 75–153; 581–608. Ovid, Heroides, VII. Livy, Book 1.1–2. Dictys Cretensis. Dares Phrygius. Further reading[edit] Cramer, D. "The Wrath of Aeneas: Iliad 13.455–67 and 20.75–352." Syllecta Classica, vol. 11, 2000, pp. 16–33. doi:10.1353/syl.2000.0002. de Vasconcellos, P.S. "A Sound Play on Aeneas' Name in the Aeneid: A Brief Note on VII.69." Vergilius (1959–), vol. 61, 2015, pp. 125–29. JSTOR vergilius1959.61.125. Farron, S. "The Aeneas–Dido Episode as an Attack on Aeneas' Mission and Rome." Greece & Rome, vol. 27, no. 1, 1980, pp. 34–47. doi:10.1017/S0017383500027327. JSTOR 642775. Gowers, E. "Trees and Family Trees in the Aeneid." Classical Antiquity, vol. 30, no. 1, 2011, pp. 87–118. doi:10.1525/ca.2011.30.1.87. JSTOR 10.1525/ca.2011.30.1.87. Grillo, L. "Leaving Troy and Creusa: Reflections on Aeneas' Flight." The Classical Journal, vol. 106, no. 1, 2010, pp. 43–68. doi:10.5184/classicalj.106.1.0043. JSTOR 10.5184/classicalj.106.1.0043. Noonan, J. "Sum Pius Aeneas: Aeneas and the Leader as Conservator/Σωτήρ" The Classical Bulletin. vol. 83, no. 1, 2007, pp. 65–91. Putnam, M.C.J. The Humanness of Heroes: Studies in the Conclusion of Virgil's Aeneid. The Amsterdam Vergil lectures, 1. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011. Starr, R.J. "Aeneas the Rhetorician: 'Aeneid IV', 279–95." Latomus, vol. 62, no. 1, 2003, pp. 36–46. JSTOR 41540042. Scafoglio, G. "The Betrayal of Aeneas." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, vol. 53 no. 1, 2013, pp. 1–14. Schauer, M. Aeneas dux in Vergils Aeneis. Eine literarische Fiktion in augusteischer Zeit. Zetemata vol. 128. Munich: C.H. Beck, 2007. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aeneas. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Aeneas. Library resources about Aeneas Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 900 images related to the Aeneid) Legendary titles Preceded by Latinus Latin king Succeeded by Ascanius v t e Roman mythology series Major deities Apollo Ceres Diana Juno Jupiter Mars Mercury Minerva Venus Vulcan Divus Augustus Divus Julius Fortuna Lares Pluto Quirinus Sol Vesta Heroes and legendary mortals Aeneas Hercules Romulus and Remus Seven Kings of Rome v t e Ancient Roman religion and mythology Deities (Dii Consentes) Agenoria Angerona Anna Perenna Apollo Bellona Bona Dea Carmenta Castor and Pollux Ceres Cloacina Cupid Dea Dia Diana Dies Dīs Pater Egeria Fauna Faunus Flora Genius Hercules Janus Juno Jupiter Lares Liber Libertas Mars Mercury Minerva Neptune Orcus Penates Pluto Pomona Priapus Proserpina Quirinus Salacia Saturn Silvanus Sol Venus Veritas Vesta Vulcan Abstract deities Abundantia Aequitas Aeternitas Africa Annona Averruncus Concordia Feronia Fides Fortuna Fontus Laverna Pietas Roma Salus Securitas Spes Tranquillitas Victoria Terra Legendary figures Aeneas Rhea Silvia Romulus and Remus Numa Pompilius Tullus Hostilius Servius Tullius Ancus Marcius Lucius Tarquinius Priscus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Texts Virgil Aeneid Ovid Metamorphoses Fasti Propertius Apuleius The Golden Ass Varro Concepts and practices Religion in ancient Rome Festivals Interpretatio graeca Imperial cult Pomerium Temples Philosophy Cynicism Epicureanism Neoplatonism Peripateticism Pythagoreanism Stoicism See also Glossary Greek mythology Myth and ritual Roman polytheism (List) Classical mythology Conversion to Christianity Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism v t e Characters in the Iliad Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon v t e "Dido and Aeneas" from Virgil's Aeneid Characters Dido Aeneas Operas Didone (1641, Cavalli) Dido and Aeneas (1688, Purcell) discography "Dido's Lament" Didon (1693, Desmarets) Didone abbandonata (1724, Metastasio) Didone abbandonata (1724, Sarro) Didone abbandonata (1724, Albinoni) Didone abbandonata (1762, Sarti) Didon (1783, Piccinni) Dido, Queen of Carthage (1792, Storace) Les Troyens (1863, Berlioz) Plays Dido, Queen of Carthage (c. 1593) Poetry Roman d'Enéas (1160) Music Simple Man Art Dido building Carthage Related Low Ham Roman Villa Amelia Authority control GND: 11850083X LCCN: no2014109205 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en-wikipedia-org-2222	----	Greek underworld - Wikipedia Greek underworld From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Location in Greek mythology For other uses, see Underworld (disambiguation). Hermes Psykhopompos sits on a rock, preparing to lead a dead soul to the underworld. Attic white-ground lekythos, ca. 450 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2797) Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In mythology, the Greek underworld is an otherworld where souls go after death. The original Greek idea of afterlife is that, at the moment of death, the soul is separated from the corpse, taking on the shape of the former person, and is transported to the entrance of the underworld. Good people and bad people would then separate.[1] The underworld itself—sometimes known as Hades, after its patron god—is described as being either at the outer bounds of the ocean or beneath the depths or ends of the earth.[2] It is considered the dark counterpart to the brightness of Mount Olympus with the kingdom of the dead corresponding to the kingdom of the gods.[3] Hades is a realm invisible to the living, made solely for the dead.[4] Contents 1 Geography 1.1 Rivers 1.2 Entrance of the underworld 1.3 Tartarus 1.4 Asphodel Meadows 1.5 Mourning Fields 1.6 Elysium 1.7 Isles of the Blessed 2 Deities 2.1 Hades 2.2 Persephone 2.3 Hecate 2.4 The Erinyes 2.5 Hermes 2.6 Judges of the underworld 2.7 Charon 2.8 Cerberus 2.9 Thanatos 2.10 Melinoë 2.11 Nyx 2.12 Tartarus 2.13 Achlys 2.14 Styx 2.15 Eurynomos 3 The dead 4 Greek attitudes 5 Myths and stories 5.1 Orpheus 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography Geography[edit] Rivers[edit] There are six main rivers that are visible both in the living world and the underworld. Their names were meant to reflect the emotions associated with death.[5] The Styx is generally considered to be one of the most prominent and central rivers of the underworld and is also the most widely known out of all the rivers. It's known as the river of hatred and is named after the goddess Styx. This river circles the underworld seven times.[6] The Acheron is the river of pain. It's the one that Charon, also known as the Ferryman, rows the dead over according to many mythological accounts, though sometimes it is the river Styx or both.[7] The Lethe is the river of forgetfulness. It is associated with the goddess Lethe, the goddess of forgetfulness and oblivion. In later accounts, a poplar branch dripping with water of the Lethe became the symbol of Hypnos, the god of sleep.[8] The Phlegethon is the river of fire. According to Plato, this river leads to the depths of Tartarus. The Cocytus is the river of wailing. Oceanus is the river that encircles the world,[9] and it marks the east edge of the underworld,[10] as Erebos is west of the mortal world. Entrance of the underworld[edit] In front of the entrance to the underworld live Grief (Penthos), Anxiety (Curae), Diseases (Nosoi), Old Age (Geras), Fear (Phobos), Hunger (Limos), Need (Aporia), Death (Thanatos), Agony (Algea), and Sleep (Hypnos), together with Guilty Joys (Gaudia). On the opposite threshold is War (Polemos), the Erinyes, and Discord (Eris). Close to the doors are many beasts, including Centaurs, Scylla, Briareus, Gorgons, the Lernaean Hydra, Geryon, the Chimera, and Harpies. In the midst of all this, an Elm can be seen where false Dreams (Oneiroi) cling under every leaf.[11] The souls that enter the underworld carry a coin under their tongue to pay Charon to take them across the river. Charon may make exceptions or allowances for those visitors carrying a Golden Bough. Charon is said to be appallingly filthy, with eyes like jets of fire, a bush of unkempt beard upon his chin, and a dirty cloak hanging from his shoulders.[citation needed] Although Charon ferries across most souls, he turns away a few. These are the unburied which can't be taken across from bank to bank until they receive a proper burial. Across the river, guarding the gates of the underworld is Cerberus. Beyond Cerberus is where the Judges of the underworld decide where to send the souls of the dead — to the Isles of the Blessed (Elysium), or otherwise to Tartarus.[12] Tartarus[edit] While Tartarus is not considered to be directly a part of the underworld, it is described as being as far beneath the underworld as the earth is beneath the sky.[13] It is so dark that the "night is poured around it in three rows like a collar round the neck, while above it grows the roots of the earth and of the unharvested sea."[14] Zeus cast the Titans along with his father Cronus into Tartarus after defeating them.[15] Homer wrote that Cronus then became the king of Tartarus.[16] While Odysseus does not see the Titans himself, he mentions some of the people within the underworld who are experiencing punishment for their sins. Asphodel Meadows[edit] The Asphodel Meadows were a place for ordinary or indifferent souls who did not commit any significant crimes, but who also did not achieve any greatness or recognition that would warrant them being admitted to the Elysian Fields. It was where mortals who did not belong anywhere else in the underworld were sent.[17] Mourning Fields[edit] In the Aeneid, the Mourning Fields (Lugentes Campi) was a section of the underworld reserved for souls who wasted their lives on unrequited love. Those mentioned as residents of this place are Dido, Phaedra, Procris, Eriphyle, Pasiphaë, Evadne, Laodamia, and Caeneus.[18][19] Elysium[edit] Elysium was a place for the especially distinguished. It was ruled over by Rhadamanthus, and the souls that dwelled there had an easy afterlife and had no labors.[20] Usually, those who had proximity to the gods were granted admission, rather than those who were especially righteous or had ethical merit, however, later on, those who were pure and righteous were considered to reside in Elysium. Most accepted to Elysium were demigods or heroes.[13] Heroes such as Cadmus, Peleus, and Achilles also were transported here after their deaths. Normal people who lived righteous and virtuous lives could also gain entrance such as Socrates who proved his worth sufficiently through philosophy.[13] Isles of the Blessed[edit] The Fortunate Isles or Isles of the Blessed were islands in the realm of Elysium. When a soul achieved Elysium, it had a choice to either stay in Elysium or to be reborn. If a soul was reborn thrice and achieved Elysium all three times, then it was sent to the Isles of the Blessed to live in eternal paradise.[citation needed] As the Elysian Fields expanded to include ordinary people who lived pure lives, the fortunate isles then began to be considered the final destination for demigods and heroes.[citation needed] Deities[edit] Hades[edit] Hades (Aides, Aidoneus, or Haidês), the eldest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea; brother of Zeus, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter, and Hestia, is the Greek god of the underworld.[21] When the three brothers divided the world between themselves, Zeus received the heavens, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld; the earth itself was divided between the three. Therefore, while Hades' responsibility was in the underworld, he was allowed to have power on earth as well.[22] However, Hades himself is rarely seen outside his domain, and to those on earth his intentions and personality are a mystery.[23] In art and literature Hades is depicted as stern and dignified, but not as a fierce torturer or devil-like.[22] However, Hades was considered the enemy to all life and was hated by both the gods and men; sacrifices and prayers did not appease him so mortals rarely tried.[24] He was also not a tormenter of the dead, and sometimes considered the "Zeus of the dead" because he was hospitable to them.[25] Due to his role as lord of the underworld and ruler of the dead, he was also known as Zeus Khthonios ("the infernal Zeus" or "Zeus of the lower world"). Those who received punishment in Tartarus were assigned by the other gods seeking vengeance. In Greek society, many viewed Hades as the least liked god and many gods even had an aversion towards him, and when people would sacrifice to Hades, it would be if they wanted revenge on an enemy or something terrible to happen to them.[26] Hades was sometimes referred to as Pluton and was represented in a lighter way – here, he was considered the giver of wealth, since the crops and the blessing of the harvest come from below the earth.[27] Persephone[edit] The Rape of Persephone: Persephone is abducted by Hades in his chariot. Persephone krater Antikensammlung Berlin 1984.40 Persephone (also known as Kore) was the daughter of Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, and Zeus. Persephone was abducted by Hades, who desired a wife. When Persephone was gathering flowers, she was entranced by a narcissus flower planted by Gaia (to lure her to the underworld as a favor to Hades), and when she picked it the earth suddenly opened up.[28] Hades, appearing in a golden chariot, seduced and carried Persephone into the underworld. When Demeter found out that Zeus had given Hades permission to abduct Persephone and take her as a wife, Demeter became enraged at Zeus and stopped growing harvests for the earth. To soothe her, Zeus sent Hermes to the underworld to return Persephone to her mother. However, she had eaten six pomegranate seeds in the underworld and was thus eternally tied to the underworld, since the pomegranate seed was sacred there.[29] Persephone could then only leave the underworld when the earth was blooming, or every season except the winter. The Homeric Hymns describes the abduction of Persephone by Hades: I sing now of the great Demeter Of the beautiful hair, And of her daughter Persephone Of the lovely feet, Whom Zeus let Hades tear away From her mother's harvests And friends and flowers— Especially the Narcissus, Grown by Gaia to entice the girl As a favor to Hades, the gloomy one. This was the flower that Left all amazed, Whose hundred buds made The sky itself smile. When the maiden reached out To pluck such beauty, The earth opened up And out burst Hades ... The son of Kronos, Who took her by force On his chariot of gold, To the place where so many Long not to go. Persephone screamed, She called to her father, All-powerful and high, ... But Zeus had allowed this. He sat in a temple Hearing nothing at all, Receiving the sacrifices of Supplicating men.[30] Persephone herself is considered a fitting other half to Hades because of the meaning of her name which bears the Greek root for "killing" and the -phone in her name means "putting to death".[22] Hecate[edit] Triple Hecate and the Charites, Attic, 3rd century BCE (Glyptothek, Munich) Hecate was variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, dogs, light, the Moon, magic, witchcraft, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, necromancy, and sorcery.[31][32] The Erinyes[edit] Orestes at Delphi flanked by Athena and Pylades among the Erinyes and priestesses of the oracle, perhaps including Pythia behind the tripod – Paestan red-figured bell-krater, c. 330 BC The Erinyes (also known as the Furies) were the three goddesses associated with the souls of the dead and the avenged crimes against the natural order of the world. They consist of Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone. They were particularly concerned with crimes done by children against their parents such as matricide, patricide, and unfilial conduct. They would inflict madness upon the living murderer, or if a nation was harboring such a criminal, the Erinyes would cause starvation and disease to the nation.[33] The Erinyes were dreaded by the living since they embodied the vengeance of the person who was wronged against the wrongdoer.[34] Often the Greeks made "soothing libations" to the Erinyes to appease them so as to not invoke their wrath, and overall the Erinyes received many more libations and sacrifices than other gods of the underworld.[35] The Erinyes were depicted as ugly and winged women with their bodies intertwined with serpents.[36] Hermes[edit] Relief from a carved funerary lekythos at Athens: Hermes as psychopomp conducts the deceased, Myrrhine, to Hades, ca 430-420 BCE (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). While Hermes did not primarily reside in the underworld and is not usually associated with the underworld, he was the one who led the souls of the dead to the underworld. In this sense, he was known as Hermes Psychopompos and with his fair golden wand he was able to lead the dead to their new home. He was also called upon by the dying to assist in their passing – some called upon him to have painless deaths or be able to die when and where they believed they were meant to die.[37] Judges of the underworld[edit] Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus are the judges of the dead. They judged the deeds of the deceased and created the laws that governed the underworld. However, none of the laws provided a true justice to the souls of the dead, and the dead did not receive rewards for following them or punishment for wicked actions.[38] Aeacus was the guardian of the Keys of the underworld and the judge of the men of Europe. Rhadamanthus was Lord of Elysium and judge of the men of Asia. Minos was the judge of the final vote. Charon[edit] Charon is the ferryman who, after receiving a soul from Hermes, would guide them across the rivers Styx and/or Acheron to the underworld. At funerals, the deceased traditionally had an obol placed over their eye or under their tongue, so they could pay Charon to take them across. If not, they were said to fly at the shores for one hundred years, until they were allowed to cross the river.[39] To the Etruscans, Charon was considered a fearsome being – he wielded a hammer and was hook-nosed, bearded, and had animalistic ears with teeth.[13] In other early Greek depictions, Charon was considered merely an ugly bearded man with a conical hat and tunic.[40] Later on, in more modern Greek folklore, he was considered more angelic, like the Archangel Michael. Nevertheless, Charon was considered a terrifying being since his duty was to bring these souls to the underworld and no one would persuade him to do otherwise. Cerberus[edit] Hades with Cerberus. Cerberus (Kerberos), or the "Hell-Hound", is Hades' massive multi-headed (usually three-headed)[41][42][43] dog with some descriptions stating that it also has a snake-headed tail and snake heads on its back and as its mane. Born from Echidna and Typhon, Cerberus guards the gate that serves as the entrance of the underworld.[22] Cerberus' duty is to prevent dead people from leaving the underworld. Heracles once borrowed Cerberus as the final part of the Labours of Heracles. Orpheus once soothed it to sleep with his music. According to the Suda, the ancient Greeks placed a honeycake (μελιτοῦττα) with the dead in order (for the dead) to give it to Cerberus.[44] Thanatos[edit] Thanatos is the personification of death. Specifically, he represented non-violent death as contrasted with his sisters the Keres, the spirits of diseases and slaughter. Melinoë[edit] Melinoe is a chthonic nymph, daughter of Persephone, invoked in one of the Orphic Hymns and propitiated as a bringer of nightmares and madness.[45] She may also be the figure named in a few inscriptions from Anatolia,[46] and she appears on a bronze tablet in association with Persephone.[47] The hymns, of uncertain date but probably composed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, are liturgical texts for the mystery religion known as Orphism. In the hymn, Melinoë has characteristics that seem similar to Hecate and the Erinyes,[48] and the name is sometimes thought to be an epithet of Hecate.[49] The terms in which Melinoë is described are typical of moon goddesses in Greek poetry. Nyx[edit] Nyx is the goddess of the Night. Tartarus[edit] A deep abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans,[50] Tartarus was also considered to be a primordial deity. Achlys[edit] Achlys is the personification of misery and sadness, sometimes represented as a daughter of Nyx. Styx[edit] Styx is the goddess of the river with the same name. Not much is known about her, but she is an ally of Zeus and lives in the underworld. Eurynomos[edit] Eurynomos is one of the daemons of the underworld, who eats off all the flesh of the corpses, leaving only their bones. The dead[edit] In the Greek underworld, the souls of the dead still existed, but they are insubstantial, and flitted around the underworld with no sense of purpose.[51] The dead within the Homeric underworld lack menos, or strength, and therefore they cannot influence those on earth. They also lack phrenes, or wit, and are heedless of what goes on around them and on the earth above them.[52] Their lives in the underworld were very neutral, so all social statuses and political positions were eliminated and no one was able to use their previous lives to their advantage in the underworld.[38] The idea of progress did not exist in the Greek underworld – at the moment of death, the psyche was frozen, in experience and appearance. The souls in the underworld did not age or really change in any sense. They did not lead any sort of active life in the underworld – they were exactly the same as they were in life.[53] Therefore, those who had died in battle were eternally blood-spattered in the underworld and those who had died peacefully were able to remain that way.[54] Overall, the Greek dead were considered to be irritable and unpleasant, but not dangerous or malevolent. They grew angry if they felt a hostile presence near their graves and drink offerings were given in order to appease them so as not to anger the dead.[55] Mostly, blood offerings were given, because they needed the essence of life to become communicative and conscious again.[38] This is shown in Homer's Odyssey, where Odysseus had to give blood in order for the souls to interact with him. While in the underworld, the dead passed the time through simple pastimes such as playing games, as shown from objects found in tombs such as dice and game-boards.[56] Grave gifts such as clothing, jewelry, and food were left by the living for use in the underworld as well, since many viewed these gifts to carry over into the underworld.[53] There was not a general consensus as to whether the dead were able to consume food or not. Homer depicted the dead as unable to eat or drink unless they had been summoned; however, some reliefs portray the underworld as having many elaborate feasts.[56] While not completely clear, it is implied that the dead could still have sexual intimacy with another, although no children were produced. The Greeks also showed belief in the possibility of marriage in the underworld, which in a sense describes the Greek underworld having no difference than from their current life.[57] Lucian described the people of the underworld as simple skeletons. They are indistinguishable from each other, and it is impossible to tell who was wealthy or important in the living world.[58] However, this view of the underworld was not universal – Homer depicts the dead keeping their familiar faces. Hades itself was free from the concept of time. The dead are aware of both the past and the future, and in poems describing Greek heroes, the dead helped move the plot of the story by prophesying and telling truths unknown to the hero.[53] The only way for humans to communicate with the dead was to suspend time and their normal life to reach Hades, the place beyond immediate perception and human time.[53] Greek attitudes[edit] The Greeks had a definite belief that there was a journey to the afterlife or another world. They believed that death was not a complete end to life or human existence.[59] The Greeks accepted the existence of the soul after death, but saw this afterlife as meaningless.[60] In the underworld, the identity of a dead person still existed, but it had no strength or true influence. Rather, the continuation of the existence of the soul in the underworld was considered a remembrance of the fact that the dead person had existed, yet while the soul still existed, it was inactive.[61] However, the price of death was considered a great one. Homer believed that the best possible existence for humans was to never be born at all, or die soon after birth, because the greatness of life could never balance the price of death.[62] The Greek gods only rewarded heroes who were still living; heroes that died were ignored in the afterlife. However, it was considered very important to the Greeks to honor the dead and was seen as a type of piety. Those who did not respect the dead opened themselves to the punishment of the gods – for example, Odysseus ensured Ajax's burial, or the gods would be angered.[63] Myths and stories[edit] Orpheus[edit] Orpheus, a poet and musician that had almost supernatural abilities to move anyone to his music, descended to the underworld as a living mortal to retrieve his dead wife Eurydice after she was bitten by a poisonous snake on their wedding day. With his lyre-playing skills, he was able to put a spell on the guardians of the underworld and move them with his music.[64] With his beautiful voice he was able to convince Hades and Persephone to allow him and his wife to return to the living. The rulers of the underworld agreed, but under one condition – Eurydice would have to follow behind Orpheus and he could not turn around to look at her. Once Orpheus reached the entrance, he turned around, longing to look at his beautiful wife, only to watch as his wife faded back into the underworld. He was forbidden to return to the underworld a second time and he spent his life playing his music to the birds and the mountains.[65] See also[edit] Hades in Christianity References[edit] ^ Long, J. Bruce (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 9452. ^ Garland, Robert (1985). The Greek Way of Death. London: Duckworth. p. 49. ^ Fairbanks, Arthur (1 January 1900). "The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion". The American Journal of Philology. 21 (3): 242. doi:10.2307/287716. JSTOR 287716. ^ Albinus, Lars (2000). The House of Hades: studies in ancient Greek eschatology. Aarhus University Press: Aarhus. p. 67. ^ Mirto, Maria Serena; A. M Osborne (2012). Death in the Greek World: From Homer to the Classical Age. Normal: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 16. ^ Leeming, David (2005). "Styx". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001. ISBN 9780195156690. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Buxton, R.G.A (2004). The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 209. ^ "Theoi Project: Lethe". Retrieved September 30, 2012. ^ The Iliad ^ The Odyssey ^ Virgil, Aeneid 268 ff ^ "Underworld and Afterlife - Greek Mythology Link". Maicar.com. Retrieved 2018-04-02. ^ a b c d Buxton pg.213 ^ Garland pg.51 ^ Garland pg.50 ^ Albinus pg.87 ^ "The Greek Underworld". Wiki.uiowa.edu. 2010-01-31. Retrieved 2018-04-02. ^ Wordsworth, William. Knight, William (edit.). The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, Volume 6. MacMillan & Co. 1896; pg. 14. ^ Virgil. Fairclough, H. Rushton (trans.). Virgil: Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I-VI. Vol. 1. William Heinemann. G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1916. ^ Albinus pg.86 ^ "Theoi Project: Haides". Retrieved December 2, 2012. ^ a b c d O'Cleirigh, Padraig (2000). An Introduction to Greek mythology : story, symbols, and culture. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 190. ^ Mirto pg.21 ^ Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities. Harper. p. 761. ^ Garland pg.52 ^ "Hades". Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2012-12-05. ^ Peck pg.761 ^ Leeming, David (2005). "Demeter and Persephone". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001. ISBN 9780195156690. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Pfister, F (1961). Greek Gods and Heroes. London: Macgibbon & Kee. p. 86. ^ Leeming, Demeter and Persephone ^ "HECATE : Greek goddess of witchcraft, ghosts & magic; mythology; pictures : HEKATE". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. ^ d'Este, Sorita & Rankine, David, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009. ^ "Theoi Project: Erinyes". Retrieved October 8, 2012. ^ Fairbanks pg.251 ^ Fairbanks pg.255 ^ Theoi Project: Erinyes ^ Garland pgs.54-55 ^ a b c Long pg.9453 ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6, 324–330. ^ "Theoi Project: Kharon". Retrieved December 2, 2012. ^ "Cerberus". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2009-07-16. ^ "Yahoo! Deducation". Archived from the original on 2012-10-21. ^ Cerberus definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. ^ Suda μ 526. ^ Orphic Hymn 70 or 71 (numbering varies), as given by Richard Wünsch, Antikes Zaubergerät aus Pergamon (Berlin, 1905), p. 26: Μηλινόην καλέω, νύμφην χθονίαν, κροκόπεπλον, ἣν παρὰ Κωκυτοῦ προχοαῖς ἐλοχεύσατο σεμνὴ Φερσεφόνη λέκτροις ἱεροῖς Ζηνὸς Κρονίοιο ᾗ ψευσθεὶς Πλούτων᾽ἐμίγη δολίαις ἀπάταισι, θυμῷ Φερσεφόνης δὲ διδώματον ἔσπασε χροιήν, ἣ θνητοὺς μαίνει φαντάσμασιν ἠερίοισιν, ἀλλοκότοις ἰδέαις μορφῆς τὐπον έκκπροφανοῦσα, ἀλλοτε μὲν προφανής, ποτὲ δὲ σκοτόεσσα, νυχαυγής, ἀνταίαις ἐφόδοισι κατὰ ζοφοειδέα νύκτα. ἀλλἀ, θεά, λίτομαί σε, καταχθονίων Βασίλεια, ψυχῆς ἐκπέμπειν οἶστρον ἐπὶ τέρματα γαίης, εὐμενὲς εὐίερον μύσταις φαίνουσα πρόσωπον. ^ Jennifer Lynn Larson, Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 268. ^ Radcliffe G. Edmonds III, "Orphic Mythology," in A Companion to Greek Mythology (Blackwell, 2011), note 58, p. 100; Apostolos N. Athanassakis, The Orphic Hymns: Text, Translation, and Notes (Scholars Press, 1977), p. viii. ^ Edmonds, "Orphic Mythology," pp. 84–85. ^ Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. ^ Georg Autenrieth. "Τάρταρος". A Homeric Dictionary. Retrieved 7 April 2012. ^ Mikalson, Jon D (2010). Ancient Greek Religion. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 177. ^ Garland pg.1 ^ a b c d Albinus pg.27 ^ Garland pg.74 ^ Garland pgs.5-6 ^ a b Garland pg.70 ^ Garland pg.71 ^ O’Cleirigh pg.191 ^ Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Eleni Tsilika; Efi Parpa; Emmanuel Katsouda; Lambros Vlahos (1 December 2004). "Death and Grief in the Greek Culture". OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 50 (1): 24. doi:10.2190/YYAU-R4MN-AKKM-T496. Retrieved 4 December 2012.[permanent dead link] ^ Mikalson pg.178 ^ Mystakidou pg.25 ^ Mystakidou pg.24 ^ Garland pg.8 ^ Albinus pg.105 ^ Hamilton, Edith. "The Story of Orpheus and Eurydice". Retrieved December 2, 2012. Bibliography[edit] Albinus, Lars (2000). The House of Hades: Studies in Ancient Greek Eschatology. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. Buxton, R (2004). The complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. Camus, Albert. "The Myth of Sisyphus". Retrieved 3 December 2012. Fairbanks, Arthur (1900). "The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion". The American Journal of Philology. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 21 (3): 241–259. doi:10.2307/287716. JSTOR 287716. Garland, Robert (1985). The Greek Way of Death. London: Duckworth. Leeming, David (2005). "Demeter and Persephone". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001. ISBN 9780195156690. Retrieved 2 December 2012. Leeming, David (2005). "Styx". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001. ISBN 9780195156690. Retrieved 2 December 2012. Long, J. Bruce (2005). "Underworld". Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan Reference USA. 14: 9451–9458. Mirtro, Marina Serena (2012). Death in the Greek world : from Homer to the classical age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Mikalson, Jon D (2010). Ancient Greek Religion. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Tsilika, Eleni; Parpa, Efi; Katsouda, Elena; Vlahous, Lambros (2004–2005). "Death and Grief in the Greek Culture". Omega. Baywood Publishing Co. 50 (1): 23–34. doi:10.2190/yyau-r4mn-akkm-t496. O’Cleirigh, Padraig, Rex A Barrell, and John M Bell (2000). An introduction to Greek mythology : story, symbols, and culture. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities. Harper. Pfister, F (1961). Greek Gods and Heroes. London: Macgibbon & Kee. Scarfuto, Christine. "The Greek Underworld". Retrieved 3 December 2012. Schmiel, Robert (1987). "Achilles in Hades". Classical Philology. The University of Chicago Press. 82 (1): 35–37. doi:10.1086/367020. JSTOR 270025. v t e Underworlds Aztec mythology Mictlān Buddhism Naraka Chinese mythology Diyu Christianity Lake of fire Outer darkness Purgatory Limbo Hades Christian views on Hell Ancient Egyptian religion Duat Germanic and Norse paganism Hel (heimr) Náströnd Niflheim Niflhel Greek and Roman mythology Asphodel Meadows Elysium Erebus Fortunate Isles Hades Orcus Tartarus Hell Hinduism Naraka Patala Islam Jahannam Sijjin Jainism Naraka Judaism Abaddon Azazel Dudael Gehenna Sheol Tehom Tzoah Rotachat Maya mythology Xibalba Mesopotamian mythology Irkalla Persian mythology Duzakh Slavic mythology Nav Shinto Yomi Sumerian mythology Kur Turkic-Mongolian Tamag Welsh mythology Annwn v t e Places visited by Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey Ismarus The island of Lotus-eaters The island of Polyphemus Aeolia Telepylos Aeaea The Underworld The Sirens Scylla and Charybdis Thrinacia Ogygia Scheria Ithaca Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_underworld&oldid=1003741073" Categories: Greek underworld Afterlife places Ancient Greek religion Geography of the Odyssey Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2019 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Alemannisch العربية বাংলা Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Malagasy Occitan Plattdüütsch Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 13:01 (UTC). 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Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{#invoke:sidebar|sidebar |width = 20em |title = [[Greek underworld]] |bodystyle = border-collapse:collapse; |navbarstyle = padding-right:0.3em; |contentstyle = text-align:left |heading1 = Residents |content1 = {{div col|colwidth=8em}} *[[Aeacus]] *[[Angelos (mythology)|Angelos]] *[[Arae]] *[[Ascalaphus]] *[[Cerberus]] *[[Ceuthonymus]] *[[Charon]] *[[Erinyes]] *[[Eurynomos (daemon)|Eurynomos]] *[[Hades]]/[[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]] *[[Hecate]] *[[Hypnos]] *[[Macaria]] *[[Melinoë]] *[[Menoetius]] *[[Minos]] *[[Moirai]] *[[Mormolykeia]] *[[Persephone]] *[[Rhadamanthus]] *[[Thanatos]] {{div col end}} |heading2 = Geography |content2 = {{div col|colwidth=8em}} *[[Acheron]] *[[Asphodel Meadows|Asphodel<br />Fields]] *[[Cocytus]] *[[Elysium]] *[[Erebus]] *[[Lethe]] *[[Phlegethon]] *[[Styx]] *[[Tartarus]] {{div col end}} |heading3 = Famous Tartarus inmates |content3 = {{div col|colwidth=8em}} *[[Danaïdes]] *[[Ixion]] *[[Salmoneus]] *[[Sisyphus]] *[[Tantalus]] *[[Titans (mythology)|Titans]] *[[Tityos|Tityus]] {{div col end}} |heading4 = Visitors |content4 = {{div col|colwidth=8em}} *[[Aeneas]] *[[Dionysus]] *[[Heracles]] *[[Hermes]] *[[Odysseus]] *[[Orpheus]] *[[Pirithous]] *[[Cupid and Psyche|Psyche]] *[[Theseus]] {{div col end}} }}<noinclude>{{documentation|content= [[Category:Greek mythology templates]] }}</noinclude> Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Template:Div col (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Div col end (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Div col/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Documentation (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Main other (view source) (protected) Module:Arguments (view source) (protected) Module:Check for unknown parameters (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation/config (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Documentation/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Effective protection expiry (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Effective protection level (view source) (protected) Module:File link (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Navbar (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) Module:No globals (view source) (protected) Module:Protection banner (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Protection banner/config (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Sidebar (view source) (template editor protected) Module:Yesno (view source) (protected) Return to Template:Greek myth (Hades). 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en-wikipedia-org-195	----	Dionysus - Wikipedia Dionysus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Greco-Roman deity. For other uses of the names "Dionysus" and "Dionysos", see Dionysos (disambiguation). For other uses of the theophoric name "Dionysius", see Dionysius (disambiguation). "Bacchus" redirects here. For other uses, see Bacchus (disambiguation). "Bassareus" redirects here. For the genus of beetles, see Bassareus (beetle). Ancient Greek god of winemaking and wine Dionysus God of the vine, grape-harvest, wine-making, wine, fertility, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, theatre Member of the Twelve Olympians Second-century Roman statue of Dionysus, after a Hellenistic model (ex-coll. Cardinal Richelieu, Louvre)[1] Symbol Thyrsus, grapevine, bull, panther, ivy, goat, masks, chalice Personal information Parents Zeus and Semele, Zeus and Demeter (some sources), Zeus and Persephone (Orphic), Ammon and Amaltheia Siblings Aeacus, Angelos, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, Tantalus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Consort Ariadne Children Priapus, Hymen, Thoas, Staphylus, Oenopion, Comus, Phthonus, the Graces, Deianira Equivalents Greek equivalent Iacchus, Zagreus Roman equivalent Bacchus, Liber Etruscan equivalent Fufluns Egyptian equivalent Osiris This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Dionysus (/daɪ.əˈnaɪsəs/; Greek: Διόνυσος) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking and wine, of fertility, orchards and fruit, vegetation, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity and theatre in ancient Greek religion and myth.[2][3][4] He is also known as Bacchus (/ˈbækəs/ or /ˈbɑːkəs/; Greek: Βάκχος, Bákkhos), the name adopted by the Romans;[5] the frenzy he induces is bakkheia. Another name used by the Romans is Liber meaning “free”, due to his association with wine and the Bacchanalia and other rites, and the freedom associated with it. His thyrsus, sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey, is both a beneficent wand and a weapon used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. As Eleutherios ("the liberator"), his wine, music and ecstatic dance free his followers from self-conscious fear and care, and subvert the oppressive restraints of the powerful. Those who partake of his mysteries are believed to become possessed and empowered by the god himself.[6] In his religion, identical with or closely related to Orphism, Dionysus was believed to have been born from the union of Zeus and Persephone, and to have himself represented a chthonic or underworld aspect of Zeus. Many believed that he had been born twice, having been killed and reborn as the son of Zeus and the mortal Semele. In the Eleusinian Mysteries he was identified with Iacchus, the son (or, alternately, husband) of Demeter. His origins are uncertain, and his cults took many forms; some are described by ancient sources as Thracian, others as Greek.[7][8][9] Though most accounts say he was born in Thrace, traveled abroad, and arrived in Greece as a foreigner, evidence from the Mycenaean period of Greek history shows that he is one of Greece's oldest attested gods. His attribute of "foreignness" as an arriving outsider-god may be inherent and essential to his cults, as he is a god of epiphany, sometimes called "the god that comes".[10] Wine played an important role in Greek culture, and the cult of Dionysus was the main religious focus surrounding its consumption.[11] Wine, as well as the vines and grapes that produce it, were seen as not only a gift of the god, but a symbolic incarnation of him on earth.[12] However, rather than being a god of drunkenness, as he was often stereotyped in the post-Classical era, the religion of Dionysus centered on the correct consumption of wine, which could ease suffering and bring joy, as well as inspire divine madness distinct from drunkenness.[13] Performance art and drama were also central to his religion, and its festivals were the initial driving force behind the development of theatre.[14] The cult of Dionysus is also a "cult of the souls"; his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings, and he acts as a divine communicant between the living and the dead.[15] He is sometimes categorised as a dying-and-rising god.[16] Dionysus is shown to be an Agriculture and Vegetation deity. His connection to wine, grape-harvest, orchards,[17] and vegetation displays his role as a nature god. As the god of Viticulture and Grapes, he is connected to the growth and harvest of the fruit. In myth, he teaches the art of growing and cultivating the plant.[18][19][20][21][4] Contents 1 Name 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Meaning and variants 2 Origins 3 Epithets 4 Worship and festivals in Greece 4.1 Dionysia 4.2 Anthestria 4.3 Bacchic mysteries 4.4 Eleusinian mysteries 4.5 Orphism 5 Worship and festivals in Rome 5.1 Liber and importation to Rome 5.2 Bacchanalia 6 Post-classical worship 6.1 Late Antiquity 6.2 Worship from the Middle Ages to the Modern period 7 Identification with other gods 7.1 Osiris 7.2 Hades 7.3 Sabazios and Yahweh 8 Mythology 8.1 First birth 8.1.1 Interpretation 8.2 Second birth 8.2.1 Interpretation 8.3 Infancy 8.4 Travels and invention of wine 8.5 Return to Greece 8.6 Captivity and escape 8.7 Descent to the underworld 8.8 Secondary myths 8.8.1 Midas' golden touch 8.8.2 Other myths 9 Lovers and offspring 10 Iconography 10.1 Symbols 10.2 In classical art 11 Post-classical culture 11.1 Art from the Renaissance on 11.2 Modern literature and philosophy 11.3 Modern film and performance art 12 Parallels with Christianity 12.1 Death and resurrection 12.2 Trial 12.3 Other parallels 13 Gallery 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links Name[edit] Etymology[edit] The dio- prefix in Ancient Greek Διόνυσος (Diṓnusos; /di.ó.nyː.sos/) has been associated since antiquity with Zeus (genitive Dios), and the variants of the name seem to point to an original *Dios-nysos.[22] The earliest attestation is the Mycenaean Greek dative form 𐀇𐁂𐁕𐀒 (di-wo-nu-so),[22] featured on two tablets that had been found at Mycenaean Pylos and dated to the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. At that time, there could be no certainty on whether this was indeed a theonym,[23][24] but the 1989–90 Greek-Swedish Excavations at Kastelli Hill, Chania, unearthed, inter alia, four artefacts bearing Linear B inscriptions; among them, the inscription on item KH Gq 5 is thought to confirm Dionysus's early worship.[25] In Mycenean Greek the form of Zeus is di-wo.[26] Dionysus extending a drinking cup (kantharos) (late sixth century BC) The second element -nūsos is of unknown origin.[22] It is perhaps associated with Mount Nysa, the birthplace of the god in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the Nysiads),[27] although Pherecydes of Syros had postulated nũsa as an archaic word for "tree" by the sixth century BC.[28][29] On a vase of Sophilos the Nysiads are named νύσαι (nusae).[30] Kretschmer asserted that νύση (nusē) is a Thracian word that has the same meaning as νύμφη (nýmphē), a word similar with νυός (nuos) (daughter in law, or bride, I-E *snusós, Sanskr. snusā).[31] He suggested that the male form is νῦσος (nūsos) and this would make Dionysus the "son of Zeus".[32] Jane Ellen Harrison believed that the name Dionysus means " young Zeus".[33] Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, since all attempts to find an Indo-European etymology are doubtful. [22] Meaning and variants[edit] This article contains Linear B that may not render correctly in your browser. Without proper rendering support, you may see empty boxes instead of Unicode. Later variants include Dionūsos and Diōnūsos in Boeotia; Dien(n)ūsos in Thessaly; Deonūsos and Deunūsos in Ionia; and Dinnūsos in Aeolia, besides other variants. A Dio- prefix is found in other names, such as that of the Dioscures, and may derive from Dios, the genitive of the name of Zeus.[34] Nonnus, in his Dionysiaca, writes that the name Dionysus means "Zeus-limp" and that Hermes named the new born Dionysus this, "because Zeus while he carried his burden lifted one foot with a limp from the weight of his thigh, and nysos in Syracusan language means limping".[35] In his note to these lines, W. H. D. Rouse writes "It need hardly be said that these etymologies are wrong".[35] The Suda, a Byzantine encyclopedia based on classical sources, states that Dionysus was so named "from accomplishing [διανύειν] for each of those who live the wild life. Or from providing [διανοεῖν] everything for those who live the wild life."[36] Origins[edit] Dionysus triumph, a mosaic from the House of Poseidon, Zeugma Mosaic Museum Academics in the nineteenth century, using study of philology and comparative mythology, often regarded Dionysus as a foreign deity who was only reluctantly accepted into the standard Greek pantheon at a relatively late date, based on his myths which often involve this theme – a god who spends much of his time on earth abroad, and struggles for acceptance when he returns to Greece. However, more recent evidence has shown that Dionysus was in fact one of the earliest gods attested in mainland Greek culture.[13] The earliest written records of Dionysus worship come from Mycenaean Greece, specifically in and around the Palace of Nestor in Pylos, dated to around 1300 BC.[37] The details of any religion surrounding Dionysus in this period are scant, and most evidence comes in the form only of his name, written as di-wo-nu-su-jo ("Dionysoio") in Linear B, preserved on fragments of clay tablets that indicate a connection to offerings or payments of wine, which was described as being "of Dionysoio". References have also been uncovered to "women of Oinoa", the "place of wine", who may correspond to the Dionysian women of later periods.[37] Other Mycenaean records from Pylos record the worship of a god named Eleuther, who was the son of Zeus, and to whom oxen were sacrificed. The link to both Zeus and oxen, as well as etymological links between the name Eleuther or Eleutheros with the Latin name Liber Pater, indicates that this may have been another name for Dionysus. According to Károly Kerényi, these clues suggest that even in the thirteenth century BC, the core religion of Dionysus was in place, as were his important myths. At Knossos in Minoan Crete, men were often given the name "Pentheus", who is a figure in later Dionysian myth and which also means "suffering". Kerényi argued that to give such a name to one's child implies a strong religious connection, potentially not the separate character of Pentheus who suffers at the hands of Dionysus' followers in later myths, but as an epithet of Dionysus himself, whose mythology describes a god who must endure suffering before triumphing over it. According to Kerényi, the title of "man who suffers" likely originally referred to the god himself, only being applied to distinct characters as the myth developed.[37] The oldest known image of Dionysus, accompanied by his name, is found on a dinos by the Attic potter Sophilos around 570 BC. By the seventh century, iconography found on pottery shows that Dionysus was already worshiped as more than just a god associated with wine. He was associated with weddings, death, sacrifice, and sexuality, and his retinue of satyrs and dancers was already established. A common theme in these early depictions was the metamorphosis, at the hand of the god, of his followers into hybrid creatures, usually represented by both tame and wild satyrs, representing the transition from civilized life back to nature as a means of escape.[13] Epithets[edit] The over-life size second-century AD Ludovisi Dionysus, with panther, satyr and grapes on a vine, Palazzo Altemps, Rome Epiphany of Dionysus mosaic, from the Villa of Dionysus (second century AD) in Dion, Greece, Archeological Museum of Dion A Roman fresco depicting Bacchus with red hair, Boscoreale, c. 30 BC Dionysus was variably known with the following epithets: Acratophorus, Ακρατοφορος ("giver of unmixed wine"), at Phigaleia in Arcadia.[38] Acroreites at Sicyon.[39] Adoneus, a rare archaism in Roman literature, a Latinised form of Adonis, used as epithet for Bacchus.[40] Aegobolus Αἰγοβόλος ("Goat-shooter") at Potniae, in Boeotia.[41] Aesymnetes Αισυμνήτης (“ruler" or "lord") at Aroë and Patrae in Achaea. Agrios Ἄγριος (“wild"), in Macedonia. Androgynos Ανδρογυνος (androgynous in intercourse) referring to the god in sexual intercourse, doing both the active Male role and the passive Female one.[42][43] Bassareus, βασσαρεύς a Thracian name for Dionysus, which derives from bassaris or "fox-skin", which item was worn by his cultists in their mysteries.[44] Briseus Βρῑσεὐς ("he who prevails") in Smyrna.[45][46] Bromios Βρόμιος ("Roaring" as of the wind, primarily relating to the central death/resurrection element of the myth,[47] but also the god's transformations into lion and bull,[48] and the boisterousness of those who drink alcohol. Also cognate with the "roar of thunder", which refers to Dionysus' father, Zeus "the thunderer".[49]) Choiropsalas χοιροψάλας ("pig-plucker": Greek χοῖρος = "pig," also used as a slang term for the female genitalia). A reference to Dionysus's role as a fertility deity.[50][51] Chthonios Χθόνιος ("the subterranean")[52] Cittophorus Κιστοφορος (“Basket-Bearer, Ivy-bearer”), Alludes To baskets being sacred to the god.[42][53] Dimetor Διμητωρ (“Twice-Born”) Refers to Dionysus’s two births.[42][54][55][56] Dendrites Δενδρίτης ("he of the trees"), as a fertility god. Dithyrambos, Διθύραμβος used at his festivals, referring to his premature birth. Eleutherios Ελευθερευς (“the liberator"), an epithet shared with Eros. Endendros ("he in the tree").[57] Enorches ("with balls,"[58] with reference to his fertility, or "in the testicles" in reference to Zeus' sewing the baby Dionysus "into his thigh", understood to mean his testicles).[59] used in Samos and Lesbos. Eridromos ("good-running"), in Nonnus' Dionysiaca.[60] Erikryptos Ἐρίκρυπτος ("completely hidden"), in Macedonia. Euius (Euios), in Euripides' play, The Bacchae. Iacchus, Ιακχος a possible epithet of Dionysus, associated with the Eleusinian Mysteries. In Eleusis, he is known as a son of Zeus and Demeter. The name "Iacchus" may come from the Ιακχος (Iakchos), a hymn sung in honor of Dionysus. Liknites ("he of the winnowing fan"), as a fertility god connected with mystery religions. A winnowing fan was used to separate the chaff from the grain. Lyaeus, or Lyaios (Λυαῖος, "deliverer", literally "loosener"), one who releases from care and anxiety.[61] Melanaigis Μελαναιγις ("of the black goatskin") at the Apaturia festival. Morychus Μόρυχος, ("smeared") in Sicily, because his icon was smeared with wine lees at the vintage.[62][63] Mystes Μυστης (“Of the Mysteries”) Nysian Nύσιος, according to Philostratus, he was called like this by the ancient Indians.[64] Most probably, because according to legend he founded the city of Nysa.[65][66][67] Oeneus, Οινοψ (“Wine-Dark”) as god of the wine press.[68][69] Omadios (“Flesh-Eater”), Eusebius writes in Preparation for the Gospel that, Euelpis of Carystus states that, in Chios and Tenedos they did human sacrifice to Dionysus Omadios.[70] Pseudanor ψευδάνωρ (literally "false man", referring to his feminine qualities), in Macedonia. Semeleios[71] (Semeleius or Semeleus),[72] an obscure epithet meaning 'He of the Earth', 'son of Semele'.[73][74][75][76] Also appears in the expression Semeleios Iakchus plutodotas ("Son of Semele, Iakchus, wealth-giver").[77] Tauros Ταυρος (“A bull”), occurs as a surname of Dionysus.[78][79] In the Greek pantheon, Dionysus (along with Zeus) absorbs the role of Sabazios, a Thracian/Phrygian deity. In the Roman pantheon, Sabazius became an alternative name for Bacchus.[80] Worship and festivals in Greece[edit] Main article: Cult of Dionysus A mosaic from Antioch of Dionysos, 2nd century AD Marble head of Dionysus, 2nd century AD, Capitoline Museums, Rome Dionysus worship became firmly established by the seventh century BC.[81] He may have been worshiped as early as c. 1500–1100 BC by Mycenaean Greeks;[82][25] and traces of Dionysian-type cult have also been found in ancient Minoan Crete.[37] Dionysia[edit] The Dionysia, Haloa, Ascolia and Lenaia festivals were dedicated to Dionysus. The Rural Dionysia (or Lesser Dionysia) was one of the oldest festivals dedicated to Dionysus, begun in Attica, and probably celebrated the cultivation of vines. It was held during the winter month of Poseideon (the time surrounding the winter solstice, modern December or January). The Rural Dionysia centered on a procession, during which participants carried phalluses, long loaves of bread, jars of water and wine as well as other offerings, and young girls carried baskets. The procession was followed by a series of dramatic performances and drama competitions.[83] The City Dionysia (or Great Dionysia) took place in urban centers such as Athens and Eleusis, and was a later development, probably beginning during the sixth century BC. Held three months after the Rural Dionysia, the Greater festival fell near the spring equinox in the month of Elaphebolion (modern March or April). The procession of the City Dionysia was similar to that of the rural celebrations, but more elaborate, and led by participants carrying a wooden statue of Dionysus, and including sacrificial bulls and ornately dressed choruses. The dramatic competitions of the Greater Dionysia also featured more noteworthy poets and playwrights, and prizes for both dramatists and actors in multiple categories.[83][14] Anthestria[edit] Anthestria (Ἀνθεστήρια) was an Athenian festival that celebrated the beginning of spring. It spanned three days: Pithoigia (Πιθοίγια, “Jar-Opening”), Choes (Χοαί, “The Pouring”) and Chythroi (Χύτροι “The-Pots”).[84] It was said the dead arose from the underworld during the span of the festival. Along with the souls of the dead, the Keres also wandered through the city and had to be banished when the festival ended.[85] On the first day, Wine vats were opened.[86] The wine was opened and mixed in honour of the god.[87] The rooms and the drinking vessels were adorned with flowers along with children over three years of age.[84] On the second day, a solemn ritual for Dionysus occurred along with drinking. People dressed up, sometimes as members of Dionysus’s entourage,and visited others. Choes was also the occasion of a solemn and secret ceremony. In one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of the year was closed. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the basileus, underwent through a symbolic ceremonial marriage to the god, possibly representing a Hieros gamos. The basilissa was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons (called Gerarai) who were chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy.[84][88] The last day was dedicated to the dead. Offerings were also offered to Hermes, due to his connection to the underworld. It was considered a day of merrymaking.[84] Some poured Libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. Chythroi ended with a ritual cry intended to order the souls of the dead to return to the underworld.[88] Keres were also banished from the festival on the last day.[85] To protect themselves from evil, people chewed leaves of whitethorn and smeared their doors with tar to protect themselves. The festival also allowed servants and slaves to join in on the festivites.[84][85] Bacchic mysteries[edit] Main articles: Dionysian Mysteries and Orphism (religion) Marble relief of a Maenad and two satyrs in a Bacchic procession. AD 100, British Museum, London. The central religious cult of Dionysus is known as the Bacchic or Dionysian Mysteries. The exact origin of this religion is unknown, though Orpheus was said to have invented the mysteries of Dionysus.[89] Evidence suggests that many sources and rituals typically considered to be part of the similar Orphic Mysteries actually belong to Dionysian mysteries.[13] Some scholars have suggested that, additionally, there is no difference between the Dionysian mysteries and the mysteries of Persephone, but that these were all facets of the same mystery religion, and that Dionysus and Persephone both had important roles in it.[13][90] Previously considered to have been a primarily rural and fringe part of Greek religion, the major urban center of Athens played a major role in the development and spread of the Bacchic mysteries.[13] The Bacchic mysteries served an important role in creating ritual traditions for transitions in people's lives; originally primarily for men and male sexuality, but later also created space for ritualizing women's changing roles and celebrating changes of status in a woman's life. This was often symbolized by a meeting with the gods who rule over death and change, such as Hades and Persephone, but also with Dionysus' mother Semele, who probably served a role related to initiation into the mysteries.[13] The religion of Dionysus often included rituals involving the sacrifice of goats or bulls, and at least some participants and dancers wore wooden masks associated with the god. In some instances, records show the god participating in the ritual via a masked and clothed pillar, pole, or tree is used, while his worshipers eat bread and drink wine. The significance of masks and goats to the worship of Dionysus seems to date back to the earliest days of his worship, and these symbols have been found together at a Minoan tomb near Phaistos in Crete.[37] Eleusinian mysteries[edit] Bacchus, Ceres and Amor, (1595–1605). Oil on canvas by Hans von Aachen. Roman marble relief (first century AD) from Naukratis showing the Greek god Dionysus, snake-bodied and wearing an Egyptian crown. As early as the fifth century BC, Dionysus became identified with Iacchus, a minor deity from the tradition of the Eleusinian mysteries.[91] This association may have arisen because of the homophony of the names Iacchus and Bacchus. Two black-figure lekythoi (c. 500 BC), possibly represent the earliest evidence for such an association. The nearly-identical vases, one in Berlin,[92] the other in Rome,[93] depict Dionysus, along with the inscription IAKXNE, a possible miswriting of IAKXE.[94] More early evidence can be found in the works of the fifth-century BC Athenian tragedians Sophocles and Euripides.[95] In Sophocles' Antigone (c. 441 BC), an ode to Dionysus begins by addressing Dionysus as the "God of many names" (πολυώνυμε), who rules over the glens of Demeter's Eleusis, and ends by identifying him with "Iacchus the Giver", who leads "the chorus of the stars whose breath is fire" and whose "attendant Thyiads" dance in "night-long frenzy".[96] And in a fragment from a lost play, Sophocles describes Nysa, Dionysus' traditional place of nurture: "From here I caught sight of Nysa, haunt of Bacchus, famed among mortals, which Iacchus of the bull's horns counts as his beloved nurse".[97] In Euripides' Bacchae (c. 405 BC), a messenger, describing the Bacchic revelries on mount Cithaeron, associates Iacchus with Bromius, another of the names of Dionysus, saying, they "began to wave the thyrsos ... calling on Iacchus, the son of Zeus, Bromius, with united voice."[98] An inscription found on a stone stele (c. 340 BC), found at Delphi, contains a paean to Dionysus, which describes his travels.[99] From Thebes, where he was born, he first went to Delphi where he displayed his "starry body", and with "Delphian girls" took his "place on the folds of Parnassus",[100] then next to Eleusis, where he is called "Iacchus": And in your hand brandishing your night- lighting flame, with god-possessed frenzy you went to the vales of Eleusis ... where the whole people of Hellas' land, alongside your own native witnesses of the holy mysteries, calls upon you as Iacchus: for mortals from their pains you have opened a haven without toils.[101] Strabo, says that Greeks "give the name 'Iacchus' not only to Dionysus but also to the leader-in-chief of the mysteries".[102] In particular, Iacchus was identified with the Orphic Dionysus, who was a son of Persephone.[103] Sophocles mentions "Iacchus of the bull's horns", and according to the first-century BC historian Diodorus Siculus, it was this older Dionysus who was represented in paintings and sculptures with horns, because he "excelled in sagacity and was the first to attempt the yoking of oxen and by their aid to effect the sowing of the seed".[104] Arrian, the second-century Greek historian, wrote that it was to this Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone, "not the Theban Dionysus, that the mystic chant 'Iacchus' is sung".[105] The second-century poet Lucian also referred to the "dismemberment of Iacchus".[106] The fourth- or fifth-century poet Nonnus associated the name Iacchus with the "third" Dionysus. He described the Athenian celebrations given to the first Dionysus Zagreus, son of Persephone, the second Dionysus Bromios, son of Semele, and the third Dionysus Iacchus: They [the Athenians] honoured him as a god next after the son of Persephoneia, and after Semele's son; they established sacrifices for Dionysos late born and Dionysos first born, and third they chanted a new hymn for Iacchos. In these three celebrations Athens held high revel; in the dance lately made, the Athenians beat the step in honour of Zagreus and Bromios and Iacchos all together.[107] By some accounts, Iacchus was the husband of Demeter.[108] Several other sources identify Iacchus as Demeter's son.[109] The earliest such source, a fourth-century BC vase fragment at Oxford, shows Demeter holding the child Dionysus on her lap.[110] By the first-century BC, Demeter suckling Iacchus had become such a common motif, that the Latin poet Lucretius could use it as an apparently recognizable example of a lover's euphemism.[111] A scholiast on the second-century AD Aristides, explicitly names Demeter as Iacchus' mother.[112] Orphism[edit] Satyr giving a grapevine to Bacchus as a child; cameo glass, first half of the first century AD; from Italy In the Orphic tradition, the "first Dionysus" was the son of Zeus and Persephone, and was dismembered by the Titans before being reborn.[113] Dionysus was the patron god of the Orphics, who they connected to death and immortality, and he symbolized the one who guides the process of reincarnation.[114] This Orphic Dionysus is sometimes referred to with the alternate name Zagreus (Greek: Ζαγρεύς). The earliest mentions of this name in literature describe him as a partner of Gaia and call him the highest god. Aeschylus linked Zagreus with Hades, as either Hades' son or Hades himself.[115] Noting "Hades' identity as Zeus' katachthonios alter ego", Timothy Gantz thought it likely that Zagreus, originally, perhaps, the son of Hades and Persephone, later merged with the Orphic Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone.[116] However, no known Orphic sources use the name "Zagreus" to refer to the Orphic Dionysus. It is possible that the association between the two was known by the third century BC, when the poet Callimachus may have written about it in a now-lost source.[117] Callimachus, as well as his contemporary Euphorion, told the story of the dismembered of the infant Dionysus,[118] and Byzantine sources quote Callimachus as referring to the birth of a "Dionysos Zagreus", explaining that Zagreus was the poets' name for the chthonic aspect of Dionysus.[119] The earliest definitive reference to the belief that Zagreus is another name for the Orphic Dionysus is found in the late first century writings of Plutarch.[120] The fifth century Greek poet Nonnus' Dionysiaca tells the story of this Orphic Dionysus, in which Nonnus calls him the "older Dionysos ... illfated Zagreus",[121] "Zagreus the horned baby",[122] "Zagreus, the first Dionysos",[123] "Zagreus the ancient Dionysos",[124] and "Dionysos Zagreus".[125] Worship and festivals in Rome[edit] Liber and importation to Rome[edit] Bust of Dionysus in the temple of Liber Pater in the forum, first century AD Statue of Bacchus, Rome, Louvre Museum (second century AD) The mystery cult of Bacchus was brought to Rome from the Greek culture of southern Italy or by way of Greek-influenced Etruria. It was established around 200 BC in the Aventine grove of Stimula by a priestess from Campania, near the temple where Liber Pater ("the Free Father") had a State-sanctioned, popular cult. Liber was a native Roman god of wine, fertility, and prophecy, patron of Rome's plebeians (citizen-commoners), and one of the members of the Aventine Triad, along with his mother Ceres and sister or consort Libera. A temple to the Triad was erected on the Aventine Hill in 493 BC, along with the institution of celebrating the festival of Liberalia. The worship of the Triad gradually took on more and more Greek influence, and by 205 BC, Liber and Libera had been formally identified with Bacchus and Proserpina.[126] Liber was often interchangeably identified with Dionysus and his mythology, though this identification was not universally accepted.[127] Cicero insisted on the "non-identity of Liber and Dionysus" and described Liber and Libera as children of Ceres.[128] Liber, like his Aventine companions, carried various aspects of his older cults into official Roman religion. He protected various aspects of agriculture and fertility, including the vine and the "soft seed" of its grapes, wine and wine vessels, and male fertility and virility.[128] Pliny called Liber "the first to establish the practice of buying and selling; he also invented the diadem, the emblem of royalty, and the triumphal procession."[129] Roman mosaics and sarcophagi attest to various representations of a Dionysus-like exotic triumphal procession. In Roman and Greek literary sources from the late Republic and Imperial era, several notable triumphs feature similar, distinctively "Bacchic" processional elements, recalling the supposedly historic "Triumph of Liber".[130] Liber and Dionysus may have had a connection that predated Classical Greece and Rome, in the form of the Mycenaean god Eleutheros, who shared the lineage and iconography of Dionysus but whose name has the same meaning as Liber.[37] Before the importation of the Greek cults, Liber was already strongly associated with Bacchic symbols and values, including wine and uninhibited freedom, as well as the subversion of the powerful. Several depictions from the late Republic era feature processions, depicting the "Triumph of Liber".[130] Bacchanalia[edit] Main article: Bacchanalia Sacrifice to Bacchus. Oil on canvas by Massimo Stanzione, c. 1634 Bacchus with leopard (1878) by Johann Wilhelm Schutz In Rome, the most well-known festivals of Bacchus were the Bacchanalia, based on the earlier Greek Dionysia festivals. These Bacchic rituals were said to have included omophagic practices, such as pulling live animals apart and eating the whole of them raw. This practice served not only as a reenactment of the infant death and rebirth of Bacchus, but also as a means by which Bacchic practitioners produced "enthusiasm": etymologically, to let a god enter the practitioner's body or to have her become one with Bacchus.[131][132] In Livy's account, the Bacchic mysteries were a novelty at Rome; originally restricted to women and held only three times a year, they were corrupted by an Etruscan-Greek version, and thereafter drunken, disinhibited men and women of all ages and social classes cavorted in a sexual free-for-all five times a month. Livy relates their various outrages against Rome's civil and religious laws and traditional morality (mos maiorum); a secretive, subversive and potentially revolutionary counter-culture. Livy's sources, and his own account of the cult, probably drew heavily on the Roman dramatic genre known as "Satyr plays", based on Greek originals.[133][134] The cult was suppressed by the State with great ferocity; of the 7,000 arrested, most were executed. Modern scholarship treats much of Livy's account with skepticism; more certainly, a Senatorial edict, the Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus was distributed throughout Roman and allied Italy. It banned the former Bacchic cult organisations. Each meeting must seek prior senatorial approval through a praetor. No more than three women and two men were allowed at any one meeting, and those who defied the edict risked the death penalty. Bacchus was conscripted into the official Roman pantheon as an aspect of Liber, and his festival was inserted into the Liberalia. In Roman culture, Liber, Bacchus and Dionysus became virtually interchangeable equivalents. Thanks to his mythology involving travels and struggles on earth, Bacchus became euhemerised as a historical hero, conqueror, and founder of cities. He was a patron deity and founding hero at Leptis Magna, birthplace of the emperor Septimius Severus, who promoted his cult. In some Roman sources, the ritual procession of Bacchus in a tiger-drawn chariot, surrounded by maenads, satyrs and drunks, commemorates the god's triumphant return from the conquest of India. Pliny believed this to be the historical prototype for the Roman Triumph.[135] Post-classical worship[edit] Late Antiquity[edit] In the Neoplatonist philosophy and religion of Late Antiquity, the Olympian gods were sometimes considered to number 12 based on their spheres of influence. For example, according to Sallustius, "Jupiter, Neptune, and Vulcan fabricate the world; Ceres, Juno, and Diana animate it; Mercury, Venus, and Apollo harmonize it; and, lastly, Vesta, Minerva, and Mars preside over it with a guarding power."[136] The multitude of other gods, in this belief system, subsist within the primary gods, and Sallustius taught that Bacchus subsisted in Jupiter.[136] In the Orphic tradition, a saying was supposedly given by an oracle of Apollo that stated "Zeus, Hades, [and] Helios-Dionysus" were "three gods in one godhead." This statement apparently conflated Dionysus not only with Hades, but also his father Zeus, and implied a particularly close identification with the sun-god Helios. When quoting this in his Hymn to King Helios, Emperor Julian substituted Dionysus' name with that of Serapis, whose Egyptian counterpart Osiris was also identified with Dionysus.[137] Worship from the Middle Ages to the Modern period[edit] Bacchus by Paulus Bor Though the last known worshippers of the Greek and Roman gods were converted before 1000 AD,[citation needed] there were several isolated instances of revived worship of Dionysus during the Medieval and early modern periods. With the rise of modern neopaganism and Hellenic polytheism, worship of the god has once again been revived. According to the Lanercost chronicle, during Easter in 1282 in Scotland, the parish priest of Inverkeithing led young women in a dance in honor of Priapus and Father Liber, commonly identified with Dionysus. The priest danced and sang at the front, carrying a representation of the phallus on a pole. He was killed by a Christian mob later that year.[138] Historian C. S. Watkins believes that Richard of Durham, the author of the chronicle, identified an occurrence of apotropaic magic with his knowledge of ancient Greek religion, rather than recording an actual case of survival of pagan rituals.[139] The late medieval Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho secretly advocated in favor of a return to paganism in medieval Greece.[citation needed] In the eighteenth century, Hellfire Clubs sprung up in Britain and Ireland. Though activities varied between the clubs, some of them were very pagan, and included shrines and sacrifices. Dionysus was one of the most popular deities, alongside deities like Venus and Flora. Today one can still see the statue of Dionysus left behind in the Hellfire Caves.[140] In 1820, Ephraim Lyon founded the Church of Bacchus in Eastford, Connecticut. He declared himself High Priest, and added local drunks to the list of membership. He maintained that those who died as members would go to a Bacchanalia for their afterlife.[141] Modern pagan and polytheist groups often include worship of Dionysus in their traditions and practices, most prominently groups which have sought to revive Hellenic polytheism, such as the Supreme Council of Ethnic Hellenes (YSEE).[142] In addition to libations of wine, modern worshipers of Dionysus offer the god grape vines, ivy, and various forms of incense, particularly styrax.[143] They may also celebrate Roman festivals such as the Liberalia (March 17, close to the Spring Equinox) or Bacchanalia (Various dates), and various Greek festivals such as the Anthesteria, Lenaia, and the Greater and Lesser Dionysias, the dates of which are calculated by the lunar calendar.[144] Identification with other gods[edit] Osiris[edit] Painted wood panel depicting Serapis, who was considered the same god as Osiris, Hades, and Dionysus in Late Antiquity. Second century AD. In the Greek interpretation of the Egyptian pantheon, Dionysus was often identified with Osiris.[145] Stories of the dismemberment of Osiris and the re-assembly and resurrection by Isis closely parallel those of the Orphic Dionysus and Demeter.[146] According to Diodorus Siculus,[147] as early as the fifth century BC, the two gods had been syncretized as a single deity known as Dionysus-Osiris. The most notable record of this belief is found in Herodotus' 'Histories'.[148] Plutarch also described his belief that Osiris and Dionysus were identical, stating that anyone familiar with the secret rituals associated with both gods would recognize obvious parallels, and that their dismemberment myths and associated public symbols are enough additional evidence that they are the same god worshiped by two different cultures.[149] Other syncretic Greco-Egyptian deities arose out of this conflation, including with the gods Serapis and Hermanubis. Serapis was believed to be both Hades and Osiris, and the Roman Emperor Julian considered him the same as Dionysus as well.[137] Dionysus-Osiris was particularly popular in Ptolemaic Egypt, as the Ptolemies claimed descent from Dionysus, and as Pharaoes they had claim to the lineage of Osiris.[150] This association was most notable during a deification ceremony where Mark Antony became Dionysus-Osiris, alongside Cleopatra as Isis-Aphrodite.[151] Egyptian myths about Priapus said that the Titans conspired against Osiris, killed him, divided his body into equal parts, and "slipped them secretly out of the house". All but Osiris' penis, which since none of them "was willing to take it with him", they threw into the river. Isis, Osiris' wife, hunted down and killed the Titans, reassembled Osiris' body parts "into the shape of a human figure", and gave them "to the priests with orders that they pay Osiris the honours of a god". But since she was unable to recover the penis she ordered the priests "to pay to it the honours of a god and to set it up in their temples in an erect position."[152] Hades[edit] Pinax of Persephone and Hades on the throne, from the holy shrine of Persephone at Locri. Votive relief of Dionysus and Pluto with adorant. Fourth century BC. From Karystos, Archaeological museum of Chalkida. The fifth–fourth century BC philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life (zoë), are the same god.[153] Among other evidence, Karl Kerényi notes in his book[154] that the Homeric Hymn "To Demeter",[155] votive marble images[156] and epithets[157] all link Hades to being Dionysus. He also notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, as she states that it would be against themis for her to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone's abduction, because of this association; indicating that Hades may in fact have been a "cover name" for the underworld Dionysus.[158] He suggests that this dual identity may have been familiar to those who came into contact with the Mysteries.[159] One of the epithets of Dionysus was "Chthonios", meaning "the subterranean".[160] Evidence for a cult connection is quite extensive, particularly in southern Italy, especially when considering the heavy involvement of death symbolism included in Dionysian worship;[161] statues of Dionysus[162][163] found in the Ploutonion at Eleusis gives further evidence as the statues found bear a striking resemblance to the statue of Eubouleus, also called Aides Kyanochaites (Hades of the flowing dark hair),[164][165][166] known as the youthful depiction of the Lord of the Underworld. The statue of Eubouleus is described as being radiant but disclosing a strange inner darkness[167][165] Ancient portrayals show Dionysus holding in his hand the kantharos, a wine-jar with large handles, and occupying the place where one would expect to see Hades. Archaic artist Xenocles portrayed on one side of a vase, Zeus, Poseidon and Hades, each with his emblems of power; with Hades' head turned back to front and, on the other side, Dionysus striding forward to meet his bride Persephone, with the kantharos in his hand, against a background of grapes.[168] Dionysus also shared several epithets with Hades such as Chthonios, Eubouleus and Euclius. Both Hades and Dionysus were associated with a divine tripartite deity with Zeus.[169][170] Zeus, like Dionysus, was occasionally believed to have an underworld form, closely identified with Hades, to the point that they were occasionally thought of as the same god.[170] According to Marguerite Rigoglioso, Hades is Dionysus, and this dual god was believed by the Eleusinian tradition to have impregnated Persephone. This would bring the Eleusinian in harmony with the myth in which Zeus, not Hades, impregnated Persephone to bear the first Dionysus. Rigoglioso argues that taken together, these myths suggest a belief that is that, with Persephone, Zeus/Hades/Dionysus created (in terms quoted from Kerényi) "a second, a little Dionysus," who is also a "subterranean Zeus."[170] The unification of Hades, Zeus, and Dionysus as a single tripartite god was used to represent the birth, death and resurrection of a deity and to unify the 'shining' realm of Zeus and the dark underworld realm of Hades.[169] According to Rosemarie Taylor-Perry, "it is often mentioned that Zeus, Hades and Dionysus were all attributed to being the exact same god... Being a tripartite deity Hades is also Zeus, doubling as being the Sky God or Zeus, Hades abducts his 'daughter' and paramour Persephone. The taking of Kore by Hades is the act which allows the conception and birth of a second integrating force: Iacchos (Zagreus-Dionysus), also known as Liknites, the helpless infant form of that Deity who is the unifier of the dark underworld (chthonic) realm of Hades and the Olympian ("Shining") one of Zeus."[169][170] Sabazios and Yahweh[edit] Bronze hand used in the worship of Sabazios (British Museum).[171] Roman first–second century AD. Hands decorated with religious symbols were designed to stand in sanctuaries or, like this one, were attached to poles for processional use.[172] The Phrygian god Sabazios was alternately identified with Zeus or with Dionysus. The Byzantine Greek encyclopedia, Suda (c. tenth century), stated: Sabazios ... is the same as Dionysos. He acquired this form of address from the rite pertaining to him; for the barbarians call the bacchic cry "sabazein". Hence some of the Greeks too follow suit and call the cry "sabasmos"; thereby Dionysos [becomes] Sabazios. They also used to call "saboi" those places that had been dedicated to him and his Bacchantes ... Demosthenes [in the speech] "On Behalf of Ktesiphon" [mentions them]. Some say that Saboi is the term for those who are dedicated to Sabazios, that is to Dionysos, just as those [dedicated] to Bakkhos [are] Bakkhoi. They say that Sabazios and Dionysos are the same. Thus some also say that the Greeks call the Bakkhoi Saboi.[173] Strabo, in the first century, linked Sabazios with Zagreus among Phrygian ministers and attendants of the sacred rites of Rhea and Dionysos.[174] Strabo's Sicilian contemporary, Diodorus Siculus, conflated Sabazios with the secret Dionysus, born of Zeus and Persephone,[175] However, this connection is not supported by any surviving inscriptions, which are entirely to Zeus Sabazios.[176] Several ancient sources record an apparently widespread belief in the classical world that the god worshiped by the Jewish people, Yahweh, was identifiable as Dionysus or Liber via his identification with Sabazios. Tacitus, Lydus, Cornelius Labeo, and Plutarch all either made this association, or discussed it as an extant belief (though some, like Tacitus, specifically brought it up in order to reject it). According to Plutarch, one of the reasons for the identification is that Jews were reported to hail their god with the words "Euoe" and "Sabi", a cry typically associated with the worship of Sabazius. According to scholar Sean McDonough, it is possible that Plutarch's sources had confused the cry of "Iao Sabaoth" (typically used by Greek speakers in reference to Yahweh) with the Sabazian cry of "Euoe Saboe", originating the confusion and conflation of the two deities. The cry of "Sabi" could also have been conflated with the Jewish term "sabbath", adding to the evidence the ancients saw that Yahweh and Dionysus/Sabazius were the same deity. Further bolstering this connection would have been coins used by the Maccabees that included imagery linked to the worship of Dionysus such as grapes, vine leaves, and cups. However the belief that the Jewish god was identical with Dionysus/Sabazius was widespread enough that a coin dated to 55 BC depicting a kneeling king was labelled "Bacchus Judaeus" (BACCHIVS IVDAEVS), and in 139 BC praetor Cornelius Scipio Hispalus deported Jewish people for attempting to "infect the Roman customs with the cult of Jupiter Sabazius".[177] Mythology[edit] Birth of Dionysus, on a small sarcophagus that may have been made for a child (Walters Art Museum)[178] Various different accounts and traditions existed in the ancient world regarding the parentage, birth, and life of Dionysus on earth, complicated by his several rebirths. By the first century BC, some mythographers had attempted to harmonize the various accounts of Dionysus' birth into a single narrative involving not only multiple births, but two or three distinct manifestations of the god on earth throughout history in different lifetimes. The historian Diodorus Siculus said that according to "some writers of myths" there were two gods named Dionysus, an older one, who was the son of Zeus and Persephone,[179] but that the "younger one also inherited the deeds of the older, and so the men of later times, being unaware of the truth and being deceived because of the identity of their names thought there had been but one Dionysus."[180] He also said that Dionysus "was thought to have two forms...the ancient one having a long beard, because all men in early times wore long beards, the younger one being youthful and effeminate and young."[181] Marble bust of youthful Dionysus. Knossos, second century AD. Archaeology museum of Heraklion. Wall protome of a bearded Dionysus. Boeotia, early fourth century BC. Though the varying genealogy of Dionysus was mentioned in many works of classical literature, only a few contain the actual narrative myths surrounding the events of his multiple births. These include the first century BC Bibliotheca historica by Greek historian Diodorus, which describes the birth and deeds of the three incarnations of Dionysus;[182] the brief birth narrative given by the first century AD Roman author Hyginus, which describes a double birth for Dionysus; and a longer account in the form of Greek poet Nonnus's epic Dionysiaca, which discusses three incarnations of Dionysus similar to Diodorus' account, but which focuses on the life of the third Dionysus, born to Zeus and Semele. First birth[edit] Though Diodorus mentions some traditions which state an older, Indian or Egyptian Dionysus existed who invented wine, no narratives are given of his birth or life among mortals, and most traditions ascribe the invention of wine and travels through India to the last Dionysus. According to Diodorus, Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus and Persephone (or alternately, Zeus and Demeter). This is the same horned Dionysus described by Hyginus and Nonnus in later accounts, and the Dionysus worshiped by the Orphics, who was dismembered by the Titans and then reborn. Nonnus calls this Dionysus Zagreus, while Diodorus says he is also considered identical with Sabazius.[183] However, unlike Hyginus and Nonnus, Diodorus does not provide a birth narrative for this incarnation of the god. It was this Dionysus who was said to have taught mortals how to use oxen to plow the fields, rather than doing so by hand. His worshipers were said to have honored him for this by depicting him with horns.[183] Bronze mask depicting Dionysus bearded and horned, 200 BC – 100 AD. Height 21.4 cm.[184] The Greek poet Nonnus gives a birth narrative for Dionysus in his late fourth or early fifth century AD epic Dionysiaca. In it, he described how Zeus "intended to make a new Dionysos grow up, a bullshaped copy of the older Dionysos" who was the Egyptian god Osiris. (Dionysiaca 4)[185] Zeus took the shape of a serpent ("drakon"), and "ravished the maidenhood of unwedded Persephoneia." According to Nonnus, though Persephone was "the consort of the blackrobed king of the underworld", she remained a virgin, and had been hidden in a cave by her mother to avoid the many gods who were her suitors, because "all that dwelt in Olympos were bewitched by this one girl, rivals in love for the marriageable maid." (Dionysiaca 5)[186] After her union with Zeus, Perseophone's womb "swelled with living fruit", and she gave birth to a horned baby, named Zagreus. Zagreus, despite his infancy, was able to climb onto the throne of Zeus and brandish his lightning bolts, marking him a Zeus' heir. Hera saw this and alerted the Titans, who smeared their faces with chalk and ambushed the infant Zagreus "while he contemplated his changeling countenance reflected in a mirror." They attacked him. However, according to Nonnus, "where his limbs had been cut piecemeal by the Titan steel, the end of his life was the beginning of a new life as Dionysos." He began to change into many different forms in which he returned the attack, including Zeus, Kronos, a baby, and "a mad youth with the flower of the first down marking his rounded chin with black." He then transformed into several animals to attack the assembled Titans, including a lion, a wild horse, a horned serpent, a tiger, and, finally, a bull. Hera intervened, killing the bull with a shout, and the Titans finally slaughtered him and cut him into pieces. Zeus attacked the Titans and had them imprisoned in Tartaros. This caused the mother of the Titans, Gaia, to suffer, and her symptoms were seen across the whole world, resulting in fires and floods, and boiling seas. Zeus took pity on her, and in order to cool down the burning land, he caused great rains to flood the world. (Dionysiaca 6)[187] Interpretation[edit] A mosaic of Dionysus fighting the Indians in the Palazzo Massimo at Rome, fourth century AD. In the Orphic tradition, Dionysus was, in part, a god associated with the underworld. As a result, the Orphics considered him the son of Persephone, and believed that he had been dismembered by the Titans and then reborn. The myth of the dismemberment of Dionysus was alluded to as early as the fourth century BC by Plato in his Phaedo, in which Socrates claims that the initiations of the Dionysian Mysteries are similar to those of the philosophic path. Late Neoplatonists such as Damascius explored the implications of this at length.[188] The dismemberment of Dionysus (the sparagmos) is often considered to be the most important myth of Orphism.[189] Many modern sources identify this "Orphic Dionysus" with the god Zagreus, though this name does not seem to have been used by any of the ancient Orphics, who simply called him Dionysus.[190] As pieced together from various ancient sources, the reconstructed story, usually given by modern scholars, goes as follows.[191] Zeus had intercourse with Persephone in the form of a serpent, producing Dionysus. The infant was taken to Mount Ida, where, like the infant Zeus, he was guarded by the dancing Curetes. Zeus intended Dionysus to be his successor as ruler of the cosmos, but a jealous Hera incited the Titans to kill the child. It is said that he was mocked by the Titans who gave him a thyrsus (a fennel stalk) in place of his rightful scepter.[192] As Diodorus relates, one school of thought holds that Dionysus was not literally born on earth at all, but rather, his birth narrative is an allegory for the generative power of the gods at work in nature. In this account, Dionysus is said to be the son of Zeus and Demeter, the goddess of agriculture.[193] When the "Sons of Gaia" (i.e. the Titans) boiled Dionysus following his birth, Demeter gathered together his remains, allowing his rebirth. Diodorus noted the symbolism this myth held for its adherents: Dionysus, god of the vine, was born from the gods of the rain and the earth. He was torn apart and boiled by the sons of Gaia, or "earth born", symbolizing the harvesting and wine-making process. Just as the remains of the bare vines are returned to the earth to restore its fruitfulness, the remains of the young Dionysus were returned to Demeter allowing him to be born again.[183] Second birth[edit] Jupiter et Sémélé. Oil on canvas by Gustave Moreau, 1895. The birth narrative given by Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 BC – 17 AD) in Fabulae 167, agrees with the Orphic tradition that Liber (Dionysus) was originally the son of Jove (Zeus) and Proserpine (Persephone). Hyginus writes that Liber was torn apart by the Titans, so Jove took the fragments of his heart and put them into a drink which he gave to Semele, the daughter of Harmonia and Cadmus, king and founder of Thebes. This resulted in Semele becoming pregnant. Juno appeared to Semele in the form of her nurse, Beroe, and told her: "Daughter, ask Jove to come to you as he comes to Juno, so you may know what pleasure it is to sleep with a god." When Semele requested that Jove do so, she was killed by a thunderbolt. Jove then took the infant Liber from her womb, and put him in the care of Nysus. Hyginus states that "for this reason he is called Dionysus, and also the one with two mothers" (dimētōr).[194] Nonnus describes how, when life was rejuvenated after the flood, it was lacking in revelry in the absence of Dionysus. "The Seasons, those daughters of the lichtgang, still joyless, plaited garlands for the gods only of meadow-grass. For Wine was lacking. Without Bacchos to inspire the dance, its grace was only half complete and quite without profit; it charmed only the eyes of the company, when the circling dancer moved in twists and turns with a tumult of footsteps, having only nods for words, hand for mouth, fingers for voice." Zeus declared that he would send his son Dionysus to teach mortals how to grow grapes and make wine, to alleviate their toil, war, and suffering. After he became protector of humanity, Zeus promises, Dionysus would struggle on earth, but be received "by the bright upper air to shine beside Zeus and to share the courses of the stars." (Dionysiaca 7).[195] "Jove and Semele" (c. 1695) by Sebastiano Ricci. The mortal princess Semele then had a dream, in which Zeus destroyed a fruit tree with a bolt of lightning, but did not harm the fruit. He sent a bird to bring him one of the fruits, and sewed it into his thigh, so that he would be both mother and father to the new Dionysus. She saw the bull-shaped figure of a man emerge from his thigh, and then came to the realization that she herself had been the tree. Her father Cadmus, fearful of the prophetic dream, instructed Semele to make sacrifices to Zeus. Zeus came to Semele in her bed, adorned with various symbols of Dionysus. He transformed into a snake, and "Zeus made long wooing, and shouted "Euoi!" as if the winepress were near, as he begat his son who would love the cry." Immediately, Semele's bed and chambers were overgrown with vines and flowers, and the earth laughed. Zeus then spoke to Semele, revealing his true identity, and telling her to be happy: "you bring forth a son who shall not die, and you I will call immortal. Happy woman! you have conceived a son who will make mortals forget their troubles, you shall bring forth joy for gods and men." (Dionysiaca 7).[196] During her pregnancy, Semele rejoiced in the knowledge that her son would be divine. She dressed herself in garlands of flowers and wreathes of ivy, and would run barefoot to the meadows and forests to frolic whenever she heard music. Hera became envious, and feared that Zeus would replace her with Semele as queen of Olympus. She went to Semele in the guise of an old woman who had been Cadmus' wet nurse. She made Semele jealous of the attention Zeus' gave to Hera, compared with their own brief liaison, and provoked her to request Zeus to appear before her in his full godhood. Semele prayed to Zeus that he show himself. Zeus answered her prayers, but warned her than no other mortals had ever seen him as he held his lightning bolts. Semele reached out to touch them, and was burnt to ash. (Dionysiaca 8).[197] But the infant Dionysus survived, and Zeus rescued him from the flames, sewing him into his thigh. "So the rounded thigh in labour became female, and the boy too soon born was brought forth, but not in a mother’s way, having passed from a mother’s womb to a father’s." (Dionysiaca 9). At his birth, he had a pair of horns shaped like a crescent moon. The Seasons crowned him with ivy and flowers, and wrapped horned snakes around his own horns.[198] An alternate birth narrative is given by Diodorus from the Egyptian tradition. In it, Dionysus is the son of Ammon, who Diodorus regards both as the creator god and a quasi-historical king of Libya. Ammon had married the goddess Rhea, but he had an affair with Amaltheia, who bore Dionysus. Ammon feared Rhea's wrath if she were to discover the child, so he took the infant Dionysus to Nysa (Dionysus' traditional childhood home). Ammon brought Dionysus into a cave where he was to be cared for by Nysa, a daughter of the hero Aristaeus.[183] Dionysus grew famous due to his skill in the arts, his beauty, and his strength. It was said that he discovered the art of winemaking during his boyhood. His fame brought him to the attention of Rhea, who was furious with Ammon for his deception. She attempted to bring Dionysus under her own power but, unable to do so, she left Ammon and married Cronus.[183] Interpretation[edit] A Hellenistic Greek mosaic depicting the god Dionysos as a winged daimon riding on a tiger, from the House of Dionysos at Delos (which was once controlled by Athens) in the South Aegean region of Greece, late second century BC, Archaeological Museum of Delos Even in antiquity, the account of Dionysus' birth to a mortal woman led some to argue that he had been a historical figure who became deified over time, a suggestion of Euhemerism (an explanation of mythic events having roots in mortal history) often applied to demi-gods. The fourth century Roman emperor and philosopher Julian encountered examples of this belief, and wrote arguments against it. In his letter To the Cynic Heracleios, Julian wrote "I have heard many people say that Dionysus was a mortal man because he was born of Semele, and that he became a god through his knowledge of theurgy and the Mysteries, and like our lord Heracles for his royal virtue was translated to Olympus by his father Zeus." However, to Julian, the myth of Dionysus's birth (and that of Heracles) stood as an allegory for a deeper spiritual truth. The birth of Dionysus, Julian argues, was "no birth but a divine manifestation" to Semele, who foresaw that a physical manifestation of the god Dionysus would soon appear. However, Semele was impatient for the god to come, and began revealing his mysteries too early; for her transgression, she was struck down by Zeus. When Zeus decided it was time to impose a new order on humanity, for it to "pass from the nomadic to a more civilized mode of life", he sent his son Dionysus from India as a god made visible, spreading his worship and giving the vine as a symbol of his manifestation among mortals. In Julian's interpretation, the Greeks "called Semele the mother of Dionysus because of the prediction that she had made, but also because the god honored her as having been the first prophetess of his advent while it was yet to be." The allegorical myth of the birth of Dionysus, per Julian, was developed to express both the history of these events and encapsulate the truth of his birth outside the generative processes of the mortal world, but entering into it, though his true birth was directly from Zeus along into the intelligible realm.[12] Infancy[edit] Hermes and the Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles, (Archaeological Museum of Olympia). According to Nonnus, Zeus gave the infant Dionysus to the care of Hermes. Hermes gave Dionysus to the Lamides, or daughters of Lamos, who were river nymphs. But Hera drove the Lamides mad, and caused them to attack Dionysus, who was rescued by Hermes. Hermes next brought the infant to Ino for fostering by her attendant Mystis, who taught him the rites of the mysteries (Dionysiaca 9). In Apollodorus' account, Hermes instructed Ino to raise Dionysus as a girl, in order to hide him from Hera's wrath.[199] However, Hera found him, and vowed to destroy the house with a flood; however, Hermes again rescued Dionysus, this time bringing him to the mountains of Lydia. Hermes adopted the form of Phanes, most ancient of the gods, and so Hera bowed before him and let him pass. Hermes gave the infant to the goddess Rhea, who cared for him through his adolescence.[198] Another version is that Dionysus was taken to the rain-nymphs of Nysa, who nourished his infancy and childhood, and for their care Zeus rewarded them by placing them as the Hyades among the stars (see Hyades star cluster). In yet another version of the myth, he is raised by his cousin Macris on the island of Euboea.[200] The Infant Bacchus, painting (c. 1505–1510) by Giovanni Bellini. Dionysus in Greek mythology is a god of foreign origin, and while Mount Nysa is a mythological location, it is invariably set far away to the east or to the south. The Homeric Hymn 1 to Dionysus places it "far from Phoenicia, near to the Egyptian stream".[201] Others placed it in Anatolia, or in Libya ("away in the west beside a great ocean"), in Ethiopia (Herodotus), or Arabia (Diodorus Siculus).[202] According to Herodotus: As it is, the Greek story has it that no sooner was Dionysus born than Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him away to Nysa in Ethiopia beyond Egypt; and as for Pan, the Greeks do not know what became of him after his birth. It is therefore plain to me that the Greeks learned the names of these two gods later than the names of all the others, and trace the birth of both to the time when they gained the knowledge. — Herodotus, Histories 2.146.2 The Bibliotheca seems to be following Pherecydes, who relates how the infant Dionysus, god of the grapevine, was nursed by the rain-nymphs, the Hyades at Nysa. Young Dionysus was also said to have been one of the many famous pupils of the centaur Chiron. According to Ptolemy Chennus in the Library of Photius, "Dionysus was loved by Chiron, from whom he learned chants and dances, the bacchic rites and initiations."[203] Travels and invention of wine[edit] Bacchus and Ampelos by Francesco Righetti (1782) When Dionysus grew up, he discovered the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting its precious juice, being the first to do so;[204] but Hera struck him with madness, and drove him forth a wanderer through various parts of the earth. In Phrygia the goddess Cybele, better known to the Greeks as Rhea, cured him and taught him her religious rites, and he set out on a progress through Asia teaching the people the cultivation of the vine. The most famous part of his wanderings is his expedition to India, which is said to have lasted several years. According to a legend, when Alexander the Great reached a city called Nysa near the Indus river, the locals said that their city was founded by Dionysus in the distant past and their city was dedicated to the god Dionysus.[205] These travels took something of the form of military conquests; according to Diodorus Siculus he conquered the whole world except for Britain and Ethiopia.[206] Another myth according to Nonnus involves Ampelus, a satyr, who was loved by Dionysus. As related by Ovid, Ampelus became the constellation Vindemitor, or the "grape-gatherer": ...not so will the Grape-gatherer escape thee. The origin of that constellation also can be briefly told. 'Tis said that the unshorn Ampelus, son of a nymph and a satyr, was loved by Bacchus on the Ismarian hills. Upon him the god bestowed a vine that trailed from an elm's leafy boughs, and still the vine takes from the boy its name. While he rashly culled the gaudy grapes upon a branch, he tumbled down; Liber bore the lost youth to the stars."[207] Another story of Ampelus was related by Nonnus: in an accident foreseen by Dionysus, the youth was killed while riding a bull maddened by the sting of a gadfly sent by Atë, the Goddess of Folly. The Fates granted Ampelus a second life as a vine, from which Dionysus squeezed the first wine.[208] Return to Greece[edit] Badakshan patera, "Triumph of Bacchus", (first–fourth century).[209] British Museum Returning in triumph to Greece after his travels in Asia, Dionysus came to be considered the founder of the triumphal procession. He undertook efforts to introduce his religion into Greece, but was opposed by rulers who feared it, on account of the disorders and madness it brought with it. Pentheus torn apart by Agave and Ino. Attic red-figure lekanis (cosmetics bowl) lid, c. 450–425 BC (Louvre) In one myth, adapted in Euripides' play The Bacchae, Dionysus returns to his birthplace, Thebes, which is ruled by his cousin Pentheus. Pentheus, as well as his mother Agave and his aunts Ino and Autonoe, disbelieve Dionysus' divine birth. Despite the warnings of the blind prophet Tiresias, they deny him worship and denounce him for inspiring the women of Thebes to madness. Dionysus uses his divine powers to drive Pentheus insane, then invites him to spy on the ecstatic rituals of the Maenads, in the woods of Mount Cithaeron. Pentheus, hoping to witness a sexual orgy, hides himself in a tree. The Maenads spot him; maddened by Dionysus, they take him to be a mountain-dwelling lion, and attack him with their bare hands. Pentheus' aunts and his mother Agave are among them, and they rip him limb from limb. Agave mounts his head on a pike, and takes the trophy to her father Cadmus. The madness passes. Dionysus arrives in his true, divine form, banishes Agave and her sisters, and transforms Cadmus and his wife Harmonia into serpents. Only Tiresias is spared.[210] Lycurgus trapped by the vine, on the Lycurgus Cup When King Lycurgus of Thrace heard that Dionysus was in his kingdom, he imprisoned Dionysus' followers, the Maenads. Dionysus fled and took refuge with Thetis, and sent a drought which stirred the people to revolt. The god then drove King Lycurgus insane and had him slice his own son into pieces with an axe in the belief that he was a patch of ivy, a plant holy to Dionysus. An oracle then claimed that the land would stay dry and barren as long as Lycurgus lived, and his people had him drawn and quartered. Appeased by the king's death, Dionysus lifted the curse. This story is told in Homer's Iliad 6.136–137. In an alternative version, sometimes depicted in art, Lycurgus tries to kill Ambrosia, a follower of Dionysus, who was transformed into a vine that twined around the enraged king and slowly strangled him.[211] Captivity and escape[edit] North African Roman mosaic: Panther-Dionysus scatters the pirates, who are changed to dolphins, except for Acoetes, the helmsman; second century AD (Bardo National Museum) The Homeric Hymn 7 to Dionysus recounts how, while he sat on the seashore, some sailors spotted him, believing him a prince. They attempted to kidnap him and sail away to sell him for ransom or into slavery. No rope would bind him. The god turned into a fierce lion and unleashed a bear on board, killing all in his path. Those who jumped ship were mercifully turned into dolphins. The only survivor was the helmsman, Acoetes, who recognized the god and tried to stop his sailors from the start.[212] In a similar story, Dionysus hired a Tyrrhenian pirate ship to sail from Icaria to Naxos. When he was aboard, they sailed not to Naxos but to Asia, intending to sell him as a slave. This time the god turned the mast and oars into snakes, and filled the vessel with ivy and the sound of flutes so that the sailors went mad and, leaping into the sea, were turned into dolphins. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Bacchus begins this story as a young child found by the pirates, but transforms to a divine adult when on board. Many of the Dionysus myths involve the god, whose birth was secret, defending his godhead against skeptics. Malcolm Bull notes that "It is a measure of Bacchus's ambiguous position in classical mythology that he, unlike the other Olympians, had to use a boat to travel to and from the islands with which he is associated".[213] Paola Corrente notes that in many sources, the incident with the pirates happens towards the end of Dionysus' time among mortals. In that sense, it serves as final proof of his divinity, and is often followed by his descent into Hades to retrieve his mother, both of whom can then ascend into heaven to live alongside the other Olympian gods.[16] Descent to the underworld[edit] Relief of Dionysus, Nagarjunakonda, Southern India, third century. He has a light beard, is semi-nude and carries a drinking horn. There is a barrel of wine next to him.[214][215] Pausanias, in book II of his Description of Greece, describes two variant traditions regarding Dionysus' katabasis, or descent into the underworld. Both describe how Dionysus entered into the afterlife to rescue his mother Semele, and bring her to her rightful place on Olympus. To do so, he had to contend with the hell dog Cerberus, which was restrained for him by Heracles. After retrieving Semele, Dionysus emerged with her from the unfathomable waters of a lagoon on the coast of the Argolid near the prehistoric site of Lerna, according to the local tradition.[216] This mythic event was commemorated with a yearly nighttime festival, the details of which were held secret by the local religion. According to Paola Corrente, the emergence of Dionysus from the waters of the lagoon may signify a form of rebirth for both him and Semele as they reemerged from the underworld.[16][217] A variant of this myth forms the basis of Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs.[16] According to the Christian writer Clement of Alexandria, Dionysus was guided in his journey by Prosymnus or Polymnus, who requested, as his reward, to be Dionysus' lover. Prosymnus died before Dionysus could honor his pledge, so to satisfy Prosymnus' shade, Dionysus fashioned a phallus from an olive branch and sat on it at Prosymnus' tomb.[218] This story survives in full only in Christian sources, whose aim was to discredit pagan mythology, but it appears to have also served to explain the origin of secret objects used by the Dionysian Mysteries.[219] This same myth of Dionysus' descent to the underworld is related by both Diodorus Siculus in his first century BC work Bibliotheca historica, and Pseudo-Apollodorus in the third book of his first century AD work Bibliotheca. In the latter, Apollodorus tells how after having been hidden away from Hera's wrath, Dionysus traveled the world opposing those who denied his godhood, finally proving it when he transformed his pirate captors into dolphins. After this, the culmination of his life on earth was his descent to retrieve his mother from the underworld. He renamed his mother Thyone, and ascended with her to heaven, where she became a goddess.[220] In this variant of the myth, it is implied that Dionysus both must prove his godhood to mortals, then also legitimize his place on Olympus by proving his lineage and elevating his mother to divine status, before taking his place among the Olympic gods.[16] Secondary myths[edit] Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian, at the National Gallery in London. Bacchus and Ariadne (1822) by Antoine-Jean Gros. Midas' golden touch[edit] Dionysus discovered that his old school master and foster father, Silenus, had gone missing. The old man had wandered away drunk, and was found by some peasants who carried him to their king Midas (alternatively, he passed out in Midas' rose garden). The king recognized him hospitably, feasting him for ten days and nights while Silenus entertained with stories and songs. On the eleventh day, Midas brought Silenus back to Dionysus. Dionysus offered the king his choice of reward. Midas asked that whatever he might touch would turn to gold. Dionysus consented, though was sorry that he had not made a better choice. Midas rejoiced in his new power, which he hastened to put to the test. He touched and turned to gold an oak twig and a stone, but his joy vanished when he found that his bread, meat, and wine also turned to gold. Later, when his daughter embraced him, she too turned to gold. The horrified king strove to divest the Midas Touch, and he prayed to Dionysus to save him from starvation. The god consented, telling Midas to wash in the river Pactolus. As he did so, the power passed into them, and the river sands turned gold: this etiological myth explained the gold sands of the Pactolus. Other myths[edit] When Hephaestus bound Hera to a magical chair, Dionysus got him drunk and brought him back to Olympus after he passed out. When Theseus abandoned Ariadne sleeping on Naxos, Dionysus found and married her. She bore him a son named Oenopion, but he committed suicide or was killed by Perseus. In some variants, he had her crown put into the heavens as the constellation Corona; in others, he descended into Hades to restore her to the gods on Olympus. Another account claims Dionysus ordered Theseus to abandon Ariadne on the island of Naxos, for Dionysus had seen her as Theseus carried her onto the ship and had decided to marry her. A third descent by Dionysus to Hades is invented by Aristophanes in his comedy The Frogs. Dionysus, as patron of the Athenian dramatic festival, the Dionysia, wants to bring back to life one of the great tragedians. After a poetry slam, Aeschylus is chosen in preference to Euripides. Psalacantha, a nymph, failed to win the love of Dionysus in preference to Ariadne, and ended up being changed into a plant. Dionysus fell in love with a handsome satyr named Ampelos, who was killed. He was changed into a grape-vine or grape gathering constellation upon death. There are two versions of his death. In Dionysiaca, Ampelos is killed by Selene due to him challenging her.[221] In another, recorded by Ovid, Ampelos fell and died because he was trying to pick grapes from a branch. Upon death, he is turned into a Constellation.[222] Lycurgus [223] was a king of Edonia in or somewhere in the region of west Asia. He drove Dionysus and his nurses fleeing from their home on Mount Nysa to seek the refuge with Thetis. Due to this, he was punished by being driven mad. He hacked apart his own wife and child because of the madness induced belief they were spreading vines, and later driven from his home and was devoured by wild beasts on Mt Pangaios.[224][225] Callirrhoe was a Calydonian woman who scorned Coresus, a priest of Dionysus, who threatened to afflict all the women of Calydon with insanity (see Maenad). The priest was ordered to sacrifice Callirhoe but he killed himself instead. Callirhoe threw herself into a well which was later named after her. Another account about Dionysus's parentage indicates that he is the son of Zeus and Gê (Gaia), also named Themelê (foundation), corrupted into Semele.[226][227] Lovers and offspring[edit] Aphrodite Charites (Graces)[citation needed] Pasithea Euphrosyne Thalia Priapus (possibly)[228] Ariadne Ceramus Enyeus Euanthes Eurymedon Latramys Maron Oenopion Phanus Peparethus Phlias Staphylus Tauropolis Thoas Aura Iacchus[229] Iacchus' twin brother[230] Alexirrhoe Carmanor Alphesiboea Medus Althaea Deianira Araethyrea Phlias Chthonophyle Phlias Carya No known offspring Chione Priapus (possibly)[231] Circe Comus Cronois Charites (Graces) Pasithea Euphrosyne Thalia Nicaea Telete Pallene No known offspring Percote Priapus (possibly)[232] Physcoa Narcaeus Unnamed Methe Unnamed Sabazios Unnamed Thysa[233] Iconography[edit] Symbols[edit] Ancient Roman relief in the Museo Archeologico (Naples) depicting Dionysus holding a thyrsus and receiving a libation, wearing an ivy wreath, and attended by a panther. Dionysus on a panther's back; on the left, a papposilenus holding a tambourine. Side A from a red-figure bell-shaped crater, ca. 370 BC The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a mature male, bearded and robed. He holds a fennel staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a thyrsus. Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked androgynous youth: the literature describes him as womanly or "man-womanish".[234] In its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession (thiasus) is made up of wild female followers (maenads) and bearded satyrs with erect penises; some are armed with the thyrsus, some dance or play music. The god himself is drawn in a chariot, usually by exotic beasts such as lions or tigers, and is sometimes attended by a bearded, drunken Silenus. This procession is presumed to be the cult model for the followers of his Dionysian Mysteries. Dionysus is represented by city religions as the protector of those who do not belong to conventional society and he thus symbolizes the chaotic, dangerous and unexpected, everything which escapes human reason and which can only be attributed to the unforeseeable action of the gods.[235] Dionysus was a god of resurrection and he was strongly linked to the bull. In a cult hymn from Olympia, at a festival for Hera, Dionysus is invited to come as a bull; "with bull-foot raging". Walter Burkert relates, "Quite frequently [Dionysus] is portrayed with bull horns, and in Kyzikos he has a tauromorphic image", and refers also to an archaic myth in which Dionysus is slaughtered as a bull calf and impiously eaten by the Titans.[236] A sculpted phallus at the entrance of the temple of Dionysus in Delos, Greece. The snake and phallus were symbols of Dionysus in ancient Greece, and of Bacchus in Greece and Rome.[237][238][239] He typically wears a panther or leopard skin and carries a Thyrsus – a long stick or wand topped with a pine cone. His iconography sometimes include maenads, who wear wreaths of ivy and serpents around their hair or neck.[240][241][242] The cult of Dionysus was closely associated with trees, specifically the fig tree, and some of his bynames exhibit this, such as Endendros "he in the tree" or Dendritēs, "he of the tree". Peters suggests the original meaning as "he who runs among the trees", or that of a "runner in the woods". Janda (2010) accepts the etymology but proposes the more cosmological interpretation of "he who impels the (world-)tree". This interpretation explains how Nysa could have been re-interpreted from a meaning of "tree" to the name of a mountain: the axis mundi of Indo-European mythology is represented both as a world-tree and as a world-mountain.[243] Dionysus is also closely associated with the transition between summer and autumn. In the Mediterranean summer, marked by the rising of the dog star Sirius, the weather becomes extremely hot, but it is also a time when the promise of coming harvests grow. Late summer, when Orion is at the center of the sky, was the time of the grape harvest in ancient Greece. Plato describes the gifts of this season as the fruit that is harvested as well as Dionysian joy. Pindar describes the "pure light of high summer" as closely associated with Dionysus and possibly even an embodiment of the god himself. An image of Dionysus' birth from Zeus' thigh call him "the light of Zeus" (Dios phos) and associate him with the light of Sirius.[37] In classical art[edit] Marble table support adorned by a group including Dionysos, Pan and a Satyr; Dionysos holds a rhyton (drinking vessel) in the shape of a panther; traces of red and yellow colour are preserved on the hair of the figures and the branches; from an Asia Minor workshop, 170–180 AD, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece The god, and still more often his followers, were commonly depicted in the painted pottery of Ancient Greece, much of which made to hold wine. But, apart from some reliefs of maenads, Dionysian subjects rarely appeared in large sculpture before the Hellenistic period, when they became common.[244] In these, the treatment of the god himself ranged from severe archaising or Neo Attic types such as the Dionysus Sardanapalus to types showing him as an indolent and androgynous young man, often nude.[245] Hermes and the Infant Dionysus is probably a Greek original in marble, and the Ludovisi Dionysus group is probably a Roman original of the second century AD. Well-known Hellenistic sculptures of Dionysian subjects, surviving in Roman copies, include the Barberini Faun, the Belvedere Torso, the Resting Satyr. The Furietti Centaurs and Sleeping Hermaphroditus reflect related subjects, which had by this time become drawn into the Dionysian orbit.[246] The marble Dancer of Pergamon is an original, as is the bronze Dancing Satyr of Mazara del Vallo, a recent recovery from the sea. The Dionysian world by the Hellenistic period is a hedonistic but safe pastoral into which other semi-divine creatures of the countryside have been co-opted, such as centaurs, nymphs, and the gods Pan and Hermaphrodite.[247] "Nymph" by this stage "means simply an ideal female of the Dionysian outdoors, a non-wild bacchant".[248] Hellenistic sculpture also includes for the first time large genre subjects of children and peasants, many of whom carry Dionysian attributes such as ivy wreaths, and "most should be seen as part of his realm. They have in common with satyrs and nymphs that they are creatures of the outdoors and are without true personal identity."[249] The fourth-century BC Derveni Krater, the unique survival of a very large scale Classical or Hellenistic metal vessel of top quality, depicts Dionysus and his followers. Dionysus appealed to the Hellenistic monarchies for a number of reasons, apart from merely being a god of pleasure: He was a human who became divine, he came from, and had conquered, the East, exemplified a lifestyle of display and magnificence with his mortal followers, and was often regarded as an ancestor.[250] He continued to appeal to the rich of Imperial Rome, who populated their gardens with Dionysian sculpture, and by the second century AD were often buried in sarcophagi carved with crowded scenes of Bacchus and his entourage.[251] The fourth-century AD Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a spectacular cage cup which changes colour when light comes through the glass; it shows the bound King Lycurgus being taunted by the god and attacked by a satyr; this may have been used for celebration of Dionysian mysteries. Elizabeth Kessler has theorized that a mosaic appearing on the triclinium floor of the House of Aion in Nea Paphos, Cyprus, details a monotheistic worship of Dionysus.[252] In the mosaic, other gods appear but may only be lesser representations of the centrally imposed Dionysus. The mid-Byzantine Veroli Casket shows the tradition lingering in Constantinople around 1000 AD, but probably not very well understood. Post-classical culture[edit] Art from the Renaissance on[edit] Bacchus by Michelangelo (1497) Bacchic subjects in art resumed in the Italian Renaissance, and soon became almost as popular as in antiquity, but his "strong association with feminine spirituality and power almost disappeared", as did "the idea that the destructive and creative powers of the god were indissolubly linked".[253] In Michelangelo's statue (1496–97) "madness has become merriment". The statue aspires to suggest both drunken incapacity and an elevated consciousness, but this was perhaps lost on later viewers, and typically the two aspects were thereafter split, with a clearly drunk Silenus representing the former, and a youthful Bacchus often shown with wings, because he carries the mind to higher places.[254] Hendrik Goltzius, 1600–03, the Philadelphia "pen painting" Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne (1522–23) and The Bacchanal of the Andrians (1523–26), both painted for the same room, offer an influential heroic pastoral,[255] while Diego Velázquez in The Triumph of Bacchus (or Los borrachos – "the drinkers", c. 1629) and Jusepe de Ribera in his Drunken Silenus choose a genre realism. Flemish Baroque painting frequently painted the Bacchic followers, as in Van Dyck's Drunken Silenus and many works by Rubens; Poussin was another regular painter of Bacchic scenes.[256] A common theme in art beginning in the sixteenth century was the depiction of Bacchus and Ceres caring for a representation of love – often Venus, Cupid, or Amore. This tradition derived from a quotation by the Roman comedian Terence (c. 195/185 – c. 159 BC) which became a popular proverb in the Early Modern period: Sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus ("without Ceres and Bacchus, Venus freezes"). Its simplest level of meaning is that love needs food and wine to thrive. Artwork based on this saying was popular during the period 1550–1630, especially in Northern Mannerism in Prague and the Low Countries, as well as by Rubens. Because of his association with the vine harvest, Bacchus became the god of autumn, and he and his followers were often shown in sets depicting the seasons.[257] Modern literature and philosophy[edit] The Triumph of Bacchus, Diego Velázquez, c. 1629 The triumph of Bacchus by Cornelis de Vos. Dionysus has remained an inspiration to artists, philosophers and writers into the modern era. In The Birth of Tragedy (1872), the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche proposed that a tension between Apollonian and Dionysian aesthetic principles underlay the development of Greek tragedy; Dionysus represented what was unrestrained chaotic and irrational, while Apollo represented the rational and ordered. This concept of a rivalry or opposition between Dionysus and Apollo has been characterized as a "modern myth", as it is the invention of modern thinkers like Nietzsche and Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and is not found in classical sources. However, the acceptance and popularity of this theme in Western culture has been so great, that its undercurrent has influenced the conclusions of classical scholarship.[258] Nietzsche also claimed that the oldest forms of Greek Tragedy were entirely based upon the suffering Dionysus. In Nietzsche's 1886 work Beyond Good and Evil, and later The Twilight of the Idols, The Antichrist and Ecce Homo, Dionysus is conceived as the embodiment of the unrestrained will to power. In The Hellenic Religion of the Suffering God (1904), and Dionysus and Early Dionysianism (1921), the poet Vyacheslav Ivanov elaborates the theory of Dionysianism, tracing the origins of literature, and tragedy in particular, to ancient Dionysian mysteries. Ivanov said that Dionysus’ suffering “was the distinctive feature of the cult” just as Christ’s suffering is significant for Christianity.[259] Karl Kerényi characterizes Dionysus as representative of the psychological life force (Greek Zoê).[260] Other psychological interpretations place Dionysus' emotionality in the foreground, focusing on the joy, terror or hysteria associated with the god.[261][262][263][264][265] Sigmund Freud specified that his ashes should be kept in an Ancient Greek vase painted with Dionysian scenes from his collection, which remains on display at Golders Green Crematorium in London. In CS Lewis' Prince Caspian (part of The Chronicles of Narnia), Bacchus is a dangerous-looking, androgynous young boy who helps Aslan awaken the spirits of the Narnian trees and rivers.[citation needed] Rick Riordan's series of books Percy Jackson & The Olympians presents Dionysus as an uncaring, childish and spoiled god.[citation needed] In the graphic novel The Wicked + The Divine, the gods reincarnate as pop stars: Dionysus is the "dancefloor that walks like a man", associated with the ecstatic release of rave culture. In the novel Household Gods by Harry Turtledove and Judith Tarr, Nicole Gunther-Perrin is a lawyer in the twentieth century. She makes a libation to Liber and Libera, Roman equivalents of Dionysus and Persephone, and is transported back in time to ancient Rome.[266][267] In The Secret History by Donna Tartt, a group of classics students reflect on reviving the worship of Dionysus during their time in college.[268] Modern film and performance art[edit] Walt Disney depicted Bacchus in the "Pastoral" segment of the animated film Fantasia, as a Silenus-like character. In 1969, an adaption of The Bacchae was performed, called Dionysus in '69. A film was made of the same performance. The production was notable for involving audience participation, nudity, and theatrical innovations.[269] In 1974, Stephen Sondheim and Burt Shevelove adapted Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs into a modern musical, which hit broadway in 2004 and was revived in London in 2017. The musical keeps the descent of Dionysus into Hades to bring back a playwright; however, the playwrights are updated to modern times, and Dionysus is forced to choose between George Bernard Shaw and William Shakespeare.[270] In 2006, The Orion Experience, in the album Cosmocandy includes a song titled Cult of Dionysus. The song invokes themes from the god’s cult. The entire album is described as “short, sharp, and ultimately memorable, glowing with a long-forgotten disco-synth energy.”[271] The song overall plays upon the god’s themes of being devious and rebelling against social norms. In 2018, the Australian musical project Dead Can Dance released an album entitled Dionysus. Musician Brendan Perry described the inspiration for the album as a trance-like, "Dionysian" experience he had at a festival during a trip to rural Spain. "It's the spring festivals like that one where you see the real remnants of Dionysian festivals. They're all over the Mediterranean in remote places where Christian influence hasn't been as great. ... People wear masks and dance in circles almost like time has stood still in their celebrations." Perry chose to employ Mediterranean folk instruments that mimic natural sounds in addition to a vocal chorus, in order to evoke the atmosphere of an ancient festival.[272] In 2019, the South Korean boy band BTS released a rap-rock-synth-pop-hip-hop track.[169][273] named "Dionysus" as part of their album Map of the Soul: Persona. The naming of this song comes from the association of the namesake with debauchery and excess, this is reflected in its lyrics talking about "getting drunk on art" - playing on the Korean words for "alcohol" (술 sul) and "art" (예술 yesul) as an example - alongside expressions about their stardom, legacy, and artistic integrity. The band's leader RM in a press release described the song as, "the joy and pain of creating something” and “an honest track".[274] Parallels with Christianity[edit] Main article: Jesus Christ in comparative mythology Hanging with Dionysian Figures from Antinoöpolis, fifth–seventh century (Metropolitan Museum of Art) Bacchus - Simeon Solomon (1867) Numerous scholars have compared narratives surrounding the Christian figure of Jesus with those associated with Dionysus. Death and resurrection[edit] Some scholars of comparative mythology identify both Dionysus and Jesus with the dying-and-rising god mythological archetype.[275] On the other hand, it has been noted that the details of Dionysus' death and rebirth are starkly different both in content and symbolism from Jesus. The two stories take place in very different historical and geographic contexts. Also, the manner of death is different; in the most common myth, Dionysus was torn to pieces and eaten by the titans, but "eventually restored to a new life" from the heart that was left over.[276][277] Trial[edit] Another parallel can be seen in The Bacchae where Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity, which is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.[278][279][280] However, a number of scholars dispute this parallel, since the confrontation between Dionysus and Pentheus ends with Pentheus dying, torn into pieces by the mad women, whereas the trial of Jesus ends with him being sentenced to death. The discrepancies between the two stories, including their resolutions, have led many scholars to regard the Dionysus story as radically different from the one about Jesus, except for the parallel of the arrest, which is a detail that appears in many biographies as well.[281] Other parallels[edit] E. Kessler has argued that the Dionysian cult developed into strict monotheism by the fourth century AD; together with Mithraism and other sects, the cult formed an instance of "pagan monotheism" in direct competition with Early Christianity during Late Antiquity.[282] Scholars from the sixteenth century onwards, especially Gerard Vossius, also discussed the parallels between the biographies of Dionysus/Bacchus and Moses (Vossius named his sons Dionysius and Isaac). Such comparisons surface in details of paintings by Poussin.[283] John Moles has argued that the Dionysian cult influenced early Christianity, and especially the way that Christians understood themselves as a "new" religion centered around a savior deity. In particular, he argues that the account of Christian origins in the Acts of the Apostles was heavily influenced by Euripides' The Bacchae.[275] Moles also suggests that Paul the Apostle may have partially based his account of the Lord's Supper[1 Cor 11:23–26] on the ritual meals performed by members of the Dionysian cult.[275]:96 Gallery[edit] Roman marble sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons (circa 260–270 AD) Triumph of Dionysus The Dionysus Cup, a sixth-century BC kylix with Dionysus sailing with the pirates he transformed to dolphins Dionysos riding a leopard, Macedonian mosaic from Pella, Greece (fourth century BC) Statue of Dionysus (Sardanapalus) (Museo Palazzo Massimo Alle Terme, Rome) Bronze head of Dionysus (50 BC – 50 AD) in the British Museum[284] Statue of Dionysus in Remich Luxembourg A Bacchus themed table - the top was made in Florence (c. 1736) and the gilded wood base in Britain or Ireland (circa 1736–1740). Bacchus – Giovanni Francesco Romanelli (seventeenth century) Dionysian amphora Dionysian jug Terracotta vase in the shape of Dionysus' head (circa 410 BC) – on display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus Amphora with cult mask of Dionysus, by the Antimenes Painter, around 520 BC, Altes Museum Marble head of Dionysus, from the Gymnasium of Salamis, second century AD, Cyprus Museum, Nicosia, Cyprus Cult mask of Dionysus from Boeotia, fourth century BC Marble statuette of Dionysos, early third century B.C, Metropolitan Museum See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Myths portal Religion portal Alpos and Nonnus Apollonian and Dionysian Anthesteria, Ascolia, Dionysia and Lenaia Bacchanalia and Liberalia Dionysian Mysteries and Cult of Dionysus, Maenad, Thiasus, Thyrsus and Satyr Pan (god), Ampelos, Cybele and Silenus Liber Theatre of Dionysus Orgia Orphism Theatre of Dionysus Notes[edit] ^ Another variant, from the Spanish royal collection, is at the Museo del Prado, Madrid: illustration. ^ Hedreen, Guy Michael. Silens in Attic Black-figure Vase-painting: Myth and Performance. University of Michigan Press. 1992. ISBN 9780472102952. p. 1 ^ James, Edwin Oliver. The Tree of Life: An Archaeological Study. Brill Publications. 1966. p. 234. ISBN 9789004016125 ^ a b "DIONYSUS : Summary of the Olympian God". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2020-06-22. ^ In Greek "both votary and god are called Bacchus". Burkert, p. 162. For the initiate as Bacchus, see Euripides, Bacchae 491. For the god, who alone is Dionysus, see Sophocles, Oedipus Rex 211 and Euripides, Hippolytus 560. ^ Sutton, p. 2, mentions Dionysus as The Liberator in relation to the city Dionysia festivals. In Euripides, Bacchae 379–385: "He holds this office, to join in dances, [380] to laugh with the flute, and to bring an end to cares, whenever the delight of the grape comes at the feasts of the gods, and in ivy-bearing banquets the goblet sheds sleep over men." ^ Thomas McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought, Allsworth press, 2002, pp. 118–121. Google Books preview ^ Reginald Pepys Winnington-Ingram, Sophocles: an interpretation, Cambridge University Press, 1980, p. 109 Google Books preview ^ Zofia H. Archibald, in Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (Ed.) Ancient Greeks west and east, Brill, 1999, pp. 429 ff.Google Books preview ^ Rosemarie Taylor-Perry, 2003. The God Who Comes: Dionysian Mysteries Revisited. Algora Press. ^ Gately, Iain (2008). Drink. Gotham Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-592-40464-3. ^ a b Julian, trans. by Emily Wilmer Cave Wright. To the Cynic Heracleios. The Works of the Emperor Julian, volume II (1913) Loeb Classical Library. ^ a b c d e f g Isler-Kerényi, Cornelia; Watson, Wilfred G. E. (2007). "Dionysos in Archaic Greece". Brill: 5–16. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctt1w76w9x.7. Cite journal requires |journal= (help); |chapter= ignored (help) ^ a b Brockett, Oscar Gross (1968). History of the Theatre. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 18–26. ^ Riu, Xavier (1999). Dionysism and Comedy. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 105. ISBN 9780847694426. ^ a b c d e Corrente, Paola. 2012. Dioniso y los Dying gods: paralelos metodológicos. Tesis doctoral, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. ^ "DIONYSUS GOD OF - Greek Mythology". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2020-06-22. ^ Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 129 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "When Liber [Dionysos] had come as a guest to Oeneus, son of Parthaon, he fell in love with Althaea, daughter of Thestius and wife of Oeneus. When Oeneus realized this, he voluntarily left the city and pretended to be performing sacred rites. But Liber [Dionysos] lay with Althaea, who became mother of Dejanira. To Oeneus, because of his generous hospitality, he gave the vine as a gift, and showed him how to plant it, and decreed that its fruit should be called ‘oinos’ from the name of his host." Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 274 : "Inventors and their inventions . . . A certain man named Cerasus mixed wine with the river Achelous in Aetolia, and from this ‘to mix’ is called kerasai." [N.B. Kerasos wwas probably connected with, if not the same as, King Oineus.] ^ The sons of Dionysos and Ariadne received from their father the best wine-producing regions of Greece: Oinopion (the Wine-Maker) was blessed with the vineyards of Khios producing the famed Khian wine; Staphylos (Grape-Bunch) with Thasos and the treasured Thasian; Peparethos and Phanos received his name-sake island and its powerful wine; Thoas Lemnos and its vineyards; Phliasos and Eurymedon the vines the Sikyon. The last son Keramos (Wine Storage-jug) founded the pottery works of the Athenian Keramaikos, producing the bulk of the storage vessels used in the ancient wine-trade. Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 1. 26b-c (trans. Gullick) (Greek rhetorician C2nd to 3rd A.D.) : "Theopompos [of Khios, poet C4th B.C.] says that dark wine originated among the Khians, and that they were the first to learn how to plant and tend vines from Oinopion, son of Dionysos, who also was the founder of that island-state." Suidas s.v. Enekheis (quoting Aristophanes, Plutus 1020) (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Enekheis (you poured in) : You mixed. Aristophanes [writes] : ‘Certainly, by Zeus, if you poured in Thasian.’ On the basis of Thasian wine being sweet-smelling. For Staphylos, the beloved of Dionysos, lived on Thasos; and because of this Thasian wine is distinctive." ^ Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 130 : "When Father Liber [Dionysos] went out to visit men in order to demonstrate the sweetness and pleasantness of his fruit, he came to the generous hospitality of Icarius and Erigone. To them he gave a skin full of wine as a gift and bade them spread the use of it in all the other lands." ^ Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 129 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "When Liber [Dionysos] had come as a guest to Oeneus . . . he gave the vine as a gift, and showed him how to plant it, and decreed that its fruit should be called ‘oinos’ from the name of his host." ^ a b c d Beekes 2009, p. 337. ^ John Chadwick, The Mycenaean World, Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 99ff: "But Dionysos surprisingly appears twice at Pylos, in the form Diwonusos, both times irritatingly enough on fragments, so that we have no means of verifying his divinity." ^ "The Linear B word di-wo-nu-so". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages.. ^ a b Raymoure, K.A. (November 2, 2012). "Khania Linear B Transliterations". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. "Possible evidence of human sacrifice at Minoan Chania". Archaeology News Network. 2014. Raymoure, K.A. "Khania KH Gq Linear B Series". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. "KH 5 Gq (1)". Dāmos: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo.. ^ "Palaeolexicon - The Linear B word di-wo". www.palaeolexicon.com.. ^ Fox, p. 217, "The word Dionysos is divisible into two parts, the first originally Διος (cf. Ζευς), while the second is of an unknown signification, although perhaps connected with the name of the Mount Nysa which figures in the story of Lykourgos: (...) when Dionysos had been reborn from the thigh of Zeus, Hermes entrusted him to the nymphs of Mount Nysa, who fed him on the food of the gods, and made him immortal." ^ Testimonia of Pherecydes in an early fifth-century BC fragment, FGrH 3, 178, in the context of a discussion on the name of Dionysus: "Nũsas (acc. pl.), he [Pherecydes] said, was what they called the trees." ^ "Greek Word Study Tool". www.perseus.tufts.edu.. ^ Martin Nilsson Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion (1967). Vol. I, p.567. ^ νυός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Martin Nilsson Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion (1967). Vol. I, p.567. ^ Myths of Greece and Rome, by Jane Harrison (1928). ^ This is the view of Garcia Ramon (1987) and Peters (1989), summarised and endorsed in Janda (2010:20). ^ a b Nonnus, Dionysiaca 9.20–24. ^ Suda s.v. Διόνυσος . ^ a b c d e f g Kerényi, Karl. 1976. Dionysus. Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691029156, 978-0691029153 ^ Pausanias, 8.39.6. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Ακρωρεία ^ Used thus by Ausonius, Epigrams, 29, 6, and in Catullus, 29; see Lee M. Fratantuono, NIVALES SOCII: CAESAR, MAMURRA, AND THE SNOW OF CATULLUS C. 57, Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, New Series, Vol. 96, No. 3 (2010), p. 107, Note 2. ^ Smith, s.v. Aegobolus; Pausanias, 9.8.1–2. ^ a b c "Suidas". Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. doi:10.1163/2405-8262_rgg4_sim_025853. ^ Suidas s.v. Androgynos : "Androgynos (androgynous) : [A word applied to] Dionysos, as one doing both active, male things and passive, female ones [specifically sexual intercourse]." ^ Erwin Rohde, Psyché, p. 269 ^ Aristid.Or.41 ^ Macr.Sat.I.18.9 ^ For a parallel see pneuma/psuche/anima The core meaning is wind as "breath/spirit" ^ Bulls in antiquity were said to roar. ^ Blackwell, Christopher W.; Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2011). Mythology For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118053874. ^ McKeown, J.C. A Cabinet of Greek Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the Cradle of Western Civilization, Oxford University Press, New York, 2013, p. 210) ^ Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Greeks, 92: 82–83, Loeb Classical Library (registration required: accessed 17 December 2016) ^ Kerényi 1967; Kerényi 1976. ^ Suidas s.v. Kistophoros : "Kistophoros (basket-bearer, ivy-bearer) : It seems that baskets were sacred to Dionysos and the Two Goddesses [Demeter and Persephone]." [N.B. Derived from Harpocration s.v. kittophoros, the ivy-bearer.] ^ Hau, Lisa Irene (2016-07-01), "Diodorus Siculus", Moral History from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus, Edinburgh University Press, doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9781474411073.003.0003, ISBN 978-1-4744-1107-3 ^ Suidas s.v. Dimetor : "Dimêtôr (twice-born) : Dionysos." ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 3. 62. 5 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) : "Dionysos was named twice-born (dimetor) by the ancients, counting it as a single and first birth when the plant is set in the ground and begins to grow, and as a second birth when it becomes laden with fruit and ripens its grape-clusters--the god thus being considered as having been born once from the earth and again from the vine." ^ Janda (2010), 16–44. ^ Kerényi 1976, p. 286. ^ Jameson 1993, 53. Cf.n16 for suggestions of Devereux on "Enorkhes," ^ Reece, Steve, "The Epithet ἐρίδρομος in Nonnus’ Dionysiaca," Philologus: Zeitschrift für antike Literatur und ihre Rezeption 145 (2001) 357–359, explains Nonnus' use of this epithet at Dionysiaca 23.28 as a translation of the moribund Homeric epithet ἐριούνιος, which in Cyprian means "good-running." ^ "Greek Word Study Tool". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Greek Word Study Tool". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Mentioned by Erasmus in The Praise of Folly ^ "Philostratus the Athenian, Vita Apollonii, book 2, chapter 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "ToposText". topostext.org. ^ "Arrian, Anabasis, book 5, chapter 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Arrian, Anabasis, book 5, chapter 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Suidas (Lexicographer) (MDCCV. [1705]). Souidas. : Suidæ lexicon, Græce & Latine. Textum Græcum cum manuscriptis codicibus collatum a quamplurimis mendis purgavit, notisque perpetuis illustravit: versionem Latinam Æmilii Porti innumeris in locis correxit; indicesque auctorum & rerum adjecit Ludolphus Kusterus, Professor humaniorum literarum in Gymnasio Regio Berolinensi. Typis academicis. OCLC 744697285. Check date values in: |date= (help) ^ Suidas s.v. Oinops (quoting Greek Anthology 6. 44. 5 and 7. 20. 2) : "Oinops (wine-dark) : ‘To wine-dark [so-and-so],’ to black [so-and-so]. In the Epigrams: ‘. . . from which we poured libations, as much [as is] right, to wine-dark Bakkhos and the Satyroi.’ But ruddy (oinôpos) [means] wine-coloured, bright or black. ‘Feeding on the ruddy grape-cluster of Bakkhos.’" ^ "EUSEBE DE CESAREE : Préparation évangélique : livre IV (texte grec)". remacle.org. ^ Opsomer, Jan. "La démiurgie des jeunes dieux selon Proclus". In: Études Classiques Tome 71, Nº. 1: Le "Timée" au fil des âges: son influence et ses lectures. 2003. pp. 18-19 (footnote nr. 47), 25 and 37-38 (footnote nr. 124). ISSN 0014-200X ^ Georges, Karl Ernst. Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch. Hannover: August, 1918 (Nachdruck Darmstadt 1998). Band 2. Sp. 2582. ^ Harrison, Jane Ellen. Themis. Cambridge University Press. 1912. p. 421. ^ Naylor, H. Darnley. Horace Odes and Epodes: A study in word-order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1922. p. 37. ^ Putnam, Michael C. J. (1994). "Structure and Design in Horace "Odes" 1. 17". The Classical World. 87 (5): 357–375. doi:10.2307/4351533. JSTOR 4351533. ^ Papaioannou, Sophia (2013). "Embracing Vergil’s 'Arcadia': Constructions and representations of a literary topos in the poetry of the Augustans". In: Acta Antiqua 53: 160-161. DOI: 10.1556/AAnt.53.2013.2-3.2. ^ Humphreys, S. C. The Strangeness of Gods: Historical perspectives on the interpretation of Athenian religion. Oxford University Press. 2004. p. 235 (footnote nr. 34). ISBN 0–19–926923–8 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: Invalid ISBN. ^ Euripides. (2019). The Bacchae. Neeland Media LLC. ISBN 978-1-4209-6184-3. OCLC 1108536627. ^ "DIONYSUS TITLES & EPITHETS - Ancient Greek Religion". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2020-07-08. ^ Rosemarie Taylor-Perry, The God Who Comes: Dionysian Mysteries Revisited. Algora Press 2003, p. 89, cf. Sabazius. ^ Ferguson, Everett (2003). Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802822215. ^ He appears as a likely theonym (divine name) in Linear B tablets as di-wo-nu-so (KH Gq 5 inscription), ^ a b Sir Arthur Pickard-Cambridge. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953 (2nd ed. 1968). ISBN 0-19-814258-7 ^ a b c d e "1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anthesteria - Wikisource, the free online library". en.m.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2020-06-23. ^ a b c (Photius, Lexicon, s.v. “Thyraze Kares.”) To the doors, Kares, it is no longer Anthestria”: some authorities contented that this is what is said to the crowd of Karian slaves, since at the Anthestria they join in the feast and do not do any work. Therefore, when the festival is over, they send them back out to work with the words, “To the doors, Keres, it is no longer Anthestria.” since the souls [keres] wander about through the city at the Anthestria. ^ (Plutarch, Table-talk, 655e.) At Athens they inaugurate the new wine on the eleventh of the month, and they call the day pithoigia. ^ (Phanodemus, in Athenaeus, Deipnosophists XI. 456a; frag 12in FGrH 325.) At the temple of Dionysus in Limnai [“The Marshes”] the Athenians bring the new wine from the jars age mix it in honour of the god and then they drink it themselves. Because of this custom Dionysus is called Limnaios, because the wine was mixed with water and then for the first time drunk diluted. ^ a b Rice, David G. Stambaugh, John E. (2014). Sources for the Study of Greek Religion Corrected Edition. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-62837-067-6. OCLC 893453849.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Library and Epitome, 1.3.2. "Orpheus also invented the mysteries of Dionysus, and having been torn in pieces by the Maenads he is buried in Pieria." ^ Dickie, M.W. 1995. The Dionysiac Mysteries. In Pella, ZPE 109, 81-86. ^ Jiménez San Cristóbal 2012, p. 125; Bowie, A. M., p. 232; Harrison, pp. 540–542. ^ Antikensammlung Berlin F1961 (Beazley Archive 302354). ^ National Etruscan Museum 42884, (Beazley Archive 9017720). ^ Versnel, pp. 32 ff.; Bowie, A. M., p. 232. ^ Jiménez San Cristóbal 2012, p. 127; Graf 2005, "Iacchus". ^ Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, p. 279, Bowie, A. M., pp. 232–233; Sophocles, Antigone 1115–1125, 1146–1154; Versnel, pp. 23–24. Jebb, in his note to line 1146 χοράγ᾽ ἄστρων, understands the Sophoclean use of the name "Iacchus" as specifically denoting the Eleusinian Dionysus. ^ Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, pp. 279–280; Bowie, A. M., p. 233; Sophocles, fragment 959 Radt (Lloyd-Jones, pp. 414, 415). ^ Encinas Reguero, p. 350; Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, p. 282, with n. 41; Bowie, A. M., p. 233; Euripides, Bacchae 725. Jiménez San Cristóbal also sees possible associations between Iacchus and Dionysus in Euripides: Ion 1074–1086, The Trojan Women 1230, Cyclops 68–71, and fr. 586 Kannicht (apud Strabo, 10.3.13) = fr. 586 Nauck (Collard and Cropp, pp. 56, 57). ^ Bowie, E. L., pp. 101–110; Fantuzzi, pp. 189, 190, 191; PHI Greek Inscriptions, BCH 19 (1895) 393. ^ 21–24, Bowie, E. L., pp. 101–102. ^ 27–35, Bowie, E. L., p. 102. ^ Strabo, 10.3.10. ^ Parker 2005, p. 358; Grimal, s.v. Iacchus, p. 224; Tripp, s.v. Iacchus, p. 313; Smith 1870, s.v. Iacchus. ^ Jiménez San Cristóbal 2013, pp. 279–280; Diodorus Siculus, 4.4.2, see also 3.64.1–2. ^ Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 2.16.3 ^ Lucian, De Saltatione ("The Dance") 39 (Harmon, pp. 250, 251). ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48.962–968. ^ Hard, p. 134; Grimal, s.v. Iacchus, p. 224; Tripp, s.v. Iacchus, p. 313; Rose, Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. Iacchus; scholiast on Aristophanes, Frogs 324 (Rutherford 1896, p. 316). ^ Marcovich, p. 23; Parker 2005, p. 358; Graf 1974, p. 198. ^ Marcovich, p. 23; Bianchi, p. 18; Graf 1974, p. 198; Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, Inv. 1956-355. ^ Parker 2005, p. 358 n. 139; Lucretius, 4.1168–1169. Arnobius, Adversus Gentes 3.10 (p. 157) referring to the Lucretius verse, lists "the full-breasted Cerses nursing Iaccus" as a sight "the mind longs" to see. Compare with Photius, s.v. Ἴακχος and Suda, s.v. Ἴακχος (iota,16), which identify Iacchus with Διόνυσος ἐπὶ τῷ μαστῷ ('Dionysus at the breast'). ^ Parker 2005, p. 358 n. 139; scholiast on Aristides, Vol. 3, p. 648 213, 18 Dindorf. ^ Gantz, p. 118; Hard, p. 35; Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 456. ^ Norman C. McClelland (2010). Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma. McFarland. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-0-7864-5675-8. ^ Sommerstein, p. 237 n. 1; Gantz, p. 118; Smyth, p. 459. ^ Gantz, p. 118. ^ Gantz, pp. 118–119; West 1983, pp. 152–154; Linforth, pp. 309–311. ^ Callimachus, fr. 643 Pfeiffer (= Euphorion, fr. 14 Lightfoot); Gantz, p. 118–119; West 1983, p. 151; Linforth, pp. 309–310. ^ Callimachus, fr. 43.117 Pfeiffer (= fr. 43b.34 Harder); Harder, p. 368; Gantz, p. 118; West 1983, pp. 152–153; Linforth, p. 310. ^ Linforth, pp. 311, 317–318; Plutarch, The E at Delphi 389 A. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.564–565. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 6.165. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 10.294. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 39.72. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.255. ^ T. P. Wiseman, "Satyrs in Rome? The Background to Horace's Ars Poetica", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 78 (1988), p. 7, note 52. ^ Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1.[1] ^ a b Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.6O. See also St Augustine, De Civitatis Dei, 4.11. ^ See Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 7.57 (ed. Bostock) at Perseus: Tufts.edu ^ a b Beard, Mary: The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London, England, 2007, pp. 315–317. ^ Russell, Bertrand. History of Western Philosophy.Routledge, 1996, p. 25 ^ Kraemer, Ross S. "Ecstasy and Possession: The Attraction of Women to the Cult of Dionysus." The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 72 60 Jan.–Apr. 1979. ^ ..."the Bacchic passages in the Roman drama, taken over from their Greek models, presented a pejorative image of the Bacchic cult which predisposed the Romans towards persecution before the consul denounced the cult in 186." Robert Rouselle, Liber-Dionysus in Early Roman Drama, The Classical Journal, 82, 3 (1987), p. 193. ^ Wiseman, T.P. (1988). "Satyrs in Rome? The Background to Horace's Ars Poetica". The Journal of Roman Studies. 78: 1–13. doi:10.2307/301447. JSTOR 301447. Certainly it is hard to imagine anything less consistent with Roman mos maiorum than the anarchic hedonism of satyrs. It was precisely libido, that morally subversive aspect of the Bacchic cult, that led to its brutal suppression... ^ Pliny attributes the invention of the triumph to "Father Liber" (who by Pliny's time was identified with Bacchus and Dionysus): see Pliny, Historia Naturalis, 7.57 (ed. Bostock) at Perseus: Tufts.edu ^ a b Sallustius, On Gods and the World, ch. VI. ^ a b Hymn to King Helios ^ Maxwell, Herbert (1913). The Chronicle of Lanercost, 1272–1346. Glasgow, Scotland: Glasgow : J. Maclehose. pp. 29–30. ^ C. S. Watkins: History and the Supernatural in Medieval England, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge 2007, pp. 88–92. ^ Ashe, Geoffrey (2000). The Hell-Fire Clubs: A History of Anti-Morality. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. p. 114. ^ Bayles, Richard (1889). History of Windham County, Connecticut. ^ Nasios, A. "Hearth of Hellenism: The Greek Wheel of the Year". Accessed online 24 Jan 2009 at https://www.ysee.gr/greekwheel.html ^ Christos Pandion Panopoulos, Panagiotis Meton Panagiotopoulos, Erymanthos Armyras, Mano Rathamanthys Madytinos (Editor, Translator), Lesley Madytinou (Editor, Translator), Vasilios Cheiron Tsantilas. 2014. Hellenic Polytheism: Household Worship. ISBN 1503121887. ^ "Dionysus". Neokoroi.org. Neokoroi. Retrieved 3 August 2017. ^ Rutherford 2016, p. 67. ^ Rutherford 2016, p. 69. ^ Diod. 4.6.3. ^ Herodotus. Histories. George Rawlinson Translation. Book 2. ^ Plutarch, Isis and Osiris. Trans. Frank Cole Babbitt, 1936. ^ Kampakoglou, Alexandros v (2016). Danaus βουγενής: Greco-Egyptian Mythology and Ptolemaic Kingship. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. pp. 119–122. ^ Scott, Kenneth (1929). Octavian's Propaganda and Antony's De Sua Ebrietate (24th ed.). Classical Philology. pp. 133–141. ^ Diod. 1.21.1–3 ^ Heraclitus, encountering the festival of the Phallophoria, in which phalli were paraded about, remarked in a surviving fragment: "If they did not order the procession in honor of the god and address the phallus song to him, this would be the most shameless behavior. But Hades is the same as Dionysos, for whom they rave and act like bacchantes", Kerényi 1976, pp. 239–240. ^ Kerényi 1967. ^ Summary of Karl Kerényi: "The Hymn tells us that Persephone was abducted in Nysion pedion, or the Nysian Plain, a plain that was named after the Dionysian mountain of Nysa. Nysa was regarded as the birthplace and first home of Dionysus. The divine marriage of Plouton and Persephone was celebrated on 'the meadow'. The dangerous region that Kore let herself be lured to in search of flowers was likely not originally connected to Plouton but to Dionysus, as Dionysus himself had the strange surname of 'the gaping one', though despite this the notion that the wine god in his quality as the Lord of the Underworld does not appear on the surface of the hymn. People would not be able to detect the hidden meaning it if it wasn’t for archaic vase portrayals." Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter [pp. 34, 35]. "The Hymn to Demeter later mentions that Queen Metaneira of Eleusis later offers the disguised Demeter a beaker of sweet wine, something that Demeter refuses on the grounds that it would be against themis, the very nature of order and justice, for her to drink red wine and she instead invents a new beverage called kykeon to drink instead. The fact that Demeter refuses to drink wine on the grounds that it would be against themis indicates that she is well aware of who Persephone's abductor is, that it is the Subterranean cover name of Dionysus. The critic of the mysteries, the severe philosopher Herakleitos once declared "Hades is the same as Dionysos." The subterranean wine god was the ravisher, so how could Demeter accept something that was his gift to mankind" [p. 40] ^ Summary of Karl Kerényi: "The book later refers to Herakles initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries so that he may enter the Underworld. In the iconography after his initiation Herakles in shown wearing a fringed white garment with a Dionysian deerskin thrown over it. Kore is shown with her mother Demeter and a snake twined around the Mystery basket, foreshadowing the secret, as making friends with snakes was Dionysian [p. 58]. The god of the Anthesteria was Dionysus, who celebrated his marriage in Athens amid flowers, the opening of wine jars, and the rising up of the souls of the dead [p. 149]. There are two reliefs in a marble votive relief of the fourth century BC. One depicts Kore crowning her mother Demeter, the deities at the second altar are Persephone and her husband Dionysus as the recumbent god has the features of the bearded Dionysus rather than of Plouton. In his right hand, he raises not a cornucopia, the symbol of wealth, but a wine vessel and in his left, he bears the goblet for the wine. Over their heads an inscription reads "To the God and Goddess" [pp. 151, 152]. The fragments of a gilded jar cover of the Kerch type show Dionysus, Demeter, little Ploutos, Kore, and a curly-haired boy clad in a long garment, one of the first son's of the Eleusinian king who was the first to be initiated. On another vase, Dionysus sits on his omphalos with his thryrsos in his left hand, sitting opposite Demeter, looking at each other severely. Kore is shown moving from Demeter towards Dionysus, as if trying to reconcile them [p. 162]. Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter ^ Summary of Karl Kerényi: Kore and Thea are two different duplications of Persephone; Plouton and Theos are duplications of the subterranean Dionysus. The duplication of the mystery god as subterranean father and subterranean son, as Father Zagreus and the child Zagreus, husband and son of Persephone, has more to do with the mysteries of Dionysus than with the Eleusinian Mysteries. But a duplication of the chthonian, mystical Dionysus is provided even by his youthful aspect, which became distinguished and classical as the son of Semele from the son of Persephone. Semele, though not of Eleusinian origin, is also a double of Persephone [p. 155]. Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter ^ Kerényi 1967, p. 40. ^ Kerényi 1976, p. 240. ^ Kerényi 1976, pp. 83, 199. ^ Loyd, Alan B (2009). What is a God?: Studies in the Nature of Greek Divinity. The Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-1905125357. The identification of Hades and Dionysus does not seem to be a particular doctrine of Herakleitos, nor does it commit him to monotheism. The evidence for a cult connection between the two is quite extensive, particularly in Southern Italy, and the Dionysiac mysteries are associated with death rituals. ^ http://www.my-favourite-planet.de/images/people/d-01/dionysus/athens_dj-28082013-2-0833c_dionysus-eleusis.jpg ^ http://www.my-favourite-planet.de/images/people/d-01/dionysus/athens_dj-28082013-2-0826d_dionysus-eleusis.jpg ^ [2] ^ a b Summary of Karl Kerényi: These attempts at a reconstruction would remain very fragmentary were we not, in conclusion, to look attentively into the face of the god Eubouleus. The Lord of the Underworld bore this name in the youthful form represented in the statue, ascribed to Praxiteles, which is now in the National Museum at Athens and probably stood originally in the place where it was found, the Ploutonion. This youth is Plouton himself – radiant but disclosing a strange inner darkness – and at the same time his double and servant, comparable to Hermes or Pais besides Kabeiros or Theos [p. 172]. ... The plentiful hair or long curls suggest rather Hades kyanochaites, Hades of the dark hair [p. 173]. ^ p. 172. ^ Kerényi, Karl (1991). Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691019154. ^ "London B 425 (Vase)". ^ a b c d Taylor-Perry, Rosemarie (2003). The God who Comes: Dionysian Mysteries Revisited. Barnes & Noble. pp. 4, 22, 91, 92, 94, 168. ISBN 9780875862309. ^ a b c d Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010). Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11312-1. ^ "British Museum Collection". britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 2017-03-06. ^ "British Museum Collection". britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 2017-03-06. ^ Sudas, under "Sabazios", "saboi"; Sider, David. "Notes on Two Epigrams of Philodemus". The American Journal of Philology, 103.2 (Summer 1982:208–213) pp. 209ff. ^ Strabo, Geography, 10.3.15. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.4.1. ^ E.N. Lane has taken pains to dismiss this widespread conflation: Lane, "Towards a definition of the iconography of Sabazios", Numen 27 (1980:9–33), and Corpus Cultis Jovis Sabazii:, in Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l'Empire Romain: Conclusions 100.3 (Leiden, etc: Brill) 1989. ^ McDonough 1999, pp. 88–90 ^ "Sarcophagus Depicting the Birth of Dionysus". The Walters Art Museum. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.4.1. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.4.5. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.5.2. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 5.75.4, noted by Kerényi 1976, "The Cretan core of the Dionysos myth" p. 111 n. 213 and pp. 110–114. ^ a b c d e Diodorus Siculus 3.62–74. ^ "situla-fitting | British Museum". The British Museum. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 4. 268 ff (trans. Rouse) ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5. 562 ff (trans. Rouse) ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 6. 155 ff (trans. Rouse) ^ Damascius, Commentary on the Phaedo, I, 1–13 and 165–172, see in translation Westerink, The Greek Commentaries on Plato's Phaedo, vol. II, The Prometheus Trust, Westbury, 2009 ^ Nilsson, p. 202 calls it "the cardinal myth of Orphism"; Guthrie, p. 107, describes the myth as "the central point of Orphic story", Linforth, p. 307 says it is "commonly regarded as essentially and peculiarly Orphic and the very core of the Orphic religion", and Parker 2002, p. 495, writes that "it has been seen as the Orphic 'arch-myth'. ^ According to Gantz, p. 118, 'Orphic sources preserved seem not to use the name "Zagreus", and according to West 1983, p. 153, the 'name was probably not used in the Orphic narrative'. Edmonds 1999, p. 37 n. 6 says: 'Lobeck 1892 seems to be responsible for the use of the name Zagreus for the Orphic Dionysos. As Linforth noticed, "It is a curious thing that the name Zagreus does not appear in any Orphic poem or fragment, nor is it used by any author who refers to Orpheus" (Linforth 1941:311). In his reconstruction of the story, however, Lobeck made extensive use of the fifth-century epic of Nonnos, who does use the name Zagreus, and later scholars followed his cue. The association of Dionysos with Zagreus appears first explicitly in a fragment of Callimachus preserved in the Etymologicum Magnum (fr. 43.117 P), with a possible earlier precedent in the fragment from Euripides Cretans (fr. 472 Nauck). Earlier evidence, however, (e.g., Alkmaionis fr. 3 PEG; Aeschylus frr. 5, 228) suggests that Zagreus was often identified with other deities.' ^ West 1983, pp. 73–74, provides a detailed reconstruction with numerous cites to ancient sources, with a summary on p. 140. For other summaries see Morford, p. 311; Hard, p. 35; Marsh, s.v. Zagreus, p. 788; Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 456; Burkert, pp. 297–298; Guthrie, p. 82; also see Ogden, p. 80. For a detailed examination of many of the ancient sources pertaining to this myth see Linforth, pp. 307–364. The most extensive account in ancient sources is found in Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.562–70, 6.155 ff., other principal sources include Diodorus Siculus, 3.62.6–8 (= Orphic fr. 301 Kern), 3.64.1–2, 4.4.1–2, 5.75.4 (= Orphic fr. 303 Kern); Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.110–114; Athenagoras of Athens, Legatio 20 Pratten (= Orphic fr. 58 Kern); Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus 2.15 pp. 36–39 Butterworth (= Orphic frs. 34, 35 Kern); Hyginus, Fabulae 155, 167; Suda s.v. Ζαγρεύς. See also Pausanias, 7.18.4, 8.37.5. ^ Damascius, Commentary on the Phaedo, I, 170, see in translation Westerink, The Greek Commentaries on Plato's Phaedo, vol. II (The Prometheus Trust, Westbury) 2009 ^ Diodorus Siculus 3.64.1; also noted by Kerény (110 note 214). ^ Hyginus, Fabulae CLXVII ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 14 ff (trans. Rouse) ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 139 ff (trans. Rouse) ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 8. (trans. Rouse) ^ a b Nonnus, Dionysiaca 9. (trans. Rouse) ^ Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. ISBN 0-674-99135-4, 0-674-99136-2 ^ Conner, Nancy. "The Everything Book of Classical Mythology" 2ed ^ Homeric Hymn 1 to Dionysus : ‘There is a certain Nysa, mountain high, with forests thick, in Phoinike afar, close to Aigyptos' (Egypt's) streams.’ ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 2. 3 (trans. Oldfather) : "Zeus taking up the child [i.e. Dionysos from the dead body of his mother Semele], handed it over to Hermes, and ordered him to take it to the cave in Nysa, which lay between Phoinikia (Phoenicia) and the Neilos (the River Nile), where he should deliver it to the Nymphai (Nymphs) that they should rear it and with great solicitude bestow upon it the best of care. ^ Photius, Library; "Ptolemy Chennus, New History" ^ Bull, 255 ^ Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 5.1.1–2.2 ^ Bull, 253 ^ Ovid, Fasti, iii. 407 ff. (James G. Frazer, translator). ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 10.175–430, 11, 12.1–117 (Dalby 2005, pp. 55–62). ^ The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press 1993, p.96 ^ Euripides, Bacchae. ^ "British Museum – The Lycurgus Cup". britishmuseum.org. ^ "Theoi.com" Homeric Hymn to Dionysus". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2014-06-29. ^ Bull, 245–247, 247 quoted ^ Varadpande, M. L. (1981). Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre. Abhinav Publications. pp. 91–93. ISBN 9788170171478. ^ Carter, Martha L. (1968). "Dionysiac Aspects of Kushān Art". Ars Orientalis. 7: 121–146, Fig. 15. ISSN 0571-1371. JSTOR 4629244. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece book 2 ^ Corrente, Paola and Sidney Castillo. 2019. “Philology and the Comparative Study of Myths”, The Religious Studies Project (Podcast Transcript). 3 June 2019. Transcribed by Helen Bradstock. Version 1.1, 28 May 2019. Available at: https://www.religiousstudiesproject.com/podcast/philology-and-the-comparative-study-of-myths/ ^ Clement of Alexandria, Protreptikos, II-30 3–5 ^ Arnobius, Adversus Gentes 5.28 (pp. 252–253) (Dalby 2005, pp. 108–117) ^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca book 3 ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11. 185 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[Ampelos the love of Dionysos rode upon the back of a wild bull :] He shouted boldly to the fullfaced Moon (Mene)--‘Give me best, Selene, horned driver of cattle! Now I am both--I have horns and I ride a bull!’ So he called out boasting to the round Moon. Selene looked with a jealous eye through the air, to see how Ampleos rode on the murderous marauding bull. She sent him a cattlechasing gadfly; and the bull, pricked continually all over by the sharp sting, galloped away like a horse through pathless tracts. [It threw the boy and gorged him to death.]" ^ Ovid, Fasti 3. 407 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[The constellation] Grape-Gatherer (Vindemitor) . . . Its cause, too, takes a moment to teach. Beardless Ampelos, they say, a Nympha's and a Satyrus' (Satyr's) son, was loved by Bacchus [Dionysos] on Ismarian hills [in Thrace]. He trusted him with a vine hanging from the leaves of an elm; it is now named for the boy. The reckless youth fell picking gaudy grapes on a branch. Liber [Dionysos] lifted the lost boy to the stars." ^ DIONYSUS MYTHS 6 WRATH - Greek Mythology ^ Homer, author., The Iliad, ISBN 978-2-291-06449-7, OCLC 1130228845 ^ Homer, Iliad 6. 129 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "I will not fight against any god of the heaven, since even the son of Dryas, Lykourgos the powerful, did not live long; he who tried to fight with the gods of the bright sky, who once drove the fosterers of Mainomenos (rapturous) Dionysos headlong down the sacred Nyseian hill, and all of them shed and scattered their wands on the ground, stricken with an ox-goad by murderous Lykourgos, while Dionysos in terror dived into the salt surf, and Thetis took him to her bosom, frightened, with the strong shivers upon him at the man's blustering. But the gods who live at their ease were angered with Lykourgos and the son of Kronos [Zeus] struck him to blindness, nor did he live long afterwards, since he was hated by all the immortals." [N.B. The reference to the Nyseian hill and the nurses of Dionysos suggests that Homer placed the story in Boiotia while the god was still a child - contrary to subsequent accounts of the myth in which Dionysos is a youth visiting Thrake.] ^ Humphreys, S. C. The Strangeness of Gods: Historical perspectives on the interpretation of Athenian religion. Oxford University Press. 2004. pp. 264-265. ISBN 0–19–926923–8 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: Invalid ISBN. ^ Beecroft, Alexander J. "Nine Fragments in Search of an Author: Poetic Lines Attributed to Terpander." The Classical Journal 103, no. 3 (2008): 225-41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30037959. ^ Pausanias, 9.31.2. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.26–28 I pp. 4, 5, 48.245–247 III pp. 440–443, 48.848–968 III pp. 484–493. ^ Unnamed brother of Iacchus, killed by Aura instantly upon birth. ^ Scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 1. 21. ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Priēpidos ^ Strabo, 10.3.13, quotes the non-extant play Palamedes which seems to refer to Thysa, a daughter of Dionysus, and her (?) mother as participants of the Bacchic rites on Mount Ida, but the quoted passage is corrupt. ^ Otto, Walter F. (1995). Dionysus Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20891-2. ^ Daniélou, Alain (1992). Gods of Love and Ecstasy. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions. p. 15. ISBN 9780892813742. ^ Burkert, p. 64. ^ James Charlesworth (2010). The Good And Evil Serpent: How a Universal Symbol Became Christianized. Yale University Press. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-0-300-14273-0. ^ Walter Friedrich Otto; Robert B. Palmer (1965). Dionysus: Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. pp. 164–166. ISBN 978-0-253-20891-0. ^ Leo Steinberg (2014). The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion. University of Chicago Press. pp. 47, 83 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-226-22631-6. ^ Jennifer R. March (2014). Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Oxbow. pp. 164, 296. ISBN 978-1-78297-635-6. ^ Csapo, Eric (1997). "Riding the Phallus for Dionysus: Iconology, Ritual, and Gender-Role De/Construction". Phoenix. 51 (3/4): 256–257, 253–295. doi:10.2307/1192539. JSTOR 1192539. ^ Dietrich, B. C. (1958). "Dionysus Liknites". The Classical Quarterly. 8 (3–4): 244–248. doi:10.1017/S000983880002190X. ^ see Janda (2010), 16–44 for a detailed account. ^ Smith 1991, 127–129 ^ as in the Dionysus and Eros, Naples Archeological Museum ^ Smith 1991, 127–154 ^ Smith 1991, 127, 131, 133 ^ Smith 1991, 130 ^ Smith 1991, 136 ^ Smith 1991, 127 ^ Smith 1991, 128 ^ Kessler, E., Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus, ^ Bull, 227–228, both quoted ^ Bull, 228–232, 228 quoted ^ Bull, 235–238, 242, 247–250 ^ Bull, 233–235 ^ Malcolm Bull, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford UP, 2005, ISBN 978-0195219234 ^ Isler-Kerényi, C., & Watson, W. (2007). "Modern Mythologies: 'Dionysos' Versus 'Apollo'". In Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An Understanding through Images (pp. 235–254). Leiden; Boston: Brill. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76w9x.13 ^ Rosenthal, Bernice Glatzer (2007). "Chapter 13. A New Spirituality: The Confluence of Nietzsche and Orthodoxy in Russian Religious Thought". In Steinberg, Mark D. and Heather J. Coleman (ed.). Sacred Stories: Religion and Spirituality in Modern Russia. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-253-21850-6. ^ Kerenyi, K., Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life (Princeton/Bollingen, 1976). ^ Jeanmaire, H. Dionysus: histoire du culte de Bacchus, (pp. 106ff) Payot, (1951) ^ Johnson, R. A. 'Ecstasy; Understanding the Psychology of Joy' HarperColling (1987) ^ Hillman, J. 'Dionysus Reimagined' in The Myth of Analysis (pp. 271–281) HarperCollins (1972); Hillman, J. 'Dionysus in Jung's Writings' in Facing The Gods, Spring Publications (1980) ^ Thompson, J. 'Emotional Intelligence/Imaginal Intelligence' in Mythopoetry Scholar Journal, Vol 1, 2010 ^ Lopez-Pedraza, R. 'Dionysus in Exile: On the Repression of the Body and Emotion', Chiron Publications (2000) ^ Johnson, Sarah. "Household Gods". Historical Novel Society. Historical Novel Society. Retrieved 2 August 2017. ^ Horton, Rich. "Household Gods". SF Site. SF Site. Retrieved 2 August 2017. ^ Kakutani, Michiko. "Books of The Times; Students Indulging in Course of Destruction". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 November 2017. ^ Greenspun, Roger (March 23, 1970). "Screen::De Palma's 'Dionysus in 69'". New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2017. ^ Murray, Matthew. "The Frogs". Talkin' Broadway. Talkin' Broadway. Retrieved 2 August 2017. ^ Sourced from: https://www.popmatters.com/the-orion-experience-cosmicandy-2496184216.html ^ Grow, Kory. "Dead Can Dance on Awakening the Ancient Instincts Within" Rolling Stone, November 7, 2018. ^ Lipshutz, Jason (April 17, 2019). "How BTS' 'Dionysus' Demonstrates the Group's Musical Ambition". Billboard. Retrieved April 22, 2019. ^ Daly, Rhian (April 22, 2019). "All the biggest talking points from BTS' global press conference: Jungkook's missing mixtape, Suga's next prophecy, and the meaning behind 'Map Of The Soul: Persona'". NME. Retrieved April 17, 2019. ^ a b c Moles, John (2006). "Jesus and Dionysus in "The Acts Of The Apostles" and early Christianity". Hermathena. Trinity College Dublin. 180 (180): 65–104. JSTOR 23041662. ^ Detienne, Marcel. Dionysus Slain. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1979. ^ Evans, Arthur. The God of Ecstasy. New York: St. Martins' Press, 1989 ^ Wick, Peter (2004). "Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums". Biblica. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute. 85 (2): 179–198. Retrieved 2007-10-10. ^ Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth. Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. 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Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. Harder, Annette, Callimachus: Aetia: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-958101-6. (two volume set). Google Books Harrison, Jane Ellen, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, second edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908. Internet Archive Herodotus; Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920; ISBN 0674991338. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae in Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabuae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87220-821-6. Janda, Michael, Die Musik nach dem Chaos, Innsbruck 2010. Jameson, Michael. "The Asexuality of Dionysus." Masks of Dionysus. Ed. Thomas H. Carpenter and Christopher A. Faraone. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1993. ISBN 0-8014-8062-0. 44–64. Jiménez San Cristóbal, Anna Isabel, 2012, "Iacchus in Plutarch" in Plutarch in the Religious and Philosophical Discourse of Late Antiquity, edited by Fernando Lautaro Roig Lanzillotta and Israel Mu Oz Gallarte, Brill, ISBN 9789004234741. Jiménez San Cristóbal, Anna Isabel 2013, "The Sophoclean Dionysos" in Redefining Dionysus, Editors: Alberto Bernabé, Miguel Herrero de Jáuregui, Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal, Raquel Martín Hernández, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-030091-8. Kerényi, Karl 1967, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN 9780691019154. Kerényi, Karl 1976, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1996. ISBN 9780691029153. Linforth, Ivan M., The Arts of Orpheus, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1941. Online version at HathiTrust Lloyd-Jones, Hugh, Sophocles: Fragments, Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 483. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-674-99532-1. Online version at Harvard University Press. Kern, Otto. Orphicorum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, William Ellery Leonard. E. P. Dutton. 1916. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Marcovich, Miroslav, Studies in Graeco-Roman Religions and Gnosticism, Brill, 1988. ISBN 9789004086241. Marsh, Jenny, Cassell's Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Casell & Co, 2001. ISBN 0-304-35788-X. Internet Archive McDonough, Sean M. (1999), YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2. Reihe, 107, Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, ISBN 978-3-16-147055-4, ISSN 0340-9570 Nauck, Johann August, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta, Leipzig, Teubner, 1989. Internet Archive Nilsson, Martin, P., "Early Orphism and Kindred Religions Movements", The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Jul., 1935), pp. 181–230. JSTOR 1508326 Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, I Books I–XV. Loeb Classical Library No. 344, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, III Books XXXVI–XLVIII. Loeb Classical Library No. 346, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive. Ogden, Daniel, Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Parker, Robert (2002), "Early Orphism" in The Greek World, edited by Anton Powell, Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-1-134-69864-6. Parker, Robert (2005) Polytheism and Society at Athens, OUP Oxford, 2005. ISBN 9780191534522. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Sara Peterson, An account of the Dionysiac presence in Indian art and culture. Academia, 2016 Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur, The Theatre of Dionysus at Athens, 1946. Plutarch, Moralia, Volume V: Isis and Osiris. The E at Delphi. The Oracles at Delphi No Longer Given in Verse. The Obsolescence of Oracles. Translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. Loeb Classical Library No. 306. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1936. ISBN 978-0-674-99337-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth, 5th edition, 2007. Ridgeway, William, Origin of Tragedy, 1910. Kessinger Publishing (June 2003). ISBN 0-7661-6221-4. Ridgeway, William, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of non-European Races in special reference to the origin of Greek Tragedy, with an appendix on the origin of Greek Comedy, 1915. Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers (1999). ISBN 0-8476-9442-9. Rose, Herbert Jennings, "Iacchus" in The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-19-869117-3. Rutherford, Ian, (2016) Greco-Egyptian Interactions: Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BC–AD 300, Oxford University Press, 2016. ISBN 9780191630118. Rutherford, William G., (1896) Scholia Aristphanica, London, Macmillan and Co. and New York, 1896. Internet Archive*Seaford, Richard. "Dionysos", Routledge (2006). ISBN 0-415-32488-2. Smith, R.R.R., Hellenistic Sculpture, a handbook, Thames & Hudson, 1991, ISBN 0500202494 Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Smyth, Herbert Weir, Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Volume II, London: Heinemann, 1926. Internet Archive Sommerstein, Alan H., Aeschylus: Fragments. Edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein. Loeb Classical Library No. 505. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-99629-8. Online version at Harvard University Press. Sophocles, The Antigone of Sophocles, Edited with introduction and notes by Sir Richard Jebb, Sir Richard Jebb. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1891. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Strabo, Geography, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924). Books 6–14, at the Perseus Digital Library Sutton, Dana F., Ancient Comedy, Twayne Publishers (August 1993). ISBN 0-8057-0957-6. Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). ISBN 069022608X. Versnel, H. S., “ΙΑΚΧΟΣ. Some Remarks Suggested by an Unpublished Lekythos in the Villa Giulia”, Talanta 4, 1972, 23–38. PDF West, M. L. (1983), The Orphic Poems, Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814854-8. Further reading[edit] Livy, History of Rome, Book 39:13, Description of banned Bacchanalia in Rome and Italy Detienne, Marcel, Dionysos at Large, tr. by Arthur Goldhammer, Harvard University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-674-20773-4. (Originally in French as Dionysos à ciel ouvert, 1986) Albert Henrichs, Between City and Country: Cultic Dimensions of Dionysus in Athens and Attica, (April 1, 1990). Department of Classics, UCB. Cabinet of the Muses: Rosenmeyer Festschrift. Paper festschrift18. Sara Peterson, An account of the Dionysiac presence in Indian art and culture. Academia, 2016 Frazer, James "The Golden Bough" Kern, O. Dionysos (2) in Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, tr. into English Walter F. Otto “Dionysus: Myth and Cult” Redifining Dionysos, a large collaborative academic study on Dionysus and his worship in antiquity. Richard Seaford, Routledge “Dionysos” Henk Versnel “Heis Dionysus - One Dionysus? A polytheistic perspective” an examination of Greek religion and Dionysos himself. 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en-wikipedia-org-2274	----	Cite This Page - Wikipedia Help Cite This Page Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents: APA | MLA | MHRA | Chicago | CSE | Bluebook | AMA | BibTeX | wiki IMPORTANT NOTE: Most educators and professionals do not consider it appropriate to use tertiary sources such as encyclopedias as a sole source for any information—citing an encyclopedia as an important reference in footnotes or bibliographies may result in censure or a failing grade. Wikipedia articles should be used for background information, as a reference for correct terminology and search terms, and as a starting point for further research. As with any community-built reference, there is a possibility for error in Wikipedia's content—please check your facts against multiple sources and read our disclaimers for more information. Bibliographic details for "Sisyphus" Page name: Sisyphus Author: Wikipedia contributors Publisher: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Date of last revision: 21 January 2021 08:51 UTC Date retrieved: 6 February 2021 13:42 UTC Permanent link: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392 Primary contributors: Revision history statistics Page Version ID: 1001781392 Please remember to check your manual of style, standards guide or instructor's guidelines for the exact syntax to suit your needs. For more detailed advice, see Citing Wikipedia. Citation styles for "Sisyphus" APA style Wikipedia contributors. (2021, January 21). Sisyphus. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:42, February 6, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392 MLA Style Manual Wikipedia contributors. "Sisyphus." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 21 Jan. 2021. Web. 6 Feb. 2021. MHRA style Wikipedia contributors, 'Sisyphus', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 21 January 2021, 08:51 UTC, <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392> [accessed 6 February 2021] Chicago style Wikipedia contributors, "Sisyphus," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392 (accessed February 6, 2021). CBE/CSE style Wikipedia contributors. Sisyphus [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2021 Jan 21, 08:51 UTC [cited 2021 Feb 6]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392. Bluebook style Sisyphus, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392 (last visited Feb. 6, 2021). AMA style Wikipedia contributors. Sisyphus. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. January 21, 2021, 08:51 UTC. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392. Accessed February 6, 2021. BibTeX entry @misc{ enwiki:1001781392, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Sisyphus --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2021", url = "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392", note = "[Online; accessed 6-February-2021]" } When using the LaTeX package url (\usepackage{url} somewhere in the preamble), which tends to give much more nicely formatted web addresses, the following may be preferred: @misc{ enwiki:1001781392, author = "{Wikipedia contributors}", title = "Sisyphus --- {Wikipedia}{,} The Free Encyclopedia", year = "2021", howpublished = "\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392}", note = "[Online; accessed 6-February-2021]" } Wikipedia talk pages Markup [[Sisyphus]] ([[Special:Permalink/1001781392|this version]]) Result Sisyphus (this version)   Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CiteThisPage" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-2282	----	Phlegethon - Wikipedia Phlegethon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, the river Phlegethon (Φλεγέθων, English translation: "flaming") or Pyriphlegethon (Πυριφλεγέθων, English translation: "fire-flaming") was one of the five rivers in the infernal regions of the underworld, along with the rivers Styx, Lethe, Cocytus, and Acheron. Plato describes it as "a stream of fire, which coils round the earth and flows into the depths of Tartarus".[1] It was parallel to the river Styx. It is said that the goddess Styx was in love with Phlegethon, but she was consumed by his flames and sent to Hades. Eventually, when Hades allowed her river to flow through, they reunited.[citation needed] Literary references[edit] In Oedipus by Seneca the Younger, the first singing of the chorus, which mainly describes the plague that has settled in Thebes, includes the line, "Phlegethon has changed his course and mingled Styx with Theban streams." While this is not essential to the plot of the play, the line figuratively serves to suggest Death has become physically present in Thebes. The line also reveals the common preoccupation with death and magic found in Roman tragedy. In Dante's Inferno Phlegethon is described as a river of blood that boils souls. It is in the Seventh Circle of Hell, which punishes those who committed crimes of violence against their fellow men (see Canto XII, 46–48); murderers, tyrants, and the like. By causing hot blood to flow through their violent deeds in life, they are now sunk in the flowing, boiling blood of the Phlegethon. The depth at which each sinner must stand in the river is determined by the level of violence they caused in life; Dante sees Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great up to their eyebrows. Centaurs patrol the circle, firing arrows at those who try to rise above their allotted level in the river. Dante and Virgil cross Phlegethon with help from Nessus. In Spenser's The Faerie Queene the Phlegethon is to be found in hell, and is portrayed as a "fiery flood" where "the damned ghosts in torments fry" (Canto V, 291–291). In Paradise Lost (II, 580) John Milton names the Phlegeton (sic) as one of the rivers of Hell, which bold adventuring demons explore while Satan's flight to Earth begins. Milton also mentions the Rivers Styx, Acheron, and Cocytus. The river Lethe is also counted among the rivers of the underworld. In the seventy-fifth of Ezra Pound's Cantos, Pound asks of Gerhart Münch "Gerhart art thou come forth out of Phlegethon? with Buxtehude and Klages in your satchel, with the Ständebuch of Sachs in yr / luggage".[2] In Edgar Allan Poe's short story "Descent into the maelstrom", the narrator, looking down on the whirlpool from a mountain, refers to the water as "the howling Phlegethon below", signifying its danger and coiling effect. In the novel Inferno by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, Phlegethon is guarded not by centaurs, but by military officers taken from all eras of history (with instructions to shoot anyone who tries to escape). There is also a wooden sailing ship sunk on the other side, which is inhabited by the souls of slave traders. In the first arc of the Curse of the Spawn series, the Spawn's creator Plegethonyarre was named after the mythological river. Track 5 of The Residents' 2008 Digital Album Hades is called "Phlegethon River". In H.P. Lovecraft's short story "The Other Gods", one of the characters, when discovered by the Outer Gods, makes "a cry as no man else ever heard save in the Phlegethon of unrelatable nightmares", demonstrating that in an instant he has suffered tortures normally reserved for the damned. In "The Hunch Back of Notre Dame" a four year old Quasimodo is left outside the Cathedral. Foundlings were left there in the hope they would be taken care of. A passing official sees the child and says "Foundling – yes, found apparently on the banks of the river Phlegethon." In Charles Wright's poem "Driving to Passalacqua, 1960", he likens driving along and crossing the Adige River in Verona, lit by the morning sun ("Fire on the water,/daylight striking its match"), to the Phlegethon: "Phlegethon/He must have crossed,/Dante, I mean,/His cloak like a net as he glided and stepped over the stones."[3] See also[edit] Greek mythology in popular culture References[edit] ^ Plato. Phaedo. 112b. ^ Oakes, Loisann. “An Explication of ‘Canto LXXV’ by Ezra Pound.” Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature, vol. 5, no. 2, 1964, pp. 105–109 ^ Denham, Robert D., The Early Poetry of Charles Wright: A Companion, 1960-1990, McFarland and Co., 2009, p. 124. v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where the Sun Is Silent (2011 album) Film L'Inferno (1911) Dante's Inferno (1924) Dante's Inferno (1935) The Dante Quartet (1987) A TV Dante (1989) Dante's Inferno (2007) Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic (2010) Dante's Hell Animated (2013) Literature The Story of Rimini (1816) La Comédie humaine (1830–1850) Earth Inferno (1905) The Cantos (1917–1962) As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (1937) The System of Dante's Hell (1965) Demon Lord Dante (1971) Inferno (1976) The Dante Club (2003) Jimbo's Inferno (2006) Inferno (2013) Video games Devil May Cry series (2001) Bayonetta series (2009) Dante's Inferno (2010) The Lost (cancelled) Related Cultural references in the Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy in popular culture English translations Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli Botticelli Inferno (2016 documentary) Hell in popular culture Category v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phlegethon&oldid=1001899399" Categories: Rivers of Hades Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 22:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2532	----	Acrocorinth - Wikipedia Acrocorinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Acrocorinthus) Jump to navigation Jump to search The walled gates of Acrocorinth, as rebuilt by the Venetians. Acrocorinth, looking north towards the Gulf of Corinth. Acrocorinth (Greek: Ακροκόρινθος), "Upper Corinth", the acropolis of ancient Corinth, is a monolithic rock overseeing the ancient city of Corinth, Greece. In the estimation of George Forrest, "It is the most impressive of the acropolis of mainland Greece."[1] With its secure water supply, Acrocorinth's fortress was repeatedly used as a last line of defense in southern Greece because it commanded the Isthmus of Corinth, repelling foes from entry by land into the Peloponnese peninsula. Contents 1 History 2 Myths and legends 3 Gallery 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The Acrocorinth was continuously occupied from archaic times to the early 19th century. Along with Demetrias and Chalcis, the Acrocorinth during the Hellenistic period formed one of the so-called “Fetters of Greece” – three fortresses garrisoned by the Macedonians to secure their control of the Greek city-states. The city's archaic acropolis was already an easily defensible position due to its geomorphology; it was further heavily fortified during the Byzantine Empire as it became the seat of the strategos of the thema of Hellas and later of the Peloponnese. It was defended against the Crusaders for three years by Leo Sgouros. Afterwards it became a fortress of the Frankish Principality of Achaea, the Venetians, and the Ottoman Turks.[clarification needed] Three circuit walls formed the man-made defense of the hill. The highest peak on the site was home to a temple to Aphrodite. The temple was converted to a church, which in turn was converted to a mosque. The American School's Corinth Excavations began excavations on the Acrocorinth in 1929. Currently, it is one of the most important medieval castle sites of Greece. Myths and legends[edit] In a Corinthian myth related in the 2nd century CE to Pausanias, Briareus, one of the Hecatonchires, was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios, between the sea and the sun: His verdict was that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) to Helios.[2] The Upper Pirene spring is located within the encircling walls. "The spring, which is behind the temple, they say was the gift of Asopus to Sisyphus. The latter knew, so runs the legend, that Zeus had ravished Aegina, the daughter of Asopus, but refused to give information to the seeker before he had a spring given him on the Acrocorinthus."[3] Gallery[edit] Map of Acrocorinth "Corinth with Acrocorinth" by Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann, 1847 View of Acrocorinth walled gates, as rebuilt by the Venetians. Inner (second) western Gate Temple of Apollo with Acrocorinth in the background References[edit] ^ Forrest, George (1988). Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). Greece and the Hellenistic World. Oxford History of the Classical World. I. Oxford University Press. p. 31. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece. 2.1.6, 2.4.7. ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece. 2.5.1. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Akrokorinth. "Hellenic Ministry of Culture". 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en-wikipedia-org-2389	----	Ovid - Wikipedia Ovid From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (January 2021) Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation). Ovid Statue by Ettore Ferrari (1887) commemorating Ovid's exile in Tomis, Romania Born Publius Ovidius Naso[a] 20 March 43 BC Sulmo, Italy, Roman Republic Died 17 or 18 AD (age 60–61) Tomis, Scythia Minor, Roman Empire Occupation Poet Genre Elegy, epic, drama Publius Ovidius Naso (Classical Latin: [ˈpuːbliʊs ɔˈwɪdiʊs ˈnaːsoː]; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known as Ovid (/ˈɒvɪd/ OV-id)[1] in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He composed both epic and elegiac poetry, some of which contributed to his exile from Rome in 8 AD[2]. Contents 1 Overview 2 Life 2.1 Birth, early life, and marriage 2.2 Literary success 2.3 Exile to Tomis 2.4 Death 3 Works 3.1 Heroides ("The Heroines") 3.2 Amores ("The Loves") 3.3 Medicamina Faciei Femineae ("Women's Facial Cosmetics") 3.4 Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") 3.5 Remedia Amoris ("The Cure for Love") 3.6 Metamorphoses ("Transformations") 3.7 Fasti ("The Festivals") 3.8 Ibis ("The Ibis") 3.9 Tristia ("Sorrows") 3.10 Epistulae ex Ponto ("Letters from the Black Sea") 3.11 Lost works 4 Spurious works 4.1 Consolatio ad Liviam ("Consolation to Livia") 4.2 Halieutica ("On Fishing") 4.3 Nux ("The Walnut Tree") 4.4 Somnium ("The Dream") 5 Style 6 Legacy 6.1 Criticism 6.2 Ovid's influence 6.2.1 Literary and artistic 6.2.2 Retellings, adaptations, and translations of Ovidian works 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Editions 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Latin and English translation 13.2 Original Latin only 13.3 English translation only Overview[edit] He was the first major Roman poet to begin his career during Augustus' reign.[3] Ovid was a contemporary of the older poets Virgil and Horace. Collectively, they are considered the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian described Ovid as the last of the Latin love elegists.[4] He enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime. Regardless, the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error ("a poem and a mistake"). His reluctance to disclose specifics has resulted in much speculation among scholars. Today, Ovid is most famous for the Metamorphoses, a continuous mythological narrative in fifteen books written in the meter of epic. He is also known for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology today.[5] Life[edit] Ovid talks more about his own life than most other Roman poets. Information about his biography is drawn primarily from his poetry, especially Tristia 4.10, which gives a lengthy autobiographical account of his life. Other sources include Seneca the Elder and Quintilian. Birth, early life, and marriage[edit] Statue of Ovid by Ettore Ferrari in the Piazza XX Settembre, Sulmona, Italy. Ovid was born in the Paelignian town of Sulmo (modern-day Sulmona, in the province of L'Aquila, Abruzzo), in an Apennine valley east of Rome, to an important equestrian family, the gens Ovidia, on 20 March 43 BC. That was a significant year in Roman politics.[b] Along with his brother, who excelled at oratory, Ovid was educated in rhetoric in Rome under the teachers Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro.[6] His father wanted him to study rhetoric, so that he might practice law. According to Seneca the Elder, Ovid tended to the emotional, not the argumentative pole of rhetoric. Following the death of his brother at 20 years of age, Ovid renounced law and travelled to Athens, Asia Minor, and Sicily.[7] He held minor public posts, as one of the tresviri capitales,[8] as a member of the Centumviral court[9] and as one of the decemviri litibus iudicandis,[10] but resigned to pursue poetry probably around 29–25 BC, a decision of which his father apparently disapproved.[11] Ovid's first recitation has been dated to around 25 BC, when he was eighteen.[12] He was part of the circle centred on the esteemed patron Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and likewise seems to have been a friend of poets in the circle of Maecenas. In Trist. 4.10.41–54, Ovid mentions friendships with Macer, Propertius, Horace, Ponticus and Bassus. (He only barely met Virgil and Tibullus, a fellow member of Messalla's circle, whose elegies he admired greatly). He married three times and had divorced twice by the time he was thirty. He had one daughter, who would bear him grandchildren.[13] His last wife was connected in some way to the influential gens Fabia and would help him during his exile in Tomis (now Constanța in Romania).[14] Literary success[edit] Ovid spent the first 25 years of his literary career primarily writing poetry in elegiac meter with erotic themes.[15] The chronology of these early works is not secure; tentative dates, however, have been established by scholars. His earliest extant work is thought to be the Heroides, letters of mythological heroines to their absent lovers, which may have been published in 19 BC, although the date is uncertain as it depends on a notice in Am. 2.18.19–26 that seems to describe the collection as an early published work.[16] The authenticity of some of these poems has been challenged, but this first edition probably contained the first 14 poems of the collection. The first five-book collection of the Amores, a series of erotic poems addressed to a lover, Corinna, is thought to have been published in 16–15 BC; the surviving version, redacted to three books according to an epigram prefixed to the first book, is thought to have been published c. 8–3 BC. Between the publications of the two editions of the Amores can be dated the premiere of his tragedy Medea, which was admired in antiquity but is no longer extant. Ovid's next poem, the Medicamina Faciei, a fragmentary work on women's beauty treatments, preceded the Ars Amatoria, the Art of Love, a parody of didactic poetry and a three-book manual about seduction and intrigue, which has been dated to AD 2 (Books 1–2 would go back to 1 BC[17]). Ovid may identify this work in his exile poetry as the carmen, or song, which was one cause of his banishment. The Ars Amatoria was followed by the Remedia Amoris in the same year. This corpus of elegiac, erotic poetry earned Ovid a place among the chief Roman elegists Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius, of whom he saw himself as the fourth member.[16] By 8 AD, Ovid had completed Metamorphoses, his most ambitious work, a hexameter epic poem in 15 books. Here he catalogued encyclopaedically transformations in Greek and Roman mythology, from the emergence of the cosmos to the apotheosis of Julius Caesar. The stories follow each other in the telling of human beings transformed to new bodies: trees, rocks, animals, flowers, constellations etc. Simultaneously, he worked on the Fasti, a six-book poem in elegiac couplets on the theme of the calendar of Roman festivals and astronomy. The composition of this poem was interrupted by Ovid's exile,[c] and it is thought that Ovid abandoned work on the piece in Tomis. It is probably in this period that the double letters (16–21) in the Heroides were composed, although there is some contention over their authorship. Exile to Tomis[edit] Main article: Exile of Ovid In AD 8, Ovid was banished to Tomis, on the Black Sea, by the exclusive intervention of the Emperor Augustus, without any participation of the Senate or of any Roman judge.[18] This event shaped all his following poetry. Ovid wrote that the reason for his exile was carmen et error – "a poem and a mistake",[19] claiming that his crime was worse than murder,[20] more harmful than poetry.[21] The Emperor's grandchildren, Julia the Younger and Agrippa Postumus (the latter adopted by him), were also banished around the same time. Julia's husband, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was put to death for a conspiracy against Augustus, a conspiracy of which Ovid potentially knew.[22] The Julian marriage laws of 18 BC, which promoted monogamous marriage to increase the population's birth rate, were fresh in the Roman mind. Ovid's writing in the Ars Amatoria concerned the serious crime of adultery. He may have been banished for these works, which appeared subversive to the emperor's moral legislation. However, in view of the long time that elapsed between the publication of this work (1 BC) and the exile (AD 8), some authors suggest that Augustus used the poem as a mere justification for something more personal.[23] Ovid Banished from Rome (1838) by J.M.W. Turner. In exile, Ovid wrote two poetry collections, Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which illustrated his sadness and desolation. Being far from Rome, he had no access to libraries, and thus might have been forced to abandon his Fasti, a poem about the Roman calendar, of which only the first six books exist – January through June. The five books of the elegiac Tristia, a series of poems expressing the poet's despair in exile and advocating his return to Rome, are dated to AD 9–12. The Ibis, an elegiac curse poem attacking an adversary at home, may also be dated to this period. The Epistulae ex Ponto, a series of letters to friends in Rome asking them to effect his return, are thought to be his last compositions, with the first three books published in AD 13 and the fourth book between AD 14 and 16. The exile poetry is particularly emotive and personal. In the Epistulae he claims friendship with the natives of Tomis (in the Tristia they are frightening barbarians) and to have written a poem in their language (Ex P. 4.13.19–20). Yet he pined for Rome – and for his third wife, addressing many poems to her. Some are also to the Emperor Augustus, yet others are to himself, to friends in Rome, and sometimes to the poems themselves, expressing loneliness and hope of recall from banishment or exile.[24] The obscure causes of Ovid's exile have given rise to endless explanations from scholars. The medieval texts that mention the exile offer no credible explanations: their statements seem incorrect interpretations drawn from the works of Ovid.[25] Ovid himself wrote many references to his offense, giving obscure or contradictory clues.[26] In 1923, scholar J. J. Hartman proposed a theory that is little considered among scholars of Latin civilization today: that Ovid was never exiled from Rome and that all of his exile works are the result of his fertile imagination. This theory was supported and rejected[clarification needed] in the 1930s, especially by Dutch authors.[27] In 1985, a research paper by Fitton Brown advanced new arguments in support of Hartman's theory.[28] Brown's article was followed by a series of supports and refutations in the short space of five years.[29] Among the supporting reasons Brown presents are: Ovid's exile is only mentioned by his own work, except in "dubious" passages by Pliny the Elder[30] and Statius,[31] but no other author until the 4th century;[32] that the author of Heroides was able to separate the poetic "I" of his own and real life; and that information on the geography of Tomis was already known by Virgil, by Herodotus and by Ovid himself in his Metamorphoses.[d][33] Orthodox scholars, however, oppose these hypotheses.[34] One of the main arguments of these scholars is that Ovid would not let his Fasti remain unfinished, mainly because this poem meant his consecration as an imperial poet.[35] Death[edit] Ovid died at Tomis in 17 or 18 AD.[36] It is thought that the Fasti, which he spent time revising, were published posthumously.[37] Works[edit] Heroides ("The Heroines")[edit] Medea in a fresco from Herculaneum. Main article: Heroides See also: Double Heroides The Heroides ("Heroines") or Epistulae Heroidum are a collection of twenty-one poems in elegiac couplets. The Heroides take the form of letters addressed by famous mythological characters to their partners expressing their emotions at being separated from them, pleas for their return, and allusions to their future actions within their own mythology. The authenticity of the collection, partially or as a whole, has been questioned, although most scholars would consider the letters mentioned specifically in Ovid's description of the work at Am. 2.18.19–26 as safe from objection. The collection comprises a new type of generic composition without parallel in earlier literature.[38] The first fourteen letters are thought to comprise the first published collection and are written by the heroines Penelope, Phyllis, Briseis, Phaedra, Oenone, Hypsipyle, Dido, Hermione, Deianeira, Ariadne, Canace, Medea, Laodamia, and Hypermestra to their absent male lovers. Letter 15, from the historical Sappho to Phaon, seems spurious (although referred to in Am. 2.18) because of its length, its lack of integration in the mythological theme, and its absence from Medieval manuscripts.[39] The final letters (16–21) are paired compositions comprising a letter to a lover and a reply. Paris and Helen, Hero and Leander, and Acontius and Cydippe are the addressees of the paired letters. These are considered a later addition to the corpus because they are never mentioned by Ovid and may or may not be spurious. The Heroides markedly reveal the influence of rhetorical declamation and may derive from Ovid's interest in rhetorical suasoriae, persuasive speeches, and ethopoeia, the practice of speaking in another character. They also play with generic conventions; most of the letters seem to refer to works in which these characters were significant, such as the Aeneid in the case of Dido and Catullus 64 for Ariadne, and transfer characters from the genres of epic and tragedy to the elegiac genre of the Heroides.[40] The letters have been admired for their deep psychological portrayals of mythical characters, their rhetoric, and their unique attitude to the classical tradition of mythology.[by whom?] They also contribute significantly to conversations on how gender and identity were constructed in Augustan Rome[41]. A popular quote from the Heroides anticipates Machiavelli's "the end justifies the means". Ovid had written "Exitus acta probat" - the result justifies the means. Amores ("The Loves")[edit] Main article: Amores (Ovid) The Amores is a collection in three books of love poetry in elegiac meter, following the conventions of the elegiac genre developed by Tibullus and Propertius. Elegy originates with Propertius and Tibullus; however, Ovid is an innovator in the genre. Ovid changes the leader of his elegies from the poet, to Amor (Love or Cupid). This switch in focus from the triumphs of the poet, to the triumphs of love over people is the first of its kind for this genre of poetry. This Ovidian innovation can be summarized as the use of love as a metaphor for poetry.[42] The books describe the many aspects of love and focus on the poet's relationship with a mistress called Corinna. Within the various poems, several describe events in the relationship, thus presenting the reader with some vignettes and a loose narrative. Book 1 contains 15 poems. The first tells of Ovid's intention to write epic poetry, which is thwarted when Cupid steals a metrical foot from him, changing his work into love elegy. Poem 4 is didactic and describes principles that Ovid would develop in the Ars Amatoria. The fifth poem, describing a noon tryst, introduces Corinna by name. Poems 8 and 9 deal with Corinna selling her love for gifts, while 11 and 12 describe the poet's failed attempt to arrange a meeting. Poem 14 discusses Corinna's disastrous experiment in dyeing her hair and 15 stresses the immortality of Ovid and love poets. The second book has 19 pieces; the opening poem tells of Ovid's abandonment of a Gigantomachy in favor of elegy. Poems 2 and 3 are entreaties to a guardian to let the poet see Corinna, poem 6 is a lament for Corinna's dead parrot; poems 7 and 8 deal with Ovid's affair with Corinna's servant and her discovery of it, and 11 and 12 try to prevent Corinna from going on vacation. Poem 13 is a prayer to Isis for Corinna's illness, 14 a poem against abortion, and 19 a warning to unwary husbands. Book 3 has 15 poems. The opening piece depicts personified Tragedy and Elegy fighting over Ovid. Poem 2 describes a visit to the races, 3 and 8 focus on Corinna's interest in other men, 10 is a complaint to Ceres because of her festival that requires abstinence, 13 is a poem on a festival of Juno, and 9 a lament for Tibullus. In poem 11 Ovid decides not to love Corinna any longer and regrets the poems he has written about her. The final poem is Ovid's farewell to the erotic muse. Critics have seen the poems as highly self-conscious and extremely playful specimens of the elegiac genre.[43] Medicamina Faciei Femineae ("Women's Facial Cosmetics")[edit] Main article: Medicamina Faciei Femineae About a hundred elegiac lines survive from this poem on beauty treatments for women's faces, which seems to parody serious didactic poetry. The poem says that women should concern themselves first with manners and then prescribes several compounds for facial treatments before breaking off. The style is not unlike the shorter Hellenistic didactic works of Nicander and Aratus. Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love")[edit] Main article: Ars Amatoria       Si quis in hoc artem populo non novit amandi,            hoc legat et lecto carmine doctus amet.[44] The Ars Amatoria is a Lehrgedicht, a didactic elegiac poem in three books that sets out to teach the arts of seduction and love. The first book addresses men and teaches them how to seduce women, the second, also to men, teaches how to keep a lover. The third addresses women and teaches seduction techniques. The first book opens with an invocation to Venus, in which Ovid establishes himself as a praeceptor amoris (1.17) – a teacher of love. Ovid describes the places one can go to find a lover, like the theater, a triumph, which he thoroughly describes, or arena – and ways to get the girl to take notice, including seducing her covertly at a banquet. Choosing the right time is significant, as is getting into her associates' confidence. Ovid emphasizes care of the body for the lover. Mythological digressions include a piece on the Rape of the Sabine women, Pasiphaë, and Ariadne. Book 2 invokes Apollo and begins with a telling of the story of Icarus. Ovid advises men to avoid giving too many gifts, keep up their appearance, hide affairs, compliment their lovers, and ingratiate themselves with slaves to stay on their lover's good side. The care of Venus for procreation is described as is Apollo's aid in keeping a lover; Ovid then digresses on the story of Vulcan's trap for Venus and Mars. The book ends with Ovid asking his "students" to spread his fame. Book 3 opens with a vindication of women's abilities and Ovid's resolution to arm women against his teaching in the first two books. Ovid gives women detailed instructions on appearance telling them to avoid too many adornments. He advises women to read elegiac poetry, learn to play games, sleep with people of different ages, flirt, and dissemble. Throughout the book, Ovid playfully interjects, criticizing himself for undoing all his didactic work to men and mythologically digresses on the story of Procris and Cephalus. The book ends with his wish that women will follow his advice and spread his fame saying Naso magister erat, "Ovid was our teacher". (Ovid was known as "Naso" to his contemporaries.[45]) Remedia Amoris ("The Cure for Love")[edit] Main article: Remedia Amoris This elegiac poem proposes a cure for the love Ovid teaches in the Ars Amatoria, and is primarily addressed to men. The poem criticizes suicide as a means for escaping love and, invoking Apollo, goes on to tell lovers not to procrastinate and be lazy in dealing with love. Lovers are taught to avoid their partners, not perform magic, see their lover unprepared, take other lovers, and never be jealous. Old letters should be burned and the lover's family avoided. The poem throughout presents Ovid as a doctor and utilizes medical imagery. Some have interpreted this poem as the close of Ovid's didactic cycle of love poetry and the end of his erotic elegiac project.[46] Metamorphoses ("Transformations")[edit] Engraved frontispiece of George Sandys’s 1632 London edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses Englished. Main article: Metamorphoses The Metamorphoses, Ovid's most ambitious and well-known work, consists of a 15-book catalogue written in dactylic hexameter about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology set within a loose mytho-historical framework. The word "metamorphoses" is of Greek origin and means "transformations". Appropriately, the characters in this work undergo many different transformations. Within an extent of nearly 12,000 verses, almost 250 different myths are mentioned. Each myth is set outdoors where the mortals are often vulnerable to external influences. The poem stands in the tradition of mythological and aetiological catalogue poetry such as Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, Callimachus' Aetia, Nicander's Heteroeumena, and Parthenius' Metamorphoses. The first book describes the formation of the world, the ages of man, the flood, the story of Daphne's rape by Apollo and Io's by Jupiter. The second book opens with Phaethon and continues describing the love of Jupiter with Callisto and Europa. The third book focuses on the mythology of Thebes with the stories of Cadmus, Actaeon, and Pentheus. The fourth book focuses on three pairs of lovers: Pyramus and Thisbe, Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, and Perseus and Andromeda. The fifth book focuses on the song of the Muses, which describes the rape of Proserpina. The sixth book is a collection of stories about the rivalry between gods and mortals, beginning with Arachne and ending with Philomela. The seventh book focuses on Medea, as well as Cephalus and Procris. The eighth book focuses on Daedalus' flight, the Calydonian boar hunt, and the contrast between pious Baucis and Philemon and the wicked Erysichthon. The ninth book focuses on Heracles and the incestuous Byblis. The tenth book focuses on stories of doomed love, such as Orpheus, who sings about Hyacinthus, as well as Pygmalion, Myrrha, and Adonis. The eleventh book compares the marriage of Peleus and Thetis with the love of Ceyx and Alcyone. The twelfth book moves from myth to history describing the exploits of Achilles, the battle of the centaurs, and Iphigeneia. The thirteenth book discusses the contest over Achilles' arms, and Polyphemus. The fourteenth moves to Italy, describing the journey of Aeneas, Pomona and Vertumnus, and Romulus. The final book opens with a philosophical lecture by Pythagoras and the deification of Caesar. The end of the poem praises Augustus and expresses Ovid's belief that his poem has earned him immortality. In analyzing the Metamorphoses, scholars have focused on Ovid's organization of his vast body of material. The ways that stories are linked by geography, themes, or contrasts creates interesting effects and constantly forces the reader to evaluate the connections. Ovid also varies his tone and material from different literary genres; G. B. Conte has called the poem "a sort of gallery of these various literary genres".[47] In this spirit, Ovid engages creatively with his predecessors, alluding to the full spectrum of classical poetry. Ovid's use of Alexandrian epic, or elegiac couplets, shows his fusion of erotic and psychological style with traditional forms of epic. A concept drawn from the Metamorphoses is the idea of the white lie or pious fraud: "pia mendacia fraude". Fasti ("The Festivals")[edit] Main article: Fasti (poem) Six books in elegiacs survive of this second ambitious poem that Ovid was working on when he was exiled. The six books cover the first semester of the year, with each book dedicated to a different month of the Roman calendar (January to June). The project seems unprecedented in Roman literature. It seems that Ovid planned to cover the whole year, but was unable to finish because of his exile, although he did revise sections of the work at Tomis, and he claims at Trist. 2.549–52 that his work was interrupted after six books. Like the Metamorphoses, the Fasti was to be a long poem and emulated aetiological poetry by writers like Callimachus and, more recently, Propertius and his fourth book. The poem goes through the Roman calendar, explaining the origins and customs of important Roman festivals, digressing on mythical stories, and giving astronomical and agricultural information appropriate to the season. The poem was probably dedicated to Augustus initially, but perhaps the death of the emperor prompted Ovid to change the dedication to honor Germanicus. Ovid uses direct inquiry of gods and scholarly research to talk about the calendar and regularly calls himself a vates, a priest. He also seems to emphasize unsavory, popular traditions of the festivals, imbuing the poem with a popular, plebeian flavor, which some have interpreted as subversive to the Augustan moral legislation.[48] While this poem has always been invaluable to students of Roman religion and culture for the wealth of antiquarian material it preserves, it recently has been seen as one of Ovid's finest literary works and a unique contribution to Roman elegiac poetry. Ibis ("The Ibis")[edit] Main article: Ibis (Ovid) The Ibis is an elegiac poem in 644 lines, in which Ovid uses a dazzling array of mythic stories to curse and attack an enemy who is harming him in exile. At the beginning of the poem, Ovid claims that his poetry up to that point had been harmless, but now he is going to use his abilities to hurt his enemy. He cites Callimachus' Ibis as his inspiration and calls all the gods to make his curse effective. Ovid uses mythical exempla to condemn his enemy in the afterlife, cites evil prodigies that attended his birth, and then in the next 300 lines wishes that the torments of mythological characters befall his enemy. The poem ends with a prayer that the gods make his curse effective. Tristia ("Sorrows")[edit] Main article: Tristia The Tristia consist of five books of elegiac poetry composed by Ovid in exile in Tomis. Book 1 contains 11 poems; the first piece is an address by Ovid to his book about how it should act when it arrives in Rome. Poem 3 describes his final night in Rome, poems 2 and 10 Ovid's voyage to Tomis, 8 the betrayal of a friend, and 5 and 6 the loyalty of his friends and wife. In the final poem Ovid apologizes for the quality and tone of his book, a sentiment echoed throughout the collection. Book 2 consists of one long poem in which Ovid defends himself and his poetry, uses precedents to justify his work, and begs the emperor for forgiveness. Book 3 in 14 poems focuses on Ovid's life in Tomis. The opening poem describes his book's arrival in Rome to find Ovid's works banned. Poems 10, 12, and 13 focus on the seasons spent in Tomis, 9 on the origins of the place, and 2, 3, and 11 his emotional distress and longing for home. The final poem is again an apology for his work. The fourth book has ten poems addressed mostly to friends. Poem 1 expresses his love of poetry and the solace it brings; while 2 describes a triumph of Tiberius. Poems 3–5 are to friends, 7 a request for correspondence, and 10 an autobiography. The final book of the Tristia with 14 poems focuses on his wife and friends. Poems 4, 5, 11, and 14 are addressed to his wife, 2 and 3 are prayers to Augustus and Bacchus, 4 and 6 are to friends, 8 to an enemy. Poem 13 asks for letters, while 1 and 12 are apologies to his readers for the quality of his poetry. Epistulae ex Ponto ("Letters from the Black Sea")[edit] Main article: Epistulae ex Ponto The Epistulae ex Ponto is a collection in four books of further poetry from exile. The Epistulae are each addressed to a different friend and focus more desperately than the Tristia on securing his recall from exile. The poems mainly deal with requests for friends to speak on his behalf to members of the imperial family, discussions of writing with friends, and descriptions of life in exile. The first book has ten pieces in which Ovid describes the state of his health (10), his hopes, memories, and yearning for Rome (3, 6, 8), and his needs in exile (3). Book 2 contains impassioned requests to Germanicus (1 and 5) and various friends to speak on his behalf at Rome while he describes his despair and life in exile. Book 3 has nine poems in which Ovid addresses his wife (1) and various friends. It includes a telling of the story of Iphigenia in Tauris (2), a poem against criticism (9), and a dream of Cupid (3). Book 4, the final work of Ovid, in 16 poems talks to friends and describes his life as an exile further. Poems 10 and 13 describe Winter and Spring at Tomis, poem 14 is halfhearted praise for Tomis, 7 describes its geography and climate, and 4 and 9 are congratulations on friends for their consulships and requests for help. Poem 12 is addressed to a Tuticanus, whose name, Ovid complains, does not fit into meter. The final poem is addressed to an enemy whom Ovid implores to leave him alone. The last elegiac couplet is translated: "Where’s the joy in stabbing your steel into my dead flesh?/ There’s no place left where I can be dealt fresh wounds."[49] Lost works[edit] One loss, which Ovid himself described, is the first five-book edition of the Amores, from which nothing has come down to us. The greatest loss is Ovid's only tragedy, Medea, from which only a few lines are preserved. Quintilian admired the work a great deal and considered it a prime example of Ovid's poetic talent.[50] Lactantius quotes from a lost translation by Ovid of Aratus' Phaenomena, although the poem's ascription to Ovid is insecure because it is never mentioned in Ovid's other works.[51] A line from a work entitled Epigrammata is cited by Priscian.[52] Even though it is unlikely, if the last six books of the Fasti ever existed, they constitute a great loss. Ovid also mentions some occasional poetry (Epithalamium,[53] dirge,[54] even a rendering in Getic[55]) which does not survive. Also lost is the final portion of the Medicamina. Spurious works[edit] Consolatio ad Liviam ("Consolation to Livia")[edit] The Consolatio is a long elegiac poem of consolation to Augustus' wife Livia on the death of her son Nero Claudius Drusus. The poem opens by advising Livia not to try to hide her sad emotions and contrasts Drusus' military virtue with his death. Drusus' funeral and the tributes of the imperial family are described as are his final moments and Livia's lament over the body, which is compared to birds. The laments of the city of Rome as it greets his funeral procession and the gods are mentioned, and Mars from his temple dissuades the Tiber river from quenching the pyre out of grief.[56] Grief is expressed for his lost military honors, his wife, and his mother. The poet asks Livia to look for consolation in Tiberius. The poem ends with an address by Drusus to Livia assuring him of his fate in Elysium. Although this poem was connected to the Elegiae in Maecenatem, it is now thought that they are unconnected. The date of the piece is unknown, but a date in the reign of Tiberius has been suggested because of that emperor's prominence in the poem.[56] Halieutica ("On Fishing")[edit] The Halieutica is a fragmentary didactic poem in 134 poorly preserved hexameter lines and is considered spurious. The poem begins by describing how every animal possesses the ability to protect itself and how fish use ars to help themselves. The ability of dogs and land creatures to protect themselves is described. The poem goes on to list the best places for fishing, and which types of fish to catch. Although Pliny the Elder mentions a Halieutica by Ovid, which was composed at Tomis near the end of Ovid's life, modern scholars believe Pliny was mistaken in his attribution and that the poem is not genuine.[57] Nux ("The Walnut Tree")[edit] This short poem in 91 elegiac couplets is related to Aesop's fable of "The Walnut Tree" that was the subject of human ingratitude. In a monologue asking boys not pelt it with stones to get its fruit, the tree contrasts the formerly fruitful golden age with the present barren time, in which its fruit is violently ripped off and its branches broken. In the course of this, the tree compares itself to several mythological characters, praises the peace that the emperor provides and prays to be destroyed rather than suffer. The poem is considered spurious because it incorporates allusions to Ovid's works in an uncharacteristic way, although the piece is thought to be contemporary with Ovid.[58] Somnium ("The Dream")[edit] This poem, traditionally placed at Amores 3.5, is considered spurious. The poet describes a dream to an interpreter, saying that he sees while escaping from the heat of noon a white heifer near a bull; when the heifer is pecked by a crow, it leaves the bull for a meadow with other bulls. The interpreter interprets the dream as a love allegory; the bull represents the poet, the heifer a girl, and the crow an old woman. The old woman spurs the girl to leave her lover and find someone else. The poem is known to have circulated independently and its lack of engagement with Tibullan or Propertian elegy argue in favor of its spuriousness; however, the poem does seem to be datable to the early empire.[59] Style[edit] Ovid is traditionally considered the final significant love elegist in the evolution of the genre and one of the most versatile in his handling of the genre's conventions. Like the other canonical elegiac poets Ovid takes on a persona in his works that emphasizes subjectivity and personal emotion over traditional militaristic and public goals, a convention that some scholars link to the relative stability provided by the Augustan settlement.[60][61] However, although Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius may have been inspired in part by personal experience, the validity of "biographical" readings of these poets' works is a serious point of scholarly contention.[62] Ovid has been seen as taking on a persona in his poetry that is far more emotionally detached from his mistress and less involved in crafting a unique emotional realism within the text than the other elegists.[63] This attitude, coupled with the lack of testimony that identifies Ovid's Corinna with a real person[64] has led scholars to conclude that Corinna was never a real person – and that Ovid's relationship with her is an invention for his elegiac project.[65] Some scholars have even interpreted Corinna as a metapoetic symbol for the elegiac genre itself.[66] Ovid has been considered a highly inventive love elegist who plays with traditional elegiac conventions and elaborates the themes of the genre;[67] Quintilian even calls him a "sportive" elegist.[4] In some poems, he uses traditional conventions in new ways, such as the paraklausithyron of Am. 1.6, while other poems seem to have no elegiac precedents and appear to be Ovid's own generic innovations, such as the poem on Corinna's ruined hair (Am. 1.14). Ovid has been traditionally seen as far more sexually explicit in his poetry than the other elegists.[68] His erotic elegy covers a wide spectrum of themes and viewpoints; the Amores focus on Ovid's relationship with Corinna, the love of mythical characters is the subject of the Heroides, and the Ars Amatoria and the other didactic love poems provide a handbook for relationships and seduction from a (mock-)"scientific" viewpoint. In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his enumeration, in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.[69] Some commentators have also noted the influence of Ovid's interest in love elegy in his other works, such as the Fasti, and have distinguished his "elegiac" style from his "epic" style. Richard Heinze in his famous Ovids elegische Erzählung (1919) delineated the distinction between Ovid's styles by comparing the Fasti and Metamorphoses versions of the same legends, such as the treatment of the Ceres–Proserpina story in both poems. Heinze demonstrated that, "whereas in the elegiac poems a sentimental and tender tone prevails, the hexameter narrative is characterized by an emphasis on solemnity and awe..."[70] His general line of argument has been accepted by Brooks Otis, who wrote: The gods are "serious" in epic as they are not in elegy; the speeches in epic are long and infrequent compared to the short, truncated and frequent speeches of elegy; the epic writer conceals himself while the elegiac fills his narrative with familiar remarks to the reader or his characters; above all perhaps, epic narrative is continuous and symmetrical... whereas elegiac narrative displays a marked asymmetry ...[71] Otis wrote that in the Ovidian poems of love, he "was burlesquing an old theme rather than inventing a new one".[72] Otis states that the Heroides are more serious and, though some of them are "quite different from anything Ovid had done before [...] he is here also treading a very well-worn path" to relate that the motif of females abandoned by or separated from their men was a "stock motif of Hellenistic and neoteric poetry (the classic example for us is, of course, Catullus 66)".[72] Otis also states that Phaedra and Medea, Dido and Hermione (also present in the poem) "are clever re-touchings of Euripides and Vergil".[72] Some scholars, such as Kenney and Clausen, have compared Ovid with Virgil. According to them, Virgil was ambiguous and ambivalent while Ovid was defined and, while Ovid wrote only what he could express, Virgil wrote for the use of language.[73] Legacy[edit] Criticism[edit] A 1484 figure from Ovide Moralisé, edition by Colard Mansion. Ovid's works have been interpreted in various ways over the centuries with attitudes that depended on the social, religious and literary contexts of different times. It is known that since his own lifetime, he was already famous and criticized. In the Remedia Amoris, Ovid reports criticism from people who considered his books insolent.[74] Ovid responded to this criticism with the following: Gluttonous Envy, burst: my name’s well known already it will be more so, if only my feet travel the road they’ve started. But you’re in too much of a hurry: if I live you’ll be more than sorry: many poems, in fact, are forming in my mind.[75] After such criticism subsided, Ovid became one of the best known and most loved Roman poets during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.[76] Writers in the Middle Ages used his work as a way to read and write about sex and violence without orthodox "scrutiny routinely given to commentaries on the Bible".[77] In the Middle Ages the voluminous Ovide moralisé, a French work that moralizes 15 books of the Metamorphoses was composed. This work then influenced Chaucer. Ovid's poetry provided inspiration for the Renaissance idea of humanism, and more specifically, for many Renaissance painters and writers. Likewise, Arthur Golding moralized his own translation of the full 15 books, and published it in 1567. This version was the same version used as a supplement to the original Latin in the Tudor-era grammar schools that influenced such major Renaissance authors as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Many non-English authors were heavily influenced by Ovid's works as well. Montaigne, for example, alluded to Ovid several times in his Essais, specifically in his comments on Education of Children when he says: The first taste I had for books came to me from my pleasure in the fables of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. For at about seven or eight years of age I would steal away from any other pleasure to read them, inasmuch as this language was my mother tongue, and it was the easiest book I knew and the best suited by its content to my tender age.[78] Miguel de Cervantes also used the Metamorphoses as a platform of inspiration for his prodigious novel Don Quixote. Delacroix, Ovid among the Scythians, 1859. National Gallery (London). In the 16th century, some Jesuit schools of Portugal cut several passages from Ovid's Metamorphoses. While the Jesuits saw his poems as elegant compositions worthy of being presented to students for educational purposes, they also felt his works as a whole might corrupt students.[79] The Jesuits took much of their knowledge of Ovid to the Portuguese colonies. According to Serafim Leite (1949), the ratio studiorum was in effect in Colonial Brazil during the early 17th century, and in this period Brazilian students read works like the Epistulae ex Ponto to learn Latin grammar.[80] In Spain, Ovid is both praised and criticized by Cervantes in his Don Quixote, where he warns against satires that can exile poets, as happened to Ovid.[81] In the 16th century, Ovid's works were criticized in England. The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London ordered that a contemporary translation of Ovid's love poems be publicly burned in 1599. The Puritans of the following century viewed Ovid as pagan, thus as an immoral influence.[82] John Dryden composed a famous translation of the Metamorphoses into stopped rhyming couplets during the 17th century, when Ovid was "refashioned [...] in its own image, one kind of Augustanism making over another".[76] The Romantic movement of the 19th century, in contrast, considered Ovid and his poems "stuffy, dull, over-formalized and lacking in genuine passion".[76] Romantics might have preferred his poetry of exile.[83] The picture Ovid among the Scythians, painted by Delacroix, portrays the last years of the poet in exile in Scythia, and was seen by Baudelaire, Gautier and Edgar Degas.[84] Baudelaire took the opportunity to write a long essay about the life of an exiled poet like Ovid.[85] This shows that the exile of Ovid had some influence in 19th century Romanticism since it makes connections with its key concepts such as wildness and the misunderstood genius.[86] The exile poems were once viewed unfavorably in Ovid's oeuvre.[87] They have enjoyed a resurgence of scholarly interest in recent years, though critical opinion remains divided on several qualities of the poems, such as their intended audience and whether Ovid was sincere in the "recantation of all that he stood for before".[88] Ovid's influence[edit] Ovid as imagined in the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Literary and artistic[edit] (c. 800–810) Moduin, a poet in the court circle of Charlemagne, adopts the pen name Naso. (12th century) The troubadours and the medieval courtoise literature. In particular, the passage describing the Holy Grail in the Conte du Graal by Chrétien de Troyes contains elements from the Metamorphoses.[89] (13th century) The Roman de la Rose, Dante Alighieri (14th century) Petrarch, Geoffrey Chaucer, Juan Ruiz (15th century) Sandro Botticelli (16th century–17th century) Luís de Camões, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, John Marston, Thomas Edwards (17th century) John Milton, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote, 1605 and 1615, Luis de Góngora's La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea, 1613, Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe by Nicolas Poussin, 1651, Stormy Landscape with Philemon and Baucis by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1620, "Divine Narcissus" by Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz c. 1689.[90] (1820s) During his Odessa exile, Alexander Pushkin compared himself to Ovid; memorably versified in the epistle To Ovid (1821). The exiled Ovid also features in his long poem Gypsies, set in Moldavia (1824), and in Canto VIII of Eugene Onegin (1825–1832). (1916) James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has a quotation from Book 8 of Metamorphoses and introduces Stephen Dedalus. The Ovidian reference to "Daedalus" was in Stephen Hero, but then metamorphosed to "Dedalus" in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and in Ulysses. (1920s) The title of the second poetry collection by Osip Mandelstam, Tristia (Berlin, 1922), refers to Ovid's book. Mandelstam's collection is about his hungry, violent years immediately after the October Revolution. (1951) Six Metamorphoses after Ovid by Benjamin Britten, for solo oboe, evokes images of Ovid's characters from Metamorphoses. (1960) God Was Born in Exile, the novel by the Romanian writer Vintila Horia about Ovid's stay in exile (the novel received the Prix Goncourt in 1960). (1960s–2010s) Bob Dylan has made repeated use of Ovid's wording, imagery, and themes. (2006) His album Modern Times contains songs with borrowed lines from Ovid's Poems of Exile, from Peter Green's translation. The songs are "Workingman's Blues #2", "Ain't Talkin'", "The Levee's Gonna Break", and "Spirit on the Water". (1978) Australian author David Malouf's novel An Imaginary Life is about Ovid's exile in Tomis. (1998) In Pandora, by Anne Rice, Pandora cites Ovid as a favorite poet and author of the time, quoting him to her lover Marius de Romanus. (2000) The Art of Love by Robin Brooks, a comedy, emphasizing Ovid's role as lover. Broadcast 23 May on BBC Radio 4, with Bill Nighy and Anne-Marie Duff (not to be confused with the 2004 radio play by the same title on Radio 3). (2004) The Art of Love by Andrew Rissik, a drama, part of a trilogy, which speculates on the crime that sent Ovid into exile. Broadcast 11 April on BBC Radio 4, with Stephen Dillane and Juliet Aubrey (not to be confused with the 2000 radio play by the same title on Radio 4).[91] (2007) Russian author Alexander Zorich's novel Roman Star is about the last years of Ovid's life. (2007) the play "The Land of Oblivion " by Russian-American dramatist Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky was published in Russian by Vagrius Plus (Moscow).The play was based on author's new hypothesis unrevealing the mystery of Ovid's exile to Tomi by Augustus. (2008) "The Love Song of Ovid", a two-hour radio documentary by Damiano Pietropaolo, recorded on location in Rome (the recently restored house of Augustus on the Roman forum), Sulmona (Ovid's birthplace) and Constanta (modern day Tomis, in Romania). Broadcast on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBC Radio One, 18 and 19 Dec 2008. (2012) The House Of Rumour, a novel by British author Jake Arnott, opens with a passage from Metamorphoses 12.39–63, and the author muses on Ovid's prediction of the internet in that passage. (2013) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky's "To Ovid, 2000 years later, (A Road Tale)" describes the author's visits to the places of Ovid's birth and death. (2015) In The Walking Dead season 5, episode 5 ("Now"), Deanna begins making a long-term plan to make her besieged community sustainable and writes on her blueprint a Latin phrase attributed to Ovid: "Dolor hic tibi proderit olim".[92] The phrase is an excerpt from the longer phrase, "Perfer et obdura, dolor hic tibi proderit olim" (English translation: Be patient and tough; someday this pain will be useful to you").[93] (2017) Canadian composer Marc Sabat and German poet Uljana Wolf collaborated on a free homophonic translation of the first 88 lines of Ovid's Metamorphoseon to create the cantata Seeds of skies, alibis premiered by the vocal ensemble Ekmeles in New York on 22 February 2018.[94] Dante twice mentions him in: De vulgari eloquentia, along with Lucan, Virgil and Statius as one of the four regulati poetae (ii, vi, 7) Inferno as ranking alongside Homer, Horace, Lucan and Virgil (Inferno, IV, 88) Retellings, adaptations, and translations of Ovidian works[edit] Metamorphoses, 1618 (1609) The Wisdom of the Ancients, a retelling and interpretation of Ovidian fables by Francis Bacon (1767) Apollo et Hyacinthus, an early opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1938) Daphne, an opera by Richard Strauss (1949) Orphée, a film by Jean Cocteau, retelling of the Orpheus myth from the Metamorphoses (1978) Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), by Brookes More (1978) Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary), by Wilmon Brewer (1991) The Last World by Christoph Ransmayr (1997) Polaroid Stories by Naomi Iizuka, a retelling of Metamorphoses, with urchins and drug addicts as the gods. (1994) After Ovid: New Metamorphoses edited by Michael Hofmann and James Lasdun is an anthology of contemporary poetry envisioning Ovid's Metamorphoses (1997) Tales from Ovid by Ted Hughes is a modern poetic translation of twenty four passages from Metamorphoses (2000) Ovid Metamorphosed edited by Phil Terry, a short story collection retelling several of Ovid's fables (2002) An adaptation of Metamorphoses of the same name by Mary Zimmerman was performed at the Circle in the Square Theatre[95] (2006) Patricia Barber's song cycle, Mythologies (2008) Tristes Pontiques, translated from Latin by Marie Darrieussecq (2011) A stage adaptation of Metamorphoses by Peter Bramley, entitled Ovid's Metamorphoses was performed by Pants on Fire, presented by the Carol Tambor Theatrical Foundation at the Flea Theater in New York City and toured the United Kingdom (2012) "The Song of Phaethon", a post-rock/musique concrète song written and performed by Ian Crause (former leader of Disco Inferno) in Greek epic style, based on a Metamorphoses tale (as recounted in Hughes' Tales from Ovid) and drawing parallels between mythology and current affairs (2013) Clare Pollard, Ovid's Heroines (Bloodaxe), new poetic version of Heroides Gallery[edit] Ovid by Anton von Werner. Ovid by Luca Signorelli. Scythians at the Tomb of Ovid (c.1640), by Johann Heinrich Schönfeld. Bust of Ovid by anonymous sculptor, Uffizi gallery Florence See also[edit] Ancient Rome portal Literature portal Biography portal Cultural influence of Metamorphoses List of characters in Metamorphoses Metamorphoses (2014 film) Ovid Prize Prosody (Latin) Sabinus (Ovid) Sexuality in ancient Rome Notes[edit] a. ^ The cognomen Naso means "the one with the nose" (i.e. "Bignose"). Ovid habitually refers to himself by his nickname in his poetry because the Latin name Ovidius does not fit into elegiac metre. b. ^ It was a pivotal year in the history of Rome. A year before Ovid's birth, the murder of Julius Caesar took place, an event that precipitated the end of the republican regime. After Caesar's death, a series of civil wars and alliances followed (See Roman civil wars), until the victory of Caesar's nephew, Octavius (later called Augustus) over Mark Antony (leading supporter of Caesar), from which arose a new political order.[96] c. ^ Fasti is, in fact, unfinished. Metamorphoses was already completed in the year of exile, missing only the final revision.[97] In exile, Ovid said he never gave a final review on the poem.[98] d. ^ Ovid cites Scythia in I 64, II 224, V 649, VII 407, VIII 788, XV 285, 359, 460, and others. References[edit] ^ Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary: "Ovid" ^ Goold, G. P. (1983). "The Cause of Ovid's Exile". Illinois Classical Studies. 8 (1): 94–107. |access-date= requires |url= (help) ^ Fergus Millar, "Ovid and the Domus Augusta: Rome Seen from Tomoi", Journal of Roman Studies 83 (1993), p. 6. ^ a b Quint. Inst. 10.1.93 ^ Mark P.O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology (Oxford University Press US, 1999), p. 25. ISBN 0195143388, 978-0195143386 ^ Seneca, Cont. 2.2.8 and 9.5.17 ^ Trist. 1.2.77 ^ Trist. 4.10.33–34 ^ Trist. 2.93ff.; Ex P. 5.23ff. ^ Fast. 4.383–34 ^ Trist. 4.10.21 ^ Trist. 4.10.57–58 ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford University Press. p. 562. ISBN 978-0198706779. ^ Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World s.v. Ovid ^ The most recent chart that describes the dating of Ovid's works is in Knox. P. "A Poet's Life" in A Companion to Ovid ed. Peter Knox (Oxford, 2009) pp. xvii–xviii ^ a b Trist. 4.10.53–54 ^ Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1996). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1085. ^ See Trist. II, 131–32. ^ Ovid, Tristia 2.207 ^ Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto 2.9.72 ^ Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto 3.3.72 ^ Norwood, Frances, "The Riddle of Ovid's Relegatio", Classical Philology (1963) p. 158 ^ José González Vázquez (trans.), Ov. Tristes e Pónticas (Editorial Gredos, Madrid, 1992), p. 10 and Rafael Herrera Montero (trans.), Ov. Tristes; Cartas del Ponto (Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 2002). The scholars also add that it was no more indecent than many publications by Propertius, Tibullus and Horace that circulated freely in that time. ^ The first two lines of the Tristia communicate his misery:Parve – nec invideo – sine me, liber, ibis in urbem; ei mihi, quod domino non licet ire tuo! "Little book – for I don't begrudge it – go on to the city without me; Alas for me, because your master is not allowed to go with you!" ^ J. C. Thibault, The Mystery of Ovid's Exile (Berkeley-L. A. 1964), pp. 20–32. ^ About 33 mentions, according to Thibault (Mystery, pp. 27–31). ^ A. W. J. Holleman, "Ovid's exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.3 (1985), p. 48. H. Hofmann, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile once again", Liverpool Classical Monthly 12.2 (1987), p. 23. ^ A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.2 (1985), pp. 18–22. ^ Cf. the summary provided by A. Alvar Ezquerra, Exilio y elegía latina entre la Antigüedad y el Renacimiento (Huelva, 1997), pp. 23–24 ^ Naturalis Historia, 32.152: "His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita animalia, quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentia, ubi id volumen supremis suis temporibus inchoavit". ^ Silvae, 1.2, 254–55: "nec tristis in ipsis Naso Tomis". ^ Short references in Jerome (Chronicon, 2033, an. Tiberii 4, an. Dom. 17: "Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur") and in Epitome de Caesaribus (I, 24: "Nam [Augustus] poetam Ovidium, qui et Naso, pro eo, quod tres libellos amatoriae artis conscripsit, exilio damnavit"). ^ A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", Liverpool Classical Monthly 10.2 (1985), pp. 20–21. ^ J. M. Claassen, "Error and the imperial household: an angry god and the exiled Ovid's fate", Acta classica: proceedings of the Classical Association of South Africa 30 (1987), pp. 31–47. ^ Although some authors such as Martin (P. M. Martin, "À propos de l'exil d'Ovide... et de la succession d'Auguste", Latomus 45 (1986), pp. 609–11.) and Porte (D. Porte, "Un épisode satirique des Fastes et l'exil d'Ovide", Latomus 43 (1984), pp. 284–306.) detected in a passage of the Fasti (2.371–80) an Ovidian attitude contrary to the wishes of Augustus to his succession, most researchers agree that this work is the clearest testimony of support of Augustan ideals by Ovid (E. Fantham, Ovid: Fasti. Book IV (Cambridge 1998), p. 42.) ^ Smith, R. Scott (15 March 2014). Ancient Rome: An Anthology of Sources. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1624661167. ^ Green, Steven J. (1 January 2004). Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary. Brill. p. 22. ISBN 978-9004139855. ^ Knox, P. Ovid's Heroides: Select Epistles (Cambridge, 1995) pp. 14ff. ^ Knox, P. pp. 12–13 ^ Knox, P. pp. 18ff. ^ Lindheim, Sara H. (2003). Mail and Female: Epistolary Narrative and Desire in Ovid's Heroides. The University of Wisconsin Press. ^ Athanassaki, Lucia (1992). "The Triumph of Love in Ovid's Amores 1, 2". Materiali e Discussioni per l'Analisi dei Testi Classici. No. 28 (28): 125–41. doi:10.2307/40236002. JSTOR 40236002. ^ Conte, G. p. 343 ^ Book 1 Verse 1, 2: "If you do not know the art of love, read my book, and you will be a 'doctor' of love in the future". ^ Liveley, Genevieve. (2011). Ovid's Metamorphoses : a reader's guide. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-7081-1. OCLC 703573507. ^ Conte, G. Latin Literature a History trans. J. Solodow (Baltimore, 1994) p. 346 ^ Conte, G. p. 352 ^ Herbert-Brown, G. "Fasti: the Poet, the Prince, and the Plebs" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 126ff. ^ PoetryInTranslation.com, a translation of all of Ovid's exile poetry can be found here by A. S. Kline, 2003 ^ Quint. Inst. 10.1.98. Cfr. Tacitus, Dial. Orat. 12. ^ Lact. Div. Inst. 2.5.24. Another quotation by Probus ad Verg. Georg. 1, 138 ^ Inst. gramm. 5, 13, Gramm. Lat. 2, 149, 13 Keil. ^ Ex P. 1.2.131 ^ Ex P. 1.7.30 ^ Ex P. 4.13.19> ^ a b Knox, P. "Lost and Spurious Works" in Knox, P. (2009) p. 214 ^ Pliny Nat. 32.11 and 32.152 and Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) ^ Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 212–13 ^ Knox, P. "Lost" in Knox, P. (2009) pp. 210–11 ^ Ettore Bignone, Historia de la literatura latina (Buenos Aires: Losada, 1952), p. 309. ^ A. Guillemin, "L’élement humain dans l’élégie latine". In: Revue des études Latines (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1940), p. 288. ^ In fact, it is generally accepted in most modern classical scholarship on elegy that the poems have little connection to autobiography or external reality. See Wycke, M. "Written Women:Propertius' Scripta Puella" in JRS 1987 and Davis, J. Fictus Adulter: Poet as Auctor in the Amores (Amsterdam, 1989) and Booth, J. "The Amores: Ovid Making Love" in A Companion to Ovid (Oxford, 2009) pp. 70ff. ^ Booth, J. pp. 66–68. She explains: "The text of the Amores hints at the narrator's lack of interest in depicting unique and personal emotion." p. 67 ^ Apuleius Apology 10 provides the real names for every elegist's mistress except Ovid's. ^ Barsby, J. Ovid Amores 1 (Oxford, 1973) pp.16ff. ^ Keith, A. "Corpus Eroticum: Elegiac Poetics and Elegiac Puellae in Ovid's 'Amores'" in Classical World (1994) 27–40. ^ Barsby, p. 17. ^ Booth, J. p. 65 ^ Jean Bayet, Literatura latina (Barcelona: Ariel, 1985), p. 278 and Barsby, pp. 23ff. ^ Quoted by Theodore F. Brunner, "Deinon vs. eleeinon: Heinze Revisited" In: The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 92, No. 2 (Apr. 1971), pp. 275–84. ^ Brooks Otis, Ovid as an epic poet (CUP Archive, 1970), p. 24. ISBN 0521076153, 978-0521076159 ^ a b c Brooks Otis, Ovid as an epic poet, p. 264. ^ Kenney, E. J. y ClausenL, W. V. História de la literatura clásica (Cambridge University), vol. II. Literatura Latina. Madrid: Gredos, w/d, p. 502. ^ Ov. Rem. VI, 6. ^ Ov. Rem. VI, 33–36. Translated by A. S. Kline and available in Ovid: Cures for Love (2001). ^ a b c See chapters II and IV in P. Gatti, Ovid in Antike und Mittelalter. Geschichte der philologischen Rezeption, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3515103756; Peter Green (trad.), The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters (University of California Press, 2005), p. xiii. ISBN 0520242602, 978-0520242609 ^ Robert Levine, "Exploiting Ovid: Medieval Allegorizations of the Metamorphoses," Medioevo Romanzo XIV (1989), pp. 197–213. ^ Michel de Montaigne, The complete essays of Montaigne (translated by Donald M. Frame), Stanford University Press 1958, p. 130. ISBN 0804704864, 978-0804704861 ^ Agostinho de Jesus Domingues, Os Clássicos Latinos nas Antologias Escolares dos Jesuítas nos Primeiros Ciclos de Estudos Pré-Elementares No Século XVI em Portugal (Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto, 2002), Porto, pp. 16–17. ^ Serafim da Silva Leite, História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Instituto Nacional do Livro, 1949, pp. 151–52 – Tomo VII. ^ Frederick A. De Armas, Ovid in the Age of Cervantes (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), pp. 11–12. ^ Ovid's Metamorphoses, Alan H. F. Griffin, Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Apr. 1977), pp. 57–70. Cambridge University Press. ^ Peter Green (trad.), The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters (University of California Press, 2005), p. xiv. ISBN 0520242602, 978-0520242609 ^ "Recent Acquisitions, A Selection: 2007–2008," in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 66, no. 2 (Fall, 2008). ^ Timothy Bell Raser, The simplest of signs: Victor Hugo and the language of images in France, 1850–1950 (University of Delaware Press, 2004), p. 127. ISBN 0874138671, 978-0874138672 ^ Matt Cartmill, A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 118–19. ISBN 0674937368 ^ Ovid (2005). The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters. Translated by Green, Peter. University of California Press. p. xxxvi. ISBN 978-0520931374. ^ Claassen, Jo-Marie (2013). Ovid Revisited: The Poet in Exile. A&C Black. p. 2. ISBN 978-1472521439. ^ Peron, Goulven. L'influence des Metamorphoses d'Ovide sur la visite de Perceval au chateau du Roi Pecheur, Journal of the International Arthurian Society, Vol. 4, Issue 1, 2016, pp. 113–34. ^ Tavard, George H. Juana Ines de la Cruz and the Theology of Beauty: The First Mexican theology, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 1991, pp. 104–05 ^ Reynolds, Gillian (13 April 2004). "Tune in, and turn back the clock". The Daily Telegraph. London. ^ Ovid. "Elegy XI: Weary at Length of His Mistress' Infidelities, He Swears that He Will Love Her No Longer". Sacred Texts. Retrieved 14 November 2015. ^ Faherty, Allanah Faherty (9 November 2015). "5 Things You Might Have Missed in The Walking Dead 'Now'". MoviePilot. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015. ^ "Seeds of skies, alibis". ^ TalkinBroadway.com, Review: Metamorphoses ^ (in Portuguese) Met., Ovid, translation to Portuguese by Paulo Farmhouse Alberto, Livros Cotovia, Intro, p. 11. ^ Carlos de Miguel Moura. O mistério do exílio ovidiano. In Portuguese. In: Àgora. Estudos Clássicos em Debate 4 (2002), pp. 99–117. ^ Tristia 1, 7, 14. Editions[edit] McKeown, J. (ed), Ovid: Amores. Text, Prolegomena and Commentary in four volumes, Vol. I–III (Liverpool, 1987–1998) (ARCA, 20, 22, 36). Ryan, M. B.; Perkins, C. A. (ed.), Ovid's Amores, Book One: A Commentary (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011) (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture, 41). Tarrant, R. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Metamorphoses (Oxford: OUP, 2004) (Oxford Classical Texts). Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 1–5 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996). Anderson, W. S., Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books 6–10 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972). Kenney, E. J. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Amores, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris (Oxford: OUP, 19942) (Oxford Classical Texts). Myers, K. Sara Ovid Metamorphoses 14. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 2009). Ramírez de Verger, A. (ed.), Ovidius, Carmina Amatoria. Amores. Medicamina faciei femineae. Ars amatoria. Remedia amoris. (München & Leipzig: Saur, 20062) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Dörrie, H. (ed.), Epistulae Heroidum / P. Ovidius Naso (Berlin & New York: de Gruyter, 1971) (Texte und Kommentare ; Bd. 6). Fornaro, P. (ed.), Publio Ovidio Nasone, Heroides (Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso, 1999) Alton, E.H.; Wormell, D.E.W.; Courtney, E. (eds.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Fastorum libri sex (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 19974) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Fantham, Elaine. Fasti. Book IV. Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 1998). Wiseman, Anne and Peter Wiseman Ovid: Fasti. (Oxford University Press, 2013). Goold, G.P., et alii (eds.), Ovid, Heroides, Amores; Art of Love, Cosmetics, Remedies for Love, Ibis, Walnut-tree, Sea Fishing, Consolation; Metamorphoses; Fasti; Tristia, Ex Ponto, Vol. I-VI, (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: HUP, 1977–1989, revised ed.) (Loeb Classical Library) Hall, J.B. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Tristia (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner 1995) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Ingleheart, Jennifer Tristia Book 2. (Oxford University Press, 2010). Richmond, J. A. (ed.), P. Ovidi Nasonis Ex Ponto libri quattuor (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner 1990) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Further reading[edit] William Turpin (2016). Ovid, Amores (Book 1). Open Book Publishers. A free textbook for download. Brewer, Wilmon, Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978 More, Brookes, Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse), Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978 Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century. Ed. Charles Martindale. Cambridge, 1988. Richard A. Dwyer "Ovid in the Middle Ages" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 1989, pp. 312–14 Federica Bessone. P. Ovidii Nasonis Heroidum Epistula XII: Medea Iasoni. Florence: Felice Le Monnier, 1997. pp. 324. Theodor Heinze. P. Ovidius Naso. Der XII. Heroidenbrief: Medea an Jason. Mit einer Beilage: Die Fragmente der Tragödie Medea. Einleitung, Text & Kommentar. Mnemosyne Supplement 170 Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997. pp. xi, 288. R. A. Smith. Poetic Allusion and Poetic Embrace in Ovid and Virgil. Ann Arbor; The University of Michigan Press, 1997. pp. ix, 226. Michael Simpson, The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001. pp. 498. Philip Hardie (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ovid. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. pp. xvi, 408. Ovid's Fasti: Historical Readings at its Bimillennium. Edited by Geraldine Herbert-Brown. Oxford, OUP, 2002, 327 pp. Susanne Gippert, Joseph Addison's Ovid: An Adaptation of the Metamorphoses in the Augustan Age of English Literature. Die Antike und ihr Weiterleben, Band 5. Remscheid: Gardez! Verlag, 2003. pp. 304. Heather van Tress, Poetic Memory. Allusion in the Poetry of Callimachus and the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Mnemosyne, Supplementa 258. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004. pp. ix, 215. Ziolkowski, Theodore, Ovid and the Moderns. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005. pp. 262. Desmond, Marilynn, Ovid's Art and the Wife of Bath: The Ethics of Erotic Violence. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006. pp. 232. Rimell, Victoria, Ovid's Lovers: Desire, Difference, and the Poetic Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 235. Pugh, Syrithe, Spenser and Ovid. Burlington: Ashgate, 2005. p. 302. Montuschi, Claudia, Il tempo in Ovidio. Funzioni, meccanismi, strutture. Accademia la colombaria studi, 226. Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2005. p. 463. Pasco-Pranger, Molly, Founding the Year: Ovid's Fasti and the Poetics of the Roman Calendar. Mnemosyne Suppl., 276. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2006. p. 326. Martin Amann, Komik in den Tristien Ovids. (Schweizerische Beiträge zur Altertumswissenschaft, 31). Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2006. pp. 296. P. J. Davis, Ovid & Augustus: A political reading of Ovid's erotic poems. London: Duckworth, 2006. p. 183. Lee Fratantuono, Madness Transformed: A Reading of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2011. Peter E. Knox (ed.), Oxford Readings in Ovid. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 541. Andreas N. Michalopoulos, Ovid Heroides 16 and 17. Introduction, text and commentary. (ARCA: Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs, 47). Cambridge: Francis Cairns, 2006. pp. x, 409. R. Gibson, S. Green, S. Sharrock, The Art of Love: Bimillennial Essays on Ovid's Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 375. Johnson, Patricia J. Ovid before Exile: Art and Punishment in the Metamorphoses. (Wisconsin Studies in Classics). Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2008. pp. x, 184. Massimo Colella, «Ti trasformasti in Dafne»: mythos ovidiano e metamorfosi nella poesia di Eugenio Montale, in «Italica», 96, 1, 2019, pp. 21–53. External links[edit] Ovidat Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Resources from Wikiversity Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Publius Ovidius Naso Library resources about Ovid Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ovid Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ovid at the Encyclopædia Britannica University of Virginia, "Ovid Illustrated: The Renaissance Reception of Ovid in Image and Text" Works by Ovid at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ovid at Internet Archive Works by Ovid at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Nihon University, "Ovid Metamorphoses: Paris 1651 (1619) Dickinson College Commentaries: Amores Book 1 Ovid’s “Metamorphoses”: A Common Core Exemplar SORGLL: Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII, 183–235, (Daedalus & Icarus); read by Stephen Daitz [1] Updated list of 29 digitized medieval manuscripts and 207 early printed editions on the internet. Latin and English translation[edit] Perseus/Tufts: P. Ovidius Naso Amores, Ars Amatoria, Heroides (on this site called Epistulae), Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris. Enhanced brower. Not downloadable. Sacred Texts Archive: Ovid Amores, Ars Amatoria, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris. The Metamorphoses of Publius Ovidius Naso; elucidated by an analysis and explanation of the fables, together with English notes, historical, mythological and critical, and illustrated by pictorial embellishments: with a dictionary, giving the meaning of all the words with critical exactness. By Nathan Covington Brooks. Publisher: New York, A. S. Barnes & co.; Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & co., 1857 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) Original Latin only[edit] Latin Library: Ovid Amores, Ars Amatoria, Epistulae ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Ibis, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, Tristia. Works by Ovid English translation only[edit] New translations by A. S. Kline Amores, Ars Amatoria, Epistulae ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Ibis, Medicamina Faciei Femineae, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, Tristia with enhanced browsing facility, downloadable in HTML, PDF, or MS Word DOC formats. Site also includes wide selection of works by other authors. Two translations from Ovid's Amores by Jon Corelis. English translations of Ovid's Amores with introductory essay and notes by Jon Corelis Perseus/Tufts: Commentary on the Heroides of Ovid v t e Poems by Ovid Metamorphoses Amores Ars Amatoria Remedia Amoris Heroides Fasti Tristia Epistulae ex Ponto Ibis Medicamina Faciei Femineae Double Heroides (authorship uncertain) Category Associated subjects v t e Pygmalion from Ovid's Metamorphoses Characters Galatea Propoetides Opera Pigmalion (1748) Pygmalion (1779) Pimmalione (1809) Il Pigmalione (1816) Die schöne Galathée (1863 operetta) Ballet Pygmalion, ou La Statue de Chypre Play Pygmalion (1762) Pygmalion and Galatea (1871) Pygmalion (1912) Musical Pygmalion; or, The Statue Fair (1872) Galatea, or Pygmalion Reversed (1883) One Touch of Venus (1943) My Fair Lady (1956) Video game Galatea Art Pygmalion and the Image series Pygmalion and Galatea (Gérôme) Television "If I Had a Hammer" A Mulher Invisível Literature Pintosmalto Mr Simigdáli Fall Out Toy Works Film Pygmalion and Galatea (1898) Pygmalion (1938) One Touch of Venus (1948) My Fair Lady (1964) Mannequin (1987) Ruby Sparks (2012) Related 96189 Pygmalion Agalmatophilia Gynoid Comic Potential (1998) v t e "Apollo and Daphne" from Ovid's Metamorphoses Characters Apollo Daphne Operas Dafne (1597) La Dafne (1608) Dafne (1627) Gli amori d'Apollo e di Dafne (1640) Daphne (1938) Other Apollo e Dafne (cantata) Apollo and Daphne (sculpture) Related Daphnomancy The Wood of Suicides v t e "Pyramus and Thisbe" from Ovid's Metamorphoses Operas Pirame et Thisbé (1726 Francoeur and Rebel) Pyramus and Thisbe (1745 Lampe) Piramo e Tisbe (1768 Hasse) Other "Amoryus and Cleopes" (poem) Related A Midsummer Night's Dream Romeo and Juliet v t e Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies 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en-wikipedia-org-2554	----	Amphora - Wikipedia Amphora From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Type of storage container This article is about the type of vase. For other uses, see Amphora (disambiguation). Amphora Amphorae designed for marine transport, taken from shipwrecks of the Bronze Age, on display in the Museum of Underwater Archaeology at Bodrum Castle, Turkey. The museum archaeologists have devised a rack and roping device to illustrate how the cargo might have been kept from shifting. Below: Panathenaic prize amphora in the black-figure style, showing the goddess Athena Material Ceramic, a small minority in metal, rare instances in stone or glass Size Small-volume container varying from table-top size to half the height of a human, able to be carried by one or more people. Writing Sometimes inscribed with an identifying mark, or, in the case of painted ware, the signature of the potter or artist and the names of the characters depicted in the scene. Created Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Middle Ages Discovered The shards are ubiquitous in any type of archaeological context. The vessels were used primarily to carry wine, which was drunk by all known peoples over Eurasia from at least the Neolithic. Present location Circum-Mediterranean, Black Sea, Eurasia from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Silver amphora-rhyton with zoomorphic handles; circa 500 BC; Vassil Bojkov Collection (Sofia, Bulgaria) An amphora (/ˈæmfərə/; Ancient Greek: ἀμφορεύς, amphoreús; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container[1] with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land or sea. The size and shape have been determined from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. They are most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found. Versions of the amphorae were one of many shapes used in Ancient Greek vase painting. The amphora complements a vase, the pithos, which makes available capacities between one-half and two and one-half tons. In contrast, the amphora holds under a half-ton, typically less than 50 kilograms (110 lb). The bodies of the two types have similar shapes. Where the pithos may have multiple small loops or lugs for fastening a rope harness, the amphora has two expansive handles joining the shoulder of the body and a long neck. The necks of pithoi are wide for scooping or bucket access. The necks of amphorae are narrow for pouring by a person holding it by the bottom and a handle. Some variants exist. The handles might not be present. The size may require two or three handlers to lift. For the most part, however, an amphora was tableware, or sat close to the table, was intended to be seen, and was finely decorated as such by master painters. Stoppers of perishable materials, which have rarely survived, were used to seal the contents. Two principal types of amphorae existed: the neck amphora, in which the neck and body meet at a sharp angle; and the one-piece amphora, in which the neck and body form a continuous curve upwards. Neck amphorae were commonly used in the early history of ancient Greece, but were gradually replaced by the one-piece type from around the 7th century BC onward. Most were produced with a pointed base to allow upright storage by embedding in soft ground, such as sand. The base facilitated transport by ship, where the amphorae were packed upright or on their sides in as many as five staggered layers.[2] If upright, the bases probably were held by some sort of rack, and ropes passed through their handles to prevent shifting or toppling during rough seas. Heather and reeds might be used as packing around the vases. Racks could be used in kitchens and shops. The base also concentrated deposits from liquids with suspended solid particles, such as olive oil and wines. Amphorae are of great use to maritime archaeologists, as they often indicate the age of a shipwreck and the geographic origin of the cargo. They are occasionally so well preserved that the original content is still present, providing information on foodstuffs and mercantile systems. Amphorae were too cheap and plentiful to return to their origin-point and so, when empty, they were broken up at their destination. At a breakage site in Rome, Testaccio, close to the Tiber, the fragments, later wetted with calcium hydroxide (calce viva), remained to create a hill now named Monte Testaccio, 45 m (148 ft) high and more than 1 kilometre in circumference. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Weights and measures 3 Production 4 Classification 5 History 5.1 Prehistoric origins 5.2 Ancient Greece: fancy shapes for painting 5.2.1 Greek amphora types 5.2.1.1 Neck amphora (c. 6th–5th century BC) 5.2.1.2 Belly amphora (c. 640–450 BC) 5.2.1.3 Panathenaic prize amphora 5.3 Ancient Rome 6 Modern use 7 See also 8 Citations 9 General references 10 External links Etymology[edit] Amphora is a Greco-Roman word developed in ancient Greek during the Bronze Age. The Romans acquired it during the Hellenization that occurred in the Roman Republic. Cato is the first known literary person to use it. The Romans turned the Greek form into a standard -a declension noun, amphora, pl. amphorae.[3] Undoubtedly, the word and the vase were introduced to Italy through the Greek settlements there, which traded extensively in Greek pottery. It is remarkable that even though the Etruscans imported, manufactured, and exported amphorae extensively in their wine industry, and other Greek vase names were Etruscanized, no Etruscan form of the word exists. There was perhaps an as yet unidentified native Etruscan word for the vase that pre-empted the adoption of amphora. The Latin word derived from the Greek amphoreus (ἀμφορεύς),[4] a shortened form of amphiphoreus (ἀμφιφορεύς), a compound word combining amphi- ("on both sides", "twain")[5] and phoreus ("carrier"), from pherein ("to carry"),[6] referring to the vessel's two carrying handles on opposite sides.[7] The amphora appears as 𐀀𐀠𐀡𐀩𐀸, a-pi-po-re-we, in the Linear B Bronze Age records of Knossos, 𐀀𐀡𐀩𐀸, a-po-re-we, at Mycenae, and the fragmentary ]-re-we at Pylos, designated by Ideogram 209 𐃨, Bennett's AMPHORA, which has a number of scribal variants. The two spellings are transcriptions of amphiphorēwes (plural) and amphorēwe (dual) in Mycenaean Greek from which it may be seen that the short form prevailed on the mainland. Homer uses the long form for metrical reasons, and Herodotus has the short form. Ventris and Chadwick's translation is "carried on both sides."[8] Weights and measures[edit] Main article: Amphora (unit) Dressel 1B type amphora Key : 1: rim; 2: neck; 3: handle; 4: shoulder; 5: belly or body; 6: foot Amphorae varied greatly in height. The largest stands as tall as 1.5 metres (5 ft) high, while some were less than 30 centimetres (12 in) high - the smallest were called amphoriskoi (literally "little amphorae"). Most were around 45 centimetres (18 in) high. There was a significant degree of standardisation in some variants; the wine amphora held a standard measure of about 39 litres (41 US qt), giving rise to the amphora quadrantal as a unit of measure in the Roman Empire. In all, approximately 66 distinct types of amphora have been identified. Further, the term also stands for an ancient Roman unit of measurement for liquids. The volume of a Roman amphora was one cubic foot, c. 26.026 L. Production[edit] Roman amphorae were wheel-thrown terracotta containers. During the production process the body was made first and then left to dry partially.[9] Then coils of clay were added to form the neck, the rim, and the handles.[9] Once the amphora was complete, the maker then treated the interior with resin that would prevent permeation of stored liquids.[10] The reconstruction of these stages of production is based primarily on the study of modern amphora production in some areas of the eastern Mediterranean.[9] Amphorae often were marked with a variety of stamps, sgraffito, and inscriptions. They provided information on the production, content, and subsequent marketing. A stamp usually was applied to the amphora at a partially dry stage. It indicates the name of the figlina (workshop) and/or the name of the owner of the workshop. Painted stamps, tituli picti, recorded the weight of the container and the contents, and were applied after the amphora was filled. Classification[edit] The first systematic classification of Roman amphorae types was undertaken by the German scholar Heinrich Dressel. Following the exceptional amphora deposit uncovered in Rome in Castro Pretorio at the end of the 1800s, he collected almost 200 inscriptions from amphorae and included them in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. In his studies of the amphora deposit he was the first to elaborate a classification of types, the so-called "Dressel table",[11] which still is used today for many types. Subsequent studies on Roman amphorae have produced more detailed classifications, which usually are named after the scholar who studied them. For the neo-Phoenician types see the work by Maña published in 1951,[12] and the revised classification by van der Werff in 1977–1978.[13] The Gallic amphorae have been studied by Laubenheimer in a study published in 1989,[14] whereas the Cretan amphorae have been analyzed by Marangou-Lerat.[15] Beltràn studied the Spanish types in 1970.[16] Adriatic types have been studied by Lamboglia in 1955.[17] For a general analysis of the Western Mediterranean types see Panella,[18] and Peacock and Williams.[9] History[edit] Prehistoric origins[edit] Amphora found in Banpo (China), made by the Yangshao culture; 5000–3000 BC; Guimet Museum (Paris) Ceramics of shapes and uses falling within the range of amphorae, with or without handles, are of prehistoric heritage across Eurasia, from the Caucasus to China. For example, the kvevri, common in the Republic of Georgia and the Caucasus, may be traced back to approximately 6000 BC. Amphorae dated to approximately 4800 BC have been found in Banpo, a Neolithic site of the Yangshao culture in China. Amphorae first appeared on the Phoenician coast at approximately 3500 BC. In the Bronze and Iron Ages amphorae spread around the ancient Mediterranean world, being used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as the principal means for transporting and storing grapes, olive oil, wine, oil, olives, grain, fish, and other commodities.[2] They were produced on an industrial scale until approximately the 7th century AD. Wooden and skin containers seem to have supplanted amphorae thereafter. They influenced Chinese ceramics and other East Asian ceramic cultures, especially as a fancy shape for high-quality decorative ceramics, and continued to be produced there long after they had ceased to be used further west. Ancient Greece: fancy shapes for painting[edit] Further information: Ancient Greek vase painting and Pottery of ancient Greece Large late Geometric Attic amphora; 725–700 BC; Louvre (Paris, France) Besides coarse amphorae used for storage and transport, the vast majority, high-quality painted amphorae were produced in Ancient Greece in significant numbers for a variety of social and ceremonial purposes. Their design differs vastly from the more functional versions; they are typified by wide mouth and a ring base, with a glazed surface and decorated with figures or geometric shapes. They normally have a firm base on which they can stand. amphorae were used as prizes in the Panathenaic Festivals held between the 6th century BC to the 2nd century BC, filled with olive oil from a sacred grove. Surviving examples bear the inscription "I am one of the prizes from Athens", and usually depict the particular event they were awarded for. Painted amphorae were also used for funerary purposes, often in special types such as the loutrophoros. Especially in earlier periods, outsize vases were used as grave markers, while some amphorae were used as containers for the ashes of the dead. By the Roman period vase-painting had largely died out, and utilitarian amphorae were normally the only type produced. Greek amphora types[edit] Various different types of amphorae were popular at different times: Neck amphora (c. 6th–5th century BC)[edit] On a neck amphora, the handles are attached to the neck, which is separated from the belly by an angular carination. There are two main types of neck amphorae: the Nolan amphora (late 5th century BC), named for its type site, Nola near Naples, and the Tyrrhenian amphora. There are also some rarer special types of neck amphora, distinguished by specific features, for example: the Pointed amphora, with a notably pointed toe, sometimes ending in a knob-like protrusion the Loutrophoros, used for storing water during ritual ceremonies, such as marriages and funerals. Belly amphora (c. 640–450 BC)[edit] In contrast to the neck amphora, a belly amphora does not have a distinguished neck; instead the belly reaches the mouth in a continuous curve. After the mid-5th century BC, this type was rarely produced. The pelike is a special type of belly amphora, with the belly placed lower, so that the widest point of the vessel is near its bottom. The pelike was introduced around the end of the 6th century BC. Panathenaic prize amphora[edit] Another special type is the Panathenaic prize amphora, with black-figure decoration, produced exclusively as prize vessels for the Panathenaia and retaining the black-figure technique for centuries after the introduction of red-figure vase painting. Some examples bear the inscription "ΤΩΝ ΑΘΗΝΗΘΕΝ ΑΘΛΩΝ" meaning "[I am one] of the prizes from [the goddess] Athena". They contained the prize of oil from the sacred olive tree of the goddess Athena for the winners of the athletic contests held to honour the goddess, and were evidently kept thereafter, and perhaps used to store wine, before being buried with the prize-winner. They depicted goddess Athena on one side (as seen on the second image on this page) and the athletic event on the other side, e.g. a scene of wrestling or running contest etc. Panathenaic prize amphora for runners; circa 530 BC; terracotta; height: 62.2 cm (24​1⁄2 in.); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Greek amphora; 2nd half of the 2nd century BC; glass; from Olbia (Roman-era Sardinia); Altes Museum (Berlin) Ancient Rome[edit] Miniature Roman Holy Land 1st–3rd century AD lead pilgrim's votive amphora "Ampulla" By the Roman period utilitarian amphorae were normally the only type produced. The first type of Roman amphora, Dressel 1, appears in central Italy in the late 2nd century BC.[19] This type had thick walls and a characteristic red fabric. It was very heavy, although also strong. Around the middle of the 1st century BC the so-called Dressel 2-4 starts to become widely used.[20] This type of amphora presented some advantages in being lighter and with thinner walls. It has been calculated that while a ship could accommodate approximately 4500 Dressel 1, it was possible to fit 6000 Dressel 2-4 in the same space.[21] Dressel 2-4 were often produced in the same workshops used for the production of Dressel 1 which quickly ceased to be used.[20] At the same time in Cuma (southern Italy) the production of the cadii cumani type starts (Dressel 21-22). These containers were mainly used for the transportation of fruit and were used until the middle imperial times. At the same time, in central Italy, the so-called Spello amphorae, small containers, were produced for the transportation of wine. On the Adriatic coast the older types were replaced by the Lamboglia 2 type, a wine amphora commonly produced between the end of the 2nd and the 1st century BC. This type develops later into the Dressel 6A which becomes dominant during Augustan times.[21] In the Gallic provinces the first examples of Roman amphorae were local imitations of pre-existent types such as Dressel 1, Dressel 2-4, Pascual 1, and Haltern 70. The more typical Gallic production begins within the ceramic ateliers in Marseille during late Augustan times. The type Oberaden 74 was produced to such an extent that it influenced the production of some Italic types.[20] Spanish amphorae became particularly popular thanks to a flourishing production phase in late Republican times. The Hispania Baetica and Hispania Tarraconensis regions (south-western and eastern Spain) were the main production areas between the 2nd and the 1st century BC due to the distribution of land to military veterans and the founding of new colonies. Spanish amphorae were widespread in the Mediterranean area during early imperial times. The most common types were all produced in Baetica and among these there were the Dressel 20, a typical olive oil container, the Dressel 7-13, for garum (fish sauce), and the Haltern 70, for defrutum (fruit sauce). In the Tarraconensis region the Pascual 1 was the most common type, a wine amphora shaped on the Dressel 1, and imitations of Dressel 2-4. North-African production was based on an ancient tradition which may be traced back to the Phoenician colony of Carthage.[22] Phoenician amphorae had characteristic small handles attached directly onto the upper body. This feature becomes the distinctive mark of late-Republican/early imperial productions, which are then called neo-Phoenician. The types produced in Tripolitania and Northern Tunisia are the Maña C1 and C2, later renamed van Der Werff 1, 2, and 3.[23] In the Aegean area the types from the island of Rhodes were quite popular starting from the 3rd century BC due to local wine production which flourished over a long period. These types developed into the Camulodunum 184, an amphora used for the transportation of Rhodian wine all over the empire. Imitations of the Dressel 2-4 were produced on the island of Cos for the transportation of wine from the 4th century BC until middle imperial times.[24] Cretan containers also were popular for the transportation of wine and can be found around the Mediterranean from Augustan times until the 3rd century AD.[25] During the late empire period, north-African types dominated amphora production. The so-called African I and II types were widely used from the 2nd until the late 4th century AD. Other types from the eastern Mediterranean (Gaza), such as the so-called Late Roman 4, became very popular between the 4th and the 7th century AD, while Italic productions ceased. The largest known wreck of an amphorae cargo ship, carrying 6,000 pots, was discovered off the coast of Kefalonia, an Ionian island off the coast of Greece.[26] Modern use[edit] Some modern winemakers and brewers are using amphoras to provide a different palate and tastes to their products than are available with other aging methods.[27] See also[edit] Ancient Roman pottery Ayla-Axum Amphoras Carinate Lionel Casson, scholar of the contents of shipwrecked amphorae Maritime archaeology Monte Testaccio Stirrup jar, a two-handled amphora whose opposing handles connect the aperture to the sides of the vessel Tapayan, earthenware and stoneware vessels used for storing and transporting various products in ancient maritime Southeast Asia Zafar, Yemen Citations[edit] ^ Twede, D. (2002), "Commercial Amphoras: The Earliest Consumer Packages?", Journal of Macromarketing, 22 (1): 98–108, doi:10.1177/027467022001009, S2CID 154514559, retrieved 19 June 2019 ^ a b Adkins, L.; Adkins, R. A. (1994). Handbook to life in Ancient Rome. New York, N.Y.: Facts on File. p. 196. ^ amphora. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project. ^ ἀμφορεύς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ ἀμφί in Liddell and Scott. ^ φορεύς, φέρειν in Liddell and Scott. ^ Göransson, Kristian (2007). The transport amphorae from Euesperides: The maritime trade of a Cyrenaican city 400-250 BC. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, Series in 4o No. 25. Stockholm: Lund. p. 9. ^ Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: University Press. pp. 324, 328, 494, 532. ^ a b c d Peacock, D. P. S.; Williams, D. F. (1986). Amphorae and the Roman economy: an introductory guide. Longman archaeology series. London; New York: Longman. p. 45. ^ Rizzo 2003, 141. ^ Dressel 1879, Di un grande deposito di anfore rinvenuto nel nuovo quartiere del Castro Pretorio, in BullCom, VII, 36–112, 143–196. ^ Maña, Sobre tipologia de ánforas pùnicas, in VI Congreso Arqueologico del Sudeste Español, Alcoy, 1950, Cartagena, 1951, 203–210 ^ Amphores de tradition punique à Uzita, in BaBesch 52-53, 171-200 ^ Laubenheimer, Les amphores gauloises sous l’empire: recherches nouvelles sur leur production et chronologie, in Amphores romaines et histoire économiqué: dis ans de recherche. Actes du Colloque de Sienne (22-24 mai 1986), Rome, 105-138 ^ Marangou-Lerat, Le vin et les amphores de Crète de l’epoque classique à l’epoque impériale, in Etudes Cretoises, 30, Paris, 1995 ^ Beltràn, Las anforas Romanas en Espana, Zaragoza ^ "Sulla cronologia delle anfore romane di età repubblicana" in Rivista Studi Liguri 21, 252–60 ^ Panella 2001, pp. 177–275. ^ Panella 2001, p. 177. ^ a b c Panella 2001, p. 194. ^ a b Bruno 2005, p. 369. ^ Panella 2001, p. 207. ^ Van der Werff 1977-78. ^ Bruno 2005, p. 374. ^ Bruno 2005, p. 375. ^ Buckley, Julia (16 December 2019). "Biggest ever Roman shipwreck found in the eastern Med". CNN Travel. Retrieved 17 December 2019. ^ "Back to the future". Cantillon.be/br/. Brasserie Cantillon. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014. General references[edit] Bruno, Brunella (2005), "Le anfore da trasporto", in Gandolfi, Daniela (ed.), La ceramica e i materiali di Età Romana. Classi, produzioni, commerci e consumi, Bordighera: Istituto Internazionale di Studi Liguri. Panella, Clementina (2001), "Le anfore di età imperiale del Mediterraneo occidentale", in Lévêque, Pierre; Morel, Jean Paul Maurice (eds.), Céramiques hellénistiques et romaines III (in French), Paris: Belles Lettres, pp. 177–275. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amphoras. Amphorae ex Hispania The AMPHORAS project Bulletin amphorologique Roman Amphorae: a digital resource from the University of Southampton Roman Amphoras in Britain in Internet Archaeology v t e Greek amphorae Neck amphorae Amphora of Hermonax in Würzburg Horsehead Amphora Judgement of Paris Amphora Neck Amphora by Exekias (Berlin F 1720) Nikosthenic amphora Nolan amphora Tyrrhenian amphorae Belly amphorae Belly Amphora by the Andokides Painter (Munich 2301) Two-handled amphora (Boston 63.1515) Melian pithamphorae Horses Amphora Rider Amphora Panathenaic amphorae Burgon vase Euphiletos amphora v t e Greek vase shapes Wine vessels Amphora Kotyle Kantharos Kyathos Kylix Lakaina Mastos Oenochoe Pelike Psykter Rhyton Skyphos Water vessels Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Mixing vessels Dinos Krater Cookware Chuta Lebes Tableware Pinakion Perfume, oil, and wedding Alabastron Aryballos Askos Lebes Gamikos Lekythos Loutrophoros Lydion Pelike Pyxis Stirrup jar Funerary and religious Kernos Lekythos 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en-wikipedia-org-2667	----	Tityos - Wikipedia Tityos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mythological giant Tityos Tityos or Tityus (Ancient Greek: Τιτυός) was a giant from Greek mythology. Contents 1 Mythology 2 Popular culture 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Mythology[edit] Tityos was the son of Elara; his father was Zeus. Zeus hid Elara from his wife, Hera, by placing her deep beneath the earth.[1] Tityos grew so large that he split his mother's womb, and he was carried to term by Gaia, the Earth. Once grown, Tityos attempted to rape Leto at the behest of Hera. He was slain by Leto's protective children Artemis and Apollo.[2] As punishment, he was stretched out in Tartarus and tortured by two vultures who fed on his liver, which grew back every night. This punishment is comparable to that of the Titan Prometheus. Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Jane Ellen Harrison noted that, "To the orthodox worshiper of the Olympians he was the vilest of criminals; as such Homer knew him": I saw Tityus too, son of the mighty Goddess Earth—sprawling there on the ground, spread over nine acres—two vultures hunched on either side of him, digging into his liver, beaking deep in the blood-sac, and he with his frantic hands could never beat them off, for he had once dragged off the famous consort of Zeus in all her glory, Leto, threading her way toward Pytho's ridge over the lovely dancing-rings of Panopeus".[3] Michelangelo, Punishment of Tityus, c. 1532 In the early first century, when the geographer Strabo visited Panopeus (ix.3.423), he was reminded by the local people that it was the abode of Tityos and recalled the fact that the Phaeacians had carried Rhadamanthys in their boats to visit Tityos, according to Homer.[4] There on Euboea at the time of Strabo they were still showing a "cave called Elarion from Elara who was mother to Tityos, and a hero-shrine of Tityos, and some kind of honours are mentioned which are paid him."[5] It is clear that the local hero-cult had been superseded by the cult of the Olympian gods, an Olympian father provided, and the hero demonized. A comparable giant chthonic pre-Olympian of a Titan-like order is Orion. The poet Lucretius restyles the figure of Tityos in book III (lines 978-998) of De rerum natura, a demythologized Tityos who is not in the underworld, eternally punished, but here and now, "the prototypical anguished lover", plagued by winged creatures that are not vultures, as E.J. Kenney argues[6] but cupids. Virgil responds to Lucretius with a retrospective simile of Tityos in the Aeneid (6.595ff), which compares his torment of desire with the unrest of Dido, whose flame of love is eating her marrow.[7] The traveler Pausanias (2nd century A.D.) reports seeing a painting by Polygnotus at Delphi that depicts Tityos among other figures being tormented in Hades for sacrilege: "Tityos too is in the picture; he is no longer being punished, but has been reduced to nothing by continuous torture, an indistinct and mutilated phantom."[8] Tityos had a daughter named Europa who coupled with Poseidon and gave birth to Euphemus, one of the Argonauts. Popular culture[edit] Tityos is referenced in Dante Alighieri's Inferno. He is mentioned to be among the biblical and mythological giants that are frozen onto the rings outside of Hell's Circle of Treachery. Dante and Virgil threatened to go to Tityos and Typhon if Antaeus doesn't lower them into the Circle of Treachery. The Tomb of Tityos is a location in Assassin's Creed Odyssey that features a very large broken statue of Tityos being eaten by vultures. Notes[edit] Harrison, Jane Ellen. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. (1903), 1922, p. 336f. Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Ti'tyus" References[edit] ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.761 citing Pherecydes ^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Odes 4.160 citing Pherecydes ^ Odyssey xi.576-81 (Robert Fagles' translation). ^ Odyssey vii.324. ^ Quoted in Harrison (1903) 1922, p 336. ^ Kenney, "Tityos and the lover", Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society (1970:44-47). ^ Colin I. M. Hamilton, "Dido, Tityos and Prometheus", The Classical Quarterly, New Series, 43.1 (1993:249-254), p. 251f. ^ Pausanias, Descriptions of Greece, 10.29.3: γέγραπται δὲ καὶ Τιτυὸς οὐ κολαζόμενος ἔτι, ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ τοῦ συνεχοῦς τῆς τιμωρίας ἐς ἅπαν ἐξανηλωμένος, ἀμυδρὸν καὶ οὐδὲ ὁλόκληρον εἴδωλον. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tityos. Tityos engraved by N. Beatrizet from the De Verda collection Authority control GND: 12971268X VIAF: 77401349 WorldCat Identities: viaf-77401349 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tityos&oldid=980797700" Categories: Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Condemned souls into Tartarus Greek giants Children of Zeus Characters in Greek mythology Demigods Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 September 2020, at 14:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2684	----	Lethe - Wikipedia Lethe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Lethe (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Leath or Water of Leith. River of forgetfulness in the Greek underworld Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Lethe /ˈliːθiː/ (Greek: Λήθη, Lḗthē; Ancient Greek: [lɛ́:tʰɛː], Modern Greek: [ˈliθi]) was one of the five rivers of the underworld of Hades. Also known as the Ameles potamos (river of unmindfulness), the Lethe flowed around the cave of Hypnos and through the Underworld where all those who drank from it experienced complete forgetfulness. Lethe was also the name of the Greek spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often identified. In Classical Greek, the word lethe (λήθη) literally means "oblivion", "forgetfulness", or "concealment".[1] It is related to the Greek word for "truth", aletheia (ἀλήθεια), which through the privative alpha literally means "un-forgetfulness" or "un-concealment". Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Contents 1 Mythology 1.1 River 1.2 Goddess 2 Role in religion and philosophy 3 References in literature 4 Real rivers 5 See also 6 References Mythology[edit] River[edit] Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, is one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld; the other four are Acheron (the river of sorrow), Cocytus (the river of lamentation), Phlegethon (the river of fire) and Styx (the river that separates Earth and the Underworld). According to Statius, it bordered Elysium, the final resting place of the virtuous. Ovid wrote that the river flowed through the cave of Hypnos, god of sleep, where its murmuring would induce drowsiness.[2] The shades of the dead were required to drink the waters of the Lethe in order to forget their earthly life. In the Aeneid, Virgil (VI.703-751) writes that it is only when the dead have had their memories erased by the Lethe that they may be reincarnated.[3] Goddess[edit] Lethe was also the name of the personification of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often associated. Hesiod's Theogony identifies her as the daughter of Eris ("strife"), and the sister of Ponos ("Hardship"), Limos ("Starvation"), Algea ("Pains"), Hysminai ("Battles"), Makhai ("Wars"), Phonoi ("Murders"), Androktasiai ("Manslaughters"), Neikea ("Quarrels"), Pseudea ("Lies"), Logoi ("Stories"), Amphillogiai ("Disputes"), Dysnomia ("Lawlessness"), Ate ("Ruin"), and Horkos ("Oath").[4] Role in religion and philosophy[edit] Some ancient Greeks believed that souls were made to drink from the river before being reincarnated, so they would not remember their past lives. The Myth of Er in Book X of Plato's Republic tells of the dead arriving at a barren waste called the "plain of Lethe", through which the river Ameles ("careless") runs. "Of this they were all obliged to drink a certain quantity," Plato wrote, "and those who were not saved by wisdom drank more than was necessary; and each one as he drank forgot all things."[5] A few mystery religions taught the existence of another river, the Mnemosyne; those who drank from the Mnemosyne would remember everything and attain omniscience. Initiates were taught that they would receive a choice of rivers to drink from after death, and to drink from Mnemosyne instead of Lethe. These two rivers are attested in several verse inscriptions on gold plates dating to the 4th century BC and onward, found at Thurii in Southern Italy and elsewhere throughout the Greek world. There were rivers of Lethe and Mnemosyne at the oracular shrine of Trophonius in Boeotia, from which worshippers would drink before making oracular consultations with the god. More recently, Martin Heidegger used "lēthē" to symbolize the "concealment of Being" or "forgetting of Being" that he saw as a major problem of modern philosophy. Examples are found in his books on Nietzsche (Vol 1, p. 194) and on Parmenides. References in literature[edit] Main article: River Lethe in popular culture Many ancient Greek poems mention or describe Lethe. The river is also referenced in more recent novels and poetry. Simonides of Ceos, an ancient Greek lyrical poet, references Lethe in the sixty-seventh fragment of one of his poems. Ovid, in his description of the Underworld in his Metamorphoses, includes a description of Lethe as a stream that puts people to sleep. Aeneas, the protagonist of Virgil's epic Latin poem, Aeneid, travels to Lethe to meet the ghost of his father in Book VI of the poem. The souls that throng the flood Are those to whom, by fate, are other bodies ow'd: In Lethe's lake they long oblivion taste, Of future life secure, forgetful of the past.[6] Virgil also writes about Lethe in his didactic hexameter poem, the Georgics. In the Purgatorio, the second cantica of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Lethe is located in the Earthly Paradise atop the Mountain of Purgatory. Dante, held in the arms of Matilda, is immersed in the Lethe so that he may wipe out all memory of sin (Purg. XXXI). After being washed in the Lethe, penitents are washed in the Eunoe, a river of Dante's own invention. The Lethe is also mentioned in the Inferno, the first part of the Comedy, as flowing down to Hell from Purgatory to be frozen in the ice around Satan, "the last lost vestiges of the sins of the saved"[7] (Inf. XXXIV.130). In his first speech in Paradise Lost, Satan describes how "The associates and copartners of our loss, Lie thus astonished on the oblivious pool", referencing Lethe.[8] The French poet Charles Baudelaire referred to the river in his poem "Spleen". The final line is "Où coule au lieu de sang l'eau verte du Léthé" which one translator renders as "… in whose veins flows the green water of Lethe …" (the reference offers a few more English translations).[9] The same poet also wrote a poem called "Lethe". William Shakespeare references Lethe's identity as the "river of forgetfulness" in a speech of the Ghost in Act 1 Scene 5 of Hamlet: "and duller should thoust be than the fat weed / That roots itself in ease on Lethe wharf," Throughout Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence, 'Lethe' is used as an exclamation from the early 21st century onwards. The English poet John Keats references the river in his famous poem “Ode to a Nightengale”. The first four lines of the poem are: My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: Real rivers[edit] Lima Bridge on Lima River in Ponte de Lima, Portugal Amongst authors in Antiquity, the tiny Lima river between Norte Region, Portugal, and Galicia, Spain, was said to have the same properties of memory loss as the legendary Lethe River, being mistaken for it. In 138 BCE, the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus sought to dispose of the myth, as it impeded his military campaigns in the area. He was said to have crossed the Lima and then called his soldiers from the other side, one by one, by name. The soldiers, astonished that their general remembered their names, crossed the river as well without fear. This act proved that the Lima was not as dangerous as the local myths described.[10] In Cádiz, Spain, the river Guadalete was originally named "Lethe" by local Greek and Phoenician colonists who, about to go to war, solved instead their differences by diplomacy and named the river Lethe to forever forget their former differences. When the Arabs conquered the region much later, their name for the river became Guadalete ("River Lethe" in Arabic).[citation needed] In Alaska, a river which runs through the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is called the River Lethe. It is located within the Katmai National Park and Preserve in southwest Alaska. See also[edit] The Golden Bough (mythology) References[edit] ^ λήθη. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ "LETHE : Greek goddess of the underworld river of oblivion; mythology". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2010-02-06. ^ Day-Lewis, Cecil (trans.) (1952). Virgil's Aeneid. p. 705. ^ Richard Caldwell, Hesiod's Theogony, Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). ISBN 978-0-941051-00-2. ^ "The Internet Classics Archive - The Republic by Plato". classics.mit.edu. ^ "The Internet Classics Archive - The Aeneid by Virgil". classics.mit.edu. ^ John Ciardi, Purgatorio, notes on Canto XXVII, pg. 535 ^ John Milton, Paradise Lost, Kastan Ed., Book 1, lines 265-270. ^ https://fleursdumal.org/poem/160 ^ Strabo iii. p. 153; Mela, iii, 1; Pliny the Elder H.N. iv. 22 s. 35 Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Lethe. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{short description|King of Ephyra in Greek mythology}} {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} [[File:Nekyia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1494 n2.jpg|thumb|alt=Sisyphus depicted on a black-figure amphora vase |[[Persephone]] supervising Sisyphus in the [[Greek underworld|Underworld]], [[Attica]] black-figure [[amphora]] (vase), {{circa|530}} BC, [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]]<ref>museum {{abbr|inv.|inventory number}} 1494</ref>]] In [[Greek mythology]] '''Sisyphus''' or '''Sisyphos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|s|ᵻ|f|ə|s}}; [[Ancient Greek]]: Σίσυφος ''Sísyphos'') was the king of [[Cichyrus|Ephyra]] (now known as [[Corinth]]). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the [[classicism|classical influence]] on modern culture, tasks that are both [[wikt:laborious#Adjective|laborious]] and [[wikt:futile#Adjective|futile]] are therefore described as '''Sisyphean''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|s|ᵻ|ˈ|f|iː|ən}}).<ref>{{OED|sisyphean}}</ref> == Etymology == Linguistics Professor [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[pre-Greek]] origin and a connection with the root of the word ''{{transl|grc|sophos}}'' (σοφός, "wise").<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii.</ref> German [[mythographer]] [[Otto Gruppe]] thought that the name derived from ''{{transl|grc|sisys}}'' (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.<ref>Gruppe, O. ''Griechische Mythologie'' (1906), ii., p. 1021</ref> == Family == Sisyphus was the son of King [[Aeolus (son of Hellen)|Aeolus]] [[Thessaly|of Thessaly]] and [[Enarete]]<ref>[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]]. ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.7.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=7&highlight=Sisyphus Bibliotheca, 1.7.3]''</ref> and the brother of [[Salmoneus]]. He married the [[Pleiades (Greek mythology)|Pleiad]] [[Merope (Pleiades)|Merope]] by whom he became the father of [[Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)|Glaucus]], [[Ornytion]], [[Thersander]], [[Almus (son of Sisyphus)|Almus]], [[Sinon]] and [[Porphyrion (mythology)|Porphyrion]].<ref name=":1">Scholia, on ''[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Argonautica]]'' 3.1553</ref> Sisyphus was the grandfather of [[Bellerophon]] through Glaucus,<ref name=":0">Pseudo-Apollodorus. ''Bibliotheca, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.9.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=9&highlight=Sisyphus 1.9.3]''</ref><ref name="Homer Iliad VI 152ff">[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' VI 152ff</ref> and [[Minyas (mythology)|Minyas]], founder of [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], through Almus.<ref name=":1" /> == Mythology == {{Greek myth (Hades)}} === Reign === Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]).<ref name=":0" /> King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of ''[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]'', which fell under [[Zeus]]' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. === Conflict with Salmoneus === Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the [[oracle]] of [[Delphi]] on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From [[Homer]] onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter [[Tyro]] in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. === Cheating death === Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the [[Asopides|Asopid]] [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]] to her father, the river god [[Asopus]], in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian [[acropolis]].<ref name=":0" /> Zeus then ordered [[Thanatos]] to chain Sisyphus in [[Tartarus]]. Sisyphus was curious as to why [[Charon]], whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and [[Ares]], annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|p=491}} In another version, [[Hades]] was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |title=Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? |publisher=Mlahanas.de |access-date=2014-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702053105/http://mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |archive-date=2 July 2014}}</ref> Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river [[Styx]]. Then, complaining to [[Persephone]], goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by [[Hermes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/sisyphus.html|title=Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus|website=www.mythweb.com|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref><!-- (This version is alluded to by [[Albert Camus|Camus]] without citation and also appears in [[Roberto Bolaño]]'s novel ''2666'', in a context that indicates it may have been made up rather than traditional.) --><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Sisyphus/sisyphus.html|title=Sisyphus|website=www.greekmythology.com}}</ref> In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to [[Tartarus]] by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.{{sfn|Evslin|2006|p=209-210}} In ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles play)|Philoctetes]]'' by [[Sophocles]], there is a reference to the father of [[Odysseus]] (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not [[Laërtes]], whom we know as the father in the ''[[Odyssey]]'') upon having returned from the dead. [[Euripides]], in ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. === Punishment in the underworld === As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2:11.13-11.13 |title=Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13 |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=2014-10-09}}</ref><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593">''[[Odyssey]]'', xi. 593</ref> The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his [[hubris]]tic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as ''Sisyphean''. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter [[Polygnotus]] on the walls of the [[Lesche]] at [[Delphi]].<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] x. 31</ref> ==Interpretations== [[File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Black and white etching of Sisyphus by Johann Vogel |Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. [[Johann Vogel (poet)|Johann Vogel]]: ''Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae'', 1649]] According to the [[solar theory]], King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.<ref name="eb1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus |volume=25 |page=161}}</ref> Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.<ref name="eb1911"/> The 1st-century BC [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosopher [[Lucretius]] interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.<ref>''[[De Rerum Natura]]'' III</ref> [[Friedrich Welcker]] suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and [[Salomon Reinach]]<ref>''Revue archéologique'', 1904</ref> that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone [[Acrocorinthus]], symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. [[Albert Camus]], in his 1942 essay ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, [[J. Nigro Sansonese]],<ref>[[J. Nigro Sansonese|Sansonese, J. Nigro]]. ''The Body of Myth''. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. {{ISBN|0-89281-409-8}}</ref> building on the work of [[Georges Dumézil]], speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ariely|first=Dan|title=The Upside of Irrationality|year=2010|isbn=0-06-199503-7}}</ref> In his book ''The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking'',<ref>Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. {{ISBN|978-3-7438-7149-6}}</ref> German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. ===Literary interpretations=== [[File:Punishment sisyph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Painting of Sisyphus by Titian |''Sisyphus'' (1548–49) by [[Titian]], [[Prado Museum]], [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]]] [[Homer]] describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the ''[[Iliad]]'' and Book XI of the ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref name="Homer Iliad VI 152ff"/><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593"/> [[Ovid]], the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of [[Orpheus]] and [[Eurydice]]. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being ''inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo'' ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").<ref>Ovid. ''Metamorphoses'', 10.44.</ref> In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"<ref>Apology, 41a</ref> [[Albert Camus]], the [[French Algeria|French]] [[absurdism|absurdist]], wrote an essay entitled ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. [[Franz Kafka]] repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; [[Kafkaesque]] for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."<ref>[[Frederick R. Karl|Karl, Frederick]]. ''Franz Kafka: Representative Man.'' New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2</ref> The philosopher [[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.<ref>Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." ''Review of Metaphysics'' 40 (June 1987): 675–686.</ref> [[Wolfgang Mieder]] has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them [[editorial cartoons]].<ref>Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens.</ref> ==See also== * [[The Hill (film)|''The Hill'' (film)]] * ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd * [[Sisyphus cooling]], a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth * [[Sisyphus (dialogue)|''Sisyphus'' (dialogue)]], written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works * ''[[Syzyfowe prace]]'', a novel by Stefan Żeromski * [[Triangle (2009 British film)|''Triangle'' (2009 British film)]] * Comparable characters: ** [[Naranath Bhranthan]], a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore ** [[Wu Gang]] – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} == References == {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} *{{cite book|last=Evslin|first=Bernard |title=Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ljjly9Zes9AC|year=2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84511-321-6}} *[[Homer]], [[Iliad|''The Iliad'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Homer]]. ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0133 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''The Odyssey'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0135 Greek text available from the same website]. *{{cite book|last1=Morford|first1=Mark P. O. |last2=Lenardon|first2=Robert J. |title=Classical Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecGXcMRAPXcC&pg=PA491|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514338-6}} *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Graeciae Descriptio.'' ''3 vols''. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]], ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0021 Greek text available from the same website]. *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses'' translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses.'' Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{refend}} ==External links== {{wiktionary|Sisyphean}} {{commons category}} {{wikiquote}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} {{Rulers of Corinth}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aeolides]] [[Category:Corinthian mythology]] [[Category:Condemned souls into Tartarus]] [[Category:Kings of Corinth]] [[Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades]] [[Category:Mythological tricksters]] [[Category:Mythological city founders]] Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Sisyphus (edit) Template:Abbr (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Authority control (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Catalog lookup link (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Circa (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite EB1911 (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite 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en-wikipedia-org-2702	----	Asopus - Wikipedia Asopus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the town in ancient Laconia, see Asopus (Laconia). For the city of Asia Minor, see Laodicea on the Lycus. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Asopus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Asopus (/əˈsoʊpəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀ̄σωπός Āsōpos) is the name of four different rivers in Greece and one in Turkey. In Greek mythology, it was also the name of the gods of those rivers. Zeus carried off Aegina, Asopus' daughter, and Sisyphus, who had witnessed the act, told Asopus that he could reveal the identity of the person who had abducted Aegina, but in return Asopus would have to provide a perennial fountain of water at Corinth, Sisyphus' city. Accordingly, Asopus produced a fountain at Corinth, and pursued Zeus, but had to retreat for fear of Zeus' terrible thunderbolt. Contents 1 Rivers 1.1 The rivers in Greece 1.2 The river in Turkey 2 Mythology 2.1 Boeotian Asopus 2.2 Phliasian Asopus 2.3 Mixed tales 2.3.1 Daughters of Asopus (Asopides) 2.3.2 Sons of Asopus 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Rivers[edit] The rivers in Greece[edit] Asopos (Boeotia), a river of Boeotia originating on Mt. Cithaeron and flowing through the district of Plataea into the Euripus Strait.[1] Asopos (Corinthia) or Phliasian Asopus, originating in Phliasian territory and flowing through Sicyonian territory into the Gulf of Corinth near Sicyon. Pausanias [2.5.3] mentions that Phliasians and Sicyonians claimed that its source was in fact the Phrygian and Carian river Maeander that purportedly descended underground where it appeared to enter the sea at Miletus and rose again in the Peloponnesos as Asopus.[2] Asopos (Thessaly) or Trachean Asopus, a river originating on Mount Oeta in Thessaly and emptying into the Malian Gulf near Thermopylae, mentioned by Herodotus (7.199, 216–17).[3] Asopus, a river in Corfu The river in Turkey[edit] Phrygian Asopus, a small river in Phrygia which joins the River Lycus near Laodicea on the Lycus. Mythology[edit] As mythological entities, the Boeotian river Asopus and the Phliasian river Asopus are much confounded. They are duplicated a second time as supposed mortal kings who gave their names to the corresponding rivers. Indeed, logically, since the children fathered by gods on various daughters of either Boeotian or Phliasian Asopus were mortal in these tales, then the daughters themselves must have been mortal, and therefore either the mother of these daughters (often given as Metope daughter of river Ladon) or their father Asopus must have been mortal, or both of them. The Bibliotheca[4] informs that the river Asopus was a son of Oceanus and Tethys or, according to Acusilaus, of Poseidon by Pero (otherwise unknown to us), or according to yet others of Zeus by Eurynome; it is uncertain whether he knows there is more than one river named Asopus. Boeotian Asopus[edit] Further information: Asopos (Boeotia) Phliasian Asopus[edit] Pausanias[5] writes that during the reign of Aras, the first earth-born king of Sicyonian land, Asopus, said to be son of Poseidon by Celusa (this Celusa otherwise unknown but possibly identical to Pero mentioned above), discovered for him the river called Asopus and gave it his name. Diodorus Siculus[6] similarly presents Asopus (here son of Oceanus and Tethys) as a settler in Phlius and wife of Metope daughter of Ladon, presumably here and elsewhere the Arcadian river Ladon. Pausanias[7] mentions his daughter Nemea, eponym for the region of the same name (possibly the mother of Archemorus in Aeschylus' lost play Nemea). Pausanias[8] and Diodorus Siculus[9] also mention a daughter Harpina and state that according to the traditions of the Eleans and Phliasians Ares lay with her in the city of Pisa and she bore him Oenomaus who Pausanias[10] says founded the city of Harpina named after her, not far from the river Harpinates. The Bibliotheca[11] refers to Ismene daughter of Asopus who was wife of Argus Panoptes to whom she bore Iasus, the father of Io. Mixed tales[edit] Daughters of Asopus (Asopides)[edit] We find first in Pindar's odes[12] the sisters, Aegina and Thebe, here the youngest daughters of Boeotian Asopus by Metope who came from Stymphalia in Arcadia. Both are abducted by the god Zeus, one carried to the island of Oenone later to be named Aegina and the other to Dirce's water to be queen there. Corinna, Pindar's contemporary, in a damaged fragment, mentions nine daughters of Boeotian Asopus: Aegina, Thebe, and Plataea abducted by Zeus; Corcyra, Salamis, and Euboea abducted by Poseidon; Sinope and Thespia (who has been dealt with above) abducted by Apollo; and Tanagra abducted by Hermes. Asopus cannot discover what has become of them until the seer Acraephen (otherwise unknown) tells him that the gods Eros and Aphrodite persuaded the four gods to come secretly to his house and steal his nine daughters. He advises Asopus to yield to the immortals and cease grieving since he is father-in-law to gods. This hints that perhaps, for Corinna, Asopus himself is not a god. Asopus accepts Acraephen's advice. Of these daughters, Thebe, Plataea, Thespia and Tanagra are properly Boeotian. Euboea is near Boeotia, but Salamis and Aegina are regions that would perhaps associate better with the Phliasian Asopus. Korkyra (Corfu) is definitely Corinthian rather than Boeotian. Sinope is surely the colony of Sinope on the Black Sea (founded from Miletus). It is notable that tradition as it comes down to us does not record any children resulting from a union of gods with Thebe, Plataea, Thespia or Tanagra and only Diodorus[13] mentions the otherwise unknown sons Phaiax, son of Poseidon by Corcyra, and Syrus sprung from Apollo by Sinope and that this child of Sinope is opposed by a conflicting tradition that Sinope tricked Zeus, Apollo and Halys and remained a virgin. Later texts mostly indicate Zeus' abduction of Aegina, presented as a solitary abduction. Asopus is often clearly the Phliasian Asopus (so indicated by Pherecydes) but not always so. Asopus chases after Zeus and his daughter until Zeus turns upon him and strikes him with a thunderbolt, whence ever after Asopus is lame and flows very slowly, a feature ascribed to both the Boeotian and Phliasian Asopus. In these tales Asopus discovers the truth about the abduction from Sisyphus, King of Corinth in return for creating a spring on the Corinthian Acropolis. This spring, according to Pausanias[14] was behind the temple of Aphrodite and people said its water was the same as that of the spring Peirene, the water in the city flowing from it underground. Diodorus Siculus[13] who, as mentioned, places his Asopus in Phlius, gives him twelve daughters. Diodorus' list omits the Plataea and Boeotia included by Corinna's list of nine daughters. But it introduces Chalcis which was the chief city of Boeotia and may represent Boeotia. To make up the twelve Diodorus' list also adds Peirene (the famous spring in Corinth), Cleone (possible eponym of the small city of Cleonae on the road from Corinth to Argos according to Pausanias),[15] Ornia (possible eponym of the small town of Orneai south of Phlius), and Asopis. But Asopis may mean Asopian and be an epithet for one of the other known daughters. Ovid in his poem Metamorphoses[16] twice calls Aegina by the name Asopis. Indeed, in his very next section Diodorus discusses Asopus' daughter Harpina who has been discussed above. Apollodorus[17] claims Asopus had twenty daughters but he does not provide a list. Pausanias[18] mentions three supposed daughters of Phliasian Asopus named Corcyra, Aegina, and Thebe according to the Phliasians and notes additionally that the Thebans insist that this Thebe was daughter of the Boeotian Asopus. He mentions no dispute about the others which suggests that in his time the assignment of Aegina to the Phliasian Asopus was generally admitted. Pausanias[8] also describes a group sculpture in the sanctuary of Hippodamia at Olympia donated by the Phliasians. It included Nemea, Zeus seizing Aegina, Harpina, Corcyra, Thebe, and Asopus himself. It seems the Phliasians were insistent that Thebe belonged to their Asopus. According to Pherecydes, Asopus also fathered Philyra who became the mother of Hypseus by Peneus.[19] Sons of Asopus[edit] Both Apollodrus and Diodorus also mention two sons of Asopus, the first named Ismenus and the second named Pelagon (by Apollodorus) or Pelasgus (by Diodorus). Nothing else has survived about this Pelagon. Of Ismenus, Diodorus states only that he emigrated to Boeotia and settled near the Boeotian river, which was afterwards named Ismenus from his name. Another son, Hypseus who fought in the war of the Seven against Thebes was killed by Capaneus.[20] Comparative table of Asopus' family Relation Names Sources Hom. Acu. Cori. (Sch.) on Pin. (Sch.) on Bacc. Herod. Apollon. Dio. Stat. Apollod. Pau. Hyg. Anto. Non. Parentage Poseidon and Pero ✓ ✓ Oceanus and Tethys ✓ ✓ Zeus and Eurynome ✓ Poseidon and Celusa ✓ Wife Metope ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Children Antiope ✓ Philyra ✓ Aegina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Euboea ✓ Corcyra ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Plataea ✓ ✓ Salamis ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sinope ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tanagra ✓ ✓ ✓ Thebe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Thespia ✓ ✓ ✓ Cleone ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Harpina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Nemea ✓ ✓ ✓ Peirene ✓ ✓ Oeroe ✓ ✓ Ismenus ✓ ✓ Chalcis ✓ Asopis ✓ Ornia / Oenia ✓ Pelasgus ✓ Hypseus ✓ Pelegon ✓ Ismene ✓ Number of daughters mentioned 1 - 9 7 8 3 2 13 1 3 + 17 others 11 1 1 1 Notes[edit] Ancient Greece portal Myths portal ^ Fossey, J., J. Morin. "Places: 540672 (Asopos (river))". Pleiades. Retrieved August 28, 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Reger, G., J. McK. Camp II. "Places: 570131 (Asopos (river))". Pleiades. Retrieved August 28, 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Smith, William (1856). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: Abacaenum-Hytanis. Walton and Maberly. p. 241. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.12.6 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.12.4 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.72 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.15.3 ^ a b Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 5.22.1 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.73.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.21.6 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.3 ^ Pindar, Nem 8.6–12; Is 8.17–23; Paian 6.134–40 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.72.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.5.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.15.1 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.113; 7.615 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.12.6 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.5.2 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Ode 9. 27a ^ Statius, Thebaid 7.310 ff & 723 ff References[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888-1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External links[edit] Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Asopus" v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asopus&oldid=1001703924" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Potamoi Mythological kings Children of Zeus Children of Poseidon Rivers of Greece Rivers of Turkey Landforms of Denizli Province Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Articles needing additional references from April 2009 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 22:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-2784	----	Arae - Wikipedia Arae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, the Arae (/ˈɛəriː/) were female spirits of curses, particularly of the curses placed by the dead upon those guilty of their death; they were associated with the underworld. Also they can curse men such that the cattle of the sun god Hyperion would have done if they were harmed by any man, as in Homer's Odyssey.[1][2] They are sometimes identified with the Erinyes.[3] References[edit] ^ Bacchylides, Fragment 20a ^ Aeschylus, Libation Bearers 406 ^ Aeschylus, Eumenides . 415 ff This article relating to a Greek deity is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arae&oldid=1000066196" Categories: Greek goddesses Underworld goddesses Personifications in Greek mythology Greek underworld Greek deity stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Bahasa Indonesia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 11:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-2808	----	Styx - Wikipedia Styx From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search River in Greek mythology that formed the boundary between Earth and the Underworld "River Styx" redirects here. For the band, see Styx (band). For other uses, see River Styx (disambiguation) and Styx (disambiguation). Etching by Gustave Doré (1861) Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Styx (/ˈstɪks/; Ancient Greek: Στύξ [stýks]) is a deity and a river that forms the boundary between Earth and the Underworld. The rivers Acheron, Cocytus, Lethe, Phlegethon, and Styx all converge at the center of the underworld on a great marsh, which sometimes is also called the Styx. According to Herodotus, the river Styx originates near Pheneus.[1] Styx is also a goddess with prehistoric roots in Greek mythology as a daughter of Tethys, after whom the river is named and because of whom it had miraculous powers. Contents 1 Mythology 1.1 Underworld 1.2 Nymph 2 Science 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Mythology[edit] Underworld[edit] The waters of one Styx in the Aroanian mountains The deities of the Greek pantheon swore all their oaths upon the river Styx because, according to classical mythology, during the Titan war, Styx, the goddess of the river, sided with Zeus. After the war, Zeus declared that every oath must be sworn upon her.[2] Zeus swore to give Semele whatever she wanted and was then obliged to follow through when he realized to his horror that her request would lead to her death. Helios similarly promised his son Phaëton whatever he desired, also resulting in the boy's death. Myths related to such early deities did not survive long enough to be included in historic records, but tantalizing references exist among those that have been discovered. According to some versions,[which?] Styx had miraculous powers and could make someone invulnerable. According to one tradition, Achilles was dipped in the waters of the river by his mother during his childhood, acquiring invulnerability, with exception of his heel, by which his mother held him. The only spot where Achilles was vulnerable was therefore that heel, where he was struck and killed by Paris's arrow during the Trojan War. This is the source of the expression Achilles' heel, a metaphor for a vulnerable spot. Styx was primarily a feature in the afterworld of classical Greek mythology, similar to the Christian area of Hell in texts such as The Divine Comedy and Paradise Lost. The ferryman Charon often is described as having transported the souls of the newly dead across this river into the underworld. Dante put Phlegyas as ferryman over the Styx and made it the fifth circle of Hell, where the wrathful and sullen are punished by being drowned in the muddy waters for eternity, with the wrathful fighting each other. In ancient times some believed that a coin (Charon's obol) placed in the mouth of a dead person[3] would pay the toll for the ferry across the river to the entrance of the underworld. It was said that if someone could not pay the fee, they would never be able to cross the river. The ritual was performed by the relatives of the dead. According to the myth Narcissus is still admiring himself in the Underworld, looking at the waters of the Styx.[4] The variant spelling Stix was sometimes used in translations of Classical Greek before the 20th century.[5] By metonymy, the adjective stygian (/ˈstɪdʒiən/) came to refer to anything dark, dismal, and murky. Nymph[edit] Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Styx was the name of an Oceanid nymph, one of the three thousand daughters of Tethys and Oceanus, the goddess of the River Styx. In classical myths, her husband was Pallas and she gave birth to Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia (and sometimes Eos). In these myths, Styx supported Zeus in the Titanomachy, where she was said to be the first to rush to his aid. For this reason, her name was given the honor of being a binding oath for the deities. Knowledge of whether this was the original reason for the tradition did not survive into historical records following the religious transition that led to the pantheon of the classical era. Science[edit] On 2 July 2013, "Styx" officially became the name of one of Pluto's moons.[6] The other moons of Pluto (Charon, Nix, Hydra, and Kerberos) also have names from Greco-Roman mythology related to the underworld. See also[edit] Gjöll - Norse mythology Hubur - Mesopotamian mythology Sanzu River - Japanese Buddhism Vaitarna River (mythological) - Hinduism and Buddhism References[edit] ^ Herodotus, Histories 6. 74. 1, http://www.theoi.com/Khthonios/PotamosStyx.html ^ Hesiod, Theogony 383 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) ^ No ancient source says that the coins were placed on the dead person's eyes; see Charon's obol#Coins on the eyes?. ^ "The myth of Narcissus". greekmyths-greekmythology.com ^ Iliad(1-3), Homer; H. Travers, 1740 ^ "Pluto moons get mythical new names". BBC News. External links[edit] Look up Styx in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Styx. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Styx" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where the Sun Is Silent (2011 album) Film L'Inferno (1911) Dante's Inferno (1924) Dante's Inferno (1935) The Dante Quartet (1987) A TV Dante (1989) Dante's Inferno (2007) Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic (2010) Dante's Hell Animated (2013) Literature The Story of Rimini (1816) La Comédie humaine (1830–1850) Earth Inferno (1905) The Cantos (1917–1962) As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (1937) The System of Dante's Hell (1965) Demon Lord Dante (1971) Inferno (1976) The Dante Club (2003) Jimbo's Inferno (2006) Inferno (2013) Video games Devil May Cry series (2001) Bayonetta series (2009) Dante's Inferno (2010) The Lost (cancelled) Related Cultural references in the Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy in popular culture English translations Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli Botticelli Inferno (2016 documentary) Hell in popular culture Category v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe 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Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Styx&oldid=1004264935" Categories: Naiads Oaths Oceanids Rivers of Hades Underworld goddesses Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2019 Commons category link is defined as the pagename Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate 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en-wikipedia-org-2844	----	Orchomenus (Boeotia) - Wikipedia Orchomenus (Boeotia) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses of Orchomenus or Orchomenos, see Orchomenus. Place in Greece Orchomenos Ορχομενός The ancient theatre Orchomenos Location within the region Coordinates: 38°29′N 22°59′E / 38.483°N 22.983°E / 38.483; 22.983Coordinates: 38°29′N 22°59′E / 38.483°N 22.983°E / 38.483; 22.983 Country Greece Administrative region Central Greece Regional unit Boeotia Area  • Municipality 415.9 km2 (160.6 sq mi)  • Municipal unit 230.098 km2 (88.841 sq mi) Population (2011)[1]  • Municipality 11,621  • Municipality density 28/km2 (72/sq mi)  • Municipal unit 8,869  • Municipal unit density 39/km2 (100/sq mi) Community[1]  • Population 5,238 (2011)  • Area (km2) 43.431 Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Orchomenus (Ancient Greek: Ὀρχομενός Orchomenos), the setting for many early Greek myths, is best known as a rich archaeological site in Boeotia, Greece, that was inhabited from the Neolithic through the Hellenistic periods. Orchomenus is also referenced as the "Minyean Orchomenus" in order to distinguish the city from the "Arcadian Orchomenus". Contents 1 Ancient history 2 Archaeology 3 Art and sculpture 4 Municipality 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Ancient history[edit] Map of ancient Boeotia indicating Orchomenus, the centre of the Minyans. The acropolis According to the founding myth of Orchomenos, its royal dynasty had been established by the Minyans, who had followed their eponymous leader Minyas from coastal Thessaly to settle the site. In the Bronze Age, during the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries, Orchomenos became a rich and important centre of civilisation in Mycenaean Greece and a rival to Thebes. The palace with its frescoed walls and the great beehive tomb show the power of Orchomenos in Mycenaean Greece. A massive hydraulic undertaking drained the marshes of Lake Kopaïs, making it a rich agricultural area.[2] Like many sites around the Aegean Sea, Orchomenos was burned and its palace destroyed in c. 1200 BC during the Bronze Age Collapse. View of the Acropolis. Orchomenos is mentioned among the Achaean cities sending ships to engage in the Trojan War in Homer's "Catalogue of Ships" in the Iliad: together with Aspledon, they contributed thirty ships and their complement of men. Orchomenos seems to have been one of the city-states that joined the Calaurian maritime League in the seventh century BC.[3] Although their rivals Thebes confirmed their supremacy by the end of the century reflected by inscriptions, Orchomenos joined the Theban-led Boeotian League in c. 600 BC.[4] Classical Orchomenos was known for its sanctuary of the Charites or Graces, the oldest in the city, according to Pausanias (5.172–80); the Byzantine (9th century) monastery church of Panagia Skripou probably occupies the long-sacred spot.[5] Here the Charites had their earliest veneration, in legend instituted by Eteocles; musical and poetical agonistic games, the Charitesia,[6] were held in their honour, in the theatre that was discovered in 1972.[7] The Agrionia, a festival of the god Dionysus, involved the ritual pursuit of women by a man representing Dionysus. Orchomenos struck its coinage from the mid-sixth century. In 480–479 BC, the Orchomenians joined their neighbouring rivals the Thebans to turn back the invading forces of Xerxes in the Greco-Persian Wars. In mid-century, Orchomenos sheltered the oligarchic exiles who freed Boeotia from Athenian control. In the fourth century the traditional rivalry with Thebes made Orchomenos an ally of Agesilaus II and Sparta against Thebes, in 395 and again in 394 BC. The Theban revenge after their defeat of Sparta in the battle of Leuctra (371 BC) was delayed by the tolerant policies of Epaminondas:[8] the Boeotian League sacked Orchomenos in 364 BC. Although the Phocians rebuilt the city in 355 BC, the Thebans destroyed it again in 349. City walls on the acropolis The broad plain between Orchomenos and the acropolis of Chaeronea witnessed two battles of major importance in Classical antiquity. In 338 BC, after a whirlwind march south into central Greece, Philip II of Macedon defeated Thebes and Athens on the plain of Chaironeia during the First Battle of Chaeronea, establishing Macedonian supremacy over the city-states, and demonstrated the prowess of Philip's young son Alexander the Great. During Alexander's campaign against Thebes in 335 BC, Orchomenos took the side of the Macedonians. In recompense, Philip and Alexander rebuilt Orchomenos, when the theatre and the fortification walls, visible today, were constructed. The Second Battle of Chaeronea occurred when Roman Republican forces under Dictator Sulla defeated those of King Mithridates VI of Pontus near Chaeronea, in 86 BC during the First Mithridatic War. This Second Battle of Chaeronea was followed by the Battle of Orchomenus, when Archelaus' forces were completely destroyed. Orchomenos remained a small town until Late Roman times, when the theatre was still in use, and afterwards. Archaeology[edit] Map of Orchomenus[9] Most excavations have focussed on the early and Mycenean areas of the lower town, while the later Hellenistic city on the acropolis remains largely unexplored. In 1880–86, Heinrich Schliemann's excavations (H. Schliemann, Orchomenos, Leipzig 1881) revealed the tholos tomb he called the "Tomb of Minyas", a Mycenaean monument that equalled the "Tomb of Atreus" at Mycenae itself. In 1893, A. de Ridder excavated the temple of Asklepios and some burials in the Roman necropolis. In 1903–05, a Bavarian archaeological mission under Heinrich Bulle and Adolf Furtwängler conducted successful excavations at the site. Research continued in 1970–73 by the Archaeological Service under Theodore Spyropoulos, uncovering the Mycenaean palace, a prehistoric cemetery, the theatre and other structures. The Tomb of Minyas is one of the greatest burial monuments of the Mycenaean period.[10] The tomb was probably built for the members of the royal family of Orchomenos in 1250 BC and was plundered in antiquity. The monument was visible for many centuries after its original use and even became a place of worship in the Hellenistic period. It was probably a famous landmark until at least the second century AD, when Pausanias visited Orchomenos and described the tholos in detail.[11] It had a dromos thirty metres long. Its entrance was built of dark grey Levadeia marble and had a wooden door. The lintel, still in place today, is six metres long and weighs several tons. The entrance and the chamber were decorated with bronze rosettes as shown by the attachment holes on the walls and the ceiling of the side chamber is decorated with spirals and floral motifs in relief. In the centre of the Tholos, a rectangular burial monument dates to the Ηellenistic period (323–30 BC). It was partially restored by the architect-archaeologist A. Orlandos. In 1994, the Hellenic Ministry of Culture undertook restoration work consisting mainly of drainage and strengthening of the walls of the side chamber. The Neolithic remains found at Orchomenos were first thought to be in situ (Bulle 1907) but it later appeared that they consisted of fill in a levelling deposit (Kunze 1931; Treuil 1983). Thus the associated round houses (two to six metres in diameter) were in fact from the Early Bronze Age (2800–1900 BC). Later in that period, houses were apsidal. The Mycenaean palace to the east of the Tholos tomb and lying partially underneath the church is only partially excavated and consists of three wings, some of which were decorated with frescoes. The palace was destroyed c. 1200 BC. Orchomenus Mycenean Palace The fortification walls of Orchomenos were built in the 2nd half of the 4th century BC under the Macedonians and crown the east end of mount Akontion. The theatre was built around the end of the 4th century BC. The cavea, with seats for the spectators, the orchestra and part of the scena are all preserved. It was in use until late Roman times (4th century AD). Opposite the theatre is the 8th century Byzantine church of the Dormition of the Virgin Mary (Panagia) of Skripou. Well-preserved inscriptions date the church securely to 874 CE, naming its sponsor as the Protospatharios Leon, who served as a senior official of the emperor Basil I during the period of his joint reign with his sons Constantine and Leo. The northern chapel is dedicated to the apostle Paul, the southern to the apostle Paul.[12] Art and sculpture[edit] Orchomenos gives its name to a period of sculpture of archaic Kouroi, the Orchomenos-Thera group of 590–570 BC. This period witnessed a lull in Attica, but activity was more vigorous in Boeotia, especially from the Ptoon sanctuary and Orchomenos (NAMA 9). The characteristics of this style are: The ear is still carved in one plane, but less stylised. Eyes are not so large as before and more rounded. Mouth is horizontal but no longer always in one plane. The slight protrusions of flanks are sometimes prolonged into a girdle-like ridge, the sculptor occasionally marks the anterior spine of the crest. Shoulder blades are now separate raised planes. The erector spinae sometimes indicated as raised planes. Arms are generally joined to body. The depression over great trochanter is generally omitted. Shin sometimes curves inwards. Left flank is occasionally placed slightly forward. Minyan ware is a term that was coined to describe a certain type of pottery that was found here. Municipality[edit] Panagia Scripou church The municipality Orchomenos was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units, each subdivided into local communities:[13] Akraifnia (Akraifnio, Kastro, Kokkino) Orchomenos (Agios Dimitrios, Agios Spyridonas, Dionysos, Karya, Loutsio, Orchomenos, Pavlos, Pyrgos) The municipality has an area of 415.914 km2, the municipal unit Orchomenos 230.098 km2, the community Orchomenos 43.431 km2.[14] The seat of the municipality is in the town Orchomenos.[13][1] See also[edit] Minyans Achaean League Orchomenos, a king in Greek mythology. Erginus, king of Orchomenus. Elara and her son Tityos Eurybotadas Cephissus Arcadian Orchomenos, a prehistoric and historic city in Arcadia, Greece Notes[edit] ^ a b c "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece By Nigel Wilson ISBN 9781136788000 ^ Thomas Kelly, "The Calaurian Amphictiony" American Journal of Archaeology 70.2 (April 1966:113–121) ^ Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece By Nigel Wilson, ISBN 9781136788000 ^ J. G. Frazer's note on Pausanias, 1898. ^ A. Schachter, Cults of Boiotia I, (1981), pp 140–44, provides the most complete modern account of the Charitesia. ^ Schachter 1981; John Buckler, "The Charitesia at Boiotian Orchomenos" The American Journal of Philology 105.1 (Spring 1984), pp. 49–53. ^ John Buckler, The Theban Hegemony 371–362 B. C. (Harvard University Press) 1980. ^ Travels In Northern Greece, William Martin Leake (1777–1860) ^ http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=5341 ^ Description of Greece (9, 38, 2–3) ^ Prieto-Domínguez, Oscar, On the Founder of the Skripou Church Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies (2013) ^ a b Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (in Greek) ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. References[edit] Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Orchomenos (Dartmouth College) Orchomenos Prieto-Domínguez, Oscar, On the Founder of the Skripou Church Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies (2013) External links[edit] Official website (in Greek) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orchomenos (Boeotia). v t e Administrative division of the Central Greece Region Area 15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi) Population 547,390 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Lamia Regional unit of Boeotia Aliartos Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Livadeia Orchomenos Tanagra Thebes Regional unit of Euboea Chalcis Dirfys-Messapia Eretria Istiaia-Aidipsos Karystos Kymi-Aliveri Mantoudi-Limni-Agia Anna Skyros Regional unit of Evrytania Agrafa Karpenisi Regional unit of Phocis Delphi Dorida Regional unit of Phthiotis Amfikleia-Elateia Domokos Lamia Lokroi Makrakomi Molos-Agios Konstantinos Stylida Regional governor Kostas Bakoyannis (since 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Orchomenos Municipal unit of Akraifnia Akraifnio Kastro Kokkino Municipal unit of Orchomenos Agios Dimitrios Agios Spyridonas Dionysos Karya Loutsio Orchomenos Pavlos Pyrgos Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orchomenus_(Boeotia)&oldid=992863012" Categories: Boeotian city-states Populated places in Boeotia Municipalities of Central Greece Archaeological sites in Central Greece Mycenaean sites in Boeotia Former populated places in Greece Roman sites in Greece Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece Cities in ancient Greece Neolithic sites in Greece Ancient Greek cities Populated places in ancient Boeotia Hidden categories: CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 14:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3012	----	Ascalaphus - Wikipedia Ascalaphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Look up Ascalaphus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The name Ascalaphus (/əˈskæləfəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀσκάλαφος Askalaphos) is shared by two people in Greek mythology: Ascalaphus, son of Acheron and Orphne.[1] Ascalaphus, son of Ares and Astyoche.[2] Notes[edit] Ancient Greece portal Myths portal ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.5.3 ^ Homer, Iliad 13.518 References[edit] Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ascalaphus&oldid=968455578" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Euskara 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands 日本語 Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 19 July 2020, at 14:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3053	----	Tyro - Wikipedia Tyro From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Tyro (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Tyro (Ancient Greek: Τυρώ) was a Thessalian princess. Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 3 The Cantos 4 Notes 5 References Family[edit] Tyro was the daughter of Salmoneus and she married Cretheus, but loved Enipeus. She gave birth to Pelias and Neleus, the twin sons of Poseidon. With Cretheus she had Aeson, Pheres, and Amythaon.[1][2][3] In some accounts, Tyro had a daughter named Phalanna who gave her name to city of Phalanna in Thessaly.[4] Tyro's family tree Alcidice Salmoneus Cretheus Tyro Poseidon Aeson Pheres Amythaon Pelias Neleus Mythology[edit] Her father, Salmoneus, was the brother of Athamas and Sisyphus. Tyro was married to Cretheus[5] (also her uncle with whom she had three sons, Aeson, Amythaon, Pheres) but she loved Enipeus, a river god. She pursued Enipeus, who refused her advances. One day, Poseidon, filled with lust for Tyro, disguised himself as Enipeus and from their union was born Pelias and Neleus, twin boys. Tyro exposed her sons on a mountain to die, but they were found by a herdsman who raised them as his own. When they reached adulthood, Pelias and Neleus found Tyro and killed her stepmother, Sidero, for having mistreated their mother (Salmoneus married Sidero when Alcidice, his wife and the mother of Tyro, died). Sidero hid in a temple to Hera but Pelias killed her anyway, causing Hera's undying hatred of Pelias – and her glorious patronage of Jason and the Argonauts in their long quest for the Golden Fleece.[6] Pelias' half brother Aeson, the son of Tyro and Cretheus, was the father of Jason.[7] Soon after, Tyro married Sisyphus, her paternal uncle and had two children. It was said that their children would kill Salmoneus, so Tyro killed them in order to save her father.[8] The Cantos[edit] Ezra Pound refers to Tyro in The Cantos. In Canto 2 he takes up her rape by Poseidon: "And by the beach-run, Tyro, Twisted arms of the sea-god, Lithe sinews of water, gripping her, cross-hold, And the blue-gray glass of the wave tents them, Glare azure of water, cold-welter, close cover." In a later Canto (74) Pound connects her to Alcmene, imprisoned in the world of the dead, but in a later paradisal vision he sees her "ascending": thick smoke, purple, rising bright flame now on the altar the crystal funnel of air out of Erebus, the delivered, Tyro, Alcmene, free now, ascending [...] no shades more (Canto 90)[9] Notes[edit] ^ Homer (2009-01-16) [c 800 BCE]. "Book XI: The visit to the dead. 235–260". The Odyssey. Translated by Samuel Butler (10th ed.). Project Gutenberg. EBook #1727. Retrieved 2009-04-18. ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 175 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.68.2–3 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Φάλαννα ^ Homer, Odyssey 11. 236–7, but Hesiod, Ehoiai fr. 30 (Merkelbach-West) says she fought with Salmoneus and was rescued by Zeus and led to the house of Cretheus, where she was raised. Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.8 confirms this. ^ Hamilton, Edith (1969) [1940]. "Brief Myths Arranged Alphabetically". Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes (Renewal ed.). New York: Mentor Books. p. 313. ISBN 0-451-62803-9. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.8 adds that Pelias refused thereafter to honor Hera ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 60 & 239 ^ Pound, Ezra. The Cantos. New York: New Directions, 1998. References[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Hesiod, Catalogue of Women from Homeric Hymns, Epic Cycle, Homerica translated by Evelyn-White, H G. Loeb Classical Library Volume 57. London: William Heinemann, 1914. Online version at theio.com Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt, edited by August Meineike (1790-1870), published 1849. A few entries from this important ancient handbook of place names have been translated by Brady Kiesling. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyro&oldid=1003579474" Categories: Princesses in Greek mythology Queens in Greek mythology Family of Salmoneus Women in Greek mythology Mortal parents of demigods in classical mythology Characters in Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego Italiano Lietuvių Македонски 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2021, at 17:36 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3094	----	Ares - Wikipedia Ares From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the ancient Greek god. For other uses, see Ares (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Aries (astrology). Ancient Greek god of war Ares God of courage and war Member of the Twelve Olympians Statue of Ares from Hadrian's Villa Abode Mount Olympus, Thrace, Macedonia, Thebes, Sparta & Mani Symbols Sword, spear, shield, helmet, chariot, flaming torch, dog, boar, vulture Personal information Parents Zeus and Hera Siblings Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Consort Aphrodite and various others Children Erotes (Eros and Anteros), Phobos, Deimos, Phlegyas, Harmonia, Enyalios, Thrax, Oenomaus, Cycnus, and Amazons Roman equivalent Mars Norse equivalent Týr This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Part of a series on Ancient Greek religion Origins Ancient Greek Religion Mycenaean Greece and Mycenaean religion Minoan Civilization Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Sacred Places Sacred Islands Delos Ithaca Naxos Kythira Samothrace Crete Sacred Mountains Mount Lykaion Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Olympus Mount Kyllini Mount Othrys Sanctuaries Aornum Delphi Didyma Dion Dodona Eleusis Olympia Other Cave of Zeus Troy Deities Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Lesser deities Alpheus Amphitrite Asclepius Bia Circe Cybele Deimos Eileithyia Enyo Eos Eris Harmonia Hebe Hecate Helios Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Metis Momus Nemesis Nike Pan Persephone Phobos Proteus Scamander Selene Thanatos Thetis Triton Zelus Concepts Worldview Greek Mythology Orphic Egg Underworld and Afterlife Miasma Daimon Greek Heroic Age Divine and Reality Apeiron Monism Polytheism Pantheism Form of the Good Theory of forms Mind Anamnesis Ataraxia Apatheia Episteme Epoché Katalepsis Logos Nous Phronesis Soul Anima mundi Metempsychosis Henosis Plato's theory of soul Ethics Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of Reciprocity Delphic maxims Adiaphora Eudaimonia Kathekon Oikeiôsis Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Dionysian Mysteries Practices Worship Agalma Dithyramb Paean Orgion Hiera Orgas Hero Cult Oracle and Pythia Sacrifices and Offerings Holokaustos Libation Votive offering Animal Sacrifice Temples and holy sites Temple Temenos Meditation and Charity Eusebeia Meditation Euergetism Rites of passage Amphidromia Marriage Funeral Rites Festivals Thesmophoria Dionysia Daphnephoria Anthesteria Arrephoria Kronia Genesia Elaphebolia Pyanopsia Khalkeia Haloa Thargelia Three Monthly Festivals Deipnon Noumenia Agathodaemon Religious Games Panathenaia Herakleia Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Nemean Games Pythian Games Isthmian Games Hellenistic philosophy Stoicism Platonism Cynicism Epicureanism Peripatetic Pythagoreanism Pyrrhonism Sophism Philosophers Ancient Hesiod Homer Leucippus Democritus Diogenes of Apollonia Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Thales of Miletus Anaximenes of Miletus Parmenides Melissus of Samos Anaxagoras Empedocles Anaximander Prodicus Classical Socrates Antisthenes Diogenes Aristippus Euclid of Megara Stilpo Aristotle Aristoxenus Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Plato Speusippus Xenocrates Hellenistic and Roman Arcesilaus Carneades Epicurus Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) Plutarch Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Timon of Phlius Sextus Empiricus Cicero Plotinus Julian (emperor) Zeno of Citium Aratus Aristo of Chios Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Marcus Aurelius Epictetus Arrian Texts Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days Other Topics Pilgrimage Sites Calendar Greek mythology Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Julian restoration Modern Restoration  Religion portal  Ancient Greece portal v t e Ares (/ˈɛəriːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἄρης, Árēs [árɛːs]) is the Greek god of courage and war. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera.[1] In Greek literature, he often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war and is the personification of sheer brutality and bloodlust, in contrast to his sister, the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship.[2] The Greeks were ambivalent toward Ares: although he embodied the physical valor necessary for success in war, he was a dangerous force, "overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering."[3] His sons Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror) and his lover, or sister, Enyo (Discord) accompanied him on his war chariot.[4] In the Iliad, his father Zeus tells him that he is the god most hateful to him.[5] An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality.[6] His value as a war god is placed in doubt: during the Trojan War, Ares was on the losing side, while Athena, often depicted in Greek art as holding Nike (Victory) in her hand, favoured the triumphant Greeks.[3] Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, though his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to.[7] When Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation.[8] He is well known as the lover of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who was married to Hephaestus, god of craftsmanship.[9] The most famous story related to Ares and Aphrodite shows them exposed to ridicule through the wronged husband's device.[10] The counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars,[11] who as a father of the Roman people was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as a guardian deity. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares. Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures later became virtually indistinguishable. Contents 1 Names 2 Character, origins, and worship 2.1 Ares in Sparta 2.2 Ares in the Arabian Peninsula 2.3 Ares among the Scythians 2.4 Ares in Ethiopia 3 Attributes 4 Cult and ritual 5 Attendants 6 Consorts and children 6.1 List of Ares's consorts and children 7 Hymns to Ares 8 Mythology 8.1 Founding of Thebes 8.2 Ares and Aphrodite 8.3 Ares and the giants 8.4 Iliad 9 Renaissance 10 In popular culture 11 See also 11.1 Friends and counselors 11.2 Attendants 11.3 Similar deities in non-Greek cultures 12 Notes and references 12.1 Notes 12.2 References Names The etymology of the name Ares is traditionally connected with the Greek word ἀρή (arē), the Ionic form of the Doric ἀρά (ara), "bane, ruin, curse, imprecation".[12] Walter Burkert notes that "Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war."[13] R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name.[14] The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek 𐀀𐀩, a-re, written in the Linear B syllabic script.[15][16][17] The adjectival epithet, Areios, was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare: Zeus Areios, Athena Areia, even Aphrodite Areia. In the Iliad, the word ares is used as a common noun synonymous with "battle."[3] Inscriptions as early as Mycenaean times, and continuing into the Classical period, attest to Enyalios as another name for the god of war.[n 1] Character, origins, and worship Vatican, Rome, Italy. Statue of Ares, Scopas's influence. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection Ares was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the Iliad and Odyssey. Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy: Then looking at him darkly Zeus who gathers the clouds spoke to him: "Do not sit beside me and whine, you double-faced liar. To me you are the most hateful of all gods who hold Olympus. Forever quarrelling is dear to your heart, wars and battles. ... And yet I will not long endure to see you in pain, since you are my child, and it was to me that your mother bore you. But were you born of some other god and proved so ruinous long since you would have been dropped beneath the gods of the bright sky."[20] This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks' association of Ares with the Thracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people.[21] Thrace was Ares's birthplace, his true home, and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.[n 2] A late-6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares's sway: Stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos Whom raging Ares destroyed one day, fighting in the foremost ranks.[22] Ares in Sparta In Sparta, Ares was viewed as a model soldier: his resilience, physical strength, and military intelligence were unrivaled. An ancient statue, representing the god in chains, suggests that the martial spirit and victory were to be kept in the city of Sparta. That the Spartans admired him is indicative of the cultural divisions that existed between themselves and other Greeks, especially the Athenians (see Pelopponesian War). Ares in the Arabian Peninsula Ares was also worshipped by the inhabitants of Tylos. It is not known if he was worshipped in the form of an Arabian god (or which one) or if he was worshipped in his Greek form.[23] The Suda write that at Petra the Theus Ares (Ancient Greek: Θεὺς Ἄρης) was worshiped and he was honored. There was a black stone statue on a golden plinth, four feet tall and two feet wide. They offered sacrifice and pour forth the blood of the sacrificial animals, and the whole house was rich in gold, and contained many votive offerings.[24] Ares among the Scythians According to Herodotus' Histories, the Scythians worshipped a god he equated with the Greek Ares; unlike most other Scythian gods, he does not offer the indigenous name for this deity. While ranking beneath Tabiti, Api and Papaios in the divine hierarchy, this god was apparently worshipped differently from other Scythian gods, with statues and complex altars devoted to him. This type of worship is noted to be present among the Alans.[25] Noting how Greek mythological Amazons are devotees of Ares and most likely based on Scythian warriors, some researchers have considered the possibility that a Scythian warrior women cult of this deity existed.[26] Others have also posited that the "Sword of Mars" alludes to the Huns having adopted this deity.[27] Ares in Ethiopia Maḥrem, the principal god of the kings of Aksum prior to the 4th century AD, was always equated with Ares. In their Greek inscriptions, the kings invoke Ares. In bilingual inscriptions, where the Ethiopic has Maḥrem the Greek will have Ares. The anonymous king who put up the Monumentum Adulitanum in the late 2nd or early 3rd century refers to "my greatest god, Ares, who also begat me, through whom I brought under my sway" various peoples. The monumental throne celebrating the king's conquests was itself dedicated to Ares.[28] In the early 4th century, the last pagan king of Aksum, Ezana, referred to "the one who brought me forth, the invincible Ares".[29] Attributes The Ares Borghese. Ares’ attributes were a helmet, shield, and sword or spear.[30] The birds of Ares (Ornithes Areioi) were a flock of feather-dart-dropping birds that guarded the Amazons' shrine of the god on a coastal island in the Black Sea.[31] Cult and ritual Although Ares received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, the god had a formal temple and cult at only a few sites.[32] At Sparta, however, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum.[n 3] The chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares.[34] Just east of Sparta stood an archaic statue of Ares in chains, to show that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city.[n 4] At Olympia there was an altar of Ares.[36] The Temple of Ares in the agora of Athens, which Pausanias saw in the second century AD, had been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus. Essentially, it was a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor.[32] From archaic times, the Areopagus, the "mount of Ares" at some distance from the Acropolis, was a site of trials. Paul the Apostle later preached about Christianity there. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, is etiological myth.[citation needed] A second temple to Ares has been located at the archaeological site of Metropolis in what is now Western Turkey.[37] Attendants Ares's sons Deimos ("Terror" or "Dread") and Phobos ("Fear") are his companions in war.[38] According to Hesiod, they were also his children, born to him by Aphrodite.[39] Eris, the goddess of discord, or Enyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares.[40] In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.[41] Ares may also be accompanied by Kydoimos, the daemon of the din of battle; the Makhai ("Battles"); the "Hysminai" ("Acts of manslaughter"); Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos's daughter, Alala, the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry. Ares's sister Hebe ("Youth") also draws baths for him. According to Pausanias, local inhabitants of Therapne, Sparta, recognized Thero, "feral, savage," as a nurse of Ares.[42] Consorts and children The Areopagus as viewed from the Acropolis. The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros, Anteros, Phobos, Deimos, and Harmonia. Other versions include Alcippe as one of his daughters. Upon one occasion, Ares incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son, Halirrhothius, because he had raped Alcippe, a daughter of the war-god. For this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was acquitted. This event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of Ares), which afterward became famous as the site of a court of justice.[43] Accounts tell of Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia, a son of Ares who was so murderous that he tried to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers. Heracles slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom the hero wounded in conflict.[44] List of Ares's consorts and children Comparative table of Ares' family Divine Consorts Children Mortal Consorts Children Aphrodite • Phobos Aerope • Aeropus • Deimos Aglauros • Alcippe • Harmonia[45] Althaea • Meleager (possibly) • Eros (part of the Erotes) Astynome • Diocles • Anteros (part of the Erotes) Astyoche, daughter of Actor • Ascalaphus • Himeros (part of the Erotes) • Ialmenus • Pothos (part of the Erotes) Atalanta • Parthenopaeus (possibly) Calliope (Muse) • Edonus (possibly) Caldene, daughter of Pisidus • Solymus (possibly) • Mygdon Chryse or • Phlegyas • Odomantus (possibly) Dotis • Biston (possibly) Critobule • Pangaeus[46] Terpsichore (Muse) Demonice • Euenus Eos *no offspring mentioned • Molus Enyo • Enyalius • Pylus Erinys of Telphusa (unnamed) • Dragon of Thebes • Thestius Persephone *wooed her unsuccessfully Pisidice Unknown • Nike Dormothea • Stymphelus[47] Eurythoe the Danaid • Oenomaus Semi-divine Consorts Children Helice • Strymon Aegina • Sinope (possibly)[48] Leodoce (?)[49] no known offspring Callirrhoe, daughter of Nestus • Biston (possibly) Otrera • Antiope • Edonus (possibly) • Hippolyta • Odomantus (possibly) • Melanippe Cleobula • Cycnus[50] • Penthesilea Cyrene[51] • Crestone[52] Parnassa • Sinope (possibly)[48] • Diomedes of Thrace Pelopia or • Cycnus Erytheia • Eurytion[53] Pyrene • Lycaon (possibly) Harmonia • The Amazons Phylonome • Lycastus Harpinna, daughter of Asopus • Oenomaus • Parrhasius Sterope (Pleiad) Protogeneia • Oxylus • Evenus Reate • Medrus[50] Tanagra, daughter of Asopus *competed with Hermes over her Sete, sister of Rhesus • Bithys, eponym of the Thracian tribe of Bithyae[54] Tereine, daughter of Strymon • Thrassa, mother of Polyphonte Theogone • Tmolus[55] Thebe *no offspring mentioned Thracia • Ismarus[50] Triteia • Melanippus Unknown woman • Alcon of Thrace[56] Unknown woman • Calydon[50] Unknown woman • Chalyps, eponym of the Chalybes[57] Unknown woman • Cheimarrhoos[58] Unknown woman • Dryas Unknown woman • Evadne[50] Unknown woman • Hyperbius Unknown woman • Lycus of Libya[59] Unknown woman • Nisos (possibly) Unknown woman • Oeagrus[60] Unknown woman • Paeon Unknown woman • Portheus (Porthaon) Unknown woman • Tereus Hymns to Ares Homeric Hymn 8 to Ares (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic 7th to 4th centuries BC) "Ares, exceeding in strength, chariot-rider, golden-helmed, doughty in heart, shield-bearer, Saviour of cities, harnessed in bronze, strong of arm, unwearying, mighty with the spear, O defence of Olympus, father of warlike Victory, ally of Themis, stern governor of the rebellious, leader of righteous men, sceptred King of manliness, who whirl your fiery sphere among the planets in their sevenfold courses through the aether wherein your blazing steeds ever bear you above the third firmament of heaven; hear me, helper of men, giver of dauntless youth! Shed down a kindly ray from above upon my life, and strength of war, that I may be able to drive away bitter cowardice from my head and crush down the deceitful impulses of my soul. Restrain also the keen fury of my heart which provokes me to tread the ways of blood-curdling strife. Rather, O blessed one, give you me boldness to abide within the harmless laws of peace, avoiding strife and hatred and the violent fiends of death."[61] Orphic Hymn 65 to Ares (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns 3rd century BCE to 2nd century CE) "To Ares, Fumigation from Frankincense. Magnanimous, unconquered, boisterous Ares, in darts rejoicing, and in bloody wars; fierce and untamed, whose mighty power can make the strongest walls from their foundations shake: mortal-destroying king, defiled with gore, pleased with war's dreadful and tumultuous roar. Thee human blood, and swords, and spears delight, and the dire ruin of mad savage fight. Stay furious contests, and avenging strife, whose works with woe embitter human life; to lovely Kyrpis [Aphrodite] and to Lyaios [Dionysos] yield, for arms exchange the labours of the field; encourage peace, to gentle works inclined, and give abundance, with benignant mind." Mythology Founding of Thebes One of the roles of Ares was expressed in mainland Greece as the founding myth of Thebes: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus, for the dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi. Cadmus placed himself in the god's service for eight years atoning for the crime of killing Ares’ dragon.[30] To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia, a daughter of Ares's union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes.[62] The Ludovisi Ares, Roman version of a Greek original c. 320 BC, with 17th-century restorations by Bernini Ares and Aphrodite Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan (1827) by Alexandre Charles Guillemot (detail) In the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous,[63] the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite having sex secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, her husband. He reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.[n 5] But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.[n 5] In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon by his door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.[64] Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning. Ares and the giants In one archaic myth, related only in the Iliad by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. "And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done," she related.[65] "In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month."[66] Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other. In Nonnus's Dionysiaca[67] Ares also killed Ekhidnades, the giant son of Echidna, and a great enemy of the gods. Scholars have not concluded whether the nameless Ekhidnades ("of Echidna's lineage") was entirely Nonnus's invention or not. Iliad In the Iliad,[68] Homer represented Ares as having no fixed allegiances, rewarding courage on both sides: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans (Iliad V.830–834, XXI.410–414), but Aphrodite persuaded Ares to side with the Trojans. During the war, Diomedes fought with Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly (V.590–605). Athene or Athena, Ares's sister, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield, which Zeus granted (V.711–769). Hera and Athena encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares (V.780–834). Diomedes thrust with his spear at Ares, with Athena driving it home, and Ares's cries made Achaeans and Trojans alike tremble (V.855–864). Ares fled to Mount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. When Hera mentioned to Zeus that Ares's son, Ascalaphus, was killed, Ares overheard and wanted to join the fight on the side of the Achaeans, disregarding Zeus's order that no Olympic god should enter the battle, but Athena stopped him (XV.110–128). Later, when Zeus allowed the gods to fight in the war again (XX.20–29), Ares was the first to act, attacking Athena to avenge himself for his previous injury. Athena overpowered him by striking Ares with a boulder (XXI.391–408). Renaissance In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares's symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology. In popular culture Main article: Ares in popular culture See also Friends and counselors Themis (Divine law) Dike (Good judgement) Attendants Achlys (Death) Androktasiai (Slaughter) Eris (Strife) Enyo (Violence) Homados (Battle din) Hysminai (Combat) Keres (Death spirits) Palioxis (Backrush) Proioxis (Onrush) Similar deities in non-Greek cultures List of war deities Notes and references Notes ^ Enyalios is thought to be attested on the KN V 52 tablet as 𐀁𐀝𐀷𐀪𐀍, e-nu-wa-ri-jo.[18][19] ^ Homer Odyssey viii. 361; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see Ovid, Ars Amatoria, book ii.part xi.585, which tells the same tale: "Their captive bodies are, with difficulty, freed, at your plea, Neptune: Venus runs to Paphos: Mars heads for Thrace."; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see also Statius, Thebaid vii. 42; Herodotus, iv. 59, 62. ^ "Here each company of youths sacrifices a puppy to Enyalius, holding that the most valiant of tame animals is an acceptable victim to the most valiant of the gods. I know of no other Greeks who are accustomed to sacrifice puppies except the people of Colophon; these too sacrifice a puppy, a black bitch, to the Wayside Goddess".[33] ^ "Opposite this temple [the temple of Hipposthenes] is an old image of Enyalius in fetters. The idea the Lacedaemonians express by this image is the same as the Athenians express by their Wingless Victory; the former think that Enyalius will never run away from them, being bound in the fetters, while the Athenians think that Victory, having no wings, will always remain where she is".[35] ^ a b "Odyssey, 8.295". [In Robert Fagles's translation]: ... and the two lovers, free of the bonds that overwhelmed them so, sprang up and away at once, and the Wargod sped Thrace, while Love with her telltale laughter sped to Paphos ... References ^ Hesiod, Theogony 921 (Loeb Classical Library numbering); Iliad, 5.890–896. By contrast, Ares's Roman counterpart Mars was born from Juno alone, according to Ovid (Fasti 5.229–260). ^ Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Blackwell, 1985, 2004 reprint, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 141; William Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 113. ^ a b c Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 169. ^ Burkert, Greek Religion, p.169. ^ Iliad 5.890–891. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 114–115. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 113–114; Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 169. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 113–114. See for instance Ares and the giants below. ^ In the Iliad, however, the wife of Hephaestus is Charis, "Grace," as noted by Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 168. ^ Odyssey 8.266–366; Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 113–114. ^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. ^ ἀρή, Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary. ἀρή. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Harvard) 1985:pt III.2.12 p. 169. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, pp. 129–130. ^ Gulizio, Joannn. "A-re in the Linear B Tablets and the Continuity of the Cult of Ares in the Historical Period" (PDF). Journal of Prehistoric Religion. 15: 32–38. ^ Raymoure, K.A. (2012). "a-re". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. ^ "The Linear B word a-re". Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages. ^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. At Google Books. ^ Raymoure, K.A. "e-nu-wa-ri-jo". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. "KN 52 V + 52 bis + 8285 (unknown)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 2014-03-19. ^ Iliad, Book 5, lines 798–891, 895–898 in the translation of Richmond Lattimore. ^ Iliad 13.301; Ovid, Ars Amatoria, II.10. ^ Athens, NM 3851 quoted in Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, Introduction: I. "The Sources" ^ الاحتلال المقدوني للبحرين ص ١٢٨ ^ Suda, theta, 302 ^ Sulimirski, T. (1985). "The Scyths" in: Fisher, W. B. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 2: The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20091-1. pp. 158–159. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Amazons". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Geary, Patrick J. (1994). "Chapter 3. Germanic Tradition and Royal Ideology in the Ninth Century: The Visio Karoli Magni". Living with the Dead in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8014-8098-0. ^ Glen Bowersock, The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 45, 47–48. ^ Bowersock, Throne of Adulis, p. 69. ^ a b Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology., p. 80, at Google Books ^ Argonautica (ii.382ff and 1031ff; Hyginus, Fabulae 30. ^ a b Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 170. ^ Pausanias, 3.14.9. ^ "Ares". academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/9344. Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2017-01-16. ^ Pausanias, 3.15.7. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.15.6 ^ "City of mother goddess opens to tourism". Hurriyet Daily News. August 21, 2014. Retrieved January 27, 2018. ^ Iliad 4.436f, and 13.299f Hesiod's Shield of Heracles 191, 460; Quintus Smyrnaeus, 10.51, etc. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 934f. ^ Wolfe, Jessica (2005). "Spenser, Homer, and the mythography of strife". Renaissance Quarterly. 58: 1220+ – via Gale General Reference Center. ^ Eustathius on Homer, 944 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3. 19. 7 – 8 ^ Berens, E.M.: Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome, page 113. Project Gutenberg, 2007. ^ Bibliotheca 2. 5. 11 & 2. 7. 7 ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad B, 494, p. 80, 43 ed. Bekk. as cited in Hellanicus' Boeotica ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 3. 2 ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 19. 1 ^ a b Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2. 946 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 159 ^ a b c d e Murray, John (1833). A Classical Manual, being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. p. 70. ^ Bibliotheca 2. 5. 8 ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 499: Thrace was said to have been called Crestone after her. ^ Stesichorus, Geryoneis Frag S8 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Bithyai ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 7. 5 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 173 ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2. 373 ^ Scholia on Hesiod, Works and Days, 1, p. 28 ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, Greek and Roman Parallel Stories, 23 ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca XIII.428 ^ Homeric Hymn to Ares. ^ Burkert, Greek Religion, p.169. ^ Odyssey 8.300 ^ Gallagher, David (2009-01-01). Avian and Serpentine. Brill Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2709-1. ^ Iliad 5.385–391. ^ Burkert (1985). Greek Religion. p. 169. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 18. 274 ff; Theoi.com, "Ekhidnades". ^ References to Ares's appearance in the Iliad are collected and quoted at www.theoi.com: Ares Myths 2 v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of 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(Ekathimerini) COVID-19 pandemic in Poland Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki announces that hotels, theatres, swimming pools and other indoor facilities will be allowed to reopen at 50 percent capacity on February 12, but that restaurants and fitness centres will continue to remain closed. (The National Herald) COVID-19 pandemic in Ukraine Ukraine secures 12 million doses of the vaccine developed by AstraZeneca and Novavax. (UNIAN) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Bahrain Bahrain announces that all indoor gyms, indoor exercise classes, sports halls and swimming pools will be closed from February 7 to February 21 in order to reduce the spread of COVID-19. The country also announces that government entities and institutions can allow up to 70 percent of their employees to work from home. (Arab News) COVID-19 pandemic in India, COVID-19 vaccine India reaches past 5 million vaccinations. (Business Standard) COVID-19 pandemic in Israel Israel announces that it will ease its lockdown measures beginning February 7. People will no longer be restricted to within one kilometer of their homes, many services will be allowed to operate, and all national parks will reopen. However, international borders will remain closed until February 20. (MedicalXpress) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea South Korea surpasses 80,000 cases of COVID-19. (The Korea Herald) COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Western Australia lifts a five-day lockdown in Perth and surrounding areas after it reports no community cases. (9 News) COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand Immigration and government officials announce that New Zealand will restart its Refugee Quota Programme this month, nearly a year after closing its border due to the pandemic. (RNZ) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Iowa Iowa Governor Kim Reynolds announces that the state will lift its mask mandate and gathering restrictions, which will take effect on Sunday. (Des Moines Register) COVID-19 pandemic in Oklahoma Oklahoma reports its first case of the Lineage P.1 variant originated from Brazil in a woman who had a travel history. (KFOR-TV) COVID-19 pandemic in Virginia Virginia reports its first case of the 501.V2 variant in a person from eastern Virginia. (Richmond Times-Dispatch) COVID-19 vaccine Variants of SARS-CoV-2 AstraZeneca-Oxford developers say that their vaccine candidate is effective against the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2. (BBC) International relations Palau announces its intention to withdraw from the Pacific Islands Forum after claiming fraudulence in the recent election for the organization's Secretary General. (AFP via The Straits Times) Law and crime Aftermath of the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état Prominent National League for Democracy official Win Htein is arrested for sedition and taken from his house in Yangon by members of the military and police. (The Guardian) Crime in London A man is killed and 10 others are injured in a series of stabbing attacks in Croydon, London, England. (BBC) Politics and elections Second Libyan Civil War, Libyan peace process Delegates of the United Nations-supported Libyan Political Dialogue Forum vote in Geneva to elect Mohammad Younes Menfi as President of the Presidency Council and businessman Mohammed Dbaiba as Prime Minister, defeating President of the House of Representatives Aguila Saleh, and Interior Minister Fathi Bashagha. (Bloomberg) Science and technology Censorship in Myanmar The military junta in Myanmar orders internet service providers to block Twitter and Instagram "until further notice". (Reuters) Scientists belonging to a German-Malagasy expedition announce the discovery of Brookesia nana, a lizard found in Madagascar. The male's body spanning only 13.5 millimetres (0.5 in), it is potentially the smallest reptile on Earth. (BBC) Current events of February 4, 2021 (2021-02-04) (Thursday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Yemeni Civil War, Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen U.S. President Joe Biden announces that the United States will end their support for Saudi Arabia in their intervention in Yemen. However, he also said the United States will continue targeting al-Qaeda operations in the country. (The Financial Times) Lebanese political activist and Hezbollah critic Lokman Slim is assassinated, with his body being found inside his car with multiple gunshot wounds in Sidon District. Prime Minister Hassan Diab says "this heinous crime shall not pass without accountability". (BBC) Arts and culture New Zealand announces a new floating public holiday to commence in 2022 based on the Māori celebration of Matariki. (RNZ) Disasters and accidents 2021 Wooroloo bushfire The number of homes destroyed rises to 81, as a new bushfire to the north threatens the Bullsbrook township. (ABC Australia) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico President Andrés Manuel López Obrador says he is in "good health and recovering" after testing positive for COVID-19. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Wisconsin Governor Tony Evers issues a new mask mandate after the Legislature voted to repeal it. (AP) President of the 75th session of the United Nations General Assembly Volkan Bozkır receives his first dose of COVID-19 vaccine. (Business Standard) Johnson & Johnson requests emergency approval for its vaccine from the Food and Drug Administration. (CNET) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia The Ministry of Health grants emergency use authorization for China's Sinopharm vaccine. (Khmer Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Iran Iran receives its first shipment of 500,000 doses of Russia's Sputnik V vaccine. (The Times of Israel) COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine Palestine receives 10,000 doses of Russia's Sputnik V vaccine. (Anadolu Agency) COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Taiwan reports its first death of a foreigner from COVID-19. The patient was a British national in his 70s. It is also the first death from the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 reported in the country. (Taiwan News) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France, Lineage P.1 France reports four cases of the Lineage P.1 variant first detected in Brazil. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in Italy Italy surpasses 90,000 deaths from COVID-19. (Il Messaggero) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic The government confirms that British nationals and non-residents returning from 30 "red list" high-risk countries will need to quarantine in hotels or government-approved accommodation beginning February 15, two weeks after it was announced by Prime Minister Boris Johnson. (Sky News) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Private gatherings in Victoria are limited to 15 people after a worker at a quarantine site for tennis players competing in the Australian Open tests positive for COVID-19. (The Guardian) COVID-19 pandemic in Peru Peru signs a deal with Pfizer to purchase 20 million doses of its vaccine. (Gestión) 2019–2021 locust infestation Somalia declares a state of emergency due to swarms of desert locusts. (Daily Sabah) International relations 2020–2021 Indian farmers protest The Biden adminstration calls for India to resolve the farmers' protests via dialogue. However, the Ministry of External Affairs compared reactions to the January 26th incident at Red Fort to the January 6 riot that occurred at the Capitol. (National Herald) A probe by the Modi government to the source of a protest toolkit Greta Thunberg posted suggested it was put together by a Canadian pro-Khalistan organization and that the toolkit had a plan to carry forward the "malign Indian campaign" even if the government repealed the laws. (Times of India) Foreign relations of Guyana, Foreign relations of Taiwan Taiwan announces that it will establish a Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in Guyana. The United States welcomes the "milestone". (AFP via CNA) After criticism from China, Guyana terminates the above agreement and says it will continue to follow the One-China policy. (The Guardian) China–United Kingdom relations British broadcasting regulator Ofcom revokes the license of China Global Television Network (CGTN), an English-language Chinese news network, after concluding the network was "ultimately controlled" by the Chinese Communist Party. China responds to the move by accusing BBC News of spreading "fake news" about COVID-19. (Reuters) Turkey–United States relations Turkish Interior Minister Süleyman Soylu accuses the United States of being behind the coup d'état attempt in 2016, which killed more than 250 people. The U.S. State Department says the accusation was "wholly false", and "inconsistent with Turkey's status as a NATO ally". (Reuters) Henry Puna becomes the new Secretary-General of the Pacific Islands Forum replacing Meg Taylor. (RNZ) Law and crime 2021 Kilmarnock incidents Three people are killed during a series of attacks in Ayrshire, Scotland. A woman is stabbed to death outside a hospital, another woman knifed at a nearby street, and a man killed during an intentional car crash. (BBC) Politics and elections 117th United States Congress The United States House of Representatives votes 230–199 to remove Rep. Marjorie Taylor Greene (R-GA) from her assignments on the Education and Labor and Budget committees. (BBC) Science and technology 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, Censorship in Myanmar, Censorship of Facebook American technology company Facebook, Inc. reports that multiple Internet service providers in Myanmar have restricted access to its social networking services, including Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp. The company has urged authorities to restore connectivity. (AFP via Deccan Herald) Current events of February 3, 2021 (2021-02-03) (Wednesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Syrian civil war Syria missile strikes (February 2021) Israel launches airstrikes in Syria, Syrian forces responded late on Wednesday to "Israeli aggression" in the south of the country, according to state news agency SANA. (i24 News) Mali War Nine soldiers are killed and six others are wounded during an ambush near the village of Boni, Mopti, Mali. Twenty attackers are also killed. (Al Jazeera) Insurgency in the Maghreb Four Tunisian soldiers are killed by a land mine during a counter-terrorism operation in Mount Mghila, central Tunisia. (AFP via Barron's) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic General Motors announces the suspension of operations at its Fairfax, Ingersoll, and San Luis Potosí assembly plants due to a global shortage of semiconductors. (AFP via RFI) Disasters and accidents 2021 Wooroloo bushfire Over 70 homes are destroyed by a large wildfire in Western Australia. (ABC Australia) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Spain Spain reports its first case of the 501.V2 variant in Catalonia. Experts believe that it has no relation to South Africa, the variant's country of origin, and that it originated in Europe. (El Periódico) Spain surpasses 60,000 deaths from COVID-19. (MedicalXpress) COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic surpasses one million cases of COVID-19. (Arab News) COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden The Swedish government announces that all travellers will be required to show a negative COVID-19 testing result within 48 hours of arrival beginning February 6 in order to prevent the spread of variants of SARS-CoV-2. Swedish citizens as well as foreign residents living in Sweden will be exempt from this rule. (The Local Sweden) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, COVID-19 vaccination programme in the United Kingdom The number of people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19 in the United Kingdom surpasses 10 million. (ITV) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Japan The Japanese House of Councillors passes a law that will introduce fines for people and businesses that do not comply with restrictions imposed to prevent the spread of COVID-19. (The Japan Times) COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait Kuwait will suspend entry for non-citizens for two weeks beginning February 7, due to an increase in COVID-19 cases in the country. (Gulf News) COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore The Health Sciences Authority approves the use of the Moderna vaccine for people aged above 18 in Singapore, becoming the first country in Asia to do so. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates reports a record of 3,977 new confirmed cases and 12 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 313,626 and the nationwide death toll to 878. (Al-Arabiya) COVID-19 pandemic in the United States COVID-19 pandemic in Kansas Kansas reports its first case of the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2 in Ellis County. (The Wichita Eagle) COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand Medsafe provisionally approves the use of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine in New Zealand with certain conditions. (RNZ) COVID-19 vaccine GlaxoSmithKline and the German biotech firm CureVac sign an agreement worth 150 million euros ($180.7 million) to develop a vaccine to counter many variants of SARS-CoV-2. The vaccine, which is subject to regulatory approval, is expected to be introduced in 2022. (MarketWatch) Preliminary tests indicate that the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine may reduce transmission of COVID-19 and not simply prevent symptomatic infections. (U.S. News & World Report via MSN) 2020–21 H5N8 outbreak Authorities in Brandenburg, Germany, cull 14,000 turkeys due to an outbreak of H5N8 bird flu on a farm in the Uckermark area. (Reuters) International relations Guyana–Venezuela relations, Guayana Esequiba dispute The Venezuelan government releases the crew of two Guyana-flagged fishing vessels detained by the Venezuelan military in January for alleged illegal fishing in the disputed Guayana Esequiba region. (AFP via France 24) Law and crime 2021 Myanmar coup d'état The police file criminal charges against overthrown de-facto leader Aung San Suu Kyi for illegally importing communications equipment and seek her custody until February 15 as part of investigations. (Al Jazeera) Terrorism in Canada Public Safety Minister Bill Blair announces the designation of 13 groups as terrorist organizations, including the American far-right group Proud Boys and white supremacist organizations such as the Russian Imperial Movement, Atomwaffen Division, and The Base. In the process, Canada has become the first country to designate the Proud Boys as a terrorist organization. (The Washington Post) (USA Today) Fifteen people are arrested in Ethiopia over a plot to attack the United Arab Emirates' embassy in the capital Addis Ababa. Several other suspects, who were planning attacks against the UAE's diplomatic mission in Sudan, are also arrested. (Al Jazeera) Politics and elections 2021 Italian government crisis Mario Draghi accepts the order from President Sergio Mattarella to form an "emergency government" after Giuseppe Conte's resignation. (The New York Times) Current events of February 2, 2021 (2021-02-02) (Tuesday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks 2021 Myanmar coup d'état Burmese State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi is placed under house arrest in the capital Naypyidaw after the military coup that overthrew her government. (Financial Times) Tigray War Three Ethiopian opposition parties say that at least 52,000 civilians have died in Tigray. (Bloomberg) Business and economy Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, American Rescue Plan The United States Senate votes 50–49 to pass a budget resolution that would allow Democrats to pass President Joe Biden's $1.9 trillion relief package without support from Republicans. (Business Insider) Amazon founder Jeff Bezos announces that he will step down as CEO during the third quarter. Current Amazon Web Services CEO Andy Jassy is expected to replace him. (CNBC) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom COVID-19 pandemic in England Captain Tom, a British Army veteran who served in World War II and who donated to charities during the lockdown, dies from COVID-19 at the age of 100. (The Guardian) COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland First Minister Nicola Sturgeon announces a phased return to school for Scotland's youngest children, with nurseries and all primary pupils from P1 to P3 planned to be back in the classroom beginning on February 22. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Spain Spain will restrict travel to South Africa and Brazil due to concerns about new variants of SARS-CoV-2. (Reuters) Spain reports 724 deaths in the past 24 hours, the most since April. (El País) COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra Andorra surpasses the 10.000 COVID-19 cases. (Diari d'Andorra) COVID-19 pandemic in France The French National Authority for Health approves the use of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine for people aged under 65. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland Ireland reports a record 101 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 3,418. (The Irish Times) COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands, COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns Prime Minister Mark Rutte extends all of the country's tough lockdown measures for at least a month due to the spread of more transmissible variants of SARS-CoV-2. (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in San Marino Former Captain Regent Fausta Morganti dies from COVID-19 at the age of 76. (Corriere Romagna) COVID-19 pandemic in North America COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in New Brunswick, Variant of Concern 202012/01 New Brunswick reports its first two cases of the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2. (Toronto Star) COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Saskatchewan reports its first two cases of the B.1.1.7 variant of SARS-CoV-2 in the Regina area. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico Mexico approves the use of Sputnik V vaccine in the country. (CTV News) COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia Malaysia reports a record 21 deaths in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to 791. (The Star) Malaysia extends its movement control order in all states and territories except Sarawak until February 18. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia Indonesia reports a record 12,848 recoveries in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of recoveries to 896,530. (detikHealth) COVID-19 pandemic in Japan The Japanese government extends an ongoing state of emergency in 10 prefectures, including Tokyo, which surpassed 100,000 cases yesterday. (UPI) COVID-19 pandemic in Kyrgyzstan, COVID-19 vaccine Kyrgyzstan is expected to receive 504,000 doses of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine in March. (24.kg) COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan Prime Minister Imran Khan launches the vaccination campaign against COVID-19 in Pakistan, with the first dose of Sinopharm's vaccine administered to a doctor in Islamabad. (DAWN) COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine Palestinian Authority begins a vaccination campaign against COVID-19 starting with healthcare workers in the occupied West Bank. (Daily Sabah) COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam, Variant of Concern 202012/01 The Ministry of Health confirms that 276 people in 10 provinces and cities are currently infected with the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2. (The Bangkok Post) COVID-19 vaccine Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine A peer-reviewed result published in the journal The Lancet finds Russia's Sputnik V vaccine to be 91.6% effective against symptomatic COVID-19 infection. It is the third major vaccine candidate to exceed 90% efficacy, along with the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. (CBS on MSN) International relations 2021 Myanmar coup d'état China blocks a United Nations Security Council statement formally condemning the military coup in Myanmar. (BBC) Law and crime 2021 Sunrise, Florida shootout Two FBI agents are killed and three others are wounded during a shootout in Sunrise, Florida, while serving an arrest warrant. The gunman is later found dead. This is the deadliest incident involving FBI agents since 1986. (BBC) (Orlando Sentinel) Muskogee home shooting Five children and one adult are killed, and another person wounded, during a mass shooting at a home in Muskogee, Oklahoma. A 25-year-old male suspect who had been living with the victims is taken into custody. (Associated Press) Politics and elections Cabinet of Joe Biden The United States Senate votes to confirm Pete Buttigieg as Transportation Secretary, making him the first openly gay person to be confirmed to a Cabinet post. (ABC News) The Senate also confirms Alejandro Mayorkas as Secretary of Homeland Security, making him the first Jewish person, first Latino person and first immigrant to head the Department of Homeland Security. (The Hill) 2021 Italian government crisis President Sergio Mattarella invites former President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi to form a new government following the resignation of Giuseppe Conte as Prime Minister. (AFP via RTE) Sports 2020–21 Premier League, Manchester United F.C. 9–0 Southampton F.C. Manchester United defeats Southampton 9–0 to set the record for the largest winning margin in a Premier League match, equalling that of Leicester City's 0–9 victory against the same team in the previous season and their own 9–0 win against Ipswich Town in 1995. (ABC Australia) Current events of February 1, 2021 (2021-02-01) (Monday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks 2021 Myanmar coup d'état The military hands over power to Min Aung Hlaing and announces a state of emergency for a year, after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the National League for Democracy party. (BBC) Disasters and accidents Twelve people are killed when two vessels sink close to a port on Colombia's Pacific coast, in Tumaco. (The Canberra Times) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Japan Tokyo surpasses 100,000 cases of COVID-19. (The Mainichi) COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan Pakistan receives 500,000 doses of Sinopharm's COVID-19 vaccine. (The News) COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam Vietnam closes schools in 22 provinces ahead of the Tết holiday and ends a Communist Party congress early following the detection of a new cluster of COVID-19 cases in northern areas. (CNA) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates Dubai closes all bars and pubs for the entire month of February and limit other activities due to rise of COVID-19 cases across the United Arab Emirates. (ABC News) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in Armenia Armenia approves the use of the Sputnik V vaccine developed by Russia. (Public Radio of Armenia) COVID-19 pandemic in Austria Austria announces the easing of its lockdown from February 8, allowing non-essential shops and schools to reopen while toughening border restrictions and implementing a curfew from 8:00 pm to 6:00 am local time. (Vienna.at) COVID-19 pandemic in Isle of Man The Isle of Man lifts its second "circuit-breaker" lockdown after 20 days without a community case. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Italy Italy eases its national restrictions by allowing the reopening of bars, restaurants and museums in 16 "Yellow-zone" regions. However, a curfew from 10:00 pm to 5:00 am will remain in place. (France 24) COVID-19 pandemic in Lithuania, Variant of Concern 202012/01 Lithuania reports its first case of the UK variant of SARS-CoV-2 in a woman from Vilnius who tested positive for COVID-19 in early January. (LRT) COVID-19 pandemic in Canada COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia British Columbia confirms 18 cases of the new variants of SARS-CoV-2 from the United Kingdom and South Africa. (CBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, 501.V2 variant Ontario reports its first case of the 501.V2 variant in a person from the Peel Region with no known travel history. (CP24) COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa South Africa receives one million doses of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine produced by the Serum Institute of India. (ABC News) International relations 2021 Myanmar coup d'état Myanmar–United Kingdom relations The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office summons the ambassador of Myanmar to the United Kingdom in response to the coup. (AFP via NDTV) Myanmar–United States relations U.S. President Joe Biden threatens to re-impose sanctions on Myanmar's military leaders and calls for them to relinquish the power that they seized in the coup. (Reuters) Venezuelan presidential crisis Andorra stops recognizing Juan Guaidó as the interim President of Venezuela. (Diari d'Andorra) Law and crime 2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest Internet access remained blocked following violent clashes between police and farmers protesting controversial agricultural reforms. Online access was suspended in at least 14 of 22 districts in Haryana near New Delhi. That order was first imposed on Republic Day in Haryana districts for 24 hours, but has been extended every day since. (CNN) 2021 Boğaziçi University protests A total of 159 people are detained at the protests over the appointment of Melih Bulu as the rector of Boğaziçi University in Istanbul, Turkey. (Reuters) Aftermath of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol Over 228 people have been charged or arrested for participating in the storming of the United States Capitol. (Business Insider) 2020–2021 United States racial unrest Protesters marched in Rochester, New York, after a nine-year-old girl was handcuffed and pepper-sprayed by police. Protesters ripped away barricades protecting a Rochester police precinct as hundreds took to the streets in outrage. (Democrat and Chronicle) Ballot Measure 110 goes into effect in Oregon, making it the first state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of specified Schedule I and Schedule II drugs. (ABC News) Politics and elections 2021 President of the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil election, 2021 President of the Federal Senate of Brazil election The National Congress of Brazil elects new leaders for the 56th Legislature. Arthur Lira and Rodrigo Pacheco, candidates supported by President Jair Bolsonaro, are elected President of the Chamber of Deputies and President of the Federal Senate respectively. (AFP via Bangkok Post) Current events of January 31, 2021 (2021-01-31) (Sunday) edithistorywatch Armed conflicts and attacks Tigray War Former Tigray Region president and fugitive Debretsion Gebremichael speaks out for the first time since going into hiding following the fall of Mekelle to federal forces in November 2020, saying "They [the federal government] have temporary military dominance", and "we are engaged in extended resistance". His current whereabouts are unknown. (Reuters) Somali Civil War A suicide bomber blows himself up outside the Afrik Hotel in Mogadishu, Somalia, while gunmen storm the hotel and open fire. Five people are killed in the al-Shabaab attack, including a former military general; ten civilians are wounded. The three other attackers are shot dead during a gun battle with security forces. (BBC) Health and environment COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 pandemic in Asia COVID-19 pandemic in Israel, 501.V2 variant Israel reports its first reinfection case of the 501.V2 variant in a 57-year-old man who recently travelled to Turkey and who previously recovered from COVID-19. (Times of Israel) COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon Lebanon surpasses 300,000 cases of COVID-19. (The Daily Star) COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine, COVID-19 vaccination in Israel Israel agrees to transfer 5,000 doses of COVID-19 vaccine to the Palestinians to immunize frontline medical workers. (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea South Korea extends its social distancing restrictions for another two weeks amid concern around the upcoming Lunar New Year holidays and an increase in the number of cases. (Bloomberg) COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam, 501.V2 variant Vietnam reports its first case of the 501.V2 variant in a 25-year-old man from South Africa who travelled to Hanoi on December 19 and tested positive for COVID-19 four days later while in quarantine. (AAP via The West Australian) COVID-19 pandemic in Europe COVID-19 pandemic in France The number of hospitalized COVID-19 patients in France reaches 27,613, the most since December 1. (Reuters) COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands Minister for Primary Education Arie Slob announces that primary schools and daycare centres will reopen on February 8, but secondary schools and after-school clubs will remain closed. (Dutch News) COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom Captain Tom, a British Army World War II veteran who raised millions of pounds for charity during the pandemic, is hospitalized after testing positive for COVID-19. He has not yet received a COVID-19 vaccine. (NBC News) (BBC) COVID-19 pandemic in Australia Western Australia Premier Mark McGowan announces a five-day lockdown in the Perth metropolitan, Peel, and South West regions, beginning at 6:00 pm AWST, after a quarantine hotel security guard tests positive for COVID-19, possibly of the B.1.1.7 variant. (9 News) COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba Cuba reports a record 1,012 new cases in the past 24 hours, bringing the nationwide total of confirmed cases to 26,686. (Presna Latina) COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt Egypt receives its first shipment of 50,000 doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine from India. (Ahram Online) International relations Russia–United States relations 2021 Russian protests, aftermath of the poisoning of Alexei Navalny United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken condemns Russian authorities for using "harsh tactics" in protests that broke out following the arrest of Alexei Navalny. (NBC News) Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations, immigration to the United Kingdom The United Kingdom formally launches a visa scheme allowing all Hong Kong residents with British National (Overseas) passports (BNO), and their "immediate dependents", to fast-track their UK citizenship. At least 300,000 people are expected to apply. In response, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China says that it will "no longer recognise" BNO passports as legal travel documents. (BBC) Law and crime Protests over responses to the COVID-19 pandemic Police in Brussels, Belgium announce that they have arrested more than 400 people in order to prevent a banned demonstration against anti-COVID-19 measures. (DW) 2021 Russian protests More than 5,000 people are detained by police at nationwide protests calling for the release of jailed opposition leader Alexei Navalny. (BBC) Politics and elections Politics of Vietnam Nguyễn Phú Trọng is re-elected as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam for a third five-year term as top leader in Vietnam. (Reuters) More January 2021 events... Time: 13:06 UTC|Day: 6 February ◀ February 2021 ▶ S M T W T F S     1     2     3     4     5     6   7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28             More February 2021 events...    About this page Report a dispute • News about Wikipedia Ongoing events Business COVID-19 recession GameStop short squeeze Disasters COVID-19 pandemic 2020–21 European windstorm season 2020–21 H5N8 outbreak Yemeni famine Politics Afghan peace process Armenian protests Belarusian protests Bulgarian protests East Mediterranean crisis Hong Kong protests Indian farmers protests Italian government crisis Indonesia omnibus law protests Kashmir lock-down Libyan peace process Nicaraguan protests Nigerian protests Persian Gulf crisis Russian protests Second Arab Spring Sudanese protests Thai protests United States election protests United States racial unrest Venezuelan presidential crisis Yellow vests movement edit section Elections and referendums Recent January 24: Portugal, President Upcoming February 7: Ecuador, President (1st), National Assembly 7: Liechtenstein, Landtag 14: Central African Republic, National Assembly (2nd) 14: Kosovo, Assembly 19: Turks and Caicos Islands, House of Assembly edit section Trials Recently concluded France: Charlie Hebdo shooting Switzerland: Beny Steinmetz Vanuatu: Charlot Salwai Ongoing Argentina: Rodolfo Martín Villa Armenia: Serzh Sargsyan Colombia: Álvaro Uribe France: Nicolas Sarkozy Israel: Benjamin Netanyahu Kyrgyzstan: Almazbek Atambayev Malta: Yorgen Fenech South Africa: Jacob Zuma Spain: 2017 Catalonia attacks Sudan: Omar al-Bashir United States: Varsity Blues scandal International: The Gambia v. Myanmar Upcoming Indonesia: Edhy Prabowo, Juliari Batubara, Muhammad Rizieq Shihab Kosovo: Hashim Thaçi, Kadri Veseli Lesotho: Maesiah Thabane Rwanda: Paul Rusesabagina United States: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Elizabeth Holmes, Meng Wanzhou, R. Kelly, Ghislaine Maxwell Zimbabwe: Ignatius Chombo edit section Sport Association football 2020–21 Premier League 2020 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A 2020–21 UEFA Nations League 2020 Copa Libertadores 2020–21 UEFA Champions League group stage 2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage Women's association football 2020–21 Champions League 2020–21 Division 1 Féminine 2020–21 FA WSL American football 2020 NFL season 2020 NCAA Division I FBS Baseball 2021 MLB season Basketball 2020–21 NBA season 2020–21 NCAA Division I men's basketball season 2020–21 NCAA Division I women's basketball season Golf 2020–21 PGA Tour Ice hockey 2020–21 KHL season 2020–21 NHL season Rugby union 2020–21 Premiership Rugby 2020–21 Pro14 2019–20 Top 14 Other sports seasons 2020–21 international cricket season 2020–21 snooker season 2020–21 curling season More details – current sports events edit section Recent deaths February 2021 5: Christopher Plummer 4: Lokman Slim 4: Jaime Murrell 3: Haya Harareet 3: Jim Weatherly 2: Rennie Davis 2: Fausta Morganti 2: Captain Tom 1: Dustin Diamond 1: Jack Palladino 1: John Sweeney 1: Jamie Tarses January 2021 30: Allan Burns 30: Sophie 30: Marc Wilmore 29: Hilton Valentine 28: Paul J. Crutzen 28: Cicely Tyson 28: Lewis Wolpert 27: Juan del Río Martín 26: Cloris Leachman 26: Carlos Holmes Trujillo 24: George Armstrong 24: Arik Brauer 24: Sonny Fox 24: Bruce Kirby 24: Gunnel Lindblom 24: Joseph Sonnabend 23: Walter Bernstein 23: Tony Ferrer 23: Alberto Grimaldi 23: Hal Holbrook 23: Larry King 23: Nilda Pedrosa 23: Robert Rowland 23: Roy Torrens 22: Hank Aaron 22: Juan Guzmán Tapia 22: José Rivera Pérez 21: Henry Chmielewski 20: Mira Furlan 20: Sibusiso Moyo 20: Peter Swan 20: Ted Thompson 19: V. Shanta 18: Jean-Pierre Bacri 18: Lubomir Kavalek 18: Jimmie Rodgers 18: Don Sutton 17: Nikolay Antoshkin 17: Sammy Nestico 16: Salleh Abas 16: Michael Bryce 16: Chris Murphy 16: Phil Spector 15: Benjamin de Rothschild 14: Peter Mark Richman 14: Joanne Rogers 13: Tim Bogert 13: Siegfried Fischbacher 13: Sylvain Sylvain 13: Philip Tartaglia edit section Ongoing conflicts Africa Algeria, Libya and Tunisia Maghreb insurgency Cameroon Anglophone Crisis Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria Boko Haram insurgency Central African Republic Civil War Democratic Republic of the Congo Kivu conflict Allied Democratic Forces insurgency Ituri conflict Lord's Resistance Army insurgency Ethiopia Tigray conflict Mali Mali War Mozambique Insurgency in Cabo Delgado Nigeria Communal conflicts in Nigeria Somalia Civil war Sudan War in Darfur South Kordofan conflict Sudanese nomadic conflicts (incl. 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en-wikipedia-org-320	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 644,425 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)! !!! 0–9 I Corps (United States) 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia 1 Giant Leap 1 of the Girls (group) One Times Square 1.6 Band 1.8.7 1GN 1LIVE 1Malaysia Development Berhad 1st Cavalry Division (United States) 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade 1st Florida Cavalry Regiment (Union) 1st German Antique Police Car Museum 1st New Jersey Regiment 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler 1st United States Congress 1st Virginia Regiment 2 Bad Mice 2 Brothers on the 4th Floor 2 Chainz II D Extreme 2 Fabiola The 2i's Coffee Bar 2 in a Room 2 June Movement 2 Live Crew 2 Live Jews 2 Minutos 2 Pistols 2 Plus 1 2 Tone Records 2 Unlimited 2-4 Family 2Cellos 2Cents 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles 2nd Chapter of Acts 2nd Guards Uhlans 2nd High School in Wrocław 2nd II None 2nd Infantry Division (United States) 2nd Parachute Division (Germany) 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich 2nd United States Congress 2NE1 2NU 2raumwohnung 2wo Third3 III Corps (United States) 3 (American band) 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Confederate States) 3 Arts Entertainment 3 Colours Red 3 Doors Down 3 Feet Smaller 3 Hürel 3 Inches of Blood 3 Lb. 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en-wikipedia-org-3342	----	Aletes (Heraclid) - Wikipedia Aletes (Heraclid) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek mythological figure Aletes (Ancient Greek: Ἀλήτης) was a son of Hippotes, of Dorian ancestry, and a fifth-generation descendant of Heracles.[1] He is said to have defeated in battle the Corinthians, taken possession of Corinth, and to have expelled the Sisyphids[2] thirty years after the first invasion of the Peloponnesus by the Heraclids. His family, sometimes called the Aletidae, maintained themselves at Corinth down to the time of Bacchis (that is, late 10th century BC).[3][4][5][6] Velleius Paterculus calls him a descendant of Heracles, but of the sixth generation.[7] He received an oracle, promising him the sovereignty of Athens if during the war, which was then going on, its king should remain uninjured. This oracle became known at Athens, and the Athenian king Codrus sacrificed himself to preserve the city.[8] Notes[edit] ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Aletes". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 109. Archived from the original on 2007-04-05. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.4 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece ii. 4. § 3, v. 18. § 2 ^ Strabo, viii. p. 389 ^ Callimachus, Fragments 103 ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes xiii. 17 ^ Velleius Paterculus, i. 3 ^ Conon, Narrations 26 References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Aletes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aletes_(Heraclid)&oldid=915116392" Categories: Heracleidae Kings of Corinth Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2019, at 09:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3359	----	Polybus of Corinth - Wikipedia Polybus of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Polybus (Ancient Greek: Πόλυβος) is a figure in Greek mythology. He was the king of Corinth and husband of either Periboea or Merope, a Dorian or Medusa, daughter of Orsilochus.[1] Mythology[edit] Polybus reigned over the city like a gentle man and loved his wife, but unfortunately their marriage remained childless for many years. When Oedipus as an infant was abandoned by his parents Laius and Jocasta, the rulers of Thebes, Periboea who was washing garments at the shore, found and rescued him.[2] In some accounts, either shepherds or keepers of horses of Polybus found the small child in Mount Cithaeron and brought it to Periboea[3] or Laius' household slaves who were unwilling to expose the child gave it as a present to the wife of Polybus, since she could bear no children.[4] With Polybus' consent, since they were childless, they adopted and raised him as their own son,[5] and after his wife had healed the child's ankles, Periboea called him Oidipus, giving him that name on account of his swollen feet caused by injuries in his ankles. A few years later, Periboea became pregnant herself and gave birth to a daughter Alcinoe to Polybus.[6] After Oedipus had come to manhood, he was courageous beyond the rest and excelled his fellows in strength, and through envy his companions taunted him with not being Polybus' son, since Polybus was so mild, and himself was so assertive. The young man inquired of Periboea about the truth, but could learn nothing from her and so, feeling that the taunt was true, he set out for Delphi and consulted about his true parents.[7] The god told him not to go to his native land because, "You shall kill your father and marry your mother". On hearing that, obviously horrified and disgusted with such a prophecy, Oedipus imposed self-exile upon himself and kept away from Corinth, as he resolved never to murder King Polybus, who had been a kind father to him. Believing himself to be the son of his nominal parents, Oedipus was also understandably disgusted the act of murdering Polybus and claiming his wife for himself, as he had no unnatural attraction to Queen Merope. While riding in a chariot through Phocis he fell in with Laius driving in a chariot in a certain narrow road. When Laius in a disdainful manner ordered Oidipus to make way for him, the latter in anger slew Laius, not knowing that he was his father. Many years later, after Oedipus won the kingship of Thebes by defeating the Sphinx, did another plague befall Thebes. King Oedipus, in his effort to find the cause of plague due to a patricide, revealed that he was told in his teen years that he was destined to murder his father, and sent a spy to Corinth to see who is currently on the throne. The news of Polybus' death by natural causes was announced by the messenger to Jocasta in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, in which it is mistakenly taken to mean that Oedipus did not kill his father. This would mean that the prophecy that Oedipus would murder his father and marry his mother would be false, and Oedipus expresses relief that he did not commit such a heinous act. Since Polybus was in fact his adoptive father, Oedipus could and did kill his true father, King Laius, and fulfill the prophecy. Oedipus never knew his true destiny until the final parts of the play. Notes[edit] ^ Scholia on Sophocles, Oedipus the King, 775 ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, 66 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 3.5.7 ^ Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica, 4.64.2 ^ Strabo. Geographica, 8.6.22 ^ Parthenius. Erotica Pathemata, 27 ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, 67 v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) v t e Oedipus Titles and lineage Theban kings in Greek mythology Laius (biological father) Polybus of Corinth (adoptive father) Merope (adoptive mother) Jocasta/Epicaste (biological mother/wife) Creon (Jocasta's brother/Laius' successor) Antigone (half sister/daughter) Eteocles (half brother/son) Polynices (half brother/son) Ismene (half sister/daughter) Euryganeia (2nd wife) Astymedusa (later wife) Theban plays Antiquity Aeschylus: Seven Against Thebes Sophocles: Antigone Oedipus Rex Oedipus at Colonus Euripides: Antigone Oedipus The Phoenician Women Seneca: Oedipus Other (Oedipus) Oedipus (Dryden & Lee) Oedipus (Voltaire) The Infernal Machine Greek The Gospel at Colonus Other (Antigone) Antigone (Cocteau) Antigone (Anouilh) The Burial at Thebes Operas Antigona Œdipe à Colone Oedipus rex Œdipe Greek Films Oedipus Rex (1957) Antigone (1961) Oedipus Rex (1967) Oedipus the King (1968) Funeral Parade of Roses (1969) Night Warning (1982) Voyager (1991) Oedipus Mayor (1996) Other works Oedipodea Thebaid Theban Cycle Lille Stesichorus The Gods Are Not to Blame Oedipus Tex Related Oedipus complex Electra complex Feminism and the Oedipus complex Hamlet and Oedipus Jocasta complex Phaedra complex Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polybus_of_Corinth&oldid=981647830" Categories: Kings of Corinth Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Brezhoneg Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2020, at 16:27 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3365	----	Pages that link to "Sisyphus" - Wikipedia Help Pages that link to "Sisyphus" ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search What links here Page:  Namespace: all (Article) Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk   Invert selection Filters Hide transclusions | Hide links | Hide redirects The following pages link to Sisyphus External tool: Transclusion count Displayed 50 items. View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Aeacus ‎ (links | edit) Existentialism ‎ (links | edit) Hades ‎ (links | edit) Heracles ‎ (links | edit) Jason ‎ (links | edit) Lethe ‎ (links | edit) Minos ‎ (links | edit) Odysseus ‎ (links | edit) Pessimism ‎ (links | edit) Styx ‎ (links | edit) The Myth of Sisyphus ‎ (links | edit) Tantalus ‎ (links | edit) Talk:The Myth of Sisyphus ‎ (links | edit) Proetus ‎ (links | edit) Tartarus ‎ (links | edit) List of Greek mythological figures ‎ (links | edit) Elysium ‎ (links | edit) Talk:René Magritte ‎ (links | edit) Rhadamanthus ‎ (links | edit) Sisyphus (transclusion) ‎ (links | edit) Melicertes ‎ (links | edit) Aeëtes ‎ (links | edit) Asopus ‎ (links | edit) Canace ‎ (links | edit) Enarete ‎ (links | edit) Charon ‎ (links | edit) Phlegethon ‎ (links | edit) Cocytus ‎ (links | edit) Tyro ‎ (links | edit) Salmoneus ‎ (links | edit) Laertes ‎ (links | edit) Sinon ‎ (links | edit) Menoetius ‎ (links | edit) Minyas (mythology) ‎ (links | edit) Sisuphos (redirect page) ‎ (links | edit) Thanatos ‎ (links | edit) Anticlea ‎ (links | edit) Autolycus ‎ (links | edit) Periander ‎ (links | edit) Ixion ‎ (links | edit) Thersander ‎ (links | edit) List of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys episodes ‎ (links | edit) Leda (mythology) ‎ (links | edit) Talk:Metropolis (1927 film) ‎ (links | edit) Groundhog Day (film) ‎ (links | edit) Benjamin Baker (engineer) ‎ (links | edit) Nicolas Bourbaki ‎ (links | edit) User talk:Mav/archive 8 ‎ (links | edit) Vitalogy ‎ (links | edit) Weekly World News ‎ (links | edit) View (previous 50 | next 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3374	----	Melinoë - Wikipedia Melinoë From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Melinoë (/mɪˈlɪnoʊiː/; Ancient Greek: Μηλινόη) is a chthonic nymph or goddess invoked in one of the Orphic Hymns and represented as a bringer of nightmares and madness.[1] Melinoë is the ancient Greek goddess of Propitiation--the offerings made to the deceased by family and friends. She is said to have wandered the earth every night with a train of ghosts, scaring anyone in their path (this was said to be the reason why dogs would bark at seemingly-nothing at night), hence her role as a 'bringer of nightmares and madness'; similar to Hecate and her entourage of Lampades (and, in-fact, Hecate's and Melinoë's entourages would sometimes move-together as one group). By extension of her purview as the goddess of propitiation, Melinoë is also the goddess of the restless undead; those whose bodies were never buried, were never given proper funerary rites, or-else were outright cursed to wander the earth to plague the living, unable to find peace. The name, "Melinoë", also appears on a metal tablet in association with Persephone, like an epitaph.[2] The hymns are of uncertain date but were probably composed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. In the hymn, Melinoë has characteristics that seem similar to Hecate and the Erinyes,[3] and the name is sometimes thought to be an epithet of Hecate.[4] The terms in which Melinoë is described are typical of moon goddesses in Greek poetry. Contents 1 Name 2 Hymn 3 Birth 4 Attributes and functions 5 Inscriptions 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Name[edit] Melinoë may derive from Greek mēlinos (μήλινος), "having the color of quince", from mēlon (μῆλον), "tree fruit".[5] The fruit's yellowish-green color evoked the pallor of illness or death for the Greeks. A name derived from melas, "black", would be melan-, not melin-.[6] Hymn[edit] The Souls of Acheron (1898) by Adolf Hirémy-Hirschl Following is the translation by Apostolos Athanassakis and Benjamin M. Wolkow, of the hymn to Melinoe: I call upon Melinoe, saffron-cloaked nymph of the earth, whom revered Persephone bore by the mouth of the Kokytos river upon the sacred bed of Kronian Zeus. In the guise of Plouton Zeus and tricked Persephone and through wiley plots bedded her; a two-bodied specter sprang forth from Persephone's fury. This specter drives mortals to madness with her airy apparitions as she appears in weird shapes and strange forms, now plain to the eye, now shadowy, now shining in the darkness— all this in unnerving attacks in the gloom of night. O goddess, O queen of those below, I beseech you to banish the soul's frenzy to the ends of the earth, show to the initiates a kindly and holy face.[7] Birth[edit] Melinoë is the daughter of Persephone and was fathered by both Zeus and Hades in their Orphic dual-god role.[8] A major contributory factor surrounding Melinoe's birth is the fact that Hades and Zeus were, at times, syncretised with each other.[9][10] The Orphics in particular believed that Zeus and Hades were the same deity and portrayed them as such.[11][12] Zeus was portrayed as having an incarnation in the underworld identifying him as literally being Hades and leading to Zeus and Hades essentially being two representations and different facets of the same god and extended divine power.[13][14] The Orphic Hymn to Melinoë also references this by mentioning that Persephone was impregnated upon the bed of Zeus Kronion in the Underworld by the River Cocytus. The hymn regarding Zeus taking on the form of Plouton before impregnating Persephone was very much related to the very nature of the way the gods were portrayed and worshiped in the Orphic Religion, as well as be the explanation for why both Hades and Zeus are considered to be the father of Melinoë; moreover it is believed that Persephone's resulting anger is derived from several things: the separation from her mother,[15][16] the loss of her virginity,[17][18] and the fact she had been impregnated,[19][20] thus bearing children from that union.[21][22] Melinoë is born at the mouth of the Cocytus, one of the rivers of the underworld, where Hermes in his underworld aspect as psychopomp was stationed.[23] In the Orphic tradition, the Cocytus is one of four underworld rivers.[24] Although some Greek myths deal with themes of incest, in Orphic genealogies lines of kinship, express theological and cosmogonical concepts, not the realities of human family relations.[25] The ancient Greek nymphē in the first line can mean "nymph", but also "bride" or "young woman".[6] As an underworld "queen" (Basileia), Melinoë is at least partially syncretized with Persephone herself.[26] Attributes and functions[edit] Melinoë is described in the invocation of the Orphic Hymn as κροκόπεπλος (krokopeplos), "clad in saffron" (see peplos), an epithet in ancient Greek poetry for moon goddesses.[27] In the hymns, only two goddesses are described as krokopeplos, Melinoë and Hecate.[28] Melinoë's connections to Hecate and Hermes suggest that she exercised her power in the realm of the soul's passage, and in that function may be compared to the torchbearer Eubouleos in the mysteries.[29] According to the hymn, she brings night terrors to mortals by manifesting in strange forms, "now plain to the eye, now shadowy, now shining in the darkness", and can drive mortals insane. The purpose of the hymn is to placate her by showing that the Orphic initiate understands and respects her nature, thereby averting the harm she has the capacity for causing. The translation of Thomas Taylor (1887) has given rise to a conception of Melinoe as half-black, half-white, representing the duality of the heavenly Zeus and the infernal Hades. This had been the interpretation of Gottfried Hermann in his annotated text of the hymns in 1805.[30] This duality may be implicit, like the explanation offered by Servius for why the poplar leaf has a light and dark side to represent Leuke ("White"), a nymph loved by Hades. The Orphic text poses interpretational challenges for translators in this passage.[31] Inscriptions[edit] Bronze tablet (3rd century AD) from Pergamon invoking Melinoë along with Persephone and Leucophryne; the three goddesses pictured are labeled as Dione, Phoebe, and Nyche Melinoë appears on a bronze tablet for use in the kind of private ritual usually known as "magic". The style of Greek letters on the tablet, which was discovered at Pergamon, dates it to the first half of the 3rd century AD. The use of bronze was probably intended to drive away malevolent spirits and to protect the practitioner. The construction of the tablet suggests that it was used for divination. It is triangular in shape, with a hole in the center, presumably for suspending it over a surface. The content of the triangular tablet reiterates triplicity. It depicts three crowned goddesses, each with her head pointing at an angle and her feet pointing toward the center. The name of the goddess appears above her head: Dione (ΔΙΟΝΗ), Phoebe (ΦΟΙΒΙΗ), and the obscure Nyche (ΝΥΧΙΗ). Amibousa, a word referring to the phases of the moon, is written under each goddess's feet. Densely inscribed spells frame each goddess: the inscriptions around Dione and Nyche are voces magicae, incantatory syllables ("magic words") that are mostly untranslatable. Melinoë appears in a triple invocation that is part of the inscription around Phoebe: O Persephone, O Melinoë, O Leucophryne. Esoteric symbols are inscribed on the edges of the triangle.[32] See also[edit] Phobetor Macaria Notes[edit] ^ Orphic Hymn 70 or 71 (numbering varies), as given by Richard Wünsch, Antikes Zaubergerät aus Pergamon (Berlin, 1905), p. 26: Μηλινόην καλέω, νύμφην χθονίαν, κροκόπεπλον, ἣν παρὰ Κωκυτοῦ προχοαῖς ἐλοχεύσατο σεμνὴ Φερσεφόνη λέκτροις ἱεροῖς Ζηνὸς Κρονίοιο ᾗ ψευσθεὶς Πλούτων᾽ἐμίγη δολίαις ἀπάταισι, θυμῷ Φερσεφόνης δὲ διδώματον ἔσπασε χροιήν, ἣ θνητοὺς μαίνει φαντάσμασιν ἠερίοισιν, ἀλλοκότοις ἰδέαις μορφῆς τὐπον έκκπροφανοῦσα, ἀλλοτε μὲν προφανής, ποτὲ δὲ σκοτόεσσα, νυχαυγής, ἀνταίαις ἐφόδοισι κατὰ ζοφοειδέα νύκτα. ἀλλἀ, θεά, λίτομαί σε, καταχθονίων Βασίλεια, ψυχῆς ἐκπέμπειν οἶστρον ἐπὶ τέρματα γαίης, εὐμενὲς εὐίερον μύσταις φαίνουσα πρόσωπον. ^ Edmonds, p. 100 n. 58; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 195. ^ Edmonds, pp. 84–85. ^ Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. ^ Morand, p. 127, citing H. Bannert, RE suppl. 15, entry on "Melinoe" (1978), p. 135. ^ a b Morand, p. 182. ^ Athanassaki and Wolkow, p. 57. ^ Melinoë is often regarded as being the daughter of both Zeus and Hades as is explained in the hymn's mentioning that Melinoë has traits of both Hades and Zeus. The reason for this is due to the dual-god role that Zeus had with Hades in Orphic Mythology. ^ Hillman, David C. A. (2013). Hermaphrodites, Gynomorphs and Jesus: She-male Gods and the roots of Christianity. Classics Ph.D. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 1579511716. ^ David Hillman “Hades and Zeus are the very same thing. Persephone and Semele are the very same thing. Dionysus is not just Dionysus, but Zagreus, Iacchos and Dionysus together, as a unity...” (Hermaphrodites, Gynomorphs and Jesus: She-male Gods and the roots of Christianity) ^ Wypustek, Andrzej (2012). Images of Eternal Beauty in Funerary Verse Inscriptions of the Hellenistic Period. BRILL. ISBN 9004233180. ^ Andrzej Wypustek (Ph.D) "Votive inscriptions frequently mentioned Pluto but very rarely Hades. Particularly at Eleusis, the Pluto cult was for a deity who, like Persephone and Demeter, was favourably disposed to humans. He was frequently portrayed as a majestic elder with a sceptre, ranch, cornucopia, pomegranate, or drinking vessel in his hand; sometimes he was accompanied by an eagle. His iconography resembled that of Zeus, and especially that of some chthonic personification of the ruler of the gods, above all Zeus Meilichios. We can now go a step further. The nearest equivalent to the contrast between Hades and Pluto as presented in the Theophile epigram can be found in the Orphic Hymns, which are assumed to have originated from the Τελεται of the Dionysiac mystic circles in Asia Minor of the 1st – 3rd centuries. Hymn 41 worships Antaia, i.e. Demeter, the goddess who had searched for her daughter in Hades and discovered her in ‘the sacred bed of the sacred chthonic Zeus’. This formulation in itself is not surprising because the name Zeus (as a synonym for a deity and ruler) was used in reference to Hades-Pluto as the ruler of the underworld. In an interesting, though, sadly, only partly preserved inscription from Appia-Murathanlar in the Tembris Valley (in 3rd century AD Phrygia) the deceased appeals to “Zeus, god of the dead [φθιηένων*], Pluto” to protect his grave. The term “Chthonic Zeus” could, however, mean something more than a mere euphemism for the name Hades. The idea of defining Zeus as χθόνιος, κατα (χθόνιος) ἄλλος or simply Hades had been present in ancient Greek literature from Homer to Nonnos. This was a sort of extension, aspect or ‘shadow’ of the universal power of Zeus in the kingdom of the dead, where he was the judge of the dead and the also the consort of Persephone-Kore.Moreover, he was the provider of riches, Πλουτοδότης; a personification which was abbreviated to Πλούτων. Among other things, he controlled the crops and it was to him (as well as to Demeter) that the farmers turned for the promise of a good harvest. These are hardly well known traditions today. Some scholars maintain that their obscurity is on account of the secret role they played in the mysteries. ... Therefore the Orphics worshipped Pluto as the saviour and judge of the deceased, as Zeus χθόνιος. They most likely assumed that Zeus had another embodiment of sorts in the underworld, in Hades. The effect of this assumption was the myth, known to us in several versions, of how Zeus had lain with Persephone (even though she was his daughter). The so-called great Orphic tablet of Thurii refers to the abduction of Persephone by Zeus, who then fathers her son, Dionysus. Their child was revered by the Orphics as Dionysus Zagreus, Dionysus Iacchus, which shows how much importance they attached to the love affair of that particular couple." (Images of Eternal Beauty in Funerary Verse Inscriptions of the Hellenistic Period) ^ Gantz, Timothy (1996). Early Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9. ^ Timothy Gantz "Thus it appears that at times Zeus and Hades represented simply different facets of a single extended divine power.” (Early Greek Myth) ^ Athanaassakis, Apostolos N (2004). The Homeric Hymns. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801879833. ^ Homer's Hymn To Demeter "And he found the Lord inside his palace, seated on a funeral couch, along with his duly acquired bedmate, the one who was much under duress, yearning for her mother, and suffering from the unbearable things inflicted on her by the will of the blessed ones." ^ Thayer, Bill. "Claudian's Rape of Proserpina". LacusCurtius. Retrieved 13 August 2018. ^ Claudian's Rape of Proserpina "Meanwhile Proserpine is borne away in the winged car, her hair streaming before the wind, beating her arms in lamentation and calling in vain remonstrance to the clouds:  "Why hast thou not hurled at me, father, bolts forged by the Cyclopes' hands? Was this thy will to deliver thy daughter to the cruel shades and drive her for ever from this world? Does love move thee not at all? Hast thou nothing of a father's feeling? What ill deed of mine has stirred such anger in thee? When Phlegra raged with war's madness I bore no standard against the gods; 'twas through no strength of mine that ice-bound Ossa supported frozen Olympus. For attempt of what crime, for complicity with what guilt, am I thrust down in banishment to the bottomless pit of Hell? Happy girls whom other ravishers have stolen; they at least enjoy the general light of day, while I, together with my virginity, lose the air of heaven; stolen from me alike is innocence and daylight. Needs must I quit this world and be led a captive bride to serve Hell's tyrant. Ye flowers that I loved in so evil an hour, oh, why did I scorn my mother's warning? Too late did I detect the wiles of Venus. Mother, my mother, whether in the vales of Phrygian Ida the dread pipe sounds about thine ears with Lydian p339 strains, or thou hauntest mount Dindymus, ahowl with self-mutilated Galli, and beholdest the naked swords of the Curetes, aid me in my bitter need; frustrate Pluto's mad lust and stay the funereal reins of my fierce ravisher.” ^ Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010). Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11312-1. ^ Marguerite Rigoglioso "Persephone herself was destined to be a parthenogenetic mother but was interrupted in her task by the advent of a male god who wilfully and without permission used her to create his own 'double'. ... Diodorus Siculus mentions that Persephone had already taken the same choice of maidenhood as Athena and Artemis. ... Other evidence includes the fact that Persephone is connected to the pomegranate, the bee and weaving. These objects all represent parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction which needs no fertilisation; in the Orphic Persephone was weaving a peplos when she got raped, the peplos being another symbol of virginity and asexual conception. ... Given that Zeus was also sometimes portrayed as having an incarnation in the underworld that was closely identified with Hades, we can read here that Zeus and Hades were essentially two representations of the same god. ... The idea of Hades equals Dionysus, and that this dual god impregnated Persephone in the Eleusinian tradition, therefore, is in perfect accord with the story that Zeus impregnated her with Dionysus in Orphic myth, given that Hades equals Zeus, as well. Moreover, what we see from this esoteric complex is that, in seeding Persephone, Zeus/Hades/Dionysus created what Kerenyi perceptively calls “a second, a little Dionysus,” a “subterranean Zeus.” This insight, taken in the context of the parthenogenetic theory I have put forth here, allows for a sudden and striking realisation: The male godhead used Persephone as a means not just to procreate, but to self-replicate, to double himself in the way a goddess could do on her own. Because he lacked the power ascribed to the goddess alone-parthenogenetic ability he could only turn to the body of the goddess to emit the next generation of himself. He did so wilfully and without permission." (Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity) ^ Athanaassakis, Wolkow, Apostolos N, Benjamin M (2013). The Orphic Hymns. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421408828. ^ Apostolos N Athanaassakis & Benjamin M Wolkow "In Orphic mythology, he took the form of a snake when he father Dionysus by Persephone. Since Dionysus has the same parentage in the Hymns, it is possible that this act was understood by the initiates to have also produced Melinoë. The snake, as symbol of chthonic powers, would be an appropriate form to produce such an infernal creature, and both Dionysus and Melinoë are connected with madness." ^ Hymn to Chthonic Hermes (57); Morand, p. 182. ^ In other mythological traditions, it had been regarded as a branch of the Styx; Morand, p. 182. ^ Morand, pp. 184–185. ^ Morand, p. 185. ^ In the Iliad (8.1 and 19.1), the dawn goddess Eos is krokopeplos; Eva Parisinou, "Brightness Personified: Light and Divine Image in Ancient Greece," in Personification In The Greek World: From Antiquity To Byzantium (Ashgate, 2005), p. 34. ^ Morand, pp. 127, 182; Pierre Brulé, La fille d'Athènes: la religion des filles à Athènes à l'époque classique (CNRS, 1987), p. 242. ^ Morand, pp. 182, 185. ^ Gottfried Hermann, Orphica (Leipzig, 1805), p. 340. ^ Hermann, Orphica, p. 340. ^ Morand, p. 185ff. References[edit] Athanassakis, Apostolos N.; Wolkow, Benjamin M. (2013). The Orphic Hymns. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421408828. Edmonds, Radcliffe G. (2014). Ken Dowden; Niall Livingstone (eds.). Orphic Mythology. A Companion to Greek Mythology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1118785164. Morand, Anne-France (2001). Études sur les Hymnes Orphiques Brill (in French). Brill. ISBN 978-9004120303. External links[edit] Look up Melinoe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Melinoe at the Theoi Project Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melinoë&oldid=996009305" Categories: Orphism (art) Children of Persephone Underworld goddesses Magic goddesses Sleep in mythology and folklore Children of Zeus Greek goddesses Greek death goddesses Death goddesses Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Română Русский Simple English Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 01:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-339	----	Zeus - Wikipedia Zeus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Zeus (disambiguation). Greek god of the sky and king of the gods Zeus King of the Gods God of the sky, lightning, thunder, law, order, justice Member of the Twelve Olympians Zeus de Smyrne, discovered in Smyrna in 1680[1] Abode Mount Olympus Symbol Thunderbolt, eagle, bull, oak Day Thursday Personal information Parents Cronus and Rhea Siblings Hestia, Hades, Hera, Poseidon and Demeter; Chiron Consort Hera, various others Children Aeacus, Agdistis, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Epaphus Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Lacedaemon, Melinoë, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, Zagreus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Roman equivalent Jupiter[2] Norse equivalent Thor[3] Slavic equivalent Perun[citation needed] Hinduism equivalent Indra[4][5][6][7] Part of a series on Ancient Greek religion Origins Ancient Greek Religion Mycenaean Greece and Mycenaean religion Minoan Civilization Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Sacred Places Sacred Islands Delos Ithaca Naxos Kythira Samothrace Crete Sacred Mountains Mount Lykaion Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Olympus Mount Kyllini Mount Othrys Sanctuaries Aornum Delphi Didyma Dion Dodona Eleusis Olympia Other Cave of Zeus Troy Deities Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Lesser deities Alpheus Amphitrite Asclepius Bia Circe Cybele Deimos Eileithyia Enyo Eos Eris Harmonia Hebe Hecate Helios Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Metis Momus Nemesis Nike Pan Persephone Phobos Proteus Scamander Selene Thanatos Thetis Triton Zelus Concepts Worldview Greek Mythology Orphic Egg Underworld and Afterlife Miasma Daimon Greek Heroic Age Divine and Reality Apeiron Monism Polytheism Pantheism Form of the Good Theory of forms Mind Anamnesis Ataraxia Apatheia Episteme Epoché Katalepsis Logos Nous Phronesis Soul Anima mundi Metempsychosis Henosis Plato's theory of soul Ethics Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of Reciprocity Delphic maxims Adiaphora Eudaimonia Kathekon Oikeiôsis Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Dionysian Mysteries Practices Worship Agalma Dithyramb Paean Orgion Hiera Orgas Hero Cult Oracle and Pythia Sacrifices and Offerings Holokaustos Libation Votive offering Animal Sacrifice Temples and holy sites Temple Temenos Meditation and Charity Eusebeia Meditation Euergetism Rites of passage Amphidromia Marriage Funeral Rites Festivals Thesmophoria Dionysia Daphnephoria Anthesteria Arrephoria Kronia Genesia Elaphebolia Pyanopsia Khalkeia Haloa Thargelia Three Monthly Festivals Deipnon Noumenia Agathodaemon Religious Games Panathenaia Herakleia Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Nemean Games Pythian Games Isthmian Games Hellenistic philosophy Stoicism Platonism Cynicism Epicureanism Peripatetic Pythagoreanism Pyrrhonism Sophism Philosophers Ancient Hesiod Homer Leucippus Democritus Diogenes of Apollonia Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Thales of Miletus Anaximenes of Miletus Parmenides Melissus of Samos Anaxagoras Empedocles Anaximander Prodicus Classical Socrates Antisthenes Diogenes Aristippus Euclid of Megara Stilpo Aristotle Aristoxenus Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Plato Speusippus Xenocrates Hellenistic and Roman Arcesilaus Carneades Epicurus Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) Plutarch Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Timon of Phlius Sextus Empiricus Cicero Plotinus Julian (emperor) Zeno of Citium Aratus Aristo of Chios Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Marcus Aurelius Epictetus Arrian Texts Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days Other Topics Pilgrimage Sites Calendar Greek mythology Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Julian restoration Modern Restoration  Religion portal  Ancient Greece portal v t e This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Zeus[a] is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules as king of the gods of Mount Olympus. His name is cognate with the first element of his Roman equivalent Jupiter. His mythology and powers are similar, though not identical, to those of Indo-European deities such as Jupiter, Perkūnas, Perun, Indra, Dyaus and Thor.[4][10][11][12] Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, the youngest of his siblings to be born, though sometimes reckoned the eldest as the others required disgorging from Cronus's stomach. In most traditions, he is married to Hera, by whom he is usually said to have fathered Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus.[13] At the oracle of Dodona, his consort was said to be Dione, by whom the Iliad states that he fathered Aphrodite.[16] Zeus was also infamous for his erotic escapades. These resulted in many divine and heroic offspring, including Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, and the Muses.[13] He was respected as an allfather who was chief of the gods[17] and assigned roles to the others:[18] "Even the gods who are not his natural children address him as Father, and all the gods rise in his presence."[19][20] He was equated with many foreign weather gods, permitting Pausanias to observe "That Zeus is king in heaven is a saying common to all men".[21] Zeus' symbols are the thunderbolt, eagle, bull, and oak. In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical "cloud-gatherer" (Greek: Νεφεληγερέτα, Nephelēgereta)[22] also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the ancient Near East, such as the scepter. Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek artists in one of two poses: standing, striding forward with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or seated in majesty. Contents 1 Name 2 Mythology 2.1 Birth 2.2 Infancy 2.3 King of the gods 2.4 Conflicts with humans 2.5 In the Iliad 2.6 List of other deeds 3 Family 3.1 Zeus and Hera 3.2 Transformation of Zeus 3.3 Consorts and offspring 4 Roles and epithets 5 Cults of Zeus 5.1 Panhellenic cults 5.1.1 Zeus Velchanos 5.1.2 Zeus Lykaios 5.1.3 Additional cults of Zeus 5.2 Non-panhellenic cults 5.3 Oracles of Zeus 5.3.1 The Oracle at Dodona 5.3.2 The Oracle at Siwa 6 Zeus and foreign gods 7 Zeus and the sun 8 Zeus in philosophy 9 Zeus in the Bible 10 Zeus in Gnostic literature 11 In modern culture 11.1 Movies 11.2 TV series 11.3 Video games 11.4 Other 12 Genealogy of the Olympians 13 Argive genealogy 14 Gallery 15 See also 16 Notes 17 Citations 18 References 19 External links Name The god's name in the nominative is Ζεύς (Zeús). It is inflected as follows: vocative: Ζεῦ (Zeû); accusative: Δία (Día); genitive: Διός (Diós); dative: Διί (Dií). Diogenes Laërtius quotes Pherecydes of Syros as spelling the name Ζάς.[23] Zeus is the Greek continuation of *Di̯ēus, the name of the Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called *Dyeus ph2tēr ("Sky Father").[24][25] The god is known under this name in the Rigveda (Vedic Sanskrit Dyaus/Dyaus Pita), Latin (compare Jupiter, from Iuppiter, deriving from the Proto-Indo-European vocative *dyeu-ph2tēr),[26] deriving from the root *dyeu- ("to shine", and in its many derivatives, "sky, heaven, god").[24] Zeus is the only deity in the Olympic pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-European etymology.[27] The earliest attested forms of the name are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀇𐀸, di-we and 𐀇𐀺, di-wo, written in the Linear B syllabic script.[28] Plato, in his Cratylus, gives a folk etymology of Zeus meaning "cause of life always to all things", because of puns between alternate titles of Zeus (Zen and Dia) with the Greek words for life and "because of".[29] This etymology, along with Plato's entire method of deriving etymologies, is not supported by modern scholarship.[30][31] Diodorus Siculus wrote that Zeus was also called Zen, because the humans believed that he was the cause of life (zen).[32][33] While Lactantius wrote that he was called Zeus and Zen, not because he is the giver of life, but because he was the first who lived of the children of Cronus.[34] Mythology Birth "Cave of Zeus", Mount Ida, Crete Cronus sired several children by Rhea: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon, but swallowed them all as soon as they were born, since he had learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overthrown by his son as he had previously overthrown Uranus, his own father, an oracle that Rhea heard and wished to avert. When Zeus was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save him, so that Cronus would get his retribution for his acts against Uranus and his own children. Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed.[35] Infancy Varying versions of the story exist: According to Hyginus (Fabulae, 139) Zeus was raised by a nymph named Amalthea. Since Saturn (Cronus) ruled over the Earth, the heavens and the sea, she hid him by dangling him on a rope from a tree so he was suspended between earth, sea and sky and thus, invisible to his father. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 1.1.5-7)) Zeus was raised by a goat named Amalthea in a cave called Dictaeon Antron (Psychro Cave). A company of soldiers called Kouretes danced, shouted and clashed their spears against their shields so that Cronus would not hear the baby's cry. King of the gods After reaching manhood, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge first the stone (which was set down at Pytho under the glens of Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, the Omphalos) then his siblings in reverse order of swallowing. In some versions, Metis gave Cronus an emetic to force him to disgorge the babies, or Zeus cut Cronus's stomach open. Then Zeus released the brothers of Cronus, the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes, from their dungeon in Tartarus, killing their guard, Campe. As a token of their appreciation, the Cyclopes gave him thunder and the thunderbolt, or lightning, which had previously been hidden by Gaia. Together, Zeus, his brothers and sisters, Hecatonchires and Cyclopes overthrew Cronus and the other Titans, in the combat called the Titanomachy. The defeated Titans were then cast into a shadowy underworld region known as Tartarus. Atlas, one of the titans who fought against Zeus, was punished by having to hold up the sky. First century statue of Zeus After the battle with the Titans, Zeus shared the world with his elder brothers, Poseidon and Hades, by drawing lots: Zeus got the sky and air, Poseidon the waters, and Hades the world of the dead (the underworld). The ancient Earth, Gaia, could not be claimed; she was left to all three, each according to their capabilities, which explains why Poseidon was the "earth-shaker" (the god of earthquakes) and Hades claimed the humans who died (see also Penthus).[36] Gaia resented the way Zeus had treated the Titans, because they were her children. Soon after taking the throne as king of the gods, Zeus had to fight some of Gaia's other children, the monsters Typhon and Echidna. He vanquished Typhon and trapped him under Mount Etna, but left Echidna and her children alive. Conflicts with humans When Zeus was atop Mount Olympus he was appalled by human sacrifice and other signs of human decadence. He decided to wipe out mankind and flooded the world with the help of his brother Poseidon. After the flood, only Deucalion and Pyrrha remained.[37] This flood narrative is a common motif in mythology.[38] The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 Stories from the Greek Tragedians by Alfred Church. Throughout history Zeus has been depicted as using violence to get his way and terrorize humans. As god of the sky he has the power to hurl lightning bolts as a weapon. Since lightning is quite powerful and sometimes deadly, it is a bold sign when lightning strikes because it is known that Zeus most likely threw the bolt.[citation needed] In the Iliad Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida by James Barry, 1773 (City Art Galleries, Sheffield.) The Iliad is a poem by Homer about the Trojan war and the battle over the City of Troy, in which Zeus plays a major part. Scenes in which Zeus appears include:[39][40] Book 2: Zeus sends Agamemnon a dream and is able to partially control his decisions because of the effects of the dream Book 4: Zeus promises Hera to ultimately destroy the City of Troy at the end of the war Book 7: Zeus and Poseidon ruin the Achaeans fortress Book 8: Zeus prohibits the other Gods from fighting each other and has to return to Mount Ida where he can think over his decision that the Greeks will lose the war Book 14: Zeus is seduced by Hera and becomes distracted while she helps out the Greeks Book 15: Zeus wakes up and realizes that his own brother, Poseidon has been aiding the Greeks, while also sending Hector and Apollo to help fight the Trojans ensuring that the City of Troy will fall Book 16: Zeus is upset that he couldn't help save Sarpedon's life because it would then contradict his previous decisions Book 17: Zeus is emotionally hurt by the fate of Hector Book 20: Zeus lets the other Gods lend aid to their respective sides in the war Book 24: Zeus demands that Achilles release the corpse of Hector to be buried honourably List of other deeds Zeus granted Callirrhoe's prayer that her sons by Alcmaeon, Acarnan and Amphoterus, grow quickly so that they might be able to avenger the death of their father by the hands of Phegeus and his two sons. He unsuccessfully wooed Thetis, daughter of Nereus. Family Zeus and Hera Main article: Hera Zeus was brother and consort of Hera. By Hera, Zeus sired Ares, Hebe and Hephaestus, though some accounts say that Hera produced these offspring alone. Some also include Eileithyia, Eris, Enyo and Angelos as their daughters. In the section of the Iliad known to scholars as the Deception of Zeus, the two of them are described as having begun their sexual relationship without their parents knowing about it.[41] The conquests of Zeus among nymphs and the mythic mortal progenitors of Hellenic dynasties are famous. Olympian mythography even credits him with unions with Leto, Demeter, Metis, Themis, Eurynome and Mnemosyne.[42][43] Other relationships with immortals included Dione and Maia. Among mortals were Semele, Io, Europa and Leda (for more details, see below) and with the young Ganymede (although he was mortal Zeus granted him eternal youth and immortality). Many myths render Hera as jealous of his amorous conquests and a consistent enemy of Zeus' mistresses and their children by him. For a time, a nymph named Echo had the job of distracting Hera from his affairs by talking incessantly, and when Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to repeat the words of others. Transformation of Zeus Love interest Disguises Aegina an eagle or a flame of fire Alcmene Amphitryon Antiope a satyr Asopis a flame of fire Callisto Artemis Cassiopeia Phoenix Danaë shower of gold Europa a bull Eurymedusa ant Ganymede an eagle Hera a cuckoo Imandra a shower Lamia a lapwing Leda a swan and a star Manthea a bear Mnemosyne a shepherd Nemesis a goose Persephone a serpent Semele a fire Thalia a vulture Consorts and offspring Comparative table of Zeus' family Divine Lovers Offspring Divine Lovers Offspring Mortal Consort Offspring Aega or • Aegipan[44] Themis • Astraea Alcmene • Heracles Aix or • Nemesis Anaxithea • Olenus[45] Boetis • Nymphs of Eridanos Calyce • Aethlius or Ananke • Moirai / Fates1 • Moirai / Fates1 • Endymion 1. Atropos 1. Atropos Cassiopeia • Anchinos[46] 2. Clotho 2. Clotho • Atymnius 3. Lachesis 3. Lachesis Chaldene • Milye Aphrodite • Tyche6 (possibly) • Horae • Solymus Asteria • Hecate[47] First Generation: Chonia • Lacon[48] • Heracles[49][50] 1. Auxo Chloris • Mopsus[48] Asterope • Acragas 2. Carpo Cotonia[51] • Polymedes[48] Calliope • Corybantes 3. Thallo Danaë • Perseus Coryphe • Coria (Athene)[52] Second Generation: Dia • Pirithous Demeter • Persephone 1. Dike Elara or • Tityos • Dionysus[53] 2. Eirene Larissa Dione 3. Eunomia Europa • Minos • Aphrodite Third Generation: • Rhadamanthus Eos • Carae 1. Euporie • Sarpedon Eris • Limos 2. Orthosie • Alagonia[54] Euanthe or • Charites/ Graces2 3. Pherusa • Carnus[55] Eurydome or 1. Aglaea • Athena[56] Euryodeia • Arcesius Eurymedusa or 2. Euphrosyne Unknown mother • Aletheia Helen • Musaeus[48] Eurynome 3. Thalia Unknown mother • Ate Hermippe • Orchomenus[57] • Asopus Unknown mother • Nysean [58] Hippodamia • Olenus[48] Europa • Dodon[59][48] Unknown mother • Caerus Hippodamia[48] no known offspring Gaia • Agdistis Unknown mother • Eubuleus[60] Imandra[61] no known offspring • Manes Unknown mother • Litae Iodame • Thebe[62] • Cyprian Centaurs Unknown mother • Nymphs • Deucalion[63] Hera • Angelos Unknown mother • Phasis[64] Isonoe (Isione) • Orchomenus • Ares3 Semi-divine Lovers Offspring Lamia • Achilleus (Acheilus)[65][66] • Arge[63] Aegina • Aeacus Lamia • Libyan Sibyl (Herophile) • Eileithyia • Damocrateia[67] Laodamia or • Sarpedon • Eleutheria[68] Antiope • Amphion Hippodamia[48] • Enyo • Zethus Leanida • Coron[48] • Eris Borysthenis • Targitaus Leda • Helen of Troy5 • Hebe3 Callisto • Arcas • Pollux • Hephaestus3 Callirrhoe no known offspring Libya • Belus[48] • Curetes[56] Carme • Britomartis Lysithea • Helenus[48] Hybris • Pan Chalcea • Olympus[48] Lysithoe • Heracles[69] Leto • Apollo Charidia • Alchanus[48] Manthea • Arctos[48] • Artemis Chrysogenia[70] • Thissaeus[48] Maera • Locrus Maia • Hermes Electra • Dardanus Megaclite Metis • Athena4 • Emathion • Thebe Mnemosyne • Muses (Original three) • Iasion or Eetion Niobe • Argus 1. Aoide • Harmonia • Pelasgus 2. Melete Eurymedousa • Myrmidon Pandora • Graecus 3. Mneme Eurynome • Ogygias[48] • Latinus[71] • Muses (Later nine) Himalia • Cronius • Melera[72] 1. Calliope • Spartaios • Pandorus[72] 2. Clio • Cytus Phthia • Achaeus 3. Euterpe Hora • Colaxes[73] Protogeneia • Aethlius 4. Erato Idaea • Asterion[48] • Aetolus 5. Melpomene • Cres[74] • Dorus 6. Polyhymnia Io • Epaphus • Opus 7. Terpsichore • Keroessa Pyrrha • Hellen or 8. Thalia Lardane[75] • Sarpedon • Helmetheus[48] 9. Urania • Argus Semele • Dionysus Nemesis • Helen of Troy Neaera • Aegle Thaicrucia[76] • Nympheus[48] Persephone • Melinoë Nymphe • Saon Thebe • Aegyptus[62] • Zagreus Othreis • Meliteus • Heracles[77] Selene • Dionysus[78] Phoenissa[79] • Endymion[48] Thyia[80] • Magnes • Ersa Plouto • Tantalus • Makednos • Nemea Podarge • Balius Unknown mother • Calabrus • Nemean Lion • Xanthus • Geraestus • Pandia Salamis • Saracon[48] • Taenarus[81] Styx • Persephone Taygete • Lacedaemon Unknown mother • Corinthus Thalassa • Aphrodite Themisto • Archas Unknown mother • Crinacus[82] Thalia • Palici Torrhebia • Carius No mother • Orion[83] Nymph African • Iarbas Nymph Sithnid • Megarus 1The Greeks variously claimed that the Moires/Fates were the daughters of Zeus and the Titaness Themis or of primordial beings like Chaos, Nyx, or Ananke. 2The Charites/Graces were usually considered the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome but they were also said to be daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite or of Helios and the naiad Aegle. 3Some accounts say that Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus were born parthenogenetically. 4According to one version, Athena is said to be born parthenogenetically. 5Helen was either the daughter of Leda or Nemesis. 6Tyche is usually considered a daughter of Aphrodite and Hermes. Roles and epithets See also: Category:Epithets of Zeus Roman marble colossal head of Zeus, 2nd century AD (British Museum)[84] Zeus played a dominant role, presiding over the Greek Olympian pantheon. He fathered many of the heroes and was featured in many of their local cults. Though the Homeric "cloud collector" was the god of the sky and thunder like his Near-Eastern counterparts, he was also the supreme cultural artifact; in some senses, he was the embodiment of Greek religious beliefs and the archetypal Greek deity. Aside from local epithets that simply designated the deity as doing something random at some particular place, the epithets or titles applied to Zeus emphasized different aspects of his wide-ranging authority: Zeus Aegiduchos or Aegiochos: Usually taken as Zeus as the bearer of the Aegis, the divine shield with the head of Medusa across it,[85][86][87] although others derive it from "goat" (αἴξ) and okhē (οχή) in reference to Zeus' nurse, the divine goat Amalthea.[88][89] Zeus Agoraeus: Zeus as patron of the marketplace (agora) and punisher of dishonest traders. Zeus Areius: either "warlike" or "the atoning one". Zeus Horkios: Zeus as keeper of oaths. Exposed liars were made to dedicate a votive statue to Zeus, often at the sanctuary at Olympia Zeus Olympios: Zeus as king of the gods and patron of the Panhellenic Games at Olympia Zeus Panhellenios ("Zeus of All the Greeks"): worshipped at Aeacus's temple on Aegina Zeus Xenios, Philoxenon, or Hospites: Zeus as the patron of hospitality (xenia) and guests, avenger of wrongs done to strangers Zeus Eleutherios: "Zeus the freedom giver" a cult worshiped in Athens [90] A bust of Zeus. Additional names and epithets for Zeus are also: Abrettenus (Ἀβρεττηνός) or Abretanus: surname of Zeus in Mysia[91] Achad: one of his names in Syria. Acraeus: his name at Smyrna. Acrettenus: his name in Mysia. Adad: one of his names in Syria. Adultus: from his being invoked by adults, on their marriage. Apemius: Zeus as the averter of ills Apomyius Zeus as one who dispels flies Astrapios ("Lightninger"): Zeus as a weather god Bottiaeus: Worshipped at Antioch[92] Brontios ("Thunderer"): Zeus as a weather god Diktaios: Zeus as lord of the Dikte mountain range, worshipped from Mycenaean times on Crete[93] Dodonian (Δωδωναῖος): meaning of Dodona[94] Ithomatas: Worshipped at Mount Ithome in Messenia Zeus Adados: A Hellenization of the Canaanite Hadad and Assyrian Adad, particularly his solar cult at Heliopolis[95] Zeus Bouleus: Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle, along with Zeus Naos Zeus Georgos (Ζεὺς Γεωργός, "Zeus the Farmer"): Zeus as god of crops and the harvest, worshipped in Athens Zeus Helioupolites ("Heliopolite" or "Heliopolitan Zeus"): A Hellenization of the Canaanite Baʿal (probably Hadad) worshipped as a sun god at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek)[95] Zeus Kasios ("Zeus of Mount Kasios" the modern Jebel Aqra): Worshipped at a site on the Syrian–Turkish border, a Hellenization of the Canaanite mountain and weather god Baal Zephon Zeus Labrandos ("Zeus of Labraunda"): Worshiped at Caria, depicted with a double-edged axe (labrys), a Hellenization of the Hurrian weather god Teshub Zeus Meilichios ("Zeus the Easily-Entreated"): Worshipped at Athens, a form of the archaic chthonic daimon Meilichios Zeus Naos: Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle, along with Zeus Bouleus Zeus Tallaios ("Solar Zeus"): Worshipped on Crete Hetareios (Ἑταιρεῖος, "of fellowship"). According to the Suda, Zeus was called this among the Cretans.[96] Eleutherios (Ἐλευθέριος, "of freedom"). At Athens after the Battle of Plataea, Athenians built the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios.[97] Some writers said that was called "of freedom" because free men built the portico near his shrine, while others because Athenians escaped subjection to the power of Persia and they were free.[98] Bottiaios (Βοττιαίος, "of the Bottiaei"). Libanius wrote that Alexander the Great founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios, in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.[99][100] Ourios (Οὐριος, "of favourable wind"). Ancient writers wrote about a sanctuary at the opening of the Black Sea dedicated to the Zeus Ourios (ἱερὸν τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Οὐρίου).[101] In addition, on the island of Delos a dedication to Zeus Ourios was found. The dedication was made by a citizen of Ascalon, named Damon son of Demetrius, who escaped from pirates.[102] Guardian of Trophies, after the Battle of the 300 Champions, Othryades, dedicated the trophy to "Zeus, Guardian of Trophies" (τροπαιούχῳ).[103] Leader of Fate (Μοιραγέτης), Pausanias wrote that this was a surname of Zeus, because he knew the affairs of men, all that the Fates give them and all that is not destined for them.[104] Cults of Zeus Marble eagle from the sanctuary of Zeus Hypsistos, Archaeological Museum of Dion. Panhellenic cults Colossal seated Marnas from Gaza portrayed in the style of Zeus. Roman period Marnas[105] was the chief divinity of Gaza (Istanbul Archaeology Museum). The major center where all Greeks converged to pay honor to their chief god was Olympia. Their quadrennial festival featured the famous Games. There was also an altar to Zeus made not of stone, but of ash, from the accumulated remains of many centuries' worth of animals sacrificed there. Outside of the major inter-polis sanctuaries, there were no modes of worshipping Zeus precisely shared across the Greek world. Most of the titles listed below, for instance, could be found at any number of Greek temples from Asia Minor to Sicily. Certain modes of ritual were held in common as well: sacrificing a white animal over a raised altar, for instance. Zeus Velchanos With one exception, Greeks were unanimous in recognizing the birthplace of Zeus as Crete. Minoan culture contributed many essentials of ancient Greek religion: "by a hundred channels the old civilization emptied itself into the new", Will Durant observed,[106] and Cretan Zeus retained his youthful Minoan features. The local child of the Great Mother, "a small and inferior deity who took the roles of son and consort",[107] whose Minoan name the Greeks Hellenized as Velchanos, was in time assumed as an epithet by Zeus, as transpired at many other sites, and he came to be venerated in Crete as Zeus Velchanos ("boy-Zeus"), often simply the Kouros. In Crete, Zeus was worshipped at a number of caves at Knossos, Ida and Palaikastro. In the Hellenistic period a small sanctuary dedicated to Zeus Velchanos was founded at the Hagia Triada site of a long-ruined Minoan palace. Broadly contemporary coins from Phaistos show the form under which he was worshiped: a youth sits among the branches of a tree, with a cockerel on his knees.[108] On other Cretan coins Velchanos is represented as an eagle and in association with a goddess celebrating a mystic marriage.[109] Inscriptions at Gortyn and Lyttos record a Velchania festival, showing that Velchanios was still widely venerated in Hellenistic Crete.[110] The stories of Minos and Epimenides suggest that these caves were once used for incubatory divination by kings and priests. The dramatic setting of Plato's Laws is along the pilgrimage-route to one such site, emphasizing archaic Cretan knowledge. On Crete, Zeus was represented in art as a long-haired youth rather than a mature adult and hymned as ho megas kouros, "the great youth". Ivory statuettes of the "Divine Boy" were unearthed near the Labyrinth at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans.[111] With the Kouretes, a band of ecstatic armed dancers, he presided over the rigorous military-athletic training and secret rites of the Cretan paideia. The myth of the death of Cretan Zeus, localised in numerous mountain sites though only mentioned in a comparatively late source, Callimachus,[112] together with the assertion of Antoninus Liberalis that a fire shone forth annually from the birth-cave the infant shared with a mythic swarm of bees, suggests that Velchanos had been an annual vegetative spirit.[113] The Hellenistic writer Euhemerus apparently proposed a theory that Zeus had actually been a great king of Crete and that posthumously, his glory had slowly turned him into a deity. The works of Euhemerus himself have not survived, but Christian patristic writers took up the suggestion. Zeus Lykaios Further information: Lykaia Laurel-wreathed head of Zeus on a gold stater, Lampsacus, c 360–340 BC (Cabinet des Médailles). The epithet Zeus Lykaios ("wolf-Zeus") is assumed by Zeus only in connection with the archaic festival of the Lykaia on the slopes of Mount Lykaion ("Wolf Mountain"), the tallest peak in rustic Arcadia; Zeus had only a formal connection[114] with the rituals and myths of this primitive rite of passage with an ancient threat of cannibalism and the possibility of a werewolf transformation for the ephebes who were the participants.[115] Near the ancient ash-heap where the sacrifices took place[116] was a forbidden precinct in which, allegedly, no shadows were ever cast.[117] According to Plato,[118] a particular clan would gather on the mountain to make a sacrifice every nine years to Zeus Lykaios, and a single morsel of human entrails would be intermingled with the animal's. Whoever ate the human flesh was said to turn into a wolf, and could only regain human form if he did not eat again of human flesh until the next nine-year cycle had ended. There were games associated with the Lykaia, removed in the fourth century to the first urbanization of Arcadia, Megalopolis; there the major temple was dedicated to Zeus Lykaios. There is, however, the crucial detail that Lykaios or Lykeios (epithets of Zeus and Apollo) may derive from Proto-Greek *λύκη, "light", a noun still attested in compounds such as ἀμφιλύκη, "twilight", λυκάβας, "year" (lit. "light's course") etc. This, Cook argues, brings indeed much new 'light' to the matter as Achaeus, the contemporary tragedian of Sophocles, spoke of Zeus Lykaios as "starry-eyed", and this Zeus Lykaios may just be the Arcadian Zeus, son of Aether, described by Cicero. Again under this new signification may be seen Pausanias' descriptions of Lykosoura being 'the first city that ever the sun beheld', and of the altar of Zeus, at the summit of Mount Lykaion, before which stood two columns bearing gilded eagles and 'facing the sun-rise'. Further Cook sees only the tale of Zeus' sacred precinct at Mount Lykaion allowing no shadows referring to Zeus as 'god of light' (Lykaios).[119] A statue of Zeus in a drawing. Additional cults of Zeus This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Although etymology indicates that Zeus was originally a sky god, many Greek cities honored a local Zeus who lived underground. Athenians and Sicilians honored Zeus Meilichios ("kindly" or "honeyed") while other cities had Zeus Chthonios ("earthy"), Zeus Katachthonios ("under-the-earth") and Zeus Plousios ("wealth-bringing"). These deities might be represented as snakes or in human form in visual art, or, for emphasis as both together in one image. They also received offerings of black animal victims sacrificed into sunken pits, as did chthonic deities like Persephone and Demeter, and also the heroes at their tombs. Olympian gods, by contrast, usually received white victims sacrificed upon raised altars. In some cases, cities were not entirely sure whether the daimon to whom they sacrificed was a hero or an underground Zeus. Thus the shrine at Lebadaea in Boeotia might belong to the hero Trophonius or to Zeus Trephonius ("the nurturing"), depending on whether you believe Pausanias, or Strabo. The hero Amphiaraus was honored as Zeus Amphiaraus at Oropus outside of Thebes, and the Spartans even had a shrine to Zeus Agamemnon. Ancient Molossian kings sacrificed to Zeus Areius. Strabo mention that at Tralles there was the Zeus Larisaeus.[120] Non-panhellenic cults Roman cast terracotta of ram-horned Jupiter Ammon, 1st century AD (Museo Barracco, Rome). In addition to the Panhellenic titles and conceptions listed above, local cults maintained their own idiosyncratic ideas about the king of gods and men. With the epithet Zeus Aetnaeus he was worshiped on Mount Aetna, where there was a statue of him, and a local festival called the Aetnaea in his honor.[121] Other examples are listed below. As Zeus Aeneius or Zeus Aenesius, he was worshiped in the island of Cephalonia, where he had a temple on Mount Aenos.[122] Oracles of Zeus Although most oracle sites were usually dedicated to Apollo, the heroes, or various goddesses like Themis, a few oracular sites were dedicated to Zeus. In addition, some foreign oracles, such as Baʿal's at Heliopolis, were associated with Zeus in Greek or Jupiter in Latin. The Oracle at Dodona The cult of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus, where there is evidence of religious activity from the second millennium BC onward, centered on a sacred oak. When the Odyssey was composed (circa 750 BC), divination was done there by barefoot priests called Selloi, who lay on the ground and observed the rustling of the leaves and branches.[123] By the time Herodotus wrote about Dodona, female priestesses called peleiades ("doves") had replaced the male priests. Zeus' consort at Dodona was not Hera, but the goddess Dione — whose name is a feminine form of "Zeus". Her status as a titaness suggests to some that she may have been a more powerful pre-Hellenic deity, and perhaps the original occupant of the oracle. The Oracle at Siwa The oracle of Ammon at the Siwa Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt did not lie within the bounds of the Greek world before Alexander's day, but it already loomed large in the Greek mind during the archaic era: Herodotus mentions consultations with Zeus Ammon in his account of the Persian War. Zeus Ammon was especially favored at Sparta, where a temple to him existed by the time of the Peloponnesian War.[124] After Alexander made a trek into the desert to consult the oracle at Siwa, the figure arose in the Hellenistic imagination of a Libyan Sibyl. Zeus and foreign gods Evolution of Zeus Nikephoros ("Zeus holding Nike") on Indo-Greek coinage: from the Classical motif of Nike handing the wreath of victory to Zeus himself (left, coin of Heliocles I 145-130 BC), then to a baby elephant (middle, coin of Antialcidas 115-95 BC), and then to the Wheel of the Law, symbol of Buddhism (right, coin of Menander II 90–85 BC). Zeus as Vajrapāni, the protector of the Buddha. 2nd century, Greco-Buddhist art.[125] Zeus was identified with the Roman god Jupiter and associated in the syncretic classical imagination (see interpretatio graeca) with various other deities, such as the Egyptian Ammon and the Etruscan Tinia. He, along with Dionysus, absorbed the role of the chief Phrygian god Sabazios in the syncretic deity known in Rome as Sabazius. The Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes erected a statue of Zeus Olympios in the Judean Temple in Jerusalem.[126] Hellenizing Jews referred to this statue as Baal Shamen (in English, Lord of Heaven).[127] Zeus and the sun Zeus is occasionally conflated with the Hellenic sun god, Helios, who is sometimes either directly referred to as Zeus' eye,[128] or clearly implied as such. Hesiod, for instance, describes Zeus' eye as effectively the sun.[129] This perception is possibly derived from earlier Proto-Indo-European religion, in which the sun is occasionally envisioned as the eye of *Dyḗus Pḥatḗr (see Hvare-khshaeta).[130] The Cretan Zeus Tallaios had solar elements to his cult. "Talos" was the local equivalent of Helios.[131] Zeus in philosophy In Neoplatonism, Zeus' relation to the gods familiar from mythology is taught as the Demiurge or Divine Mind, specifically within Plotinus's work the Enneads[132] and the Platonic Theology of Proclus. Zeus in the Bible Zeus is mentioned in the New Testament twice, first in Acts 14:8–13: When the people living in Lystra saw the Apostle Paul heal a lame man, they considered Paul and his partner Barnabas to be gods, identifying Paul with Hermes and Barnabas with Zeus, even trying to offer them sacrifices with the crowd. Two ancient inscriptions discovered in 1909 near Lystra testify to the worship of these two gods in that city.[133] One of the inscriptions refers to the "priests of Zeus", and the other mentions "Hermes Most Great"" and "Zeus the sun-god".[134] The second occurrence is in Acts 28:11: the name of the ship in which the prisoner Paul set sail from the island of Malta bore the figurehead "Sons of Zeus" aka Castor and Pollux. The deuterocanonical book of 2 Maccabees 6:1, 2 talks of King Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), who in his attempt to stamp out the Jewish religion, directed that the temple at Jerusalem be profaned and rededicated to Zeus (Jupiter Olympius).[135] Zeus in Gnostic literature Pistis Sophia, a Gnostic text discovered in 1773 and possibly written between the 3rd and 4th centuries AD alludes to Zeus. He appears there as one of five grand rulers gathered together by a divine figure named Yew, as the manuscript states.[136] In modern culture Movies Zeus was portrayed by Axel Ringvall in Jupiter på jorden, the first known film adaption to feature Zeus; Niall MacGinnis in Jason and the Argonauts[137][138] and Angus MacFadyen in the 2000 remake;[139] Laurence Olivier in the original Clash of the Titans,[140] and Liam Neeson in the 2010 remake,[141] along with the 2012 sequel Wrath of the Titans;[142][143] Rip Torn in the Disney animated feature Hercules[144] and Sean Bean in Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2010).[145] TV series Zeus was portrayed by Anthony Quinn in the 1990s TV series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys,[146] Corey Burton in the TV series Hercules and by Hakeem Kae-Kazim in Troy: Fall of a City.[147] Video games Zeus has been portrayed by Corey Burton in God of War II, God of War III, God of War: Ascension, PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale & Kingdom Hearts 3[148][149] and Eric Newsome in Dota 2. Other Depictions of Zeus as a bull, the form he took when abducting Europa, are found on the Greek 2-euro coin and on the United Kingdom identity card for visa holders. Mary Beard, professor of Classics at Cambridge University, has criticised this for its apparent celebration of rape.[150] Genealogy of the Olympians Olympians' family tree [151] Uranus Gaia Uranus' genitals Cronus Rhea Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades Demeter Hestia     a[152]      b[153] Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena[154] Leto Apollo Artemis Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione     a[155]      b[156] Aphrodite Argive genealogy Argive genealogy in Greek mythology v t e Inachus Melia Zeus Io Phoroneus Epaphus Memphis Libya Poseidon Belus Achiroë Agenor Telephassa Danaus Pieria Aegyptus Cadmus Cilix Europa Phoenix Mantineus Hypermnestra Lynceus Harmonia Zeus Polydorus Sparta Lacedaemon Ocalea Abas Agave Sarpedon Rhadamanthus Autonoë Eurydice Acrisius Ino Minos Zeus Danaë Semele Zeus Perseus Dionysus Colour key:   Male   Female   Deity Gallery The abduction of Europa from Zeus Olympian assembly, from left to right: Apollo, Zeus and Hera The "Golden Man" Zeus statue Enthroned Zeus (Greek, c. 100 BC) - modeled after the Olympian Zeus by Pheidas (c. 430 BC) Zeus and Hera Zeus statue Zeus/Poseidon statue See also Ancient Greece portal Myths portal Religion portal Achaean League Agetor Ambulia – Spartan epithet used for Athena, Zeus, and Castor and Pollux Deception of Zeus Hetairideia – Thessalian Festival to Zeus Temple of Zeus, Olympia Zanes of Olympia – Statues of Zeus Notes ^ British English /zjuːs/;[8] American English /zuːs/[9] Attic–Ionic Greek: Ζεύς, romanized: Zeús Attic–Ionic pronunciation: [zděu̯s] or [dzěu̯s], Koine Greek pronunciation: [zeʍs], Modern Greek pronunciation: [zefs]; genitive: Δῐός, romanized: Diós [di.ós] Boeotian Aeolic and Laconian Doric Greek: Δεύς, romanized: Deús Doric Greek: [děu̯s]; genitive: Δέος, romanized: Déos [dé.os] Greek: Δίας, romanized: Días Modern Greek: [ˈði.as̠] Citations ^ The sculpture was presented to Louis XIV as Aesculapius but restored as Zeus, ca. 1686, by Pierre Granier, who added the upraised right arm brandishing the thunderbolt. Marble, middle 2nd century CE. Formerly in the 'Allée Royale', (Tapis Vert) in the Gardens of Versailles, now conserved in the Louvre Museum (Official on-line catalog) ^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. ^ https://www.theoi.com/articles/thor-greek-god-all-you-need-to-know/ ^ a b Thomas Berry (1996). Religions of India: Hinduism, Yoga, Buddhism. Columbia University Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-231-10781-5. ^ T. N. Madan (2003). The Hinduism Omnibus. Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-19-566411-9. ^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2015). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–281. ^ Roshen Dalal (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. ISBN 9788184752779. Entry: "Dyaus" ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "Zeus, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1921. ^ Zeus in the American Heritage Dictionary ^ T. N. Madan (2003). The Hinduism Omnibus. Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-19-566411-9. ^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2015). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–281. ^ Roshen Dalal (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. ISBN 9788184752779. Entry: "Dyaus" ^ a b Hamilton, Edith (1942). Mythology (1998 ed.). New York: Back Bay Books. p. 467. ISBN 978-0-316-34114-1. ^ Homer, Il., Book V. ^ Plato, Symp., 180e. ^ There are two major conflicting stories for Aphrodite's origins: Hesiod's Theogony claims that she was born from the foam of the sea after Cronos castrated Uranus, making her Uranus's daughter but Homer's Iliad has Aphrodite as the daughter of Zeus and Dione.[14] A speaker in Plato's Symposium offers that they were separate figures: Aphrodite Ourania and Aphrodite Pandemos.[15] ^ Homeric Hymns. ^ Hesiod, Theogony. ^ Burkert, Greek Religion. ^ See, e.g., Homer, Il., I.503 & 533. ^ Pausanias, 2.24.2. ^ Νεφεληγερέτα. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Laërtius, Diogenes (1972) [1925]. "1.11". In Hicks, R.D. (ed.). Lives of Eminent Philosophers. "1.11". Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers (in Greek). ^ a b "Zeus". American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved 3 July 2006. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 499. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Jupiter". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Burkert (1985). Greek Religion. p. 321. ISBN 0-674-36280-2. ^ "The Linear B word di-we". "The Linear B word di-wo". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages. ^ "Plato's Cratylus" by Plato, ed. by David Sedley, Cambridge University Press, 6 November 2003, p. 91 ^ Jevons, Frank Byron (1903). The Makers of Hellas. C. Griffin, Limited. ^ Joseph, John Earl (2000). Limiting the Arbitrary. ISBN 1556197497. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 5.72 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 3.61 ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes, 1.11.1 ^ "Greek and Roman Mythology.". Mythology: Myths, Legends, & Fantasy. Sweet Water Press. 2003. p. 21. ISBN 9781468265903. ^ Foley, Ryan (2012). Zeus and the Rise of the Olympians. Steerforth Press. ISBN 978-93-80741-15-4. ^ "Greek Gods". AllAboutHistory.org. Retrieved 2 December 2015. ^ Leeming, David (2004). Flood | The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195156690. Retrieved 14 February 2019. ^ "The Gods in the Iliad". department.monm.edu. Retrieved 2 December 2015. ^ Homer (1990). The Iliad. South Africa: Penguin Classics. ^ Iliad, Book 14, line 294 ^ Theogony 886–900. ^ Theogony 901–911. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 155 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Ōlenos ^ Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions 10.22] ^ according to Musaeus as cited Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.467 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions 10.21-23 ^ Cicero. De Natura Deorum, 3.16 ^ Athenaeus. Deipnosophists, 9.392 ^ daughter of Lesbus ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.59 ^ Scholiast on Pindar, Pythian Odes 3.177; Hesychius ^ Natalis Comes, Mythologiae viii.23 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 3.13.5 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 6.1.9 ^ Scholia on Iliad, 2. 511 ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 2.904-906 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Dōdōne, with a reference to Acestodorus ^ Hymn 30.6, as cited by Graf and Johnston, Ritual Texts, pp. 123–124 (Hymn 29 in the translation of Thomas Taylor). ^ daughter of Geneanus as cited in Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions 10.21-23 ^ a b Tzetzes on Lycophron, 1206 ^ a b Murray, John (1833). A Classical Manual, being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. p. 8. ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 5.205 ^ Photios (1824). "190.489R". In Bekker, August Immanuel (ed.). Myriobiblon (in Greek). Tomus alter. Berlin: Ge. Reimer. p. 152a. At the Internet Archive. "190.152a" (PDF). Myriobiblon (in Greek). Interreg Δρόμοι της πίστης – Ψηφιακή Πατρολογία. 2006. p. 163. At khazarzar.skeptik.net. ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion Book 6 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Olympian Ode 9, 107 ^ Eleutheria is the Greek counterpart of Libertas (Liberty), daughter of Jove and Juno as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae Preface ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.16.42 ^ daughter of Peneus ^ Ioannes Lydus, De Mensibus i.13 ^ a b Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions 10.21 ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 6.48ff., 6.651ff ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Krētē ^ Murray, John (1833). A Classical Manual, being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. pp. 5–6. ^ daughter of Proteus ^ John Lydus, De mensibus 4.67 ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.21-23 ^ daughter of Alphionis (Alpheus) ^ Hesiod, Ehoiai fr. 3 as cited in Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Thematibus, 2 (p. 86 sq. Pertusi) ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Tainaros ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5.81.4 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 195 in which Orion was produced from a bull's hide urinated by three gods, Zeus, Poseidon and Hermes ^ The bust below the base of the neck is eighteenth century. The head, which is roughly worked at back and must have occupied a niche, was found at Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli and donated to the British Museum by John Thomas Barber Beaumont in 1836. BM 1516. (British Museum, A Catalogue of Sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1904). ^ Homer, Iliad i. 202, ii. 157, 375, &c. ^ Pindar, Isthmian Odes iv. 99 ^ Hyginus, Poetical Astronomy ii. 13 ^ Spanh. ad Callim. hymn. in Jov, 49 ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Aegiduchos". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. I. Boston. p. 26. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. ^ Strab. xii. p. 574 ^ Libanius (2000). Antioch as a Centre of Hellenic Culture as Observed by Libanius. Translated with an introduction by A.F. Norman. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-85323-595-3. ^ Δικταῖος in Liddell and Scott. ^ Suda, delta, 1446 ^ a b Cook, Arthur Bernard (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 549 ff.. ^ Suda ε 3269 ^ Agora Monument: Stoa of Zeus ^ ε 804 ^ (Libanius, Oration In Praise Of Antioch, 88 ^ Ancient Antioch, Glanville Downey, Princeton University Press, 2015. ^ Marcianus, Epitome of Menippus' Periplus, 6-8 ^ Dedication to Zeus Ourios and Astarte Palaistine Aphrodite Ourania, followed by a small sacrificial regulation, from Delos ^ Plutarch, Parallels Between Greek and Roman Histories, Moralia, 3 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.15.5 ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Gaza" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.; Johannes Hahn: Gewalt und religiöser Konflikt; The Holy Land and the Bible ^ Durant, The Life of Greece (The Story of Civilization Part II, New York: Simon & Schuster) 1939:23. ^ Rodney Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze-Age Crete, "The Minoan belief-system" (Routledge) 1990:125 ^ Pointed out by Bernard Clive Dietrich, The Origins of Greek Religion (de Gruyter) 1973:15. ^ A.B. Cook, Zeus Cambridge University Press, 1914, I, figs 397, 398. ^ Dietrich 1973, noting Martin P. Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, and Its Survival in Greek Religion 1950:551 and notes. ^ "Professor Stylianos Alexiou reminds us that there were other divine boys who survived from the religion of the pre-Hellenic period — Linos, Ploutos and Dionysos — so not all the young male deities we see depicted in Minoan works of art are necessarily Velchanos" (Castleden 1990:125 ^ Richard Wyatt Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, (Harmondsworth: Penguin) 1968:204, mentions that there is no classical reference to the death of Zeus (noted by Dietrich 1973:16 note 78). ^ "This annually reborn god of vegetation also experienced the other parts of the vegetation cycle: holy marriage and annual death when he was thought to disappear from the earth" (Dietrich 1973:15). ^ In the founding myth of Lycaon's banquet for the gods that included the flesh of a human sacrifice, perhaps one of his sons, Nyctimus or Arcas. Zeus overturned the table and struck the house of Lyceus with a thunderbolt; his patronage at the Lykaia can have been little more than a formula. ^ A morphological connection to lyke "brightness" may be merely fortuitous. ^ Modern archaeologists have found no trace of human remains among the sacrificial detritus, Walter Burkert, "Lykaia and Lykaion", Homo Necans, tr. by Peter Bing (University of California) 1983, p. 90. ^ Pausanias 8.38. ^ Republic 565d-e ^ A. B. Cook (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Vol. I, p.63, Cambridge University Press ^ Strabo, Geography, book 14, chapter 1.42 ^ Schol. ad Pind. Ol. vi. 162 ^ Hesiod, according to a scholium on Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautika, ii. 297 ^ Odyssey 14.326-7 ^ Pausanias 3.18. ^ "In the art of Gandhara Zeus became the inseparable companion of the Buddha as Vajrapani." in Freedom, Progress, and Society, K. Satchidananda Murty, R. Balasubramanian, Sibajiban Bhattacharyya, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1986, p. 97 ^ 2 Maccabees 6:2 ^ David Syme Russel. Daniel. (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1981) 191. ^ Sick, David H. (2004), "Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun", Numen, 51 (4): 432–467, JSTOR 3270454 ^ Ljuba Merlina Bortolani, Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A Study of Greek and Egyptian Traditions of Divinity, Cambridge University Press, 13 October 2016 ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth (PDF). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 194–196. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Retrieved 7 May 2017. ^ Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:110. ^ In Fourth Tractate 'Problems of the Soul' The Demiurge is identified as Zeus.10. "When under the name of Zeus we are considering the Demiurge we must leave out all notions of stage and progress, and recognize one unchanging and timeless life." ^ The translation of Hermes ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, edited by J. Orr, 1960, Vol. III, p. 1944. ^ "The Second Book of the Maccabees". ^ George R. S. Mead (1963). Pistis Sophia. Jazzybee Verlag. p. 190. ISBN 9783849687090. ^ Rochim, Fatchur (8 November 2011). "Ini Dia Aktor-Aktor Yang Pernah Memerankan Dewa Zeus". KapanLagi (in Indonesian). Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ "Zei, semizei, eroi..." Cinemagia (in Romanian). 24 July 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Piantadosi, Roger (30 March 2016). "Angus Macfadyen, 'Unhinged' in Virginia". Rapp News. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Canby, Vincent (12 June 1981). "'CLASH OF TITANS' WITH OLIVIER AS ZEUS". NY Times. The New York Times Company. p. 6. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ "From Schindler to Zeus". Telegraph India. Telegraph. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Dittman, Earl (27 June 2012). "Liam Neeson digs playing a god in 'Wrath Of The Titans'". Digital Journal. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Wigler, Josh (12 August 2010). "Liam Neeson Returns As Zeus For 'Wrath Of The Titans'". MTV News. MTV. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Lipp, Chaz (21 August 2014). "Blu-ray Review: Disney's Hercules (1997)". The Morton Report. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Roger Ebert's Movie Yearbook 2011 ^ Becker, Josh (1 May 2008). Rushes. Wildside Press LLC. p. 145. ISBN 9780809573004. ^ Clarke, Stewart (19 July 2017). "Hakeem Kae-Kazim to Play Zeus in BBC and Netflix Series 'Troy'". Variety. Retrieved 19 July 2017. ^ Fermin, Margret (23 April 2018). "God of War Cast – Who Are The Voice Actors (2018)?". PlayStation Universe. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Radcliffe, Noam (31 December 2018). "Kingdom Hearts 3 English Voice Actors: Who Are They?". DBLTAP. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ A Point of View: The euro's strange stories, BBC, retrieved 20 November 2011 ^ This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted. ^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod's Theogony, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her (886–890), later after mentioning the birth of his other children, Hesiod says that Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head" (924–926), see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. ^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100. References Burkert, Walter, (1977) 1985. Greek Religion, especially section III.ii.1 (Harvard University Press) Cook, Arthur Bernard, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, (3 volume set), (1914–1925). New York, Bibilo & Tannen: 1964. Volume 1: Zeus, God of the Bright Sky, Biblo-Moser, 1 June 1964, ISBN 0-8196-0148-9 (reprint) Volume 2: Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (Thunder and Lightning), Biblo-Moser, 1 June 1964, ISBN 0-8196-0156-X Volume 3: Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites) Druon, Maurice, The Memoirs of Zeus, 1964, Charles Scribner's and Sons. (tr. Humphrey Hare) Farnell, Lewis Richard, Cults of the Greek States 5 vols. Oxford; Clarendon 1896–1909. Still the standard reference. Farnell, Lewis Richard, Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality, 1921. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Graves, Robert; The Greek Myths, Penguin Books Ltd. (1960 edition) Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Mitford, William, The History of Greece, 1784. Cf. v.1, Chapter II, Religion of the Early Greeks Moore, Clifford H., The Religious Thought of the Greeks, 1916. Nilsson, Martin P., Greek Popular Religion, 1940. Nilsson, Martin P., History of Greek Religion, 1949. Rohde, Erwin, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks, 1925. Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, Ancientlibrary.com, William Smith, Dictionary: "Zeus" Ancientlibrary.com External links Library resources about Zeus Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zeus. 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en-wikipedia-org-3426	----	Pirithous - Wikipedia Pirithous From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e "Pirithous' Kampf um Helena" by Joseph Echteler and Richard Brend’amour [de] Pirithous (/ˌpaɪˈrɪθoʊ.əs/; Greek: Πειρίθοος or Πειρίθους, derived from περιθεῖν, peritheein, 'to run around'[citation needed]; also transliterated as Perithous), in Greek mythology, was the King of the Lapiths of Larissa in Thessaly, as well as best friend to Theseus. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early years 2 Centauromachy 3 Punishment in the Underworld 3.1 Rescue 4 Gallery 5 References 6 Bibliography Biography[edit] Pirithous was a son of "heavenly" Dia, fathered either by Ixion[1][2][3] or by Zeus.[4][5] He married Hippodamia, daughter of Atrax or Butes, at whose wedding the famous Battle of Lapiths and Centaurs occurred. By his wife, he became the father of Polypoetes,[6] one of the Greek leaders during the Trojan War. Peirithous was also the close friend of the hero Theseus. Early years[edit] According to Homer, Dia had sex with Zeus, who was disguised as a stallion, and gave birth to Pirithous; a folk etymology derived Pirithous' name from peritheein (περιθεῖν, 'to run around'), because that was what Zeus did to seduce Dia. His best friend was Theseus. In the Iliad I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in literary epic. In disjointed episodes that have survived, Pirithous had heard rumors about Theseus' courage and strength in battle but he wanted proof. He rustled Theseus' herd of cattle from Marathon, and Theseus set out to pursue him. Pirithous took up arms and the pair met, then became so impressed by each other they took an oath of friendship. They were among the company of heroes that hunted the Calydonian Boar, another mythic theme that was already well known to Homer's listeners. Centauromachy[edit] Later, Pirithous was set to marry Hippodamia, their offspring being Polypoetes. The centaurs were guests at the party, but they got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia who was carried off by the intoxicated centaur Eurytion or Eurytus. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle, the Centauromachy, a favorite motif of Greek art.[7][8][9] Pirithous, Hippodamia (here labeled under the name Laodameia), a Centaur, and Theseus, on an Apulian red-figure calyx-krater, 350-340 BC Punishment in the Underworld[edit] Hippodamia died shortly after Polypoetes' birth, after which Pirithous went to visit Theseus at Athens only to discover that Theseus' own wife, Phaedra, was dead.[10] Thus, Pirithous and Theseus pledged to carry off daughters of Zeus; Theseus chose Helen of Sparta and together they kidnapped her when she was 13 years of age and decided to hold on to her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose a more dangerous prize: Persephone herself. They left Helen with Theseus' mother, Aethra, at Aphidnae, and traveled to the underworld. When they stopped to rest, they found themselves unable to stand up from the rock as they saw the Furies appear before them. Rescue[edit] Heracles freed Theseus from the stone, but the earth shook when he attempted to free Pirithous.[11] He had committed too great a crime for wanting the wife of one of the great gods as his own bride.[12] By the time Theseus returned to Athens, the Dioscuri (Helen's twin brothers Castor and Pollux) had taken Helen back to Sparta; they had taken captive Aethra as well as Pirithous' sister, Physadeia, and they became handmaidens of Helen and later followed her to Troy.[13] The rescue of Theseus and Pirithous acquired a humorous tone in the realm of Attic comedy, in which Heracles attempted to free them from the rock to which they had been bound together in the Underworld (for having tried to carry off Persephone). He succeeded in freeing only Theseus and left behind his buttocks attached to the rocks. Due to this Theseus came to be called hypolispos, meaning "with hinder parts rubbed smooth."[14][15] This may have been a later invention. Pirithous was worshiped at Athens, along with Theseus, as a hero.[16][17][18][19] Gallery[edit] Erinnye, den Peirithoos in der Unterwelt bindend (Vasenbild) (circa 1885) Theseus and Pirithous abducting Elena by Pelagio Palagi (1814) Herakles, Theseus and Pirithoos in Hades, with Hermes. (Attic red-figure calyx-krater between circa 450 and circa 440 BC) Theseus and Pirithoüs Clearing the Earth of Brigands, Deliver Two Women from the Hands of their Abductors by Angelique Mongez (1806) Theseus leading Helen to a chariot arranged by Peirithoos. Helen's sister, Phoibe (on the right), watches on. Attic red-figure stamnos by Polygnotos, ca. 430-420 BC. References[edit] ^ Homer, Iliad 2.741 & 14.17 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.8.2 ^ Eustathius ad Homer, p. 101.1 ^ Homer, Iliad 14.317 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 155 ^ Homer, Iliad 2.740 & 12.129 ^ Homer, Odyssey 11.630 & 21.296-304 ^ Homer, Iliad 1.263 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.218 ff ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica (Book 4, Ch. 63) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca (Book 2, Ch. 5, sec. 12) ^ Virgil, Aeneid (Book 6, ln. 393) ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 79 & 92 ^ Licht, Hans. Sexual life in ancient Greece. 1994, p. 232. ^ Horace, Odes (Book 4, ln. 7) ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio (Book 1, Ch. 30, sect. 4; Book 10, Ch. 29, sect. 2) ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses (Book 8, ln. 566) ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 36.4 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca (Book 1, Ch. 8, sect. 2) Bibliography[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888-1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 1855. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. William Smith. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. s.v. Peirithous. London (1848). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pirithous&oldid=992908035" Categories: Children of Zeus Argonauts Kings of the Lapiths Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Heroes who ventured to Hades Mythology of Heracles Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Català Čeština Corsu Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2020, at 19:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3430	----	Laertes - Wikipedia Laertes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Laërtes) Jump to navigation Jump to search Odysseus meets his father Laertes on his return to Ithaca (Theodoor van Thulden, 1600) legendary king of Ithaca For the Shakespearean character, see Laertes (Hamlet). For the town of ancient Cilicia, see Laertes (Cilicia). In Greek mythology, Laertes (/leɪˈɜːrtiːz/; Greek: Λαέρτης, Laértēs Greek pronunciation: [laː.ér.tɛːs]; also spelled Laërtes) was the father of Odysseus, an Argonaut, and a participant in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. His title was King of the Cephallenians, an ethnic group who lived both on the Ionian islands and on the mainland,[1] which he presumably inherited from his father Arcesius and grandfather Cephalus. His realm included Ithaca and surrounding islands, and perhaps even the neighboring part of the mainland of other Greek city-states. Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Family[edit] Laertes was the son of Arcesius and Chalcomedusa and the father of Odysseus (who was thus called Laertiádēs, Λαερτιάδης, "son of Laertes") and Ctimene by his wife Anticlea, daughter of the thief Autolycus. Another account says that Laertes was not Odysseus's true father; rather, it was Sisyphus, who had seduced Anticlea.[2] Mythology[edit] Laertes stays away from Odysseus' home while Odysseus is gone. He keeps to himself on his farm, overcome with grief over Odysseus' absence and alone after his wife, Anticleia, died from grief herself. Odysseus finally comes to see Laertes after he has killed all the suitors competing for Penelope. He finds his father spading a plant, looking old and tired and filled with sadness. Odysseus keeps his identity to himself at first, identifying himself only as Quarrelman, only son of King Allwoes (in the Fitzgerald translation of Homer),[3] but when he sees how disappointed Laertes is to learn that this "stranger" has no news of his son, Odysseus reveals himself, and proves his identity by reciting all the trees he received from Laertes when he was a boy. This emphasis on the land of Ithaca itself perhaps signifies that Odysseus has finally reconnected with his homeland, and his journey is over.[4] Laertes had trained Odysseus in husbandry. After their reunion, the two of them go to Odysseus' home to fend off the families of the dead suitors. Athena infuses vigour into Laertes, so he can help Odysseus. He kills Eupeithes, father of Antinous.[5] See also[edit] List of Greek mythological figures References[edit] ^ Entry Κεφαλλῆνες in Homeric Dictionary by Georg Autenrieth. ^ E.g. Servius on Aeneid 6.529. ^ Homer (1998). The Odyssey: The Fitzgerald Translation. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Macmillan. pp. lx. ISBN 9781466801479. ^ Homer. Odyssey. Trans. Stanley Lombardo. Canada: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2000. Print. ^ Homer, Odyssey XXIV; Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII, 315. External links[edit] Media related to Laertes at Wikimedia Commons v t e Characters in the Odyssey House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Authority control SUDOC: 238333132 This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laertes&oldid=1004879842" Categories: Argonauts Characters in the Odyssey Kings in Greek mythology Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Български Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 February 2021, at 21:37 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3475	----	Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. For more information, see New International Encyclopedia. Wikipedia articles that cite this source should add {{Cite NIE}} to the article. Articles that include text from a NIE articles should add {{NIE}}. 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en-wikipedia-org-3476	----	Pleiades (Greek mythology) - Wikipedia Pleiades (Greek mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Celestial nymphs in Greek mythology For the Pleiades in other mythologies, see Pleiades in folklore and literature. The Pleiades (1885) by the Symbolist painter Elihu Vedder Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Aquatic deities Amphitrite Ceto Glaucus Nereus Oceanus Phorcys Pontus Poseidon Proteus Tethys Thetis Triton Nereids Naiads Oceanids Potamoi Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurae Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Limnades Lampads Meliae Melinoë Naiads Napaeae Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides v t e The Pleiades (/ˈpliːədiːz, ˈpleɪ-, ˈplaɪ-/;[1] Greek: Πλειάδες, Ancient Greek pronunciation: [pleːádes]), companions of Artemis,[2] were the seven daughters of the titan Atlas and the sea-nymph Pleione born on Mount Cyllene. They were the sisters of Calypso, Hyas, the Hyades, and the Hesperides. Together with the seven Hyades, they were called the Atlantides, Dodonides, or Nysiades, nursemaids and teachers to the infant Dionysus. They were thought to have been translated to the night sky as a cluster of stars, the Pleiades, and were associated with rain. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Seven Sisters 3 Mythology 4 Alternate version 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading Etymology[edit] Classicists debate the origin of the name Pleiades. It ostensibly derives from the name of their mother, Pleione, effectively meaning "daughters of Pleione". However, the name of the star-cluster likely came first, and Pleione was invented to explain it.[3] According to another suggestion Pleiades derives from πλεῖν (plein , "to sail") because of the cluster's importance in delimiting the sailing season in the Mediterranean Sea: "the season of navigation began with their heliacal rising".[4] Seven Sisters[edit] Several of the most prominent male Olympian gods (including Zeus, Poseidon, and Ares) engaged in affairs with the seven heavenly sisters. These relationships resulted in the birth of their children. Maia (Μαῖα), eldest[5] of the seven Pleiades, was mother of Hermes by Zeus. Electra (Ἠλέκτρα) was mother of Dardanus and Iasion, by Zeus. Taygete (Ταϋγέτη) was mother of Lacedaemon, also by Zeus. Alcyone (Ἀλκυόνη) was mother of Hyrieus, Hyperenor and Aethusa by Poseidon. Celaeno (Κελαινώ) was mother of Lycus and Nycteus by Poseidon; and of Eurypylus also by Poseidon, and of Lycus and Chimaereus by Prometheus. Sterope (Στερόπη) (also Asterope) was mother of Oenomaus by Ares. Merope (Μερόπη), youngest[citation needed] of the seven Pleiades, was wooed by Orion. In other mythic contexts she married Sisyphus and, becoming mortal, faded away. She bore Sisyphus several sons. Sometimes they are related to the Hesperides, nymphs of the morning star. Mythology[edit] Lost Pleiad (1884) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau. After Atlas was forced to carry the heavens on his shoulders, Orion began to pursue all of the Pleiades, and Zeus transformed them first into doves, and then into stars to comfort their father. The constellation of Orion is said to still pursue them across the night sky. One of the most memorable myths involving the Pleiades is the story of how these sisters literally became stars, their catasterism. According to some versions of the tale, all seven sisters committed suicide because they were so saddened by either the fate of their father, Atlas, or the loss of their siblings, the Hyades. In turn Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods, immortalized the sisters by placing them in the sky. There these seven stars formed the star cluster known thereafter as the Pleiades. The Greek poet Hesiod mentions the Pleiades several times in his Works and Days. As the Pleiades are primarily winter stars, they feature prominently in the ancient agricultural calendar. Here is a bit of advice from Hesiod: And if longing seizes you for sailing the stormy seas, when the Pleiades flee mighty Orion and plunge into the misty deep and all the gusty winds are raging, then do not keep your ship on the wine-dark sea but, as I bid you, remember to work the land. — Works and Days 618–623 The Pleiades would "flee mighty Orion and plunge into the misty deep" as they set in the West, which they would begin to do just before dawn during October–November, a good time of the year to lay up your ship after the fine summer weather and "remember to work the land"; in Mediterranean agriculture autumn is the time to plough and sow. The poet Lord Tennyson mentions the Pleiades in his poem Locksley Hall: Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising through the mellow shade, Glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid. The loss of one of the sisters, Merope, in some myths may reflect an astronomical event wherein one of the stars in the Pleiades star cluster disappeared from view by the naked eye.[6][7] Alternate version[edit] In the account of Diodorus, the Pleiades were called Atlantides after their father Atlas and Hesperides from their mother Hesperis, daughter of Hesperus, brother of Atlas (making him the uncle of his bride). These sisters excelled in beauty and chastity and thus, Busiris, the king of the Egyptians, was seized with desire to get the maidens into his power; and consequently he dispatched pirates by sea with orders to seize the girls and deliver them into his hands. Later on, Heracles conquered this prince when the latter attempted to sacrifice the hero. Meanwhile the pirates who had seized the girls while they were playing in a certain garden and carried them off, and fleeing swiftly to their ships had sailed away with them. Heracles came upon these pirates as they were taking their meal on a certain strand, and learning from the maidens what had taken place he slew the pirates to a man and brought the girls back to Atlas. In return, the father was so grateful to Heracles for his kindly deed that he not only gladly gave him such assistance as his Labour called for, but he also instructed him quite freely in the knowledge of astrology.[8] A scholia also added that after this events, the Pleiades were then persecuted by Orion.[9] Although most accounts are uniform as to the number, names, and main myths concerning the Pleiades, the mythological information recorded by a scholiast on Theocritus' Idylls with reference to Callimachus[10] has nothing in common with the traditional version. According to it, the Pleiades were daughters of an Amazonian queen; their names were Maia, Coccymo, Glaucia, Protis, Parthenia, Stonychia, and Lampado. They were credited with inventing ritual dances and nighttime festivals. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pleiades (mythology). Alexandrian Pleiad Kṛttikā Peleiades Seven-dots glyph References[edit] ^ "Pleiades". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. ^ Scholiast to Iliad, 18.486. https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg5026.tlg001.1st1K-grc1:2.18.198/ This in turn cites the lost Epic Cycle. The scholiast to Pindar Olympian 3.53 also refers to Taygete as a friend of Artemis. ^ Robin Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 518. ^ "Pleiad, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. Web. 20 January 2015. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus 3.112. https://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodorus3.html This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ The Pleiades in mythology, Pleiade Associates, Bristol, United Kingdom, accessed June 7, 2012 ^ Marusek, James A., Did a Supernova cause the Collapse of Civilization in India?, October 28, 2005 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.27.1-3. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.309 ^ Scholia on Theocritus, Idyll 13, 25 Further reading[edit] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pleiades" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 835. Kohn, Rachael (October 10, 2004). "The Seven Stars of the Pleiades". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2007-05-01. Lorgeoux-Bouayad, Laetitia (2012). "Le mystère des étoiles aux sept voies". Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé (in French) (2): 75–99. doi:10.3406/bude.2012.6949. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleiades_(Greek_mythology)&oldid=999666645" Categories: Nymphs Pleiades (Greek mythology) Pleiades Open Cluster Fictional septets Metamorphoses in Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2020 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1 French-language sources (fr) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Asturianu Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 09:26 (UTC). 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(previous page) (next page)- ► 10th millennium BC‎ (4 C, 10 P) ► 9th millennium BC‎ (2 C, 3 P) ► 8th millennium BC‎ (3 C, 9 P) ► 7th millennium BC‎ (2 C, 14 P) ► 6th millennium BC‎ (4 C, 10 P) ► 5th millennium BC‎ (5 C, 18 P) ► 4th millennium BC‎ (12 C, 26 P) ► 3rd millennium BC‎ (28 C, 19 P) ► 2nd millennium BC‎ (42 C, 26 P) ► 1st millennium BC‎ (53 C, 16 P) ( ► (1′B)(B1′) locomotives‎ (2 P) ► (1′B)B locomotives‎ (2 C) ► (1′C)(C1′) locomotives‎ (3 C, 3 P) ► (1′C)+(C1′) locomotives‎ (2 P) ► (1′C)C h4v locomotives‎ (1 P) ► (1′C)C locomotives‎ (1 C) ► (1′Co)(Co1′) locomotives‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► (1′Co)+(Co1′) locomotives‎ (6 P) ► (1A)Bo(A1) locomotives‎ (4 P) ► (1Bo)+(Bo1) locomotives‎ (1 P) ► (C1′)+(1′C) locomotives‎ (1 P) ► (G)I-dle members‎ (5 P) 0–9 ► 0 (number)‎ (1 C, 36 P) ► 0 Arf invariant knots and links‎ (8 P) ► 0 bridge number knots and links‎ (1 P) ► 0 crossing number knots and links‎ (3 P, 1 F) ► 0 genus knots and links‎ (1 P) ► 0 linking number links‎ (3 P) ► 0 tunnel number knots and links‎ (1 P) ► 0 unknotting number knots and links‎ (2 P) ► 0-2-2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 3 P) ► 0-2-2T locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 0-4-0 locomotives‎ (2 C, 78 P) ► 0-4-0+0-4-0 locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 0-4-2 locomotives‎ (2 C, 49 P, 1 F) ► 0-4-4 locomotives‎ (2 C, 4 P) ► 0-4-4-0 locomotives‎ (1 C, 4 P) ► 0-4-4-0T locomotives‎ (12 P) ► 0-4-6 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 0-6-0 locomotives‎ (3 C, 199 P) ► 0-6-0+0-6-0 locomotives‎ (5 P) ► 0-6-2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 9 P) ► 0-6-2+2-6-0T locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 0-6-4 locomotives‎ (1 C, 2 P) ► 0-6-6 locomotives‎ (4 P) ► 0-6-6-0 locomotives‎ (6 P) ► 0-8-0 locomotives‎ (1 C, 44 P) ► 0-8-2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► 0-8-4 locomotives‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► 0-8-8-0 locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 0-10-0 locomotives‎ (1 C, 11 P) ► 0-10-2 locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 0-12-0 locomotives‎ (1 C) ► 0s‎ (15 C, 2 P) ► 0s BC‎ (14 C, 2 P) ► 0s BC births‎ (6 C, 10 P) ► 0s BC deaths‎ (8 C, 4 P) ► 0s births‎ (9 C) ► 0s deaths‎ (7 C, 1 P) ► Tennessee State Route 1‎ (4 P) ► 1 (number)‎ (8 C, 49 P) ► 1 Arf invariant knots and links‎ (8 P) ► 1 BC deaths‎ (4 P) ► 1 braid number knots and links‎ (1 P) ► 1 crosscap number knots and links‎ (3 P) ► 1 genus knots and links‎ (8 P) ► 1 linking number links‎ (1 P) ► 1 tunnel number knots and links‎ (1 P) ► 1 unknotting number knots and links‎ (2 C, 8 P) ► 1-B-B-1 locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1-B+B-1 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1-Naphthols‎ (17 P) ► 1,2,4-triazol-3-ones‎ (1 C, 2 P) ► 1,4-Naphthoquinones‎ (16 P) ► 1:18 scale models‎ (7 P) ► 1:25 scale models‎ (10 P) ► 1:43 scale models‎ (28 P) ► 1. FC Femina players‎ (9 P) ► 1. FC Frankfurt‎ (2 C, 3 P) ► 1. FC Heidenheim players‎ (121 P) ► 1. FC Kaiserslautern managers‎ (45 P) ► 1. FC Kaiserslautern players‎ (1 C, 474 P) ► 1. FC Köln managers‎ (45 P) ► 1. FC Köln players‎ (2 C, 452 P) ► 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig managers‎ (19 P) ► 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig players‎ (142 P) ► 1. FC Lübars‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► 1. FC Lübars players‎ (7 P) ► 1. FC Magdeburg managers‎ (26 P) ► 1. FC Magdeburg players‎ (200 P) ► 1. FC Nürnberg managers‎ (55 P) ► 1. FC Nürnberg players‎ (1 C, 494 P) ► 1. FC Pforzheim players‎ (21 P) ► 1. FC Saarbrücken (women) players‎ (25 P) ► 1. FC Saarbrücken managers‎ (39 P) ► 1. FC Saarbrücken players‎ (1 C, 346 P) ► 1. FC Schweinfurt 05‎ (1 C, 3 P, 1 F) ► 1. FC Schweinfurt 05 players‎ (73 P) ► 1. FC Slovácko‎ (2 C, 3 P) ► 1. FC Slovácko players‎ (1 C, 163 P) ► 1. FC Tatran Prešov‎ (3 C, 3 P) ► 1. FC Tatran Prešov players‎ (205 P) ► 1. FC Union Berlin managers‎ (22 P) ► 1. FC Union Berlin players‎ (271 P) ► 1. FFC Frankfurt‎ (1 C, 5 P, 1 F) ► 1. FFC Frankfurt players‎ (100 P) ► 1. FFC Turbine Potsdam‎ (1 C, 5 P, 1 F) ► 1. FFC Turbine Potsdam players‎ (113 P) ► 1. SC Znojmo‎ (2 C, 2 P) ► 1. SC Znojmo players‎ (70 P) ► 1′B h2t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′B locomotives‎ (3 C, 1 P) ► 1′B n2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 2 P) ► 1′B n2v locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′B1′ n2 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′B1′ n2t locomotives‎ (5 P) ► 1′B1′ steam locomotives‎ (4 C) ► 1′C h2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 8 P) ► 1′C h2t locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′C h3 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C n2 locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′C n2t locomotives‎ (4 P) ► 1′C n2v locomotives‎ (1 C, 4 P) ► 1′C n2vt locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C n3v locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C steam locomotives‎ (7 C, 1 P) ► 1′C1′ h2t locomotives‎ (7 P) ► 1′C1′ h2v locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′C1′ h3 locomotives‎ (1 C, 2 P) ► 1′C1′ h3t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C1′ h4 locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′C1′ locomotives‎ (1 C, 13 P) ► 1′C1′ n2t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C1′ n4v locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C1′ steam locomotives‎ (11 C, 1 P) ► 1′C2′ h2t locomotives‎ (4 P) ► 1′C2′ h3t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′C2′ locomotives‎ (3 C) ► 1′C2′ n2t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′D h2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 19 P) ► 1′D h2t locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′D h4v locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′D locomotives‎ (7 C) ► 1′D n2 locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′D+D1′ locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′D1′ h2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 6 P) ► 1′D1′ h2t locomotives‎ (5 P) ► 1′D1′ h3 locomotives‎ (4 P) ► 1′D1′ h4v locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′D1′ locomotives‎ (2 C, 7 P) ► 1′D1′ n2t locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′D1′ steam locomotives‎ (5 C) ► 1′D2′ h2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 10 P) ► 1′D2′ h2t locomotives‎ (3 P) ► 1′D2′ h4v locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′D2′ locomotives‎ (4 C, 2 P) ► 1′Do1′ locomotives‎ (8 P) ► 1′E h2 locomotives‎ (11 P) ► 1′E h3 locomotives‎ (4 P) ► 1′E h4 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′E h4v locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′E locomotives‎ (5 C, 1 P) ► 1′E1′ h2t locomotives‎ (7 P) ► 1′E1′ h3 locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′E1′ h3t locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1′E1′ locomotives‎ (4 C, 1 P) ► 1′Eo1′ locomotives‎ (1 P) ► 1′F h4v locomotives‎ (2 P) ► 1+1 Media Group‎ (1 C, 12 P) ► 1B n2 locomotives‎ (1 C, 21 P) ► 1Malaysia‎ (13 P) ► 1st arrondissement of Lyon‎ (40 P) ► 1st arrondissement of Paris‎ (6 C, 7 P) ► 1st-century BC deaths‎ (12 C, 37 P) ► 1st-millennium BC deaths‎ (11 C, 7 P) ► 1st century‎ (31 C, 8 P) ► 1st century BC‎ (28 C, 18 P) ► 1st century BC by country‎ (19 C) ► 1st century BC in Armenia‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► 1st century BC in art‎ (2 C, 2 P) ► 1st century BC in China‎ (3 C, 5 P) ► 1st century BC in Egypt‎ (3 C, 6 P) ► 1st century BC in Greece‎ (2 C, 2 P) ► 1st century BC in Hispania‎ (2 C, 19 P) ► 1st century BC in Italy‎ (1 C, 9 P) ► 1st century by country‎ (22 C, 1 P) ► 1st century in art‎ (2 C, 4 P) ► 1st century in China‎ (5 C, 10 P) ► 1st century in Egypt‎ (2 C, 5 P) ► 1st century in Greece‎ (2 C) ► 1st century in Italy‎ (3 C, 6 P) ► 1st century in Roman Gaul‎ (1 C, 4 P) ► 1st century in Scotland‎ (1 C, 4 P) ► 1st Lok Sabha members‎ (317 P) ► 1st Marine Division (United States)‎ (30 P) ► 1st millennium‎ (32 C, 11 P) ► 1st millennium BC in Greece‎ (18 C) ► 1st millennium BC in religion‎ (12 C) ► 1st millennium BC in transport‎ (1 C, 1 P) ► 1st millennium in North America‎ (15 C) (previous page) (next page) Pages in category "Commons category link from Wikidata" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 191,160 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)! !!! . .35 Remington .38 Long Colt .38 Special .38 Super .45 GAP .223 Remington .224 Boz .345 Winchester Self-Loading .357 SIG .380 ACP .400 Cor-Bon .410 bore ' 'Ain Ghazal Statues 'Asir Province 0–9 0 A.D. (video game) 0 Series Shinkansen 0-4-0 0-4-0+0-4-0 0-4-2 0-6-0 0-6-0+0-6-0 0-6-2 0-6-4 0-6-6 0-6-6-0 0-8-0 0-10-0 0.999... 0s 1st Infantry Division (United States) 1st Marine Regiment Florida State Road A1A Illinois Route 1 No.1-class auxiliary patrol boat Tropical Depression One (1992) 1 (New York City Subway service) U.S. Route 1 Alternate (Baltimore, Maryland) 1st (United Kingdom) Division One Astor Plaza 1 Bentinck Street 1 Bligh Street 1 Bridge Street, Chester U.S. Route 1 Business (Bel Air, Maryland) 1 Cabot Square 1 euro cent coin 1 December 2013 Euromaidan riots 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia 1 euro coin 1 gauge One Grand Central Place 1 Hanover Square 1st Armoured Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom) 1 Manhattan West 1 Palace Green 1 Princes Dock 1 Spadina Crescent No. 1 Squadron RAF 1 Squadron SAAF One Times Square 1 Utama 1 Wall Street 1 Wall Street Court 1 West India Quay 1 William Street 1 William Street, Brisbane A1 road (Great Britain) A1(M) motorway European route E1 1–2 Orme Square 1–7 Constitution Hill, Birmingham 1–8 Collingham Gardens A11 road (England) A12 road (England) A14 road (England) A15 road (England) M18 motorway (Great Britain) 1-63 Windmill Street, Millers Point A102 road A103 road A120 road A144 road A148 road A166 road A169 road A172 road (England) A1000 road A1065 road A1079 road A1175 road A1205 road A1231 road A1309 road A1500 road Tropical Depression One-E (2009) 1-Ethynylcyclohexanol 1-inch Nordenfelt gun Citybus Route 1 London Buses route 1 1:64 scale 1. 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Gun, Mk II 1.Cuz 1chipMSX 1K17 Szhatie 1PN51 1PN58 1seg 1st/15th Royal New South Wales Lancers 1st AACTA Awards 1st Air Cavalry Brigade 1st Air Wing (JASDF) 1st Airborne Brigade (Japan) 1st Airlift Squadron 1st Armored Division (United States) 1st arrondissement of Paris 1st Artillery Brigade (Japan) First Avenue station (BMT Canarsie Line) 1st Avenue (Seattle) 1st Aviation Regiment (Australia) 1st Battalion (Australia) 1st Battalion, 1st Marines 1st Battalion, 2nd Marines 1st Battalion, 3rd Marines 1st Battalion, 5th Marines 1st Battalion, 6th Marines 1st Battalion, 7th Marines 1st Battalion, 8th Marines 1st Battalion, 9th Marines 1st Battalion, 23rd Marines 1st Battalion, 25th Marines 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment 1st Cavalry Army 1st Cavalry Division (United States) 1st Cavalry Division (Wehrmacht) 1st Cavalry Division Band 1st Cavalry Division Horse Cavalry Detachment 1st Connecticut Light Artillery Battery 1st Division (Japan) 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment 1st Force Reconnaissance Company 1st German Antique Police Car Museum 1st Helicopter Squadron 1st Infantry Division (South Korea) 1st Infantry Regiment (Thailand) 1st Life Grenadier Regiment (Sweden) 1st Lok Sabha 1st Maintenance Battalion 1st Marine Aircraft Wing 1st Marine Division 1st Marine Division Band 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade (United States) 1st Marine Regiment (Sweden) 1st Military Working Dog Regiment 1st millennium BC 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion 1st New York Cavalry Regiment 1st November of 1954 Great Mosque 1st Operations Group 1st Parachute Division (Germany) 1st Pennsylvania Reserve Regiment 1st Reconnaissance Battalion 1st Reconnaissance Squadron 1st Recruit Training Battalion (United States) 1st San Marco Regiment 1st Street station (Los Angeles Metro) 1st Street, Los Angeles 1st Submarine Flotilla (Sweden) 1st Tank Battalion 1st Ward of New Orleans 1st West Virginia Cavalry Regiment 1st White Cloth Hall 1stdibs 1time Airline 2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment 2nd Armored Division (United States) 2nd Marine Regiment 2nd Ranger Battalion 2 (New York City Subway service) 2+1 road 2 BC 2 Broadway 2 cm Flak 30, Flak 38 and Flakvierling 38 2 Columbus Circle 2 euro cent coin 2 euro coin 2 euro commemorative coins 2 Fast 2 Furious 2 ft 6 in gauge railways 2 gauge 2 Girls 1 Cup 2 Hare Court 2 Horatio Street 2 in 8 with double base 2-inch medium mortar 2 m Bubble Chamber (CERN) 2 Marsham Street 2 Squadron SAAF (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata&oldid=951828105" Categories: Commons category Wikidata tracking categories Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Wikipedia categories tracking Wikidata differences Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية فارسی ગુજરાતી हिन्दी مصرى Português Simple English ไทย Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2020, at 03:12 (UTC). 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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Special:BookSources in other language Wikipedias ISBN Prefix Ranges Wikipedia 0 1 English (this page) 2 979-10 French 3 German 4 (Japan) Japanese 5 (Russia, former USSR) Russian 7 (China, PR) 957/986 (Taiwan, ROC) 962/988 (Hong Kong, SAR) 981 (Singapore) 99937 (Macau, SAR) Chinese 80 (Czech Republic) Czech 83 (Poland) Polish 84 (Spain) 950 (Argentina) 956 (Chile) 958 (Colombia) 959 (Cuba) 968/970 (Mexico) 980 (Venezuela) 9942/9978 (Ecuador) Spanish 85 (Brasil) 972 (Portugal) Portuguese 86 (Serbia, Montenegro) Serbian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 953 (Croatia) Croatian 86 (former Yugoslavia) 961 (Slovenia) Slovenian 87 Danish 88 Italian 89 Korean 90 Dutch 91 Swedish 92 International organizations (multilingual) 93 (India) Hindi 93 (India) 955 (Sri Lanka) Tamil 951/952 (Finland) Finnish 953 Bulgarian 955 (Sri Lanka) Sinhalese 960 Greek 963 Hungarian 964/600 (Iran) Persian 965 (Israel) Hebrew 966 (Ukraine) Ukrainian 967 (Malaysia) Malay 969 (Pakistan) Pashto 971 (Philippines) Tagalog 973 (Romania) Romanian 974 (Thailand) Thai 975/9944/605 (Turkey) Turkish 976 (Caribbean Community) See English, Spanish... 977 (Egypt) 978 (Nigeria) 9960/603 (Saudi Arabia) 9931/9947/9961(Algeria) Arabic 979 (Indonesia) Indonesian 982 (South Pacific) See English, French, ... 984 (Bangladesh) Bangla Welsh Bibliographical information These links produce citations in various referencing styles. 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en-wikipedia-org-3638	----	Orpheus - Wikipedia Orpheus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search legendary musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek mythology For other uses, see Orpheus (disambiguation). Orpheus Roman Orpheus mosaic, a very common subject. He wears a Phrygian cap and is surrounded by the animals charmed by lyre-playing Abode Pimpleia, Pieria Symbol Lyre Personal information Born Pimpleia, Pieria Died Pangaion Hills, Macedonia, Greece Parents Oeagrus or Apollo and Calliope Siblings The Graces, Linus of Thrace Spouse Eurydice or Agriope Children Musaeus Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Orpheus (/ˈɔːrfiːəs, ˈɔːrfjuːs/; Ancient Greek: Ὀρφεύς, classical pronunciation: [or.pʰeú̯s]) is a legendary musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek religion. Ancient Greek sources note Orpheus' Thracian origins.[1] The major stories about him are centered on his ability to charm all living things and even stones with his music (the usual scene in Orpheus mosaics), his attempt to retrieve his wife Eurydice from the underworld, and his death at the hands of the maenads of Dionysus who tired of his mourning for his late wife Eurydice. As an archetype of the inspired singer, Orpheus is one of the most significant figures in the reception of classical mythology in Western culture, portrayed or alluded to in countless forms of art and popular culture including poetry, film, opera, music, and painting.[2] For the Greeks, Orpheus was a founder and prophet of the so-called "Orphic" mysteries.[3] He was credited with the composition of the Orphic Hymns and the Orphic Argonautica. Shrines containing purported relics of Orpheus were regarded as oracles. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Background 3 Writings 4 Mythology 4.1 Early life 4.2 Adventure as an Argonaut 4.3 Death of Eurydice 4.4 Death 5 Orphic poems and rites 6 Post-Classical interpretations 6.1 Classical music 6.2 Literature 6.3 Film and stage 6.4 Popular music 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Bibliography 10 External links Etymology[edit] Several etymologies for the name Orpheus have been proposed. A probable suggestion is that it is derived from a hypothetical PIE root *h₃órbʰos 'orphan, servant, slave' and ultimately the verb root *h₃erbʰ- 'to change allegiance, status, ownership.'[4] Cognates could include Greek: ὄρφνη (órphnē; 'darkness')[5] and ὀρφανός (orphanós; 'fatherless, orphan')[6] from which comes English 'orphan' by way of Latin. Fulgentius, a mythographer of the late 5th to early 6th century AD, gave the unlikely etymology meaning "best voice," "Oraia-phonos".[7] Background[edit] It was believed by Aristotle that Orpheus never existed, but to all other ancient writers he was a real person, though living in remote antiquity. Most of them believed that he lived several generations before Homer.[8] The earliest literary reference to Orpheus is a two-word fragment of the 6th century BC lyric poet Ibycus: onomaklyton Orphēn ('Orpheus famous-of-name'). He is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod.[9] Most ancient sources accept his historical existence; Aristotle is an exception.[10][11] Pindar calls Orpheus 'the father of songs'[12] and identifies him as a son of the Thracian king Oeagrus[13] and the Muse Calliope.[14] Orpheus (left, with lyre) among the Thracians, from an Attic red-figure bell-krater (c. 440 BC)[15] Greeks of the Classical age venerated Orpheus as the greatest of all poets and musicians; it was said that while Hermes had invented the lyre, Orpheus had perfected it. Poets such as Simonides of Ceos said that Orpheus' music and singing could charm the birds, fish and wild beasts, coax the trees and rocks into dance,[16] and divert the course of rivers. Orpheus was one of the handful of Greek heroes[17] to visit the Underworld and return; his music and song even had power over Hades. The earliest known reference to this descent to the underworld is the painting by Polygnotus (5th century BC) described by Pausanias (2nd century AD), where no mention is made of Eurydice. Euripides and Plato both refer to the story of his descent to recover his wife, but do not mention her name; a contemporary relief (about 400 BC) shows Orpheus and his wife with Hermes. The elegiac poet Hermesianax called her Agriope; and the first mention of her name in literature is in the Lament for Bion (1st century BC)[8] Some sources credit Orpheus with further gifts to mankind: medicine, which is more usually under the auspices of Asclepius (Aesculapius) or Apollo; writing,[18] which is usually credited to Cadmus; and agriculture, where Orpheus assumes the Eleusinian role of Triptolemus as giver of Demeter's knowledge to mankind. Orpheus was an augur and seer; he practiced magical arts and astrology, founded cults to Apollo and Dionysus[19] and prescribed the mystery rites preserved in Orphic texts. Pindar and Apollonius of Rhodes[20] place Orpheus as the harpist and companion of Jason and the Argonauts. Orpheus had a brother named Linus, who went to Thebes and became a Theban.[21] He is claimed by Aristophanes and Horace to have taught cannibals to subsist on fruit, and to have made lions and tigers obedient to him. Horace believed, however, that Orpheus had only introduced order and civilization to savages.[22] Strabo (64 BC – c. AD 24) presents Orpheus as a mortal, who lived and died in a village close to Olympus.[23] "Some, of course, received him willingly, but others, since they suspected a plot and violence, combined against him and killed him." He made money as a musician and "wizard" – Strabo uses αγυρτεύοντα (agurteúonta),[24] also used by Sophocles in Oedipus Tyrannus to characterize Tiresias as a trickster with an excessive desire for possessions. Αγύρτης (agúrtēs) most often meant charlatan[25] and always had a negative connotation. Pausanias writes of an unnamed Egyptian who considered Orpheus a μάγευσε (mágeuse), i. e., magician.[26][non-primary source needed] "Orpheus...is repeatedly referred to by Euripides, in whom we find the first allusion to the connection of Orpheus with Dionysus and the infernal regions: he speaks of him as related to the Muses (Rhesus 944, 946); mentions the power of his song over rocks, trees, and wild beasts (Medea 543, Iphigenia in Aulis 1211, Bacchae 561, and a jocular allusion in Cyclops 646); refers to his charming the infernal powers (Alcestis 357); connects him with Bacchanalian orgies (Hippolytus 953); ascribes to him the origin of sacred mysteries (Rhesus 943), and places the scene of his activity among the forests of Olympus (Bacchae 561.)"[27] "Euripides [also] brought Orpheus into his play Hypsipyle, which dealt with the Lemnian episode of the Argonautic voyage; Orpheus there acts as coxswain, and later as guardian in Thrace of Jason’s children by Hypsipyle."[8] "He is mentioned once only, but in an important passage, by Aristophanes (Frogs 1032), who enumerates, as the oldest poets, Orpheus, Musaeus, Hesiod, and Homer, and makes Orpheus the teacher of religious initiations and of abstinence from murder..."[27] "Plato (Apology, Protagoras),...frequently refers to Orpheus, his followers, and his works. He calls him the son of Oeagrus (Symposium), mentions him as a musician and inventor (Ion and  Laws bk 3.), refers to the miraculous power of his lyre (Protagoras), and gives a singular version of the story of his descent into Hades: the gods, he says, imposed upon the poet, by showing him only a phantasm of his lost wife, because he had not the courage to die, like Alcestis, but contrived to enter Hades alive, and, as a further punishment for his cowardice, he met his death at the hands of women (Symposium.)"[27] "Earlier than the literary references is a sculptured representation of Orpheus with the ship Argo, found at Delphi, said to be of the sixth century B.C."[8] Four other people are traditionally called Orpheus: "The second Orpheus was an Arcadian, or, according to others, a Ciconian, from the Thracian Bisaltia, and is said to be more ancient than Homer and the Trojan war. He composed fabulous figments called mythpoeai and epigrams. The third Orpheus was of Odrysius, a city of Thrace, near the river Hebrus; but Dionysius in Suidas denies his existence. The fourth Orpheus was of Crotonia; flourished in the time of Pisistratus, about the fiftieth Olympiad, and is, I have no doubt, the same with Onomacritus, who changed the dialect of these hymns. He wrote Decennalia, and in the opinion of Gyraldlus the Argonautics, which are now extant under the name of Orpheus, with other writings called Orphical, but which according to Cicero some ascribe to Cecrops the Pythagorean. But the last Orpheus [the fifth] was Camarinseus, a most excellent versifier; and the same, according to Gyraldus, whose descent into Hades is so universally known."[28] Writings[edit] On the writings of Orpheus, Freeman, in the 1946 edition of The Pre- Socratic Philosophers pp. 4–8, writes:[29] "In the fifth and fourth centuries BC, there existed a collection of hexametric poems known as Orphic, which were the accepted authority of those who followed the Orphic way of life, and were by them attributed to Orpheus himself. Plato several times quotes lines from this collection; he refers in the Republic to a ‘mass of books of Musaeus and Orpheus’, and in the Laws to the hymns of Thamyris and Orpheus, while in the Ion he groups Orpheus with Musaeus and Homer as the source of inspiration of epic poets and elocutionists. Euripides in the Hippolytus makes Theseus speak of the ‘turgid outpourings of many treatises’, which have led his son to follow Orpheus and adopt the Bacchic religion. Alexis, the fourth century comic poet, depicting Linus offering a choice of books to Heracles, mentions ‘Orpheus, Hesiod, tragedies, Choerilus, Homer, Epicharmus’. Aristotle did not believe that the poems were by Orpheus; he speaks of the ‘so-called Orphic epic’, and Philoponus (seventh century AD) commenting on this expression, says that in the De Philosophia (now lost) Aristotle directly stated his opinion that the poems were not by Orpheus. Philoponus adds his own view that the doctrines were put into epic verse by Onomacritus. Aristotle when quoting the Orphic cosmological doctrines attributes them to ‘the theologoi’ ‘the ancient poets’, ‘those who first theorized about the gods ’. Nothing is known of any ancient Orphic writings except a reference in the Alcestis of Euripides to certain ‘Thracian tablets’ which ‘the voice of Orpheus had inscribed’ with pharmaceutical lore. The Scholiast, commenting on the passage, says that there exist on Mt. Haemus certain writings of Orpheus on tablets. There is also a reference, not mentioning Orpheus by name, in the pseudo-Platonic Axiochus, where it is said that the fate of the soul in Hades is described on certain bronze tablets which two seers had brought to Delos from the land of the Hyperboreans. This is the only evidence for any ancient Orphic writings. Aelian (second century AD) gave the chief reason against believing in them: at the time when Orpheus is said to have lived, the Thracians knew nothing about writing. It came therefore to be believed that Orpheus taught, but left no writings, and that the epic poetry attributed to him was written in the sixth century BC by Onomacritus. Onomacritus was banished from Athens by Hipparchus for inserting something of his own into an oracle of Musaeus when entrusted with the editing of his poems. It may have been Aristotle who first suggested, in the lost De Philosophia, that Onomacritus also wrote the so-called Orphic epic poems. By the time when the Orphic writings began to be freely quoted by Christian and Neo-Platonist writers, the theory of the authorship of Onomacritus was accepted by many. It is believed, however, that the Orphic literature current in the time of the Neo-Platonists (third century AD), and quoted by them as the authority for Orphic doctrines, was a collection of writings of different periods and varying outlook, something like that of the Bible. The earliest of these were composed in the sixth century by Onomacritus from genuine Orphic tradition; the latest which have survived, namely the Voyage of the Argonauts, and the Hymns to various deities, cannot have been put together in their present form until the beginning of the Christian era, and are probably to be dated some time between the second and fourth centuries AD. The Neo-Platonists quote the Orphic poems in their defence against Christianity, because Plato used poems which he believed to be Orphic. It is believed that in the collection of writings which they used there were several versions, each of which gave a slightly different account of the origin of the universe, of gods and men, and perhaps of the correct way of life, with the rewards and punishments attached thereto. Three principal versions are recognized by modern scholars; all three are mentioned by the Neo-Platonist Damascius (fifth to sixth centuries AD). These are: Rhapsodiae, epic lays, said by Damascius to give the usual Orphic theology. These are mentioned also in Suidas’ list, as ‘sacred discourses in twenty-four lays’, though he attributes this work to Theognetus the Thessalian (unknown) or Cercops the Pythagorean. This is now referred to as the Rhapsodic Theogony. It is the version usually quoted by ancient authorities, but was not the one used by Plato, and is therefore some-times thought to have been composed after he wrote; this question cannot at present be decided. An Orphic Theogony given by Aristotle’s pupil Eudemus. An Orphic Theogony ‘according to Hieronymus and Hellanicus’. Other versions were: a Theogony put into the mouth of Orpheus by Apollonius Rhodius in his Argonautica an Orphic Theogony quoted by Alexander of Aphrodisias; and a Theogony in Clement of Rome, not specified as Orphic, but belonging to the same school of thought. A long list of Orphic works is given in Suidas (tenth century AD); but most of these are there attributed to other authors. They are: Triagmoi, attributed to the tragic poet Ion, in which there was said to be a chapter called Sacred Vestments, or Cosmic Invocations. The title Triagmoi apparently referred to ‘the Orphic tripod of three elements, earth, water, fire’, referred to by Ausonius and Galen; the latter said that this doctrine was given by Onomacritus in his Orphic poems. The Sacred Discourses, already discussed, usually identified with the Rhapsodiae. Oracles and Rites, attributed to Onomacritus. Aids to Salvation, ascribed to Timocles of Syracuse or Persinus of Miletus; both the work and these writers are otherwise unknown. Mixing-bowls, ascribed to Zopyrus of Heracleia; and The Robe and The Net, also ascribed to Zopyrus, or to Brontinus the Pythagorean. The Net referred to is the net of the body, so called in Orphic literature. To Brontinus was also ascribed a Physica, otherwise unknown. Enthronement of the Mother, and Bacchic Rites, ascribed to Nicias of Elea, of whom nothing else is known. ‘Enthronement’ was part of the rite of initiation practised by the Corybantes, the worshippers of Rhea or Cybele; the person to be initiated was seated on a high chair, and the celebrants danced round him in a ring. The title therefore apparently means ‘the enthronement-ceremonies as practised by the worshippers of the Great Mother’. Connected, perhaps identical with, this was a treatise on Corybantic Rites, quoted by the late Orphic poem Argonautica. A Descent into Hades, ascribed to Herodicus of Perinthus, or to Cercops the Pythagorean, or to the unknown Prodicus of Samos. Other treatises were: an Astronomy or Astrology, otherwise unknown; Sacrificial Rites, doubtless giving rules for bloodless sacrifices; Divination by means of sand, Divination by means of eggs; on Temple-building (otherwise unknown); On the girding on of Sacred Robes; and On Stones, said to contain a chapter on the carving of precious stones entitled The Eighty Stones; a version of this work, of late date, survives. It treats of the properties of stones, precious and ordinary, and their uses in divination. The Orphic Hymns are also mentioned in Suidas’ list, and a Theogony in 1200 verses, perhaps one of those versions which differed from the Rhapsodiae. There was also an Orphic Word-book, doubtless a glossary of the special terms used in the cult, some of which were strange because of their allegorical usage, others because of their antiquity; this also was said to have been in verse. Such was the list of works finally classed as Orphic writings, though it was known in early times that many of them were the works of Pythagoreans and other writers. Herodotus said of the so-called ‘Orphic and Bacchic rites’ that they were actually ‘Egyptian and Pythagorean’; and Ion of Chios said that Pythagoras himself attributed some of his writings to Orpheus. Others, as has been said, regarded the earliest epics as the work of Onomacritus. The original Hymns were thought to have been composed by Orpheus, and written down, with emendations, by Musaeus. There were also other writers named Orpheus: to one, of Croton, said to be a contemporary and associate of Peisistratus, were attributed two epic poems: an Argonautica, and The Twelve-year Cycle (probably astrological); to another, Orpheus of Camarina, an epic Descent into Hades. These namesakes are probably inventions."[29] Mythology[edit] Early life[edit] Important sites in the life and travels of Orpheus According to Apollodorus[30] and a fragment of Pindar,[31] Orpheus' father was Oeagrus, a Thracian king, or, according to another version of the story, the god Apollo. His mother was (1) the muse Calliope, (2) her sister Polymnia,[32] (3) a daughter of Pierus,[33] son of Makednos or (4) lastly of Menippe, daughter of Thamyris.[34] According to Tzetzes, he was from Bisaltia.[35] His birthplace and place of residence was Pimpleia[36][37] close to the Olympus. Strabo mentions that he lived in Pimpleia.[23][37] According to the epic poem Argonautica, Pimpleia was the location of Oeagrus' and Calliope's wedding.[38] While living with his mother and her eight beautiful sisters in Parnassus, he met Apollo, who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo, as the god of music, gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play it.[39] Orpheus' mother taught him to make verses for singing. He is also said to have studied in Egypt.[40] Orpheus is said to have established the worship of Hecate in Aegina.[41] In Laconia Orpheus is said to have brought the worship of Demeter Chthonia[42] and that of the Κόρες Σωτείρας (Kóres Sōteíras; 'Saviour Maidens').[clarification needed][43] Also in Taygetos a wooden image of Orpheus was said to have been kept by Pelasgians in the sanctuary of the Eleusinian Demeter.[44] According to Diodorus Siculus, Musaeus of Athens was the son of Orpheus.[45] Adventure as an Argonaut[edit] Main article: Argonautica The Argonautica (Ἀργοναυτικά) is a Greek epic poem written by Apollonius Rhodius in the 3rd century BC. Orpheus took part in this adventure and used his skills to aid his companions. Chiron told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens—the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which resulted in the crashing of their ships into the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was louder and more beautiful, drowning out the Sirens' bewitching songs. According to 3rd century BC Hellenistic elegiac poet Phanocles, Orpheus loved the young Argonaut Calais, "the son of Boreas, with all his heart, and went often in shaded groves still singing of his desire, nor was his heart at rest. But always, sleepless cares wasted his spirits as he looked at fresh Calais."[46][47] Death of Eurydice[edit] Orpheus with the lyre and surrounded by beasts (Byzantine & Christian Museum, Athens) See also: Orpheus and Eurydice The most famous story in which Orpheus figures is that of his wife Eurydice (sometimes referred to as Euridice and also known as Argiope). While walking among her people, the Cicones, in tall grass at her wedding, Eurydice was set upon by a satyr. In her efforts to escape the satyr, Eurydice fell into a nest of vipers and suffered a fatal bite on her heel. Her body was discovered by Orpheus who, overcome with grief, played such sad and mournful songs that all the nymphs and gods wept. On their advice, Orpheus traveled to the underworld. His music softened the hearts of Hades and Persephone, who agreed to allow Eurydice to return with him to earth on one condition: he should walk in front of her and not look back until they both had reached the upper world. Orpheus set off with Eurydice following; however, as soon as he had reached the upper world, he immediately turned to look at her, forgetting in his eagerness that both of them needed to be in the upper world for the condition to be met. As Eurydice had not yet crossed into the upper world, she vanished for the second time, this time forever. The story in this form belongs to the time of Virgil, who first introduces the name of Aristaeus (by the time of Virgil's Georgics, the myth has Aristaeus chasing Eurydice when she was bitten by a serpent) and the tragic outcome.[48] Other ancient writers, however, speak of Orpheus' visit to the underworld in a more negative light; according to Phaedrus in Plato's Symposium,[49] the infernal gods only "presented an apparition" of Eurydice to him. In fact, Plato's representation of Orpheus is that of a coward, as instead of choosing to die in order to be with the one he loved, he instead mocked the gods by trying to go to Hades to bring her back alive. Since his love was not "true"—he did not want to die for love—he was actually punished by the gods, first by giving him only the apparition of his former wife in the underworld, and then by being killed by women. In Ovid's account, however, Eurydice's death by a snake bite is incurred while she was dancing with naiads on her wedding day. Virgil wrote in his poem that Dryads wept from Epirus and Hebrus up to the land of the Getae (north east Danube valley) and even describes him wandering into Hyperborea and Tanais (ancient Greek city in the Don river delta)[50] due to his grief. The story of Eurydice may actually be a late addition to the Orpheus myths. In particular, the name Eurudike ("she whose justice extends widely") recalls cult-titles attached to Persephone. According to the theories of poet Robert Graves, the myth may have been derived from another Orpheus legend, in which he travels to Tartarus and charms the goddess Hecate.[51] The myth theme of not looking back, an essential precaution in Jason's raising of chthonic Brimo Hekate under Medea's guidance,[52] is reflected in the Biblical story of Lot's wife when escaping from Sodom. More directly, the story of Orpheus is similar to the ancient Greek tales of Persephone captured by Hades and similar stories of Adonis captive in the underworld. However, the developed form of the Orpheus myth was entwined with the Orphic mystery cults and, later in Rome, with the development of Mithraism and the cult of Sol Invictus. Death[edit] Thracian Girl Carrying the Head of Orpheus on His Lyre (1865) by Gustave Moreau The Death of Orpheus, detail from a silver kantharos, 420-410 BC, part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, Sofia, Bulgaria According to a Late Antique summary of Aeschylus' lost play Bassarids, Orpheus, towards the end of his life, disdained the worship of all gods except the sun, whom he called Apollo. One early morning he went to the oracle of Dionysus at Mount Pangaion[53] to salute his god at dawn, but was ripped to shreds by Thracian Maenads for not honoring his previous patron (Dionysus) and buried in Pieria.[19][54] Here his death is analogous with that of Pentheus, who was also torn to pieces by Maenads; and it has been speculated that the Orphic mystery cult regarded Orpheus as a parallel figure to or even an incarnation of Dionysus.[55] Both made similar journeys into Hades, and Dionysus-Zagreus suffered an identical death.[56] Pausanias writes that Orpheus was buried in Dion and that he met his death there.[57] He writes that the river Helicon sank underground when the women that killed Orpheus tried to wash off their blood-stained hands in its waters.[58] Other legends claim that Orpheus became a follower of Dionysus and spread his cult across the land. In this version of the legend, it is said that Orpheus was torn to shreds by the women of Thrace for his inattention.[59] Ovid recounts that Orpheus ... had abstained from the love of women, either because things ended badly for him, or because he had sworn to do so. Yet, many felt a desire to be joined with the poet, and many grieved at rejection. Indeed, he was the first of the Thracian people to transfer his affection to young boys and enjoy their brief springtime, and early flowering this side of manhood. — Ovid. trans. A. S. Kline, Ovid: The Metamorphoses, Book X Feeling spurned by Orpheus for taking only male lovers (eromenoi), the Ciconian women, followers of Dionysus,[60] first threw sticks and stones at him as he played, but his music was so beautiful even the rocks and branches refused to hit him. Enraged, the women tore him to pieces during the frenzy of their Bacchic orgies.[61] In Albrecht Dürer's drawing of Orpheus' death, based on an original, now lost, by Andrea Mantegna, a ribbon high in the tree above him is lettered Orfeus der erst puseran ("Orpheus, the first pederast").[62] Death of Orpheus (1494) by Dürer His head and lyre, still singing mournful songs, floated down the River Hebrus into the sea, after which the winds and waves carried them to the island of Lesbos,[63] at the city of Methymna; there, the inhabitants buried his head and a shrine was built in his honour near Antissa;[64] there his oracle prophesied, until it was silenced by Apollo.[65] In addition to the people of Lesbos, Greeks from Ionia and Aetolia consulted the oracle, and his reputation spread as far as Babylon.[66] Cave of Orpheus' oracle in Antissa, Lesbos Orpheus' lyre was carried to heaven by the Muses, and was placed among the stars. The Muses also gathered up the fragments of his body and buried them at Leibethra[67] below Mount Olympus, where the nightingales sang over his grave. After the river Sys flooded[68] Leibethra, the Macedonians took his bones to Dion. Orpheus' soul returned to the underworld, to the fields of the Blessed, where he was reunited at last with his beloved Eurydice. Another legend places his tomb at Dion,[53] near Pydna in Macedon. In another version of the myth, Orpheus travels to Aornum in Thesprotia, Epirus to an old oracle for the dead. In the end Orpheus commits suicide from his grief unable to find Eurydice.[69] "Others said that he was the victim of a thunderbolt."[70] Orphic poems and rites[edit] Nymphs Finding the Head of Orpheus (1900) by John William Waterhouse Main article: Orphism (religion) A number of Greek religious poems in hexameters were attributed to Orpheus, as they were to similar miracle-working figures, like Bakis, Musaeus, Abaris, Aristeas, Epimenides, and the Sibyl. Of this vast literature, only two works survived whole: the Orphic Hymns, a set of 87 poems, possibly composed at some point in the second or third century, and the epic poem Argonautica, composed somewhere between the fourth and sixth centuries. Earlier Orphic literature, which may date back as far as the sixth century BC, survives only in papyrus fragments or in quotations. Some of the earliest fragments may have been composed by Onomacritus.[71] Nymphs Listening to the Songs of Orpheus (1853) by Charles Jalabert In addition to serving as a storehouse of mythological data along the lines of Hesiod's Theogony, Orphic poetry was recited in mystery-rites and purification rituals. Plato in particular tells of a class of vagrant beggar-priests who would go about offering purifications to the rich, a clatter of books by Orpheus and Musaeus in tow.[72] Those who were especially devoted to these rituals and poems often practiced vegetarianism and abstention from sex, and refrained from eating eggs and beans — which came to be known as the Orphikos bios, or "Orphic way of life".[73] The Derveni papyrus, found in Derveni, Macedonia (Greece) in 1962, contains a philosophical treatise that is an allegorical commentary on an Orphic poem in hexameters, a theogony concerning the birth of the gods, produced in the circle of the philosopher Anaxagoras, written in the second half of the fifth century BC. Fragments of the poem are quoted making it "the most important new piece of evidence about Greek philosophy and religion to come to light since the Renaissance".[74] The papyrus dates to around 340 BC, during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, making it Europe's oldest surviving manuscript. The historian William Mitford wrote in 1784 that the very earliest form of a higher and more cohesive ancient Greek religion was manifest in the Orphic poems.[75] W. K. C. Guthrie wrote that Orpheus was the founder of mystery religions and the first to reveal to men the meanings of the initiation rites.[76] Post-Classical interpretations[edit] Classical music[edit] The Orpheus motif has permeated Western culture and has been used as a theme in all art forms. Early examples include the Breton lai Sir Orfeo from the early 13th century and musical interpretations like Jacopo Peri's Euridice (1600, though titled with his wife's name, the libretto is based entirely upon books X and XI of Ovid's Metamorphoses and therefore Orpheus' viewpoint is predominant). Subsequent operatic interpretations include Claudio Monteverdi's L'Orfeo (1607), Luigi Rossi's L'Orfeo (1647), Marc-Antoine Charpentier's La descente d'Orphée aux enfers H.488 (1686), he wrote also a cantata, Orphée descendant aux enfers H.471, (1683), Christoph Willibald Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), Joseph Haydn's last opera L'anima del filosofo, ossia Orfeo ed Euridice (1791), Franz Liszt's symphonic poem Orpheus (1854), Igor Stravinsky's ballet Orpheus (1948) and two operas by Harrison Birtwistle: The Mask of Orpheus (1973–1984) and The Corridor (2009). The Bulgarian Rousse State Opera commissioned and performed Orpheus: A Masque by John Robertson (2015).[77] Literature[edit] Rainer Maria Rilke's Sonnets to Orpheus (1922) are based on the Orpheus myth. Poul Anderson's Hugo Award-winning novelette "Goat Song", published in 1972, is a retelling of the story of Orpheus in a science fiction setting. Some feminist interpretations of the myth give Eurydice greater weight. Margaret Atwood's Orpheus and Eurydice Cycle (1976–86) deals with the myth, and gives Eurydice a more prominent voice. Sarah Ruhl's Eurydice likewise presents the story of Orpheus' descent to the underworld from Eurydice's perspective. Ruhl removes Orpheus from the center of the story by pairing their romantic love with the paternal love of Eurydice's dead father.[78] David Almond's 2014 novel, A Song for Ella Grey, was inspired by the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, and won the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize in 2015.[79] The 2014 novel Orfeo by Richard Powers is based on Orpheus.[citation needed][clarification needed] The 2020 novel 'Orpheus' Temptation'[80] by Stefan Calin is based on an allegory between the main character and Orpheus's descent into the Underworld and subsequent temptation to look at Eurydice. Dino Buzzati adapted the Orpheus motif in his graphic novel Poem Strip (1969). Neil Gaiman depicts his version of Orpheus in The Sandman comics series (1989–2015). Gaiman's Orpheus is the son of Oneiros (the Dream Lord Morpheus) and the muse Calliope.[81] The poet Gabriele Tinti has composed a series of poems inspired by the myth of Orpheus, read by Robert Davi at the J. Paul Getty Museum[82] Film and stage[edit] Death of Orpheus by Mexican artist Antonio García Vega Vinicius de Moraes' play Orfeu da Conceição (1956), later adapted by Marcel Camus in the 1959 film Black Orpheus, tells the story in the modern context of a favela in Rio de Janeiro during Carnaval. Jean Cocteau's Orphic Trilogy – The Blood of a Poet (1930), Orpheus (1950) and Testament of Orpheus (1959) – was filmed over thirty years, and is based in many ways on the story. Philip Glass adapted the second film into the chamber opera Orphée (1991), part of an homage triptych to Cocteau. Nikos Nikolaidis' 1975 film Evrydiki BA 2O37 is an innovative perspective on the classic Greek tragedy of Orpheus and Eurydice. Anaïs Mitchell's 2010 folk opera musical Hadestown retells the tragedy of Orpheus and Eurydice with a soundtrack inspired by American blues and jazz, portraying Hades as the brutal work-boss of an underground mining city. Mitchell, together with director Rachel Chavkin, later adapted her album into a multiple Tony award winning stage musical. Popular music[edit] Australian band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds released their double album Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus in 2004. See also[edit] Aornum Argonautica Orphica Katabasis Leibethra List of Orphean operas Pierian Spring Pimpleia Sir Orfeo 3361 Orpheus Notes[edit] ^ Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts for the Afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets (Routledge, 2007), p. 167, while taking note of depictions in Greek art, particularly vase painting, that show Orpheus attired as a Greek, often in contrast to those in Thracian dress around him. ^ Geoffrey Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology (Routledge, 1999), p. 54ff. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Corinth, 2.30.2 ^ Cf. "Ὀρφανός" in: Etymological Dictionary of Greek, ed. Robert S. P. Beekes (Ph. D. 1969). First published online October 2010. Consulted online on 03/05/2018. ^ Cobb, Noel. Archetypal Imagination, Hudson, New York: Lindisfarne Press, p. 240. ISBN 0-940262-47-9 ^ Freiert, William K. (1991), Pozzi, Dora Carlisky; Wickersham, John M. (eds.), "Orpheus: A Fugue on the Polis", Myth and the Polis, Cornell University Press: 46, ISBN 0-8014-2473-9 ^ Miles, Geoffrey. Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology, London: Routledge, 1999, p. 57. ISBN 0-415-14755-7 ^ a b c d Freeman, Kathleen (1946). The Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 1. ^ Ibycus, Fragments 17 (Diehl); M. Owen Lee, Virgil as Orpheus: A Study of the Georgics State University of New York Press, Albany (1996), p. 3. ^ Kathleen Freeman, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers, Harvard University Press (1948), p. 1. ^ Aristotle (1952). W. D. Ross; John Alexander Smith (eds.). The Works of Aristotle. XII–Fragments. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 80. ^ Pindar, Pythian Odes, 4.176 [1] ^ Pindar fragment 126.9. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 1.3.2, Argonautica 1.23, and the Orphic Hymn 24.12. ^ "Attributed to the Painter of London E 497: Bell-krater (24.97.30) – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art". metmuseum.org. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 1.3.2; Euripides, Iphigeneia at Aulis, 1212 and The Bacchae, 562; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11: "with his songs, Orpheus, the bard of Thrace, allured the trees, the savage animals, and even the insensate rocks, to follow him>" ^ Others to brave the nekyia were Odysseus, Theseus and Heracles; Perseus also overcame Medusa in a chthonic setting. ^ A single literary epitaph, attributed to the sophist Alcidamas, credits Orpheus with the invention of writing. See Ivan Mortimer Linforth, "Two Notes on the Legend of Orpheus", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 62, (1931):5–17). ^ a b Apollodorus (Pseudo Apollodorus), Library and Epitome, 1.3.2. "Orpheus also invented the mysteries of Dionysus, and having been torn in pieces by the Maenads he is buried in Pieria." ^ Apollonius, Argonautica, passim. ^ Apollodorus, Library and Epitome, 2.4.9, This Linus was a brother of Orpheus; he came to Thebes and became a Theban. ^ William Godwin (1876). "Lives of the Necromancers". p. 44. ^ a b Strabo, Geography, Book 7, Chapter 7: "At the base of Olympus is a city Dium. And it has a village near by, Pimpleia. Here lived Orpheus, the Ciconian, it is said — a wizard who at first collected money from his music, together with his soothsaying and his celebration of the orgies connected with the mystic initiatory rites, but soon afterwards thought himself worthy of still greater things and procured for himself a throng of followers and power. Some, of course, received him willingly, but others, since they suspected a plot and violence, combined against him and killed him. And near here, also, is Leibethra." ^ Gregory Nagy, Archaic Period (Greek Literature, Volume 2), ISBN 0-8153-3683-7, p. 46. ^ Index in Eustathii commentarios in Homeri Iliadem et Odysseam by Matthaeus Devarius, p. 8. ^ Pausanias, The Description of Greece, 6.20.18: "A man of Egypt said that Pelops received something from Amphion the Theban and buried it where is what they call Taraxippus, adding that it was the buried thing which frightened the mares of Oenomaus, as well as those of every charioteer since. This Egyptian thought that Amphion and the Thracian Orpheus were clever magicians, and that it was through their enchantments that the beasts came to Orpheus, and the stones came to Amphion for the building of the wall. The most probable of the stories in my opinion makes Taraxippus a surname of Horse Poseidon." ^ a b c Smith, William (1870). Dictionary of Greek And Roman Biography And Mythology. 3. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 60. ark:/13960/t23b60t0r. ^ Taylor, Thomas (1821) [1787]. The Mystical Hymns of Orpheus. London: Cheswick: C. Whittingham College House. pp. li–lii. ark:/13960/t2v47bg2h. ^ a b Freeman, Kathleen (1946). The Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 4–8. ark:/13960/t9z088h5f. ^ Son of Oeagrus or Apollo and Calliope: Apollodorus 1.3.1. ^ Pindar, frag. 126, line 9, noted in Kerényi 1959: 280. ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.23 with Asclepiades as the authority ^ In Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 9.30.4, the author claimed that "... There are many untruths believed by the Greeks, one of which is that Orpheus was a son of the Muse Calliope, and not of the daughter of Pierus." ^ Tzetzes, Chiliades 1.12 line 306 ^ John Tzetzes. Chiliades, 1.12 line 305 ^ William Keith Guthrie and L. Alderlink, Orpheus and Greek Religion (Mythos Books), 1993, ISBN 0-691-02499-5, p. 61 f.: "[…] is a city Dion. Near it is a village called Pimpleia. It was there they say that Orpheus the Kikonian lived." ^ a b Jane Ellen Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (Mythos Books), 1991, ISBN 0-691-01514-7, p. 469: "[…] near the city of Dium is a village called Pimpleia where Orpheus lived." ^ The Argonautica, book I (ll. 23–34), "First then let us name Orpheus whom once Calliope bare, it is said, wedded to Thracian Oeagrus, near the Pimpleian height." ^ Hoopes And Evslin, The Greek Gods, ISBN 0-590-44110-8, ISBN 0-590-44110-8, 1995, p. 77: "His father was a Thracian king; his mother the muse Calliope. For a while he lived on Parnassus with his mother and his eight beautiful aunts and there met Apollo who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo was taken with Orpheus, gave him his little golden lyre and taught him to play. And his mother taught him to make verses for singing." ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.2–4. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Corinth, 2.30.1 [2]: "Of the gods, the Aeginetans worship most Hecate, in whose honor every year they celebrate mystic rites which, they say, Orpheus the Thracian established among them. Within the enclosure is a temple; its wooden image is the work of Myron, and it has one face and one body. It was Alcamenes, in my opinion, who first made three images of Hecate attached to one another, a figure called by the Athenians Epipurgidia (on the Tower); it stands beside the temple of the Wingless Victory." ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Laconia, 3.14.1,[5]: "[…] but the wooden image of Thetis is guarded in secret. The cult of Demeter Chthonia (of the Lower World) the Lacedaemonians say was handed on to them by Orpheus, but in my opinion it was because of the sanctuary in Hermione that the Lacedaemonians also began to worship Demeter Chthonia. The Spartans have also a sanctuary of Serapis, the newest sanctuary in the city, and one of Zeus surnamed Olympian." ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Laconia, 3.13.1: "Opposite the Olympian Aphrodite the Lacedaemonians have a temple of the Saviour Maid. Some say that it was made by Orpheus the Thracian, others by Abairis when he had come from the Hyperboreans." ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Laconia, 3.20.1,[5]: "Between Taletum and Euoras is a place they name Therae, where they say Leto from the Peaks of Taygetus […] is a sanctuary of Demeter surnamed Eleusinian. Here according to the Lacedaemonian story Heracles was hidden by Asclepius while he was being healed of a wound. In the sanctuary is a wooden image of Orpheus, a work, they say, of Pelasgians." ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1–2. ^ Katherine Crawford (2010). The Sexual Culture of the French Renaissance. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-521-76989-1. ^ John Block Friedman (2000-05-01). Orpheus in the Middle Ages. Syracuse University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8156-2825-5. ^ M. Owen Lee, Virgil as Orpheus: A Study of the Georgics, State University of New York Press, Albany (1996), p. 9. ^ Symposium 179d. ^ "The Georgics of Virgil: Fourth Book". www.sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017. ^ Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, Penguin Books Ltd., London (1955), Volume 1, Chapter 28, "Orpheus", p. 115. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, book III: "Let no footfall or barking of dogs cause you to turn around, lest you ruin everything", Medea warns Jason; after the dread rite, "The son of Aison was seized by fear, but even so he did not turn round..." (Richard Hunter, translator). ^ a b Orpheus and Greek Religion by William Keith Guthrie and L. Alderlink, ISBN 0-691-02499-5, p. 32 ^ Wilson, N., Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, Routledge, 2013, ISBN 113678800X, p. 702: "His grave and cult belong not to Thrace but to Pierian Macedonia, northeast of Mount Olympus, a region that the Thracians had once inhabited ^ Classical Mythology, p. 279, Mark P. O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon. ^ Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, volume 88, p. 211 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, 9.30.1. The Macedonians who dwell in the district below Mount Pieria and the city of Dium say that it was here that Orpheus met his end at the hands of the women. Going from Dium along the road to the mountain, and advancing twenty stades, you come to a pillar on the right surmounted by a stone urn, which according to the natives contains the bones of Orpheus. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, 9.30.1. There is also a river called Helicon. After a course of seventy-five stades the stream hereupon disappears under the earth. After a gap of about twenty-two stades the water rises again, and under the name of Baphyra instead of Helicon flows into the sea as a navigable river. The people of Dium say that at first this river flowed on land throughout its course. But, they go on to say, the women who killed Orpheus wished to wash off in it the blood-stains, and thereat the river sank underground, so as not to lend its waters to cleanse manslaughter ^ ""Orpheus" The Columbia Encyclopedia". search.credoreference.com. Retrieved 2020-09-25. ^ Patricia Jane Johnson (2008). Ovid Before Exile: Art and Punishment in the Metamorphoses. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-299-22400-4. "by the Ciconian women." ^ Ovid, trans. A. S. Kline (2000). Ovid: The Metamorphoses. Book XI. ^ Heinrich Wölfflin (2013). Drawings of Albrecht Dürer. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-486-14090-2. ^ Carlos Parada "His head fell into the sea and was cast by the waves upon the island of Lesbos where the Lesbians buried it, and for having done this the Lesbians have the reputation of being skilled in music." ^ Recently a cave was identified as the oracle of Orpheus nearby the modern village of Antissa; see Harissis H. V. et al. "The Spelios of Antissa; The oracle of Orpheus in Lesvos" Archaiologia kai Technes 2002; 83:68–73 (article in Greek with English abstract) ^ Flavius Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana, [2] ^ William Godwin (1876). "Lives of the Necromancers". p. 46. ^ The Writing of Orpheus: Greek Myth in Cultural Context by Marcele Detienne, ISBN 0-8018-6954-4, p. 161 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, 9.30.1 [11] Immediately when night came the god sent heavy rain, and the river Sys (Boar), one of the torrents about Olympus, on this occasion threw down the walls of Libethra, overturning sanctuaries of gods and houses of men, and drowning the inhabitants and all the animals in the city. When Libethra was now a city of ruin, the Macedonians in Dium, according to my friend of Larisa, carried the bones of Orpheus to their own country. ^ Others have said that his wife died before him, and that for her sake he came to Aornum in Thesprotis, where of old was an oracle of the dead. He thought, they say, that the soul of Eurydice followed him, but turning round he lost her, and committed suicide for grief. The Thracians say that such nightingales as nest on the grave of Orpheus sing more sweetly and louder than others.Pausanias, Description of Greece, Boeotia, 9.30.1. ^ Freeman, Kathleen (1946). The Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 3. ark:/13960/t9z088h5f. ^ Freeman, Kathleen. Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers, Harvard University Press (1948), p. 1. ^ Plato. The Republic 364c–d. ^ Moore, p. 56: "the use of eggs and beans was forbidden, for these articles were associated with the worship of the dead". ^ Janko, Richard (2006). Tsantsanoglou, K.; Parássoglou, G.M.; Kouremenos, T. (eds.). "The Derveni Papyrus". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Studi e testi per il 'Corpus dei papiri filosofici greci e latini'. Florence: Olschki. 13. ^ Mitford, p. 89: "But the very early inhabitants of Greece had a religion far less degenerated from original purity. To this curious and interesting fact, abundant testimonies remain. They occur in those poems, of uncertain origin and uncertain date, but unquestionably of great antiquity, which are called the poems of Orpheus or rather the Orphic poems [Note: Particularly in the Hymn to Jupiter, quoted by Aristotle in the seventh chapter of his Treatise on the World]; and they are found scattered among the writings of the philosophers and historians." The idea of a religion "degenerated from original purity" expressed an Enlightenment idealisation of an assumed primitive state that is one connotation of "primitivism" in the history of ideas. ^ Guthrie, pp. 17–18. "As founder of mystery-religions, Orpheus was first to reveal to men the meaning of the rites of initiation (teletai). We read of this in both Plato and Aristophanes (Aristophanes, Frogs, 1032; Plato, Republic, 364e, a passage which suggests that literary authority was made to take the responsibility for the rites)". Guthrie goes on to write about "This less worthy but certainly popular side of Orphism is represented for us again by the charms or incantations of Orpheus which we may also read of as early as the fifth century. Our authority is Euripides. We have already noticed the 'charm on the Thracian tablets' in the Alcestis and in Cyclops one of the lazy and frightened Satyrs, unwilling to help Odysseus in the task of driving the burning stake into the single eye of the giant, exclaims: 'But I know a spell of Orpheus, a fine one, which will make the brand step up of its own accord to burn this one-eyed son of Earth' (Euripides, Cyclops 646 = Kern, test. 83)." ^ Rousse State Opera. "Световна премиера на операта „Орфей” от канадския композитор Джон Робъртсън в МФ „Сцена край реката”-Русе" ("World Premiere of the opera "Orpheus" by Canadian composer John Robertson"). Retrieved 22 February 2016 (in Bulgarian). ^ Isherwood, Charles (2007-06-19). "The Power of Memory to Triumph Over Death". New York Times. ^ Guardian Staff (2015-11-19). "David Almond wins Guardian children's fiction prize". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-11-24. ^ https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08KXTQMVR ^ Gaiman, Neil. The Sandman #50. ^ Poem: Orpheus, retrieved 2020-11-24 Bibliography[edit] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke I, iii, 2; ix, 16 & 25; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica I, 23–34; IV, 891–909. Bernabé, Albertus (ed.), Orphicorum et Orphicis similium testimonia et fragmenta. Poetae Epici Graeci. Pars II. Fasc. 1. Bibliotheca Teubneriana, München/Leipzig: K.G. Saur, 2004. ISBN 3-598-71707-5. review of this book Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, Orpheus and Greek Religion: a Study of the Orphic Movement, 1935. Kerenyi, Karl (1959). The Heroes of the Greeks. New York/London: Thames and Hudson. Mitford, William, The History of Greece, 1784. Cf. v.1, Chapter II, Religion of the Early Greeks. Moore, Clifford H., Religious Thought of the Greeks, 1916. Kessinger Publishing (April 2003). ISBN 978-0-7661-5130-7 Ossoli, Margaret Fuller, Orpheus, a sonnet about his trip to the underworld. Ovid, Metamorphoses X, 1–105; XI, 1–66; Christoph Riedweg, "Orfeo", in: S. Settis (a cura di), I Greci: Storia Cultura Arte Società, volume II, 1, Turin 1996, 1251–1280. Christoph Riedweg, "Orpheus oder die Magie der musiké. Antike Variationen eines einflussreichen Mythos", in: Th. Fuhrer / P. Michel / P. Stotz (Hgg.), Geschichten und ihre Geschichte, Basel 2004, 37–66. Rohde, Erwin, Psyche, 1925. cf. Chapter 10, The Orphics. Segal, Charles (1989). Orpheus : The Myth of the Poet. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3708-1. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Orpheus" Taylor, Thomas [translator], The Mystical Hymns of Orpheus, 1896. West, Martin L., The Orphic Poems, 1983. There is a sub-thesis in this work that early Greek religion was heavily influenced by Central Asian shamanistic practices. One major point of contact was the ancient Crimean city of Olbia. Wise, R. Todd, A Neocomparative Examination of the Orpheus Myth As Found in the Native American and European Traditions, 1998. UMI. The thesis explores Orpheus as a single mythic structure present in traditions that extend from antiquity to contemporary times and across cultural contexts. Wroe, Ann, Orpheus: The Song of Life, The Overlook Press, New York, 2012. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orpheus. Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ὀρφεύς Wikiquote has quotations related to: Orpheus Greek Mythology Link, Orpheus Theoi Project: online text: The Orphic Hymns translated by Thomas Taylor The Life and Theology of Orpheus by Thomas Taylor, including several Orphic Hymns and their accompanying notes by Taylor Orphica in English and Greek (select resources) Leibethra – The Tomb of Orpheus (in Greek) Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca. 400 images of Orpheus) Greek Myth Comix: The Story of Orpheus A detailed comic-strip retelling of Orpheus by Greek Myth Comix Orphicorum fragmenta, Otto Kern (ed.), Berolini apud Weidmannos, 1922. Freese, John Henry (1911). "Orpheus" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–329. v t e Orpheus and Eurydice Characters Eurydice Orpheus Orphean operas Euridice (1600, Peri) Euridice (1602, Caccini) L'Orfeo (1607, Monteverdi) Orfeo dolente (1616, Belli) La morte d'Orfeo (1619, Landi)f Orfeo (1647, Rossi) Orfeo (1672, Sartorio) La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (c. 1686, Charpentier) Orpheus (1726, Telemann) Orfeo ed Euridice (1762, Gluck) discography L'anima del filosofo (1791, Haydn) Orpheus in the Underworld (1858, Offenbach) Orpheus und Eurydike (1921, Krenek) L'Orfeide (1925, Malipiero) Orpheus and Eurydice (1975, Zhurbin, rock opera) The Mask of Orpheus (1986, Birtwistle) The Second Mrs Kong (1994, Birtwistle) The Corridor (2009, Birtwistle) Eurydice (2020, Aucoin) Musicals Hadestown Plays Eurydice/Point of Departure (1941, Anouilh) Orfeu da Conceição (1956, de Moraes) Orpheus Descending (1957, Williams) Eurydice (2003, Ruhl) Films The Orphic Trilogy The Blood of a Poet (1930) Orphée (1950) Testament of Orpheus (1960) Black Orpheus (1959) Evrydiki BA 2O37 (1975) Parking (1985) Orfeu (1999) You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet! (2012) Poetry Sir Orfeo (c. late thirteenth century) The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene (c. 1480) Sonnets to Orpheus (1922) "Eurydice" (1999) Novels The Einstein Intersection (1967) Gravity's Rainbow (1973) The Medusa Frequency (1987) The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) Veniss Underground (2003) Art Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice Poem Strip Albums Reflections (1970) Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus (2004) Metamorpheus (2005) Hadestown (2010) Orfeas (2010) Reflektor (2013) Wasteland, Baby! (2019) Ballet Orpheus (1948) Chaconne (1976) Video games The Battle of Olympus Don't Look Back Related The Gaze of Orpheus Orpheus Monument Orpheus no Mado Orphism v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe 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en-wikipedia-org-3640	----	Hermes - Wikipedia Hermes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 5 February 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hermes (disambiguation). ancient Greek god of boundaries, roads, merchants, cunning, and thieves Hermes God of boundaries, roads and travelers, thieves, athletes, shepherds, commerce, speed, cunning, wit and sleep. Psychopomp and divine messenger. Member of the Twelve Olympians Hermes Ingenui (Vatican Museums), Roman copy of the second century BC after a Greek original of the 5th century BC. Hermes has a kerykeion (caduceus), kithara, petasos (round hat) and a traveler's cloak. Abode Mount Olympus Planet Mercury[1] Symbol Talaria, caduceus, tortoise, lyre, rooster, Petasos (Winged helmet) Personal information Parents Zeus and Maia Uranus and Hemera (Cicero and Hyginus)[2] Siblings Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Charites, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Consort Merope, Aphrodite, Dryope, Peitho Children Evander, Pan, Hermaphroditus, Abderus, Autolycus, Eudoros, Angelia, Myrtilus Equivalents Roman equivalent Mercury Etruscan equivalent Turms Egyptian equivalent Thoth, Anubis This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Part of a series on Ancient Greek religion Origins Ancient Greek Religion Mycenaean Greece and Mycenaean religion Minoan Civilization Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Sacred Places Sacred Islands Delos Ithaca Naxos Kythira Samothrace Crete Sacred Mountains Mount Lykaion Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Olympus Mount Kyllini Mount Othrys Sanctuaries Aornum Delphi Didyma Dion Dodona Eleusis Olympia Other Cave of Zeus Troy Deities Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Lesser deities Alpheus Amphitrite Asclepius Bia Circe Cybele Deimos Eileithyia Enyo Eos Eris Harmonia Hebe Hecate Helios Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Metis Momus Nemesis Nike Pan Persephone Phobos Proteus Scamander Selene Thanatos Thetis Triton Zelus Concepts Worldview Greek Mythology Orphic Egg Underworld and Afterlife Miasma Daimon Greek Heroic Age Divine and Reality Apeiron Monism Polytheism Pantheism Form of the Good Theory of forms Mind Anamnesis Ataraxia Apatheia Episteme Epoché Katalepsis Logos Nous Phronesis Soul Anima mundi Metempsychosis Henosis Plato's theory of soul Ethics Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of Reciprocity Delphic maxims Adiaphora Eudaimonia Kathekon Oikeiôsis Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Dionysian Mysteries Practices Worship Agalma Dithyramb Paean Orgion Hiera Orgas Hero Cult Oracle and Pythia Sacrifices and Offerings Holokaustos Libation Votive offering Animal Sacrifice Temples and holy sites Temple Temenos Meditation and Charity Eusebeia Meditation Euergetism Rites of passage Amphidromia Marriage Funeral Rites Festivals Thesmophoria Dionysia Daphnephoria Anthesteria Arrephoria Kronia Genesia Elaphebolia Pyanopsia Khalkeia Haloa Thargelia Three Monthly Festivals Deipnon Noumenia Agathodaemon Religious Games Panathenaia Herakleia Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Nemean Games Pythian Games Isthmian Games Hellenistic philosophy Stoicism Platonism Cynicism Epicureanism Peripatetic Pythagoreanism Pyrrhonism Sophism Philosophers Ancient Hesiod Homer Leucippus Democritus Diogenes of Apollonia Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Thales of Miletus Anaximenes of Miletus Parmenides Melissus of Samos Anaxagoras Empedocles Anaximander Prodicus Classical Socrates Antisthenes Diogenes Aristippus Euclid of Megara Stilpo Aristotle Aristoxenus Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Plato Speusippus Xenocrates Hellenistic and Roman Arcesilaus Carneades Epicurus Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) Plutarch Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Timon of Phlius Sextus Empiricus Cicero Plotinus Julian (emperor) Zeno of Citium Aratus Aristo of Chios Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Marcus Aurelius Epictetus Arrian Texts Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days Other Topics Pilgrimage Sites Calendar Greek mythology Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Julian restoration Modern Restoration  Religion portal  Ancient Greece portal v t e Hermes (/ˈhɜːrmiːz/; Greek: Ἑρμῆς) is an Olympian deity in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Hermes is considered the herald of the gods. He is also considered the protector of human heralds, travellers, thieves,[3] merchants, and orators.[4][5] He is able to move quickly and freely between the worlds of the mortal and the divine, aided by his winged sandals. Hermes plays the role of the psychopomp or "soul guide" — a conductor of souls into the afterlife.[6][7] In myth, Hermes functioned as the emissary and messenger of the gods,[8] and was often presented as the son of Zeus and Maia, the Pleiad. He is regarded as "the divine trickster,"[9] for which Homer offers the most popular account in his Hymn to Hermes.[10] His attributes and symbols include the herma, the rooster, the tortoise, satchel or pouch, talaria (winged sandals), and winged helmet or simple petasos, as well as the palm tree, goat, the number four, several kinds of fish, and incense.[11] However, his main symbol is the caduceus, a winged staff intertwined with two snakes copulating and carvings of the other gods.[12] His attributes had previously influenced the earlier Etruscan god Turms, a name borrowed from the Greek "herma".[13] In Roman mythology, Hermes was known as Mercury,[14] a name derived from the Latin merx, meaning "merchandise," and the origin of the words "merchant" and "commerce."[15] Contents 1 Name and origin 2 Iconography 3 Functions 3.1 As a chthonic and fertility god 3.2 As a god of boundaries 3.3 As a messenger god 3.4 As a shepherd god 4 Historical and literary sources 4.1 In the Mycenaean period 4.2 In the Archaic period 4.3 In the Classical period 4.4 In the Hellenistic period 4.5 In the Roman period 4.6 In the Middle Ages 4.7 Temples and sacred places 4.8 Festivals 5 Epithets 5.1 Atlantiades 5.2 Argeïphontes 5.3 Cyllenian 5.4 Kriophoros 5.5 Messenger and guide 5.6 Trade 5.7 Dolios ("tricky")[96] 5.8 Thief 5.8.1 Patron of thieves 5.9 Additional 6 Mythology 6.1 Early Greek sources 6.1.1 Homer and Hesiod 6.1.2 Athenian tragic playwrights 6.1.3 Aesop 6.2 Hellenistic Greek sources 6.3 Lovers and children 6.3.1 List of lovers and other children 6.4 Genealogy 7 In Jungian psychology 8 Hermes in popular culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Name and origin[edit] The earliest form of the name Hermes is the Mycenaean Greek *hermāhās,[16] written 𐀁𐀔𐁀 e-ma-a2 (e-ma-ha) in the Linear B syllabic script.[17] Most scholars derive "Hermes" from Greek ἕρμα herma,[18] "stone heap."[19] The etymology of ἕρμα itself is unknown, but is probably not a Proto-Indo-European word.[16] R. S. P. Beekes rejects the connection with herma and suggests a Pre-Greek origin.[16] However, the stone etymology is also linked to Indo-European *ser- ("to bind, put together"). Scholarly speculation that "Hermes" derives from a more primitive form meaning "one cairn" is disputed.[20] Other scholars have suggested that Hermes may be a cognate of the Vedic Sarama.[21][22] It is likely that Hermes is a pre-Hellenic god, though the exact origins of his worship, and its original nature, remain unclear. Frothingham thought the god to have existed as a Mesopotamian snake-god, similar or identical to Ningishzida, a god who served as mediator between humans and the divine, especially Ishtar, and who was depicted in art as a Caduceus.[23][24] Angelo (1997) thinks Hermes to be based on the Thoth archetype.[25] The absorbing ("combining") of the attributes of Hermes to Thoth developed after the time of Homer amongst Greeks and Romans; Herodotus was the first to identify the Greek god with the Egyptian (Hermopolis), Plutarch and Diodorus also, although Plato thought the gods to be dis-similar (Friedlander 1992).[26][27] His cult was established in Greece in remote regions, likely making him originally a god of nature, farmers, and shepherds. It is also possible that since the beginning he has been a deity with shamanic attributes linked to divination, reconciliation, magic, sacrifices, and initiation and contact with other planes of existence, a role of mediator between the worlds of the visible and invisible.[28] According to a theory that has received considerable scholarly acceptance, Hermes originated as a form of the god Pan, who has been identified as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European pastoral god *Péh2usōn,[29][30] in his aspect as the god of boundary markers. Later, the epithet supplanted the original name itself and Hermes took over the roles as god of messengers, travelers, and boundaries, which had originally belonged to Pan, while Pan himself continued to be venerated by his original name in his more rustic aspect as the god of the wild in the relatively isolated mountainous region of Arcadia. In later myths, after the cult of Pan was reintroduced to Attica, Pan was said to be Hermes's son.[30][31] Iconography[edit] Archaic bearded Hermes from a herm, early 5th century BC. Statue of Hermes wearing the petasos, a voyager's cloak, the caduceus and a purse. Roman copy after a Greek original (Vatican Museums). The image of Hermes evolved and varied along with Greek art and culture. In Archaic Greece he was usually depicted as a mature man, bearded, and dressed as a traveler, herald, or pastor. This image remained common on the Hermai, which served as boundary markers, roadside markers, and grave markers, as well as votive offerings. In Classical and Hellenistic Greece, Hermes was usually depicted as a young, athletic man lacking a beard. When represented as Logios (Greek: Λόγιος, speaker), his attitude is consistent with the attribute. Phidias left a statue of a famous Hermes Logios and Praxiteles another, also well known, showing him with the baby Dionysus in his arms. At all times, however, through the Hellenistic periods, Roman, and throughout Western history into the present day, several of his characteristic objects are present as identification, but not always all together.[32][33] Among these objects is a wide-brimmed hat, the petasos, widely used by rural people of antiquity to protect themselves from the sun, and that in later times was adorned with a pair of small wings; sometimes this hat is not present, and may have been replaced with wings rising from the hair. Another object is the caduceus, a staff with two intertwined snakes, sometimes crowned with a pair of wings and a sphere.[34] The caduceus, historically, appeared with Hermes, and is documented among the Babylonians from about 3500 BC. Two snakes coiled around a staff was also a symbol of the god Ningishzida, who, like Hermes, served as a mediator between humans and the divine (specifically, the goddess Ishtar or the supreme Ningirsu). In Greece, other gods have been depicted holding a caduceus, but it was mainly associated with Hermes. It was said to have the power to make people fall asleep or wake up, and also made peace between litigants, and is a visible sign of his authority, being used as a sceptre.[32] The caduceus is not to be confused with the Rod of Asclepius, the patron of medicine and son of Apollo, which bears only one snake. The rod of Asclepius was adopted by most Western doctors as a badge of their profession, but in several medical organizations of the United States, the caduceus took its place since the 18th century, although this use is declining. After the Renaissance the caduceus also appeared in the heraldic crests of several, and currently is a symbol of commerce.[32] Hermes' sandals, called pédila by the Greeks and talaria by the Romans, were made of palm and myrtle branches but were described as beautiful, golden and immortal, made a sublime art, able to take the roads with the speed of wind. Originally, they had no wings, but late in the artistic representations, they are depicted. In certain images, the wings spring directly from the ankles. Hermes has also been depicted with a purse or a bag in his hands, wearing a robe or cloak, which had the power to confer invisibility. His weapon was a sword of gold, which killed Argos; lent to Perseus to kill Medusa.[32] Functions[edit] Hermes began as a god with strong chthonic, or underworld, associations. He was worshipped in ancient times "the god of the road between the Under and the Upper world", and this function gradually expanded to encompass roads in general, and from there boundaries, travelers, sailors, and commerce.[24] As a chthonic and fertility god[edit] Beginning with the earliest records of his worship, Hermes has been understood as a chthonic deity (heavily associated with the earth and/or underworld).[24] As a chthonic deity, the worship of Hermes also included an aspect relating to fertility, with the phallus being included among his major symbols. The inclusion of phallic imagery associated with Hermes and placed, in the form of herma, at the entrances to households may reflect a belief in ancient times that Hermes was a symbol of the household's fertility, specifically the potency of the male head of the household in producing children.[24] The association between Hermes and the underworld is related to his function as a god of boundaries (the boundary between life and death), but he is considered a psychopomp, a deity who helps guide souls of the deceased to the afterlife, and his image was commonly depicted on gravestones in classical Greece.[24] As a god of boundaries[edit] Herm of Hermes. Roman copy from the Hermes Propyleia of Alcamenes, 50–100 AD. Main article: Herma Main article: Liminal deity In Ancient Greece, Hermes was a phallic god of boundaries. His name, in the form herma, was applied to a wayside marker pile of stones and each traveler added a stone to the pile. In the 6th century BC, Hipparchos, the son of Pisistratus, replaced the cairns that marked the midway point between each village deme at the central agora of Athens with a square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of Hermes with a beard. An erect phallus rose from the base. In the more primitive Mount Kyllini or Cyllenian herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a carved phallus. "That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an Olympian god is astounding," Walter Burkert remarked.[35] In Athens, herms were placed outside houses, both as a form of protection for the home, a symbol of male fertility, and as a link between the household and its gods with the gods of the wider community.[24] In 415 BC, when the Athenian fleet was about to set sail for Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War, all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized one night. The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or from the anti-war faction within Athens itself. Socrates' pupil Alcibiades was suspected of involvement, and Socrates indirectly paid for the impiety with his life.[36] As a messenger god[edit] In association with his role as a psychopomp and god who is able to easily cross boundaries, Hermes is prominently worshiped as a messenger, often described as the messenger of the gods (since he can convey messages between the divine realms, the underworld, and the world of mortals).[37] As a messenger and divine herald, he wears winged sandals (or, in Roman art influenced by Etruscan depictions of Turms, a winged cap).[38] As a shepherd god[edit] Kriophoros Hermes (which takes the lamb), late-Roman copy of Greek original from the 5th century BC. Barracco Museum, Rome Hermes was known as the patron god of flocks, herds, and shepherds, an attribute possibly tied to his early origin as an aspect of Pan. In Boeotia, Hermes was worshiped for having saved the town from a plague by carrying a ram or calf around the city walls. A yearly festival commemorated this event, during which a lamb would be carried around the city by "the most handsome boy" and then sacrificed, in order to purify and protect the city from disease, drought, and famine. Numerous depictions of Hermes as a shepherd god carrying a lamb on his shoulders (Hermes kriophoros) have been found throughout the Mediterranean world, and it is possible that the iconography of Hermes as "The Good Shepherd" had an influence on early Christianity, specifically in the description of Christ as "the Good Shepherd" in the Gospel of John.[24][39] Historical and literary sources[edit] In the Mycenaean period[edit] The earliest written record of Hermes comes from Linear B inscriptions from Pylos, Thebes, and Knossos dating to the Bronze Age Mycenaean period. Here, Hermes' name is rendered as e‐ma‐a (Ἑρμάhας). This name is always recorded alongside those of several goddesses, including Potnija, Posidaeja, Diwja, Hera, Pere, and Ipemedeja, indicating that his worship was strongly connected to theirs. This is a pattern that would continue in later periods, as worship of Hermes almost always took place within temples and sanctuaries primarily dedicated to goddesses, including Hera, Demeter, Hecate, and Despoina.[24] In the Archaic period[edit] In literary works of Archaic Greece, Hermes is depicted both as a protector and a trickster. In Homer's Iliad, Hermes is called "the bringer of good luck", "guide and guardian", and "excellent in all the tricks".[40] In Hesiod's The Works and Days, Hermes' is depicted giving Pandora the gifts of lies, seductive words, and a dubious character.[41] The earliest known theological or spiritual documents concerning Hermes are found in the c. 7th century BC Homeric Hymns. In Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes describes the god's birth and his theft of Apollo's sacred cattle. In this hymn, Hermes is invoked as a god "of many shifts" (polytropos), associated with cunning and thievery, but also a bringer of dreams and a night guardian.[42] He is said to have invented the chelys lyre,[43] as well as racing and the sport of wrestling.[44] In the Classical period[edit] Hermes wearing a petasos. Attic red-figure cup, c. 480 BC–470 BC. From Vulci. The cult of Hermes flourished in Attica, and many scholars writing before the discovery of the Linear B evidence considered Hermes to be a uniquely Athenian god. This region had numerous Hermai, or pillar-like icons, dedicated to the god marking boundaries, crossroads, and entryways. These were initially stone piles, later pillars made of wood, stone, or bronze, with carved images of Hermes, a phallus, or both.[24] In the context of these herms, by the Classical period Hermes had come to be worshiped as the patron god of travelers and sailors.[24] By the 5th century BC, Hermai were also in common use as grave monuments, emphasizing Hermes' role as a cthonic deity and psychopomp.[24] This was probably his original function, and he may have been a late inclusion in the Olympic pantheon; Hermes is described as the "youngest" Olympian, and some myths, including his theft of Apollo's cows, describe his initial coming into contact with celestial deities. Hermes therefore came to be worshiped as a mediator between celestial and cthonic realms, as well as the one who facilitates interactions between mortals and the divine, often being depicted on libation vessels.[24] Due to his mobility and his liminal nature, mediating between opposites (such as merchant/customer[24]), he was considered the god of commerce and social intercourse, the wealth brought in business, especially sudden or unexpected enrichment, travel, roads and crossroads, borders and boundary conditions or transient, the changes from the threshold, agreements and contracts, friendship, hospitality, sexual intercourse, games, data, the draw, good luck, the sacrifices and the sacrificial animals, flocks and shepherds and the fertility of land and cattle.[32][45][46] In Athens, Hermes Eion came to represent the Athenian naval superiority in their defeat of the Persians, under the command of Cimon, in 475 BC. In this context, Hermes became a god associated with the Athenian empire and its expansion, and of democracy itself, as well as all of those closely associated with it, from the sailors in the navy, to the merchants who drove the economy.[24] A section of the agora in Athens became known as the Hermai, because it was filled with a large number of herms, placed there as votive offerings by merchants and others who wished to commemorate a personal success in commerce or other public affair. The Hermai was probably destroyed in the Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC).[24] In the Hellenistic period[edit] Hermes Fastening his Sandal, early Imperial Roman marble copy of a Lysippan bronze (Louvre Museum) As Greek culture and influence spread following the conquests of Alexander the Great, a period of syncretism or interpretatio graeca saw many traditional Greek deities identified with foreign counterparts. In Ptolemaic Egypt, for example, the Egyptian god Thoth was identified by Greek speakers as the Egyptian form of Hermes. The two gods were worshiped as one at the Temple of Thoth in Khemenu, a city which became known in Greek as Hermopolis.[47] This led to Hermes gaining the attributes of a god of translation and interpretation, or more generally, a god of knowledge and learning.[24] This is illustrated by a 3rd-century BC example of a letter sent by the priest Petosiris to King Nechopso, probably written in Alexandria c. 150 BC, stating that Hermes is the teacher of all secret wisdoms, which are accessible by the experience of religious ecstasy.[48][49] An epithet of Thoth found in the temple at Esna, "Thoth the great, the great, the great",[50] became applied to Hermes beginning in at least 172 BC. This lent Hermes one of his most famous later titles, Hermes Trismegistus (Ἑρμῆς ὁ Τρισμέγιστος), "thrice-greatest Hermes".[51] The figure of Hermes Trismegistus would later absorb a variety of other esoteric wisdom traditions and become a major component of Hermeticism, alchemy, and related traditions.[52] In the Roman period[edit] As early as the 4th century BC, Romans had adopted Hermes into their own religion, combining his attributes and worship with the earlier Etruscan god Turms under the name Mercury. According to St. Augustin, the Latin name "Mercury" may be a title derived from "medio currens", in reference to Hermes' role as a mediator and messenger who moves between worlds.[24] Mercury became one of the most popular Roman gods, as attested by the numerous shrines and depictions in artwork found in Pompeii.[53] In art, the Roman Mercury continued the style of depictions found in earlier representations of both Hermes and Turms, a young, beardless god with winged shoes and/or hat, carrying the caduceus. His role as a god of boundaries, a messenger, and a psychopomp also remained unchanged following his adoption into the Roman religion (these attributes were also similar to those in the Etruscan's worship of Turms).[54] The Romans identified the Germanic god Odin with Mercury, and there is evidence that Germanic peoples who had contact with Roman culture also accepted this identification. Odin and Mercury/Hermes share several attributes in common. For example, both are depicted carrying a staff and wearing a wide-brimmed hat, and both are travelers or wanderers. However, the reasons for this interpretation appear to go beyond superficial similarities: Both gods are connected to the dead (Mercury as psychopomp and Odin as lord of the dead in Valhalla), both were connected to eloquent speech, and both were associated with secret knowledge. The identification of Odin as Mercury was probably also influenced by a previous association of a more Odin-like Celtic god as the "Celtic Mercurius".[55] A further Roman Imperial-era syncretism came in the form of Hermanubis, the result of the identification of Hermes with the Egyptian god of the dead, Anubis. Hermes and Anubis were both psychopomps the primary attribute leading to their conflation as the same god. Hermanubis depicted with a human body and a jackal head, holding the caduceus. In addition to his function of guiding souls to the afterlife, Hermanubis represented the Egyptian priesthood the investigation of truth.[56][57] Beginning around the turn of the 1st century AD, a process began by which, in certain traditions Hermes became euhemerised – that is, interpreted as a historical, mortal figure who had become divine or elevated to godlike status in legend. Numerous books of wisdom and magic (including astrology, theosophy, and alchemy) were attributed to this "historical" Hermes, usually identified in his Alexandrian form of Hermes Trismegistus. As a collection, these works are referred to as the Hermetica.[58] In the Middle Ages[edit] Though worship of Hermes had been almost fully suppressed in the Roman Empire following the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I in the 4th century AD, Hermes continued to be recognized as a mystical or prophetic figure, though a mortal one, by Christian scholars. Early medieval Christians such as Augustine believed that a euhemerised Hermes Trismegistus had been an ancient pagan prophet who predicted the emergence of Christianity in his writings.[59][60] Some Christian philosophers in the medieval and Renaissance periods believed in the existence of a "prisca theologia", a single thread of true theology that could be found uniting all religions.[61][62] Christian philosophers used Hermetic writings and other ancient philosophical literature to support their belief in the prisca theologia, arguing that Hermes Trismegistus was a contemporary of Moses,[63] or that he was the third in a line of important prophets after Enoch and Noah.[64][65] The 10th-century Suda attempted to further Christianize the figure of Hermes, claiming that "He was called Trismegistus on account of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine nature in the trinity."[66] Temples and sacred places[edit] There are only three temples known to have been specifically dedicated to Hermes during the Classical Greek period, all of them in Arcadia. Though there are a few references in ancient literature to "numerous" temples of Hermes,[32][67] this may be poetic license describing the ubiquitous herms, or other, smaller shrines to Hermes located in the temples of other deities.[24] One of the oldest places of worship for Hermes was Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, where some myths say he was born. Tradition holds that his first temple was built by Lycaon. From there, the Hermes cult would have been taken to Athens, from which it radiated to the whole of Greece.[32] In the Roman period, additional temples to Hermes (Mercury) were constructed across the Empire, including several in modern-day Tunisia. Mercury's temple in Rome was situated in the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and was built in 495 BC.[68] In most places, temples were consecrated to Hermes in conjunction with Aphrodite, as in Attica, Arcadia, Crete, Samos and in Magna Graecia. Several ex-votos found in his temples revealed his role as initiator of young adulthood, among them soldiers and hunters, since war and certain forms of hunting were seen as ceremonial initiatory ordeals. This function of Hermes explains why some images in temples and other vessels show him as a teenager. As a patron of the gym and fighting, Hermes had statues in gyms and he was also worshiped in the sanctuary of the Twelve Gods in Olympia where Greeks celebrated the Olympic Games. His statue was held there on an altar dedicated to him and Apollo together.[69] A temple within the Aventine was consecrated in 495 BC.[70][71] Pausanias wrote that during his time, at Megalopolis people could see the ruins of the temple of Hermes Acacesius.[72] In addition, the Tricrena (Τρίκρηνα, meaning Three Springs) mountains at Pheneus were sacred to Hermes, because three springs were there and according to the legend, Hermes was washed in them, after birth, by the nymphs of the mountain.[73] Furthermore, at Pharae there was a water sacred to Hermes. The name of the spring was Hermes' stream and the fish in it were not caught, being considered sacred to the god.[74] Sacrifices to Hermes involved honey, cakes, pigs, goats, and lambs. In the sanctuary of Hermes Promakhos in Tanagra is a strawberry tree under which it was believed he had created,[11] and in the hills Phene ran three sources that were sacred to him, because he believed that they had been bathed at birth. Festivals[edit] Hermes's feast was the Hermaea, which was celebrated with sacrifices to the god and with athletics and gymnastics, possibly having been established in the 6th century BC, but no documentation on the festival before the 4th century BC survives. However, Plato said that Socrates attended a Hermaea. Of all the festivals involving Greek games, these were the most like initiations because participation in them was restricted to young boys and excluded adults.[75] Epithets[edit] Hermes wearing a petasos. Coinage of Kapsa, Macedon, c. 400 BC. Atlantiades[edit] Hermes was also called Atlantiades (Greek: Ατλαντιάδης), because his mother, Maia was the daughter of Atlas.[76][77] Argeïphontes[edit] Hermes' epithet Argeïphontes (Ancient Greek: Ἀργειφόντης; Latin: Argicida), meaning "slayer of Argus",[78][79] recalls the slaying of the hundred-eyed giant Argus Panoptes by the messenger god. Argus was watching over the heifer-nymph Io in the sanctuary of Queen Hera, herself in Argos. Hermes placed a charm on Argus' eyes with the caduceus to cause the giant to sleep, after which he slew the giant.[18] The eyes were then put into the tail of the peacock, a symbol of the goddess Hera. Cyllenian[edit] Hermes was called Cyllenian (Greek: Κυλλήνιος), because according to some myths he was born at the Mount Cyllene.[80] Kriophoros[edit] Main article: Kriophoros In ancient Greek culture, kriophoros (Greek: κριοφόρος) or criophorus, the "ram-bearer,"[81] is a figure that commemorates the solemn sacrifice of a ram. It becomes an epithet of Hermes. Messenger and guide[edit] Sarpedon's body carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches. Side A of the so-called "Euphronios krater", Attic red-figured calyx-krater signed by Euxitheos (potter) and Euphronios (painter), c. 515 BC. The chief office of the god was as messenger.[37] Explicitly, at least in sources of classical writings, of Euripides' Electra and Iphigenia in Aulis[82] and in Epictetus' Discourses.[83] Hermes (Diactoros, Angelos)[84] the messenger,[85] is in fact only seen in this role, for Zeus, from within the pages of the Odyssey.[86] The messenger divine and herald of the Gods, he wears the gifts from his father, the petasos and talaria.[38] Oh mighty messenger of the gods of the upper and lower worlds... (Aeschylus).[87] Hodios, patron of travelers and wayfarers.[78] Oneiropompus, conductor of dreams.[78] Poimandres, shepherd of men.[48] Psychopompos, conveyor or conductor of souls,[85][88] and psychogogue, conductor or leader of souls in (or through) the underworld.[89] Sokos Eriounios, a Homeric epithet with a much-debated meaning – probably "swift, good-running."[90] But in the Hymn to Hermes Eriounios is etymologized as "very beneficial."[91] Chrysorappis, "with golden wand," a Homeric epithet. Trade[edit] So-called "Logios Hermes" (Hermes Orator). Marble, Roman copy from the late 1st century BC – early 2nd century AD after a Greek original of the 5th century BC. Agoraeus, of the agora;[92] belonging to the market (Aristophanes)[93] Empolaios, "engaged in traffic and commerce"[94] Hermes is sometimes depicted in art works holding a purse.[95] Dolios ("tricky")[96][edit] No cult to Hermes Dolios existed in Attica, and so this form of Hermes seems to have existed in speech only.[97][98] Hermes Dolio is ambiguous.[99] According to prominent folklorist Yeleazar Meletinsky, Hermes is a deified trickster[100] and master of thieves ("a plunderer, a cattle-raider, a night-watching" in Homers' Hymns)[101] and deception (Euripides)[102] and (possibly evil) tricks and trickeries,[94][103][104][105] crafty (from lit. god of craft),[106] the cheat,[107] the god of stealth.[108] He is also known as the friendliest to man, cunning,[109] treacherous,[110] and a schemer.[111] Hermes Dolios was worshipped at Pellene[112][113] and invoked through Odysseus.[114] (As the ways of gain are not always the ways of honesty and straightforwardness, Hermes obtains a bad character and an in-moral (amoral [ed.]) cult as Dolios)[115] Hermes is amoral[116] like a baby.[117] Zeus sent Hermes as a teacher to humanity to teach them knowledge of and value of justice and to improve inter-personal relationships ("bonding between mortals").[118] Considered to have a mastery of rhetorical persuasion and special pleading, the god typically has nocturnal modus operandi.[119] Hermes knows the boundaries and crosses the borders of them to confuse their definition.[120] Thief[edit] Hermes Propylaeus. Roman copy of the Alcamenes statue from the entrance of the Athenian Acropolis, original shortly after the 450 BC. In the Lang translation of Homer's Hymn to Hermes, the god after being born is described as a robber, a captain of raiders, and a thief of the gates.[121] According to the late Jungian psychotherapist López-Pedraza, everything Hermes thieves, he later sacrifices to the gods.[122] Patron of thieves[edit] Autolycus received his skills as the greatest of thieves due to sacrificing to Hermes as his patron.[123] Additional[edit] Other epithets included: chthonius – at the festival Athenia Chytri sacrifices are made to this visage of the god only.[124][125] cyllenius, born on Mount Kyllini epimelios, guardian of flocks[78] koinos[126] ploutodotes, giver of wealth (as inventor of fire)[127] proopylaios, "before the gate", "guardian of the gate";[128] Pylaios, "doorkeeper"[129] strophaios, "standing at the door post"[94][130] Stropheus, "the socket in which the pivot of the door moves" (Kerényi in Edwardson) or "door-hinge". Protector of the door (that is the boundary), to the temple[92][131][132][133][134] Agoraios, the patron of gymnasia[135] Akaketos "without guile," "gracious," a Homeric epithet. Dotor Eaon "giver of good things," a Homeric epithet. Mythology[edit] Early Greek sources[edit] Hermes with his mother Maia. Detail of the side B of an Attic red-figure belly-amphora, c. 500 BC. Homer and Hesiod[edit] This circular Pyxis or box depicts two scenes. The one shown presents Hermes awarding the golden apple of the Hesperides to Aphrodite, whom Paris has selected as the most beautiful of the goddesses.[136] The Walters Art Museum. Homer and Hesiod portrayed Hermes as the author of skilled or deceptive acts and also as a benefactor of mortals. In the Iliad, he is called "the bringer of good luck", "guide and guardian", and "excellent in all the tricks". He was a divine ally of the Greeks against the Trojans. However, he did protect Priam when he went to the Greek camp to retrieve the body of his son Hector and accompanied them back to Troy.[40] He also rescued Ares from a brazen vessel where he had been imprisoned by Otus and Ephialtes. In the Odyssey, Hermes helps his great-grand son, the protagonist Odysseus, by informing him about the fate of his companions, who were turned into animals by the power of Circe. Hermes instructed Odysseus to protect himself by chewing a magic herb; he also told Calypso of Zeus' order to free Odysseus from her island to allow him to continue his journey back home. When Odysseus killed the suitors of his wife, Hermes led their souls to Hades.[137] In The Works and Days, when Zeus ordered Hephaestus to create Pandora to disgrace humanity by punishing Prometheus's act of giving fire to man, every god gave her a gift, and Hermes' gifts were lies, seductive words, and a dubious character. Hermes was then instructed to take her as wife to Epimetheus.[41] The Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes,[138] which tells the story of the god's birth and his subsequent theft of Apollo's sacred cattle, invokes him as the one "of many shifts (polytropos), blandly cunning, a robber, a cattle driver, a bringer of dreams, a watcher by night, a thief at the gates, one who was soon to show forth wonderful deeds among the deathless gods."[42] The word polutropos ("of many shifts, turning many ways, of many devices, ingenious, or much wandering") is also used to describe Odysseus in the first line of the Odyssey. In addition to the chelys lyre,[43] Hermes was believed to have invented many types of racing and the sport of wrestling, and therefore was a patron of athletes.[44] Athenian tragic playwrights[edit] Aeschylus wrote in The Eumenides that Hermes helped Orestes kill Clytemnestra under a false identity and other stratagems,[86] and also said that he was the god of searches, and those who seek things lost or stolen.[139] In Philoctetes, Sophocles invokes Hermes when Odysseus needs to convince Philoctetes to join the Trojan War on the side of the Greeks, and in Euripides' Rhesus Hermes helps Dolon spy on the Greek navy.[86] Aesop[edit] Aesop featured him in several of his fables, as ruler of the gate of prophetic dreams, as the god of athletes, of edible roots, and of hospitality. He also said that Hermes had assigned each person his share of intelligence.[140] Hellenistic Greek sources[edit] Sardonyx cameo of a Ptolemaic prince as Hermes, Cabinet des médailles, Paris Several writers of the Hellenistic period expanded the list of Hermes's achievements. Callimachus said that Hermes disguised himself as a Cyclops to scare the Oceanids and was disobedient to his mother.[citation needed] One of the Orphic Hymns Khthonios is dedicated to Hermes, indicating that he was also a god of the underworld. Aeschylus had called him by this epithet several times.[141] Another is the Orphic Hymn to Hermes, where his association with the athletic games held is mystic in tone.[142] Phlegon of Tralles said he was invoked to ward off ghosts,[143] and the Bibliotheca reported several events involving Hermes. He participated in the Gigantomachy in defense of Olympus; was given the task of bringing baby Dionysus to be cared for by Ino and Athamas and later by nymphs of Asia, followed Hera, Athena and Aphrodite in a beauty contest; favored the young Hercules by giving him a sword when he finished his education and lent his sandals to Perseus.[144] The Thracian princes identified him with their god Zalmoxis, considering his ancestor.[145] Anyte of Tegea of the 3rd century BC,[146] in the translation by Richard Aldington, wrote, I Hermes stand here at the crossroads by the wind beaten orchard, near the hoary grey coast; and I keep a resting place for weary men. And the cool stainless spring gushes out.[147] Lovers and children[edit] Hermes pursuing a woman, probably Herse. Attic red-figure amphora, c. 470 BC. Peitho, the goddess of seduction and persuasion, was said by Nonnus to be the wife of Hermes.[148] Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, was wooed by Hermes. After she had rejected him, Hermes sought the help of Zeus to seduce her. Zeus, out of pity, sent his eagle to take away Aphrodite's sandal when she was bathing, and gave it to Hermes. When Aphrodite came looking for the sandal, Hermes made love to her. She bore him a son, Hermaphroditus.[149] Apemosyne, a princess of Crete, was travelling to Rhodes one day with her brother Althaemenes. Hermes saw her and fell in love with her, but Apemosyne fled from him. Hermes could not catch her because she ran faster than him. The god then devised a plan and laid some freshly skinned hides across her path. Later, on her way back from a spring, Apemosyne slipped on those hides and fell. At that moment, Hermes caught her and raped her. When Apemosyne told her brother what had happened, he became angry, thinking that she was lying about being molested by the god. In his anger, he kicked her to death.[150] Chione, a princess of Phokis, attracted the attention of Hermes. He used his wand to put her to sleep and slept with her. To Hermes she bore a son, Autolycus.[151] Penelopeia, an Arcadian nymph, was loved by Hermes. It is said that Hermes had sex with her in the form of a goat, which resulted in their son, the god Pan, having goat legs.[152] She has been confused or conflated with Penelope, the wife of Odysseus. The Oreads, the nymphs of the mountains were said to mate with Hermes in the highlands, breeding more of their kind.[153] Iphthime, a princess of Doros was loved by Hermes and bore him three Satyroi – named Pherespondos, Lykos and Pronomos. Tanagra was a nymph for whom the gods Ares and Hermes competed in a boxing match. Hermes won and carried her off to Tanagra in Boeotia. According to Hyginus' Fabula, Pan, the Greek god of nature, shepherds and flocks, is the son of Hermes through the nymph Dryope.[154] It is likely that the worship of Hermes himself actually originated as an aspect of Pan as the god of boundaries, which could explain their association as parent and child in Hygenus.[30] In other sources, the god Priapus is understood as a son of Hermes.[155] According to Pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheca, Autolycus, the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and Chione, making Hermes a grandfather of Odysseus.[156] Photius wrote that Polydeuces, one of the Dioscuri, was a lover of Hermes.[157][158] List of lovers and other children[edit] Consort Offspring Consort Offspring Consort Offspring Acacallis • Cydon Chthonophyle • Polybus Penelope • Nomios Aglaurus • Eumolpus Daeira • Eleusis[159] • Pan (possibly) Alcidameia of Corinth • Bounos Dryope, Arcadian nymph • Pan (possibly) Phylodameia • Pharis Antianeira or Laothoe • Echion, Argonaut Erytheia • Norax[160] Polymele • Eudorus • Eurytus, Argonaut Eupolemeia • Aethalides Rhene • Saon[161] Apemosyne no known offspring Hecate three daughters[162] Sicilian nymph • Daphnis (relation ambiguous) Aphrodite • Hermaphroditus Herse • Cephalus Sose, nymph • Agreus • Tyche (possibly) • Ceryx (possibly) Tanagra no known offspring Astabe[163] • Astacus Hiereia • Gigas[164] Thronia • Arabus Carmentis or a local nymph of the Arcadians, called Themis.[165] • Evander Iphthime • Lycus Urania • Linus (possibly) Chione or • Autolycus • Pherespondus Unknown mother • Abderus Stilbe[166] or • Pronomus Unknown mother • Angelia Telauge[167] Libye[168] • Libys[169] Unknown mother • Dolops Cleobule or • Myrtilus Ocyrhoe • Caicus Unknown mother • Palaestra Clymene or Orsinoe, nymph[170] • Pan (possibly) Male Lovers Clytie or Palaestra no known offspring • Amphion[171] • Perseus[172] Myrto or Pandrosus • Ceryx (possibly) • Chryses, priest of Apollo • Polydeuces[173] Phaethusa or Peitho no known offspring • Daphnis (relation ambiguous)[174] • Therses[175] Theobula Persephone unsuccessfully wooed her • Crocus • Odrysus[176] Genealogy[edit] Hermes's family tree Uranus Gaia Uranus' genitals Iapetus Oceanus Tethys Cronus Rhea Clymene[177] Pleione Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades Demeter Hestia Atlas     a[178]      b[179] Maia Ares Hephaestus Hermes Metis Athena[180] Leto Apollo Artemis Semele Dionysus Dione     a[181]      b[182] Aphrodite In Jungian psychology[edit] "Souls on the Banks of the Acheron", oil painting depicting Hermes in the underworld. Adolf Hirémy-Hirschl, 1898. For Carl Jung Hermes's role as messenger between realms and as guide to the underworld,[183] made him the god of the unconscious,[184] the mediator between the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind, and the guide for inner journeys.[185][186] Jung considered the gods Thoth and Hermes to be counterparts.[187] In Jungian psychology especially,[188] Hermes is seen as relevant to study of the phenomenon of synchronicity[189] (together with Pan and Dionysus):[190][191] Hermes is ... the archetypal core of Jung's psyche, theories ... — DL Merritt[184] He is identified by some with the archetype of healer,[122] as the ancient Greeks ascribed healing magic to him.[186] In the context of abnormal psychology Samuels (1986) states that Jung considers Hermes the archetype for narcissistic disorder; however, he lends the disorder a "positive" (beneficious) aspect, and represents both the good and bad of narcissism.[192] For López-Pedraza, Hermes is the protector of psychotherapy.[193] For McNeely, Hermes is a god of the healing arts.[194] According to Christopher Booker, all the roles Hermes held in ancient Greek thought all considered reveals Hermes to be a guide or observer of transition.[195] For Jung, Hermes's role as trickster made him a guide through the psychotherapeutic process.[186] Hermes in popular culture[edit] See Greek mythology in popular culture: Hermes See also[edit] Hermes Trismegistus Notes[edit] ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 4 February 2008. ^ Cicero, De natura Deorum 3.56; also Arnobius, Adversus Nationes 4.14. ^ Burkert, p. 158. ^ Powell, Barry B. (2015). Classical Myth (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson. pp. 177–190. ISBN 978-0-321-96704-6. ^ Lay, p. 3. ^ Powell, pp. 179, 295 ^ Burkert, pp. 157–158. ^ Burkert, p. 158. Iris has a similar role as divine messenger. ^ Burkert, p. 156. ^ Homer, 1–512, as cited in Powell, pp. 179–189 ^ a b Austin, M. The Hellenistic world from Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation. Cambridge University Press, 2006. p. 137. ^ The Latin word cādūceus is an adaptation of the Greek κηρύκειον kērukeion, meaning "herald's wand (or staff)", deriving from κῆρυξ kērux, meaning "messenger, herald, envoy". Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon; Stuart L. Tyson, "The Caduceus", The Scientific Monthly, 34.6 (1932:492–98), p. 493. ^ Combet-Farnoux, Bernard (1980). "Turms étrusque et la fonction de « minister » de l'Hermès italique". Mercure romain : Le culte public de Mercure et la fonction mercantile à Rome de la République archaïque à l'époque augustéenne. École française de Rome. pp. 171–217. ^ Bullfinch's Mythology (1978), Crown Publishers, p. 926. ^ Powell, p. 178 ^ a b c Beekes, R.S.P. (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 461–2. ISBN 9789004174184. ^ Joann Gulizio, Hermes and e-m-a2 (PDF), University of Texas, archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013, retrieved 26 November 2011 ^ a b Greek History and the Gods. Grand Valley State University (Michigan). ^ Powell, p.177 ^ Davies, Anna Morpurgo & Duhoux, Yves. Linear B: a 1984 survey. Peeters Publishers, 1985, p. 136. ^ Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, ed. Félix Guirand & Robert Graves, Hamlyn, 1968, p. 123. ^ Debroy, Bibek (2008). Sarama and her Children: The Dog in the Indian Myth. Penguin Books India. p. 77. ISBN 978-0143064701. ^ Frothingham, A.L. (1916). "Babylonian Origin of Hermes the Snake-God, and of the Caduceus I". AJA 20.2, 175‐211. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r RADULOVI, IFIGENIJA; VUKADINOVI, SNEŽANA; SMIRNOVBRKI, ALEKSANDRA – Hermes the Transformer Ágora. Estudos Clássicos em debate, núm. 17, 2015, pp. 45–62 Universidade de Aveiro. Aveiro, Portugal. [1] (PDF link) ^ Petrūska Clarkson (1998). Counselling Psychology: Integrating Theory, Research, and Supervised Practice. Psychology Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-415-14523-7. ^ Walter J. Friedlander (1992). The Golden Wand of Medicine: A History of the Caduceus Symbol in Medicine. ABC-CLIO. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-313-28023-8.. ^ Jacques Derrida (2004). Dissemination. A&C Black. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-8264-7696-8. ^ Danubian Historical Studies, 2, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988, p. 32. ^ H. Collitz, "Wodan, Hermes und Pushan," Festskrift tillägnad Hugo Pipping pȧ Hans sextioȧrsdag den 5 November 1924 1924, pp 574–587. ^ a b c Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D.Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 411 and 434. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2. ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth (PDF). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 281–283. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Retrieved 23 April 2017. ^ a b c d e f g Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1867. pp. 411–413. ^ Müller, Karl Otfried. Ancient art and its remains: or, A manual of the archæology of art. B. Quaritch, 1852. pp. 483–488. ^ Brown, Norman Oliver (1990). Hermes the Thief. ISBN 9780940262263. ^ Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 6.27. ^ a b W. Blackwood Ltd. (Edinburgh). Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine, Volume 22; Volume 28. Leonard Scott & Co. 1849. ^ a b Rochester Institute of Technology. "Greek Gods". Rochester Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. ^ Freeman, J. A., Jefferson, L. M., & Jensen, R. M. (2015). The Good Shepherd and the Enthroned Ruler: A Reconsideration of Imperial Iconography in the Early Church. The Art of Empire. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress. ^ a b Homer. The Iliad. The Project Gutenberg Etext. Trans. Samuel Butler. ^ a b Hesiod. Works And Days. ll. 60–68. Trans. Hugh G. Evelyn-White, 1914. ^ a b Hymn to Hermes 13. ^ a b Homeric hymn to Hermes ^ a b "First Inventors... Mercurius [Hermes] first taught wrestling to mortals." – Hyginus, Fabulae 277. ^ Neville, Bernie. Taking Care of Business in the Age of Hermes. Trinity University, 2003. pp. 2–5. ^ Padel, Ruth. In and Out of the Mind: Greek Images of the Tragic Self. Princeton University Press, 1994. pp. 6–9. ^ Bailey, Donald, "Classical Architecture" in Riggs, Christina (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 192. ^ a b M-L von Franz (1980). Projection and Re-Collection in Jungian Psychology: Reflections of the Soul. Open Court Publishing, 1985. ISBN 0875484174. ^ Jacobi, M. (1907). Catholic Encyclopedia: "Astrology", New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Hart, G., The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 2005, Routledge, second edition, Oxon, p 158 ^ Copenhaver, B. P., "Hermetica", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992, p xiv. ^ Fowden, G., "The Egyptian Hermes", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987, p 216 ^ Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town at 295–298 ^ Combet-Farnoux, Bernard (1980). "Turms étrusque et la fonction de « minister » de l'Hermès italique". Mercure romain : Le culte public de Mercure et la fonction mercantile à Rome de la République archaïque à l'époque augustéenne. École française de Rome. pp. 171–217. ^ Schjødt, J. P. Mercury–Wotan–Óðinn: One or Many?. Myth, Materiality, and Lived Religion, 59. ^ Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride 61 ^ Diodorus, Bibliotheca historica i.18, 87 ^ Faivre, A. (1995). The Eternal Hermes: From Greek God to Alchemical Magus. Red Wheel/Weiser. ^ Heiser, James D. (2011). Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century (1st ed.). Malone, Tex.: Repristination Press. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4. ^ Jafar, Imad (2015). "Enoch in the Islamic Tradition". Sacred Web: A Journal of Tradition and Modernity. XXXVI. ^ Yates, F., "Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition", Routledge, London, 1964, pp 14–18 and pp 433–434 ^ Hanegraaff, W. J., "New Age Religion and Western Culture", SUNY, 1998, p 360 ^ Yates, F., "Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition", Routledge, London, 1964, p 27 and p 293 ^ Yates, F., "Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition", Routledge, London, 1964, p52 ^ Copenhaver, B.P., "Hermetica", Cambridge University Press, 1992, p xlviii ^ Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xli ^ Lucian of Samosata. The Works of Lucian of Samosata. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008. Volume 1, p. 107. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2:21 ^ Johnston, Sarah Iles. Initiation in Myth, Initiation in Practice. IN Dodd, David Brooks & Faraone, Christopher A. Initiation in ancient Greek rituals and narratives: new critical perspectives. Routledge, 2003. pp. 162, 169. ^ FG Moore, The Roman's World, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1936, ISBN 0819601551. ^ "Aventine" in V Neskow, The Little Black Book of Rome: The Timeless Guide to the Eternal City, Peter Pauper Press, Inc., 2012, ISBN 144130665X. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.30.6 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.16.1 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 7.22.4 ^ Scanlon, Thomas Francis. Eros and Greek athletics. Oxford University Press, 2002. pp. 92–93. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses ^ Mike Dixon-Kennedy (1998). Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-57607-094-9. ^ a b c d The Facts on File: Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. ^ Homeric Hymn 29 to Hestia. ^ Suda, kappa.2660 ^ MA De La Torre, A Hernández, The Quest for the Historical Satan, Fortress Press, 2011, ISBN 0800663241. ^ Perseus – Tufts University ^ Perseus – Tufts University ^ R Davis-Floyd; P Sven Arvidson (1997). Intuition: The Inside Story : Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Psychology Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-415-91594-6. ^ a b New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology (New (fifth impression) ed.). Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. 1972 [1968]. p. 123. ISBN 0-600-02351-6. ^ a b c Norman Oliver Brown (1990). Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth. Steiner Books. pp. 3–10. ISBN 978-0-940262-26-3. ^ Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin (1976). Études mithriaques: actes du 2e Congrès International, Téhéran, du 1er au 8 september 1975. BRILL, 1978. ISBN 9004039023. ^ Krell, Jonathan F. "Mythical patterns in the art of Gustave Moreau: The primacy of Dionysus" (PDF). Crisolenguas. Vol. 2 no. 2. ^ The Chambers Dictionary. Allied Publishers. 1998. ISBN 9788186062258. ^ Reece, Steve, "Σῶκος Ἐριούνιος Ἑρμῆς (Iliad 20.72): The Modification of a Traditional Formula," Glotta: Zeitschrift für griechische und lateinische Sprache 75 (1999–2000) 259–280, understands Sokos as a metanalysis of a word ending in -s plus Okus "swift," and Eriounios as related to Cyprian "good-running." [2] ^ Wrongly, according to Reece, Steve, "A Figura Etymologica in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes," Classical Journal 93.1 (1997) 29–39. https://www.academia.edu/30641338/A_Figura_Etymologica_in_the_Homeric_Hymn_to_Hermes ^ a b Lang, Mabel (1988). Graffiti in the Athenian Agora (PDF). Excavations of the Athenian Agora (rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. p. 7. ISBN 0-87661-633-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2007. ^ Ehrenberg, Victor (1951). The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic Comedy. B. Blackwell. ^ a b c Aristophanes[clarification needed] ^ S. Hornblower; A. Spawforth (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford Reference, Oxford University Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0198706779. ^ P Young-Eisendrath, The Cambridge Companion to Jung, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0521685001. ^ I Polinskaya, citing Robert Parker (2003): I Polinskaya, A Local History of Greek Polytheism: Gods, People and the Land of Aigina, 800–400 BCE (p. 103), BRILL, 2013, ISBN 9004262083. ^ An universal history, from the earliest accounts to the present time – Volume 5 (p. 34), 1779. ^ L Kahn-Lyotard, Greek and Egyptian Mythologies (edited by Y Bonnefoy), University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0226064549. ^ Meletinsky, Introduzione (1993), p. 131. ^ N. O. Brown, Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth ^ NW Slater, Spectator Politics: Metatheatre and Performance in Aristophanes, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, ISBN 0812236521. ^ "[T]he thief praying...": W Kingdon Clifford, L Stephen, F Pollock ^ William Stearns Davis – A Victor of Salamis: A Tale of the Days of Xerxes, Leonidas, and Themistocles, Wildside Press LLC, 2007, ISBN 1434483347. ^ A Brown, A New Companion to Greek Tragedy, Taylor & Francis, 1983, ISBN 0389203963. ^ F Santi Russell, Information Gathering in Classical Greece, University of Michigan Press, 1999. ^ JJ Ignaz von Döllinger, The Gentile and the Jew in the courts of the Temple of Christ: an introduction to the history of Christianity, Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1862. ^ EL Wheeler, Stratagem and the Vocabulary of Military Trickery, BRILL, 1988, ISBN 9004088318. ^ R Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 0199216118. ^ Athenaeus, The learned banqueters, Harvard University Press, 2008. ^ I Ember, Music in painting: music as symbol in Renaissance and baroque painting, Corvina, 1984. ^ Pausanias, 7.27.1 ^ Plutarch (trans. William Reginald Halliday), The Greek questions of Plutarch. ^ S Montiglio, Silence in the Land of Logos, Princeton University Press, 2010, ISBN 0691146586. ^ J Pòrtulas, C Miralles, Archilochus and the Iambic Poetry (page 24). ^ John H. Riker (1991). Human Excellence and an Ecological Conception of the Psyche. SUNY Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-4384-1736-3. ^ Andrew Samuels (1986). Jung and the Post-Jungians. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-7102-0864-4. ^ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1995). Amoral Politics: The Persistent Truth of Machiavellism. SUNY Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7914-2279-3. ^ Homerus (2010). Three Homeric Hymns: To Apollo, Hermes, and Aphrodite. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45158-1. ^ L Hyde, Trickster Makes this World: Mischief, Myth and Art, Canongate Books, 2008. ^ Andrew Lang, THE HOMERIC HYMNS A NEW PROSE TRANSLATION AND ESSAYS, LITERARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL. Transcribed from the 1899 George Allen edition. ^ a b R López-Pedraza, Hermes and His Children, Daimon, 2003, p. 25, ISBN 3856306307. ^ The Homeric Hymns (pp. 76–77), edited by AN Athanassakis, JHU Press, 2004, ISBN 0801879833. ^ Aristophanes, The Frogs of Aristophanes, with Notes and Critical and Explanatory, Adapted to the Use of Schools and Universities, by T. Mitchell, John Murray, 1839. ^ GS Shrimpton, Theopompus The Historian, McGill-Queens, 1991. ^ RA Bauslaugh, The Concept of Neutrality in Classical Greece, University of California Press, 1991, ISBN 0520066871. ^ Fiske 1865. ^ CO Edwardson (2011), Women and Philanthropy, tricksters and soul: re-storying otherness into crossroads of change, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2010, p. 60. ^ The Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies: Ithaca August 2009, Conference Paper, page 12 [3]. ^ The Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies: Ithaca August 2009, p. 12. ^ Luke Roman; Monica Roman (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. pp. 232ff. ISBN 978-1-4381-2639-5. ^ Sourced originally in R Davis-Floyd, P Sven Arvidson (1997). ^ Raffaele Pettazzoni (1956). The All-knowing God. Arno Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-405-10559-3. ^ CS Wright, J Bolton Holloway, RJ Schoeck – Tales within tales: Apuleius through time, AMS Press, 2000, p. 23. ^ John Fiske (1865). Myths and Myth-makers: Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by Comparative Mythology. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 67. ^ "Circular Pyxis". The Walters Art Museum. ^ Homer. The Odyssey. Plain Label Books, 1990. Trans. Samuel Butler. pp. 40, 81–82, 192–195. ^ "The conventional attribution of the Hymns to Homer, in spite of linguistic objections, and of many allusions to things unknown or unfamiliar in the Epics, is merely the result of the tendency to set down "masterless" compositions to a well-known name...": Andrew Lang, THE HOMERIC HYMNS A NEW PROSE TRANSLATION AND ESSAYS, LITERARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL. Transcribed from the 1899 George Allen edition. Project Gutenberg. ^ Aeschylus, Suppliant Women 919. Quoted in God of Searchers. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Aesop. Fables 474, 479, 520, 522, 563, 564. Quoted in God of Dreams of Omen; God of Contests, Athletics, Gymnasiums, The Games, Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Orphic Hymn 57 to Chthonian Hermes Aeschylus. Libation Bearers. Cited in Guide of the Dead. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Orphic Hymn 28 to Hermes. Quoted in God of Contests, Athletics, Gymnasiums, The Games. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Phlegon of Tralles. Book of Marvels, 2.1. Quoted in Guide of the Dead. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. The Library. Quoted in Hermes Myths 2, Hermes Myths 3, Hermes Favour. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 5.7. Quoted in "Identified with Foreign Gods". The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology. ^ Yao, Steven G. (2002). Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics, Language. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-312-29519-6. ^ Benstock, Shari (2010). Women of the Left Bank: Paris, 1900-1940. University of Texas Press. p. 323. ISBN 978-0-292-78298-3. ^ Nonnus. Dionysiaca. pp. 8. 220 ff. ^ Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 16 ^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 14 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 11. 301; Pausanias, Description of Greece 4. 8. 6 ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 2 ^ Homeric Hymn 5 to Aphrodite 256 ^ Hyginus, Fabula 160, makes Hermes the father of Pan. ^ Karl Kerényi, Gods of the Greeks, 1951, p. 175, citing G. Kaibel, Epigrammata graeca ex lapidibus collecta, 817, where the other god's name, both father and son of Hermes, is obscured; according to other sources, Priapus was a son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. ^ Bibliotheca 1.9.16. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca excerpts, 190.50 ^ Photius, Bibliotheca excerpts - GR ^ Pausanias, 1.38.7 ^ Pausanias, 10.17.5. ^ Saon could also have been the son of Zeus and a local nymph; both versions in Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 5.48.2. ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 680. ^ daughter of Peneus ^ This Gigas was the father of Ischenus, who was said to have been sacrificed during an outbreak of famine in Olympia; Tzetzes on Lycophron 42. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 2.1 ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad, 10. 266 ^ Eustathius on Homer, 804. ^ called the daughter of Palamedes but corrected by later sources as Epaphus ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 160. ^ Scholia on Euripides, Rhesus, 36. ^ As presumed by Philostratus the Elder in his Imagines, 1.10. ^ Pseudo-Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.12. ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, 6 in Photius, 190. ^ Aelian, V. H. x. 18. ^ Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5.16; otherwise unknown. ^ Clement of Rome, Homilia, 5.16. ^ According to Hesiod's Theogony 507–509, Atlas' mother was the Oceanid Clymene, later accounts have the Oceanid Asia as his mother, see Apollodorus, 1.2.3. ^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod's Theogony 886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. ^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100. ^ A Stevens, On Jung, Taylor & Francis, 1990. ^ a b Merritt, Dennis L. (1996–1997). "Jung and the Greening of Psychology and Education". Oregon Friends of C.G. Jung Newsletter. 6 (1): 9, 12, 13. (Online.) ^ JC Miller, The Transcendent Function: Jung's Model of Psychological Growth Through Dialogue With the Unconscious, SUNY Press, 2004, ISBN 0791459772. ^ a b c DA McNeely, Mercury Rising: Women, Evil, and the Trickster Gods, Fisher King Press, 2011, p. 86, ISBN 1926715543. ^ H Yoshida, Joyce and Jung: The "Four Stages of Eroticism" In a Portrait of the Artist As a Young Man, Peter Lang, 2006, ISBN 0820469130. ^ CG Jung, R Main, Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal, Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415155096. ^ HJ Hannan, Initiation Through Trauma: A Comparative Study of the Descents of Inanna and Persephone: Dreaming Persephone Forward, ProQuest, 2005, ISBN 0549474803. ^ R Main, Revelations of Chance: Synhronicity as Spiritual Experience, SUNY Press, 2007, ISBN 0791470237. ^ Gisela Labouvie-Viefn, Psyche and Eros: Mind and Gender in the Life Course Psyche and Eros: Mind and Gender in the Life Course, Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521468248. ^ A Samuels (1986). Jung and the Post-Jungians. Taylor & Francis, 1986. ISBN 0710208642. ^ López-Pedraza 2003, p. 19. ^ Allan Beveridge, Portrait of the Psychiatrist as a Young Man: The Early Writing and Work of R.D. Laing, 1927–1960 (p. 88), International Perspectives in Philosophy and Psychiatry, OUP, ISBN 0199583579. ^ Christopher Booker, The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0826452094. References[edit] Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-674-36281-0. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Lay, M. G., James E. Vance Jr.; Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them, Rutgers University Press, 1992, ISBN 0813526914. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Further reading[edit] Allan, Arlene. 2018. Hermes. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. London; New York: Routledge. Baudy, Gerhard, and Anne Ley. 2006. "Hermes." In Der Neue Pauly. Vol 5. Edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Stuttgart, and Weimar, Germany: Verlag J. B. Metzler. Bungard, Christopher. 2011. "Lies, Lyres, and Laughter: Surplus Potential in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes." Arethusa 44.2: 143–165. Bungard, Christopher. 2012. "Reconsidering Zeus' Order: The Reconciliation of Apollo and Hermes." The Classical World 105.4: 433–469. Fowden, Garth. 1993. The Egyptian Hermes. A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. Johnston, Sarah Iles. 2002. "Myth, Festival, and Poet: The Homeric Hymn to Hermes and its Performative Context." Classical Philology 97:109–132. Kessler-Dimini, Elizabeth. 2008. "Tradition and Transmission: Hermes Kourotrophos in Nea Paphos, Cyprus." In Antiquity in Antiquity: Jewish and Christian Pasts in the Greco-Roman World. Edited by Gregg Gardner and K. L. Osterloh, 255–285. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. Russo, Joseph. 2000. "Athena and Hermes in Early Greek Poetry: Doubling and Complementarity." In Poesia e religione in Grecia. Studi in onore di G. Aurelio Privitera. Vol. 2. Edited by Maria Cannatà Ferra and S. Grandolini, 595–603. Perugia, Italy: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. Schachter, Albert. 1986. Cults of Boiotia. Vol. 2, Heracles to Poseidon. London: Institute of Classical Studies. Thomas, Oliver. 2010. "Ancient Greek Awareness of Child Language Acquisition". Glotta 86: 185–223. van Bladel, Kevin. 2009. The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science. Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. 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en-wikipedia-org-3662	----	Mormo - Wikipedia Mormo From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Mormolykeia) Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mythical character For the moth genus, see Mormo (moth). Mormo (Greek: Μορμώ, Μορμών, Mormō) or Mormon was a female spirit in Greek folklore, whose name was invoked by mothers and nurses to frighten children to keep them from misbehaving. The term mormolyce /mɔːrˈmɒlɪˌsiː/ (μορμολύκη; pl. mormolykeia μορμολύκεια), also spelt mormolyceum /mɔːrˌmɒlɪˈsiːəm/ (μορμολυκεῖον mormolukeîon), is considered equivalent. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description 2.1 Bugbear 2.2 Modern interpretations 3 Popular entertainment 4 Explanatory notes 5 References 5.1 Citations 5.2 Bibliography Etymology[edit] The name mormo has the plural form mormones which means "fearful ones" or "hideous one(s)", and is related to an array of words that signify "fright".[1][2] The variant mormolyce translates to "terrible wolves", with the stem -lykeios meaning "of a wolf".[3][2] Description[edit] The original Mormo was a woman of Corinth, who ate her children then flew out; according to an account only attested in a single source.[4] Mormolyca /mɔːrˈmɒlɪkə/ (as the name appears in Doric Greek: μορμολύκα) is designated as the wetnurse (Greek: τιθήνη) of Acheron by Sophron (fl. 430 BC).[6] Mormo or Moromolyce has been described as a female specter, phantom, or ghost by modern commentators.[7][8][9] A mormolyce is one of several names given to the female phasma (phantom) in Philostratus's Life of Apollonius of Tyana.[10][11] Mormo is glossed as equivalent to Lamia and mormolykeion, considered to be frightening beings, in the Suda, a lexicon of the Byzantine Periods.[12] Mombro (Μομβρώ) or Mormo are a bugbear (φόβητρον), the Suda also says.[13] "Mormo" and "Gello" were also aliases for Lamia according to one scholiast, who also claimed she was queen of the Laestrygonians, the race of man-eating giants.[15] Bugbear[edit] The name of "Mormo" or the synonymous "Mormolyceion" was used by the Greeks as a bugbear or bogey word to frighten children.[7][8] Some of its instances are found in Aristophanes.[16][17] Mormo as an object of fear for infants was even recorded in the Alexiad written by a Byzantine princess around the First Crusade.[18] Modern interpretations[edit] A mormo or a lamia may also be associated with the empusa, a phantom sent by the goddess Hekate.[19] Popular entertainment[edit] The Horror at Red Hook by H. P. Lovecraft (1925), describes an inscription to Hecate, Gorgo, and Mormo, found in the raid of Red Hook. According to Anton LaVey, in The Satanic Bible, Mormo is the "King of the Ghouls, consort of Hecate". Mormo is an evil witch in the 2007 film adaptation of the Neil Gaiman novel Stardust.[a] In the story, she is one of a triune of magically powerful sisters, the others being named Lamia and Empusa. In the book, the characters were not named.[20] Mormo is a flying sentient cat in the Tales of the World: Radiant Mythology video game. In the film The God Makers Ed Decker claims Mormons are followers of Mormo. Warraguk, a Flying Mormo is a dance suite composed by James Cuomo in the late 1960s, based on concepts from Australian Aboriginal mythology.[b] "To Switch a Witch", a third-season episode of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!, describes a symbol on a gravestone as "the Mark of Mormo, a witch's sign". Explanatory notes[edit] ^ Mormo lives with two sisters, Lamia and Empusa in the film. ^ Cuomo later named his band Mormos. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b c Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. (2013) [1999]. Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. Univ of California Press. p. 174. ISBN 9780520280182. ISBN 9-780-5202-8018-2 ^ a b Stannish & Doran (2013), p. 118. ^ "Lamia & Empusa (empousa)". theoi. Retrieved 2018-01-25. ^ Scholios to Aristides (Dindorf, p. 41)[1] ^ Johnston, Sarah Iles (1995). Meyer, Marvin W.; Mirecki, Paul Allan (eds.). Defining the Dreadful: Remarks on the Greek Child-Killing Demon. Ancient Magic and Ritual Power. p. 367. ISBN 9789004104068. ISBN 9-789-0041-0406-8 ^ Sophron frag. 9, ed. Kaibel.[5] ^ a b L.S. (1870), Smith, William (ed.), "Mormo", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, London: John Murray ^ a b L.S. (1870), Smith, William (ed.), "Mormo'lyce", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, London: John Murray: "the same phantom or bugbear as Mormo, and also used for the same purpose". ^ Stannish & Doran (2013), p. 28. ^ An empousa, or lamia, she is also called in the work. ^ Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 4.25, quoted by Ogden (2013a), pp. 106–107 ^ "Mormo", Suda On Line", tr. Richard Rodriguez. 11 June 2009. ^ "Mombro", Suda On Line", tr. David Whitehead. 27 July 2009. ^ Ogden (2013b), p. 98. ^ Scholios to Theocritus Idylls 15.40.[14][1] ^ Aristophanes. Archanians, 582ff. "Your terrifying armor makes me dizzy. I beg you, take away that Mormo (bogey-monster)!" ^ Aristophanes. Peace, 474ff. "This is terrible! You are in the way, sitting there. We have no use for your Mormo's (bogy-like) head, friend." ^ Anna Comnena (1969), The Alexiad of Anna Comnena, Sewter, Edgar Robert Ashton (tr.), Penguin Books, p. 61, ISBN 9780140442151 ^ Fontenrose (1959), pp. 116–117. ^ "Stardust (novel)", Wikipedia, 2019-01-22, retrieved 2019-01-27 Bibliography[edit] Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy (1959). Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520040915. Ogden, Daniel (2013-02-28). Drakon: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199557325. ISBN 0199557322 Ogden, Daniel (2013-05-30). "10 Lamia, Slain by Eurybatus and Others". Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers in the Classical and Early Christian Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. pp. 99–. ISBN 9780199925117. ISBN 0199323747* Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Mormo" Stannish, Steven M.; Doran, Christine M. (2013). Magic and Vampirism in Philostratus's Life of Apollonius of Tyana and Bram Stoker's Dracula. Preternature: Critical and Historical Studies on the Preternatural. 2. pp. 113–138. doi:10.5325/preternature.2.2.0113. ISBN 9780520040915. S2CID 191692706. JSTOR 10.5325/preternature.2.2.0113 This folklore-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e This Greece-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mormo&oldid=1004942089" Categories: Cultural anthropology stubs Tradition stubs Greece stubs Greek legendary creatures Mythological anthropophages Female legendary creatures Greek folklore Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Íslenska Italiano ქართული Lietuvių 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 February 2021, at 04:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3691	----	Aeëtes - Wikipedia Aeëtes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek mythical character King Aeëtes by Bartolomeo di Giovanni. Aeëtes (/iːˈiːtiːz/; Ancient Greek: Αἰήτης, romanized: Aiḗtēs, Greek pronunciation: [ai̯.ɛ̌ː.tɛːs]; Georgian: აიეტი, [ɑiɛtʼi]), or Aeeta, was a king of Colchis in Greek mythology. The name comes from the ancient Greek word αἰετός (aietós, "eagle").[1] Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 2.1 Foundation of Colchis 2.2 Flight of two siblings 2.3 Jason and the Argonauts 3 Historicity 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Family[edit] Aeëtes was the son of Sun god Helios and the Oceanid Perseis, brother of Circe, Perses and Pasiphaë, and father of Medea, Chalciope and Absyrtus. His consort was either (1) Idyia, the youngest daughter of Oceanus,[2][3][4][5][6] (2) Asterodeia, a Caucasian Oceanid,[7] (3) the Nereid Neaera,[8][9] (4) Clytia,[10] (5) Ipsia[11] or Eurylyte.[12][13] According to others, he was the brother of Perses, a king of Tauris, husband of his niece Hecate, and father of Medea, Chalciope and Absyrtus. Yet other versions make Aeëtes a native of Corinth and son of Ephyra, an Oceanid,[14] or else of a certain Antiope.[15][16] Asterope was also one of the possible mothers of Aeëtes.[17] Comparative table of Aeetes' family Relation Name Source Epim. Hom. Hesiod Naup. Soph. Pindar Apollon Dio. Cic. Diop. Ovid Str. Val. Apol. Hyginus Ael. Paus. Orph. Odys. Theo. Frag. Scyth. Sch. Oly. Arg. Sch. Fab. Sch. Arg. Parentage Helios and Ephyra ✓ ✓ Helios and Perseis ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Helios and Antiope ✓ ✓ ✓ Helios and Asterope ✓ Helios ✓ ✓ Siblings Circe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pasiphae ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Perses ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Aloeus ✓ Consort Idyia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Asterodia ✓ ✓ Neaera ✓ Hecate ✓ Clytia ✓ Eurylyte ✓ Unnamed ✓ ✓ Children Medea ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Chalciope or ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Iophossa ✓ ✓ Absyrtus / Apsyrtus or ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Aegialeus ✓ ✓ Circe ✓ Mythology[edit] Foundation of Colchis[edit] Pausanias states that, according to the poet Eumelos, Aeëtes was the son of Helios (from northern Peloponnesus) and brother of Aloeus. Helios divided the land he ruled, and he gave Aloeus the part in Asopia (see Asopus) and Aeëtes the part of Ephyra (Corinth). Later, Aeëtes gave his kingdom to Bounos, a son of Hermes and Alkidameia, and went to Colchis, a country in western Caucasus. When Bounos died, Epopeus, a son of Aloeus who ruled in Asopia, became king of Ephyra too. Aeëtes built a new colony in Colchis, near the mouth of the large river Phasis, and called it Aea. Flight of two siblings[edit] Phrixus, son of Athamas and Nephele, along with his twin, Helle, were hated by their stepmother, Ino. Ino hatched a devious plot to get rid of the twins, roasting all the town's crop seeds so they would not grow. The local farmers, frightened of famine, asked a nearby oracle for assistance. Ino bribed the men sent to the oracle to lie and tell the others that the oracle required the sacrifice of Phrixus but before they were able to kill him, Phrixus and Helle were rescued by a golden ram sent by Nephele, their natural mother. Helle fell off the ram into the Hellespont (which was named after her) and died, but Phrixus survived all the way to Colchis, where Aeëtes took him in and treated him kindly, giving Phrixus his daughter Chalciope in marriage. In gratitude, Phrixus gave the king the golden fleece of the ram, which Aeëtes hung on a tree in his kingdom. Aeëtes dedicated the golden fleece to Ares. [18] Jason and the Argonauts[edit] Some time later, Jason arrived to claim the fleece as his own. Aeëtes promised to give it to him only if he could perform certain tasks. First, Jason had to plow a field with fire-breathing oxen that he had to yoke himself. Then, Jason sowed the teeth of a dragon into a field. The teeth sprouted into an army of warriors. Jason was quick-thinking, however, and before they attacked him, he threw a rock into the crowd. Unable to determine whence the rock had come, the soldiers attacked and killed each other. Finally, Aeëtes made Jason fight and kill the sleepless dragon that guarded the fleece. Jason then took the fleece and sailed away with Aeëtes's daughter Medea, who had fallen in love with him and had done much to help him win the fleece. Aeëtes pursued them in his own ship as they fled, but Medea distracted her father by killing and dismembering her brother, Absyrtus, and throwing pieces of his cadaver overboard. Aeëtes paused to gather the pieces of his son, and thus Jason and Medea escaped. Historicity[edit] The mythical Aeetes may have reflected a memory of a historical personage. His name recurs in historical narratives of Classical authors who claim the enduring legacy of Aeëtes in Colchis. Arrian, touring the region in the 2nd century, reports seeing sites and ruins from Aeetes' time. The 5th-century author Zosimus mentions "a palace of Aeetes" standing at the mouth of the Phasis. Local rulers are claimed to have descended from Aeëtes, such as a king of the Phasians from Xenophon's Anabasis and Saulaces, a gold-rich king of Colchis, from Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia. Strabo, who treated Aeetes as a historical person, writes that this was "a local name among the Colchians".[19] The name of Aeëtes was bore by a historical Colchian, a 6th-century nobleman in Lazica in the times of Lazic War known from Agathias's account. If naming Aeëtes as the ancestor of the Colchian rulers was not the invention of the classical authors, it is possible that the Colchian rulers regarded themselves as descendants of Aeetes.[20] Notes[edit] ^ Yarnall, Judith (Jan 1, 1994). Transformations of Circe: The History of an Enchantress. University of Illinois Press. p. 28. ISBN 0252063562. Retrieved 2015-06-30. ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 960. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 9. §23. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 25 ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3.243–244. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3. 19. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, 3. 241. ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3. 242 ^ Preston's note to Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.330 "Asterodea" (p. 168) quoting "Sophocles assigns them, as their parent, Neera, one of the Nereids" & "Now in his hands" (p. 269) quoting "In his Scythians, Sophocles says, that Absyrtus was not the uterine brother of Medea : they were not the offspring of one bed; the youth was newly sprung from a Nereid.—Eiduia, the daughter of Ocean, bore the virgin. " ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, Preface ^ Scholia on Hyginus. Fabulae, 23 ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica l.c. ^ Preston's note to Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.330 "Asterodea" (p. 168) quoting the name of Aeetes' wife: "The author of the Naupactica calls her Eurylyte". ^ Epimenides in scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3.242 ^ Scholia ad Pindar, Olympian Ode 13.52 ^ Diophantus in scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3.242 ^ Argonautica Orphica, 1216 ^ Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology., p. 12, at Google Books ^ Braund, David (1994). Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC–AD 562. Clarendon Press. pp. 11, 30, 90–91. ISBN 0198144733. ^ Lordkipanidze, Otar (1968). "Colchis in Antiquity". Archaeologia. 19: 35–41. References[edit] Argonautica Orphica, 760–1044. Apollonius Rhodius. Argonautica, 3. 240–4. 131. Scholia on Argonautica, 3. 242 Bibliotheca 1. 9. 23. Pausanias. Description of Greece, 2. 3. 10. Strabo. Geographica, 1,45. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Periphas 5." External links[edit] Media related to Aeëtes at Wikimedia Commons Regnal titles New creation King of Colchis Succeeded by Perses v t e Medea Family Aeëtes (father) Chalciope (sister) Circe (aunt) Apsyrtus (brother) Jason (1st husband) Aegeus (2nd husband) Mermerus and Pheres (sons) Alcimenes and Tisander (sons) Medus (son) Thessalus (son) Achilles (3rd husband) Films A Dream of Passion (1978) Medea (1969) Medea (1988) Médée (2001) Medea (2005) Medea Miracle (2007) Operas Médée (1693, Charpentier) Medea (1775, Benda) Médée (1797, Cherubini) Medea in Corinto (1813, Mayr) Medea (1843, Pacini) Medea (2010, Reimann) Plays Medea (431 BC) Médée (1635) Médée (1946) The Hungry Woman (1995) Ballets Jason et Médée (1763) La hija de Cólquide (1944) Medea (1946) Musicals Medea, the Musical (1994) Marie Christine (1999) Music Medea's Dance of Vengeance (1956) Art Medea (painting) Jason and Medea (painting) Medea statue Other depictions Medea (character) "Medea Culpa" v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Authority control GND: 119377349 VIAF: 8196424 WorldCat Identities: viaf-8196424 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeëtes&oldid=1000400500" Categories: Mythological kings of Colchis Children of Helios Fictional people from Georgia (country) Characters in the Argonautica Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Georgian-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 23:09 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3827	----	Eurydice - Wikipedia Eurydice From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eurydice" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein, Orpheus and Eurydice, 1806, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen For other uses, see Eurydice (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, Eurydice or Eurydike (/jʊəˈrɪdɪsiː/; Greek: Εὐρυδίκη, 'wide justice') was the wife of Orpheus, who tried to bring her back from the dead with his enchanting music. Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Charles-François Lebœuf, Dying Eurydice (1822), marble Mythology[edit] Marriage to Orpheus, death and afterlife[edit] Main article: Orpheus and Eurydice Eurydice was the wife of musician Orpheus, who loved her dearly; on their wedding day, he played joyful songs as his bride danced through the meadow. One day, Aristaeus saw and pursued Eurydice, who stepped on a viper, was bitten, and died instantly. Distraught, Orpheus played and sang so mournfully that all the nymphs and deities wept and told him to travel to the Underworld to retrieve her, which he gladly did. After his music softened the hearts of Hades and Persephone, his singing so sweet that even the Erinyes wept, he was allowed to take her back to the world of the living. In another version, Orpheus played his lyre to put Cerberus, the guardian of Hades, to sleep, after which Eurydice was allowed to return with Orpheus to the world of the living. Either way, the condition was attached that he must walk in front of her and not look back until both had reached the upper world. Soon he began to doubt that she was there, suspecting that Hades had deceived him. Just as he reached the portals of Hades and daylight, he turned around to gaze on her face, and because Eurydice had not yet crossed the threshold, she vanished back into the Underworld. When Orpheus later was killed by the Maenads at the orders of Dionysus, his soul ended up in the Underworld where he was reunited with Eurydice. The story in this form belongs to the time of Virgil, who first introduces the name of Aristaeus and the tragic outcome.[1] Other ancient sources however, speak of Orpheus' visit to the underworld in a more negative light; according to Phaedrus in Plato's Symposium,[2] the infernal deities only "presented an apparition" of Eurydice to him. Ovid says that Eurydice's death was not caused by fleeing from Aristaeus, but by dancing with naiads on her wedding day. In fact, Plato's representation of Orpheus is that of a coward; instead of choosing to die in order to be with the one he loved, he mocked the deities by trying to go to Hades to get her back alive. Since his love was not "true"—meaning he was not willing to die for it—he was punished by the deities, first by giving him only the apparition of his former wife in the underworld and then by being killed by women.[2] The story of Eurydice may be a late addition to the Orpheus myths. In particular, the name Eurudike ('she whose justice extends widely') recalls cult-titles attached to Persephone. The myth may have been derived from another Orpheus legend in which he travels to Tartarus and charms the goddess Hecate.[3][clarification needed] The story of Eurydice has a number of strong universal cultural parallels, from the Japanese myth of Izanagi and Izanami, the Mayan myth of Itzamna and Ixchel, the Indian myth of Savitri and Satyavan, to the Akkadian/Sumerian myth of Inanna's descent to the underworld.[citation needed] The biblical story of Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt because she looked back at the town she was fleeing, is "often compared to the story of Orpheus and his wife Eurydike."[4] In art and pop culture[edit] Statue of Eurydice at Schönbrunn Palace; note the snake biting her foot The story of Orpheus and Eurydice has been depicted in a number of works by artists, including Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, Nicolas Poussin, and Corot.[5] More recently, the story has been depicted by Bracha Ettinger, whose series, Eurydice, was exhibited in the Pompidou Centre (Face à l'Histoire, 1996); the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam (Kabinet, 1997), and The Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerpen (Gorge(l), 2007). The story has inspired ample writings in the fields of ethics, aesthetics, art, and feminist theory. Film and literature[edit] Sir Orfeo, a Middle English Romance poem from the late 13th or early 14th century, inspired by the Orpheus and Eurydice tale "Orpheus. Eurydice. Hermes." (1904), a poem retelling the journey from the underworld by Rainer Maria Rilke Orphée (1950), directed by Jean Cocteau Orfeu Negro (1959), an adaptation of the classic myth filmed in Brazil by Marcel Camus Evrydiki BA 2O37 (1975), directed by Nikos Nikolaidis. Portrait de la Jeune Fille en Feu (2019), directed by Céline Sciamma, uses the myth as a common thread throughout the film "Eurydice" (1999), a poem that retells the traditional myth through a feminist lens by British poet Carol Ann Duffy in her book The World's Wife "Eurydice", a poem by Portuguese poet Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen in her book No Tempo Dividido Operas and stage productions[edit] See also: List of Orphean operas The myth has been retold in operas by Jacopo Peri, Monteverdi, Gluck, Yevstigney Fomin, Harrison Birtwistle, and Matthew Aucoin. Euridice (1600), an opera by Jacopo Peri, the first genuine opera whose music survives to this day[6] Orfeo ed Euridice, an opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck L'Orfeo (1607), by Claudio Monteverdi, widely regarded as the first operatic masterwork[7] Eurydice (1941), a play by Jean Anouilh Orpheus Descending (1957), by American playwright Tennessee Williams. Eurydice (2003), a play by Sarah Ruhl, later made into an opera by Matthew Aucoin in 2020.[8] Orpheus and Eurydice: A Myth Underground (2011), a theatre production written by Molly Davies with music by James Johnston, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds for the National Youth Theatre at the Old Vic Tunnels, directed by James Dacre Hadestown (2010), an ensemble album by Anaïs Mitchell, featuring Mitchell as Eurydice, Justin Vernon as Orpheus and Ani DiFranco among others, retelling the myth as a 'folk opera' in a post-apocalyptic Depression era America. Also, a Broadway musical of the same name that opened in 2019, with Eurydice's role played by Eva Noblezada. "Eurydice", a section of Écho d'Orphée, Pour Pierre Schaeffer composed by Pierre Henry. Music[edit] The story of Orpheus and Eurydice features prominently in the 1967 album Reflections by Manos Hadjidakis, as well as on the track "Talk" from Hozier's 2019 album Wasteland, Baby!. "Valsa de Euridice", a song by Vinicius de Moraes "(Love is) Myth or Madness" from the eponymous album of The Passerine, a Sarasota-based folk group The Lyre of Orpheus (2004), an album by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds "Orpheus", a song by Manos Hadjidakis and the New York Rock & Roll Ensemble "From the Underworld" (1967), a song by British psychedelic band The Herd.[9] "Euridice" (1971), a song from the album Focus II (Moving Waves) by Focus "Eurydice" (1971), by Wayne Shorter and recorded by Weather Report on their eponymous album Weather Report "Reuben And Cérise" (1980), a song from the album Jack O' Roses by Robert Hunter "Euridice" (2001), a song from the album Echoes and Artifacts by The Crüxshadows "Euridice" (2006), a song from the album The Dawnseeker by Sleepthief (featuring Jody Quine) "Awful Sound (Oh Eurydice)" and "It's Never Over (Hey Orpheus)" are songs from the album Reflektor (2013) by Arcade Fire "Eurydice" (2014), from the album Days of Abandon by The Pains of Being Pure at Heart Eurydice is the name of the comet referred to in Ariana Grande's "One Last time" (2015) Science and geography[edit] Eurydice Peninsula in Antarctica is named after Eurydice. A species of Australian lizard, Ctenotus eurydice, is named after Eurydice.[10] An asteroid 75 Eurydike is named after Eurydice. Games and other media[edit] Eurydice is featured as a minor character the player can encounter in Supergiant Games's 2020 game, Hades. References[edit] ^ Lee, M. Owen. 1996. Virgil as Orpheus: A Study of the Georgics. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 9. ^ a b Symposium 179d-e. ^ Graves, Robert. 1955. "Orpheus." Ch. 28 in The Greek Myths 1. London: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 115. ^ Clark, Matthew. 2012. "The Judgment of Paris." Pp. 97–111 in Exploring Greek Myths. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. p. 106. ^ Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille. 1861. "Orpheus Leading Eurydice from the Underworld" (painting). MFAH, Houston. ^ Rosand, Ellen. "Opera: III. Early opera, 1600–90." Grove Music Online, edited by L. Macy. ^ Whenham, John. 1986. Claudio Monteverdi, Orfeo. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28477-5. p. xi. ^ Tommasini, Anthony (February 3, 2020). "Review: Eurydice, a New Opera, Looks Back All Too Tamely". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 February 2020. ^ Clayson, Alan (1997). Death Discs: An Account of Fatality in the Popular Song (2nd ed.). Sanctuary. p. 200. ISBN 1860741959. Retrieved 29 January 2019. ^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Eurydice", p. 86). Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Ovid, Metamorphoses 10 The Library 1.3.2 Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.30 Virgil, Georgics 4.453 Plato, Symposium Secondary sources[edit] Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 2000. "Eurydice and her Doubles: Painting after Auschwitz." In Artworking 1985-1999. Amsterdam: Ludion. ISBN 90-5544-283-6. Butler, Judith. [2001] 2004. "Bracha's Eurydice." Theory, Culture & Society 21(1). Originally in de Zegher, Catherine, and B. Massumi, eds. 2001. Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger: Eurydice Series, Drawing Papers 24. NY: Drawing Center. Duffy, Carol Ann. 1999. "Eurydice." In The World's Wife. ISBN 978-0-330-37222-0. Ettinger, Bracha L., and Emmanuel Levinas. [1997] 2006. "Qui Dirait Eurydice? What Would Eurydice say?: Brache Lichtenberg Ettinger in Conversation with Emmanuel Levinas." Philosophical Studies 2. Glowaka, Dorota. 2007. "Lyotard and Eurydice." In Gender after Lyotard, edited by M. Grebowicz. NY: Suny Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6956-9 Pollock, Griselda. 2009. "Orphée et Eurydice: le temps/l'éspace/le regard traumatique." In Guerre et paix des sexes, edited by J. Kristeva, et al. Hachette. —— "Abandoned at the Mouth of Hell." In Looking Back to the Future. G&B Arts. ISBN 90-5701-132-8. Rosand, Ellen. "Opera: III. Early opera, 1600–90." Grove Music Online, edited by L. Macy. Whenham, John. 1986. Claudio Monteverdi, Orfeo. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28477-5 Further reading[edit] Hirsh, Jennie, and Isabelle D. Wallace, eds. 2011. Contemporary Art and Classical Myth. Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6974-6. Masing-Delic, Irene. 2011. "Replication or Recreation? The Eurydice Motif in Nabokov's Russian Oeuvre." Russian Literature 70(3):391–414. External links[edit] Media related to Eurydice at Wikimedia Commons Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 130 images of Eurydice) v t e Orpheus and Eurydice Characters Eurydice Orpheus Orphean operas Euridice (1600, Peri) Euridice (1602, Caccini) L'Orfeo (1607, Monteverdi) Orfeo dolente (1616, Belli) La morte d'Orfeo (1619, Landi)f Orfeo (1647, Rossi) Orfeo (1672, Sartorio) La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (c. 1686, Charpentier) Orpheus (1726, Telemann) Orfeo ed Euridice (1762, Gluck) discography L'anima del filosofo (1791, Haydn) Orpheus in the Underworld (1858, Offenbach) Orpheus und Eurydike (1921, Krenek) L'Orfeide (1925, Malipiero) Orpheus and Eurydice (1975, Zhurbin, rock opera) The Mask of Orpheus (1986, Birtwistle) The Second Mrs Kong (1994, Birtwistle) The Corridor (2009, Birtwistle) Eurydice (2020, Aucoin) Musicals Hadestown Plays Eurydice/Point of Departure (1941, Anouilh) Orfeu da Conceição (1956, de Moraes) Orpheus Descending (1957, Williams) Eurydice (2003, Ruhl) Films The Orphic Trilogy The Blood of a Poet (1930) Orphée (1950) Testament of Orpheus (1960) Black Orpheus (1959) Evrydiki BA 2O37 (1975) Parking (1985) Orfeu (1999) You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet! (2012) Poetry Sir Orfeo (c. late thirteenth century) The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene (c. 1480) Sonnets to Orpheus (1922) "Eurydice" (1999) Novels The Einstein Intersection (1967) Gravity's Rainbow (1973) The Medusa Frequency (1987) The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) Veniss Underground (2003) Art Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice Poem Strip Albums Reflections (1970) Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus (2004) Metamorpheus (2005) Hadestown (2010) Orfeas (2010) Reflektor (2013) Wasteland, Baby! (2019) Ballet Orpheus (1948) Chaconne (1976) Video games The Battle of Olympus Don't Look Back Related The Gaze of Orpheus Orpheus Monument Orpheus no Mado Orphism Authority control GND: 119507706 LCCN: n2014043595 SUDOC: 030162211 VIAF: 42649968 WorldCat Identities: viaf-42649968 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurydice&oldid=1000777487" Categories: Dryads Children of Apollo Orpheus Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from March 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 17:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3910	----	Help:Authority control - Wikipedia Help:Authority control From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia help page about authority control For editor information, see Wikipedia:Authority control. Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. 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en-wikipedia-org-3931	----	Account creation error - Wikipedia Account creation error Jump to navigation Jump to search Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CreateAccount" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3949	----	Bacchiadae - Wikipedia Bacchiadae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Noble Greek family The Bacchiadae (Ancient Greek: Βακχιάδαι Bakkhiadai), a tightly-knit Doric clan, were the ruling family of archaic Corinth in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, a period of Corinthian cultural power. Corinth had been a backwater in eighth-century Greece.[1] In 747 BCE (a traditional date) an aristocratic revolution ousted the Bacchiad kings of Corinth, when the royal clan of Bacchiadae, numbering perhaps a couple of hundred adult males and claiming descent from the Dorian hero Heracles through the seven sons and three daughters of a legendary king Bacchis, took power from the last king, Telestes.[2] Practising strict endogamy[3] which kept clan outlines within a distinct extended oikos, they dispensed with kingship and ruled as a group, governing the city by electing annually a prytanis who held the kingly position[4] for his brief term,[5] no doubt a council (though none is specifically documented in the scant literary materials) and a polemarchos to head the army. In 657 BCE the Bacchiadae were expelled in turn by the tyrant Cypselus,[6] who had been polemarch. The exiled Bacchiadae fled to Corcyra but also to Sparta and west, traditionally to found Syracuse in Sicily, and to Etruria, where Demaratus installed himself at Tarquinia, founding a dynasty of Etruscan kings. The royal line of the Lynkestis of Macedon was also of Bacchiad descent.[7] The foundation myths of Corcyra, Syracuse, and Megara Hyblaea[8] contain considerable detail about the Bacchiadae and the expeditions of the Bacchiad Archias of Corinth, legendary founder of Syracuse in 734/33 BCE, and Philolaos, lover of Diocles of Corinth, victor at Olympia in 728 BCE and a nomothete (lawgiver) of Thebes. See also[edit] Aristoi Notes[edit] ^ Édouard Will, Korinthiaka: recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinth des origines aux guerres médiques (Paris: Boccard) 1955. ^ Telestes was murdered by Arieus and Perantas, who were themselves Bacchiads. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I p. 450). To what extent this early "history" is genealogical myth is debated. ^ Herodotus 5.92.1. ^ Perhaps the designation "king" was retained, for reasons of cult, as a king was normally an essential intercessor with the gods. (Stewart Irvin Oost, "Cypselus the Bacchiad" Classical Philology 67.1 (January 1972, pp. 10-30) p. 10f.) See: rex sacrorum. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.9.6; Pausanias 2.4.4. ^ His mother had been of the Bacchiadae, but being lame, married outside the clan. ^ Strabo, Geography, 7.7: "The Lyncestae were under Arrhabaeus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadae." ^ From the lost Megarian Constitution of Aristotle Plutarch derived his Greek Questions 17, 18 and 59 (W.R. Halliday, Plutarch's Greek Questions, 1928, p. 92. Further reading[edit] Will, Edouard. Korinthiaka. Recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinthe des origines aux guerres médiques v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacchiadae&oldid=987424942" Categories: Corinthian mythology Dorian mythology Mythology of Macedonia (region) Ancient Greek patronymics Heracleidae Ancient Greek dynasties Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2020, at 23:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-3952	----	Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker - Wikipedia Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Friedrich Welcker) Jump to navigation Jump to search Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker Born (1784-11-04)November 4, 1784 Grünberg, Hesse, Holy Roman Empire Died December 17, 1868(1868-12-17) (aged 84) Bonn, Kingdom of Prussia Nationality German Academic background Alma mater University of Giessen Academic work Discipline classical philology archaeology Institutions University of Giessen University of Göttingen University of Bonn Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (4 November 1784 – 17 December 1868) was a German classical philologist and archaeologist. Contents 1 Biography 2 Work 3 Notes 4 References Biography[edit] Welcker was born at Grünberg, Hesse-Darmstadt. Having studied classical philology at the University of Giessen, in 1803 he was appointed master in the high school, an office which he combined with that of lecturer at the university. In 1806 he journeyed to Italy, and was for more than a year private tutor at Rome in the family of Wilhelm von Humboldt, who became his friend and correspondent. Welcker returned to Giessen in 1808, and resuming his school-teaching and university lectures was in the following year appointed the first professor of Greek literature and archaeology at that or any German university. After serving as a volunteer in the campaign of 1814 he went to Copenhagen to edit the posthumous papers of the Danish archaeologist Georg Zoega (1755–1809), and published his biography, Zoegas Leben (Stuttgart, 1819). His liberalism in politics having brought him into conflict with the university authorities of Giessen, he exchanged that university for Göttingen in 1816, and three years later received a chair at the new University of Bonn, where he established the art museum and the library, of which he became the first librarian. In 1841–1843 he travelled in Greece and Italy (cf. his Tagebuch, Berlin, 1865), retired from the librarianship in 1854, and in 1861 from his professorship, but continued to reside at Bonn until his death. Work[edit] Welcker was a pioneer in the field of archaeology, and was one of the first to insist, like Böckh and his pupil Karl Otfried Müller, on the necessity of co-ordinating the study of Greek art and religion with philology, in opposition to the methods of the older Hellenists, like Gottfried Hermann, which they perceived as too narrow. The later workers took as their aim the complete reconstruction of the ancient life, in contrast with members of the school of Hermann, who were disposed to limit the field to the language and text of the Greek and Roman writers. Welcker was thoroughly imbued with the harmony of the whole Greek conception, whether expressed in art, literature, or religion, and it was to the presentation of this as a complete whole that he devoted his efforts. Besides early work on Aristophanes, Pindar, and Sappho, whose character he vindicated, he edited Alcman (1815), Hipponax (1817), Theognis (1826) and the Theogony of Hesiod (1865), and published a Sylloge epigrammatum Graecorum (Bonn, 1828). His Griechische Götterlehre (3 vols., Göttingen, 1857–1862) may be regarded as the first scientific treatise on Greek religion. Among his works on Greek literature the chief are Die Äschyleische Trilogie (1824, 6), Der epische Zyklus oder die Homerischen Geschichte (2 vols. 1835, 49), Die griechischen Tragödien mit Rücksicht auf den epischen Zyklus geordnet (3 vols., 1839–1841). His editions and biography of Zoega, his Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Auslegung der alten Kunst (Göttingen, 1817, 8) and his Alte Denkmäler (5 vols., 1849–1864) contain his views on ancient art. Notes[edit] This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This work in turn cites: Kekulé, Das Leben Friedrich Gottlieb Welckers (Leipzig, 1880) R. Haym, ed., Wilhelm von Humboldts Briefe an Welcker (Berlin, 1859) J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (Cambridge, 1908), vol. iii., pp. 216–7 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. Authority control BIBSYS: 90281878 BNE: XX1751672 BNF: cb12143963j (data) CANTIC: a11060864 CiNii: DA05542678 GND: 118630741 ISNI: 0000 0001 0889 5812 LCCN: n83062942 NKC: xx0154842 NLG: 137094 NLI: 000453592 NLP: A10601612 NSK: 000192835 NTA: 071923136 PLWABN: 9810697509205606 RERO: 02-A003966400 SNAC: w69p3fts SUDOC: 029914957 VcBA: 495/140382 VIAF: 39414089 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83062942 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Gottlieb_Welcker&oldid=975774364" Categories: 1784 births 1868 deaths People from Grünberg, Hesse Archaeologists from Hesse German philologists German classical scholars German librarians People from the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt University of Giessen alumni University of Giessen faculty University of Göttingen faculty University of Bonn faculty Members of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art Hidden categories: Articles with hCards Articles lacking in-text citations from July 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating text via vb from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Dansk Deutsch Esperanto Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina مصرى 日本語 Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2020, at 10:10 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-3953	----	Enarete - Wikipedia Enarete From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Enarete (/ɪˈnærɪtiː/, Ancient Greek: Ἐναρέτη "virtuous" literally "in virtue", from en "in" and arete "virtue") or Aenarete (Ancient Greek: Αἰναρέτη Ainarete), was the daughter of Deimachus, was the wife of Aeolus and ancestor of the Aeolians.[1] Her children were Cretheus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Deion, Magnes, Perieres, Canace, Alcyone, Peisidice, Calyce, and Perimede.[2] She may have been the mother of Arne, if the Aeolus who was her husband was the same Aeolus who fathered Arne.[3] Notes[edit] ^ Enarete is the form found in the manuscripts of Bibliotheca 1.7.1, which West (1985, pp. 59–60) takes to be a misspelling of Aenarete, the form written in the scholia to Plato, Minos 315c, since Enarete cannot stand in a hexameter line and the Bibliotheca's primary source at this point is the epic Hesiodic Catalogue of Women. At scholia to Pindar, Pythia 4.252 yet another form—Enarea (Ἐνάρεα or Ἐναρέᾱ)—is found. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9. 40. 5; Diodorus Siculus (Library of History, 4. 67), however, states that the father of Arne was the great-grandson of Aeolus, husband of Enarete References[edit] Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. West, M.L. (1985), The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women: Its Nature, Structure, and Origins, Oxford, ISBN 0198140347. This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enarete&oldid=992257118" Categories: Women in Greek mythology Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Italiano 日本語 Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 09:31 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-4027	----	Recent changes - Wikipedia Help Recent changes Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a list of recent changes to Wikipedia. Other review tools This page: Discuss this page – What does this page mean? Recent changes for: Featured articles – Good articles – Living people – Vital articles Utilities: RC patrol – New pages – IPs' contribs – Mobile contribs – Cleanup – Vandalism – Deletion – RfC – Backlogs About Wikipedia: Introduction/FAQ/Policy – Stats – News – Village pump – Mailing lists – Chat – Wikipedia Signpost Recent changes options Show last 50 | 100 | 250 | 500 changes in last 1 | 3 | 7 | 14 | 30 days Hide registered users | Hide unregistered users | Hide my edits | Show bots | Hide minor edits | Show page categorization | Show Wikidata | Hide probably good edits Show new changes starting from 13:42, 6 February 2021 Namespace: all (Article) Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk  Invert selection  Associated namespace Tag filter: List of abbreviations (help): D Edit made at Wikidata r Edit flagged by ORES N New page m Minor edit b Bot edit (±123) Page byte size change Temporarily watched page 6 February 2021 diffhist Ortaköy, Çorum‎ 13:42 +22‎ ‎Lugnuts talk contribs‎ diffhist Vin Rana‎ 13:42 0‎ ‎2603:8080:6e00:1e:dc4a:7712:889b:ff07 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit possible birth or death date change diffhist m ANDAM‎ 13:42 +2‎ ‎Felttipcolours talk contribs‎ →‎Notable events diffhist m User:Ramanpotential/monobook.js‎ 13:42 −52‎ ‎Ladsgroup talk contribs‎ Maintenance: Replacing document.write with mw.loader.load (mw:ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#Avoid_document.write() - phab:T130879) diffhist m Dino: The Essential Dean Martin‎ 13:42 +22‎ ‎Tom.Reding talk contribs‎ +{{Authority control}} (1 ID from Wikidata), WP:GenFixes on Tag: AWB diffhist m User:Iamunknown/Scripts/UBX.js‎ 13:42 −12‎ ‎Ladsgroup talk contribs‎ Maintenance: Replacing addOnloadHook with native jQuery (mw:ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#addOnloadHook - phab:T130879) diffhist Frederick Joseph Miller‎ 13:41 +35‎ ‎RFD talk contribs‎ expand diffhist Brahman cattle‎ 13:41 −699‎ ‎Justlettersandnumbers talk contribs‎ standard section headings diffhist Template:Did you know/Preparation area 3‎ 13:41 −4‎ ‎Ravenpuff talk contribs‎ →‎Hooks: no "the" before ships diffhist The Rocketeer (2019 TV series)‎ 13:41 −8‎ ‎2601:88:280:e1d0:d0f8:ecdb:8a44:9060 talk‎ →‎Episodes diffhist Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln‎ 13:41 +87‎ ‎2601:584:4080:5520:d909:fb60:ff15:446d talk‎ →‎2020–present diffhist Cadbury Creme Egg‎ 13:41 +2‎ ‎82.4.204.11 talk‎ Fixed typo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist m Devolve (EP)‎ 13:41 +16‎ ‎Tom.Reding talk contribs‎ +{{Authority control}} (1 ID from Wikidata), WP:GenFixes on Tag: AWB diffhist Mathew Ryan‎ 13:41 0‎ ‎213.205.198.49 talk‎ Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist 2006 Peruvian general election‎ 13:41 +4‎ ‎Servant of the Politics talk contribs‎ Tag: Visual edit diffhist Snooker world ranking points 2020/2021‎ 13:41 −6‎ ‎2001:44c8:4227:7646:cc0d:cdba:dbd6:1bae talk‎ →‎Ranking points Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist Kempegowda International Airport‎ 13:41 +76‎ ‎Random Haste talk contribs‎ →‎Passenger: Added Flydubai into the list Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit diffhist m Devo's Greatest Hits‎ 13:41 +22‎ ‎Tom.Reding talk contribs‎ +{{Authority control}} (1 ID from Wikidata), WP:GenFixes on Tag: AWB diffhist Wikipedia:Requests for page protection‎ 13:41 +259‎ ‎Idell talk contribs‎ →‎Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang: Requesting semi-protection of Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang. 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en-wikipedia-org-404	----	Frederick R. Karl - Wikipedia Frederick R. Karl From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For others with the same name, see Frederick Karl. Frederick Robert Karl (1927–2004) was a literary biographer, best known for his work on Joseph Conrad, a literary critic, and an editor. He spent 25 years teaching at City College of New York and then followed with 18 years at New York University. Contents 1 Biography 2 Books 3 References 4 External links Biography[edit] His first work, A Reader's Guide to Great 20th-Century English Novels, discussed writers such as E. M. Forster, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf and Joseph Conrad. He went on to write extensive biographies about Conrad, William Faulkner, Franz Kafka, and George Eliot. He also edited a multi-volume series, Biography and Source Studies, and co-edited a volume of letters between Conrad and Laurence Davies. In 1968, he signed the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.[1] Karl's book American Fiction, 1940-1980: A Comprehensive History & Critical Evaluation is infamous for omitting William Saroyan, one of the 20th century's most popular, esteemed, and influential writers. Books[edit] A Reader's Guide to Great 20th-Century English Novels (1959) Joseph Conrad: The Three Lives (Farrar Straus Giroux, 1979) American Fiction, 1940-1980: A Comprehensive History & Critical Evaluation (HarperCollins 1983) William Faulkner: American Writer (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989) Franz Kafka: Representative Man (Ticknor & Fields, 1991) George Eliot -- Voice of a Century: A Biography (W. W. Norton, 1995) American Fictions: 1980-2000: Whose America Is It Anyway? (Xlibris, 2001)[self-published source] A Chronicle of Wasted Time: America in the Seventies (Xlibris, 2002)[self-published source] Art Into Life (Etruscan, 2005) References[edit] ^ “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” January 30, 1968 New York Post Authority control BNF: cb12028334x (data) ISNI: 0000 0001 0930 9408 LCCN: n50046498 NKC: jn19990004184 NLI: 000411175 NTA: 069907846 PLWABN: 9810575795605606 SELIBR: 192665 SNAC: w6cj97tt SUDOC: 028450728 VIAF: 108234872 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50046498 External links[edit] Frederick Robert Karl papers at the University of South Carolina Irvin Department of Rare Books and Special Collections. This article about a United States biographer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_R._Karl&oldid=992338659" Categories: 1927 births 2004 deaths Male biographers American tax resisters American male non-fiction writers 20th-century American biographers 20th-century male writers City College of New York faculty New York University faculty American biographer stubs Hidden categories: All articles with self-published sources Articles with self-published sources from December 2017 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Español Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 19:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4065	----	Cupid and Psyche - Wikipedia Cupid and Psyche From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Cupid and Psyche (disambiguation). Psyche and Amor, also known as Psyche Receiving Cupid's First Kiss (1798), by François Gérard: a symbolic butterfly hovers over Psyche in a moment of innocence poised before sexual awakening.[1] Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses (also called The Golden Ass), written in the 2nd century AD by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (or Platonicus).[2] The tale concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche (/ˈsaɪkiː/; Greek: Ψυχή, Greek pronunciation: [psyː.kʰɛ̌ː], "Soul" or "Breath of Life") and Cupid (Latin Cupido, "Desire") or Amor ("Love", Greek Eros, Ἔρως), and their ultimate union in a sacred marriage. Although the only extended narrative from antiquity is that of Apuleius from 2nd century AD, Eros and Psyche appear in Greek art as early as the 4th century BC. The story's Neoplatonic elements and allusions to mystery religions accommodate multiple interpretations,[3] and it has been analyzed as an allegory and in light of folktale, Märchen or fairy tale, and myth.[4] The story of Cupid and Psyche was known to Boccaccio in c. 1370, but the editio princeps dates to 1469. Ever since, the reception of Cupid and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive. The story has been retold in poetry, drama, and opera, and depicted widely in painting, sculpture, and even wallpaper.[5] Though Psyche is usually referred to in Roman mythology by her Greek name, her Roman name through direct translation is Anima. Contents 1 In Apuleius 1.1 Story 1.1.1 Violation of trust 1.1.2 Wanderings and trials 1.1.3 Psyche and the underworld 1.1.4 Reunion and immortal love 1.1.5 The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche 2 As allegory 3 Classical tradition 3.1 Literature 3.1.1 Translations 3.1.2 Folklore and children's literature 3.2 Performing arts 3.2.1 Modern Adaptations 3.3 Psychology 3.4 Fine and decorative arts 3.4.1 Ancient art 3.4.2 Modern era 3.4.3 Sculpture 3.4.4 Paintings 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links In Apuleius[edit] Psyche Honoured by the People (1692–1702) from a series of 12 scenes from the story by Luca Giordano The tale of Cupid and Psyche (or "Eros and Psyche") is placed at the midpoint of Apuleius's novel, and occupies about a fifth of its total length.[6] The novel itself is a first-person narrative by the protagonist Lucius. Transformed into a donkey by magic gone wrong, Lucius undergoes various trials and adventures, and finally regains human form by eating roses sacred to Isis. Psyche's story has some similarities, including the theme of dangerous curiosity, punishments and tests, and redemption through divine favor.[7] As a structural mirror of the overarching plot, the tale is an example of mise en abyme. It occurs within a complex narrative frame, with Lucius recounting the tale as it in turn was told by an old woman to Charite, a bride kidnapped by pirates on her wedding day and held captive in a cave.[6] The happy ending for Psyche is supposed to assuage Charite's fear of rape, in one of several instances of Apuleius's irony.[8] Although the tale resists explication as a strict allegory of a particular Platonic argument, Apuleius drew generally on imagery such as the laborious ascent of the winged soul (Phaedrus 248) and the union with the divine achieved by Soul through the agency of the daimon Love (Symposium 212b).[9] Story[edit] Psyche's Wedding (Pre-Raphaelite, 1895) by Edward Burne-Jones There were once a king and queen,[10] rulers of an unnamed city, who had three daughters of conspicuous beauty. The youngest and most beautiful was Psyche, whose admirers, neglecting the proper worship of the love goddess Venus, instead prayed and made offerings to her. It was rumored that she was the second coming of Venus, or the daughter of Venus from an unseemly union between the goddess and a mortal. Venus is offended, and commissions Cupid to work her revenge. Cupid is sent to shoot Psyche with an arrow so that she may fall in love with something hideous. He instead scratches himself with his own dart, which makes any living thing fall in love with the first thing it sees. Consequently, he falls deeply in love with Psyche and disobeys his mother's order. Although her two humanly beautiful sisters have married, the idolized Psyche has yet to find love. Her father suspects that they have incurred the wrath of the gods, and consults the oracle of Apollo. The response is unsettling: the king is to expect no human son-in-law, but rather a dragon-like creature who harasses the world with fire and iron and is feared by even Jupiter and the inhabitants of the underworld. Psyche is arrayed in funeral attire, conveyed by a procession to the peak of a rocky crag, and exposed. Marriage and death are merged into a single rite of passage, a "transition to the unknown".[11] Zephyrus the West Wind bears her up to meet her fated match, and deposits her in a lovely meadow (locus amoenus), where she promptly falls asleep. The transported girl awakes to find herself at the edge of a cultivated grove (lucus). Exploring, she finds a marvelous house with golden columns, a carved ceiling of citrus wood and ivory, silver walls embossed with wild and domesticated animals, and jeweled mosaic floors. A disembodied voice tells her to make herself comfortable, and she is entertained at a feast that serves itself and by singing to an invisible lyre. Although fearful and without the proper experience, she allows herself to be guided to a bedroom, where in the darkness a being she cannot see has sex with her. She gradually learns to look forward to his visits, though he always departs before sunrise and forbids her to look upon him. Soon, she becomes pregnant. Violation of trust[edit] Psyche's family longs for news of her, and after much cajoling, Cupid, still unknown to his bride, permits Zephyr to carry her sisters up for a visit. When they see the splendor in which Psyche lives, they become envious, and undermine her happiness by prodding her to uncover her husband's true identity, since surely as foretold by the oracle she was lying with the vile winged serpent, who would devour her and her child. Psyche Showing Her Jewelry to Her Sisters (Neoclassical, 1815–16), grisaille wallpaper by Merry-Joseph Blondel One night after Cupid falls asleep, Psyche carries out the plan her sisters devised: she brings out a dagger and a lamp she had hidden in the room, in order to see and kill the monster. But when the light instead reveals the most beautiful creature she has ever seen, she is so startled that she wounds herself on one of the arrows in Cupid's cast-aside quiver. Struck with a feverish passion, she spills hot oil from the lamp and wakes him. He flees, and though she tries to pursue, he flies away and leaves her on the bank of a river. There she is discovered by the wilderness god Pan, who recognizes the signs of passion upon her. She acknowledges his divinity (numen), then begins to wander the earth looking for her lost love. Amore e Psiche (1707–09) by Giuseppe Crespi: Psyche's use of the lamp to see the god is sometimes thought to reflect the magical practice of lychnomancy, a form of divination or spirit conjuring.[12] Psyche visits first one sister, then the other; both are seized with renewed envy upon learning the identity of Psyche's secret husband. Each sister attempts to offer herself as a replacement by climbing the rocky crag and casting herself upon Zephyr for conveyance, but instead is allowed to fall to a brutal death. Wanderings and trials[edit] In the course of her wanderings, Psyche comes upon a temple of Ceres, and inside finds a disorder of grain offerings, garlands, and agricultural implements. Recognizing that the proper cultivation of the gods should not be neglected, she puts everything in good order, prompting a theophany of Ceres herself. Although Psyche prays for her aid, and Ceres acknowledges that she deserves it, the goddess is prohibited from helping her against a fellow goddess. A similar incident occurs at a temple of Juno. Psyche realizes that she must serve Venus herself. Venus revels in having the girl under her power, and turns Psyche over to her two handmaids, Worry and Sadness, to be whipped and tortured. Venus tears her clothes and bashes her head into the ground, and mocks her for conceiving a child in a sham marriage. The goddess then throws before her a great mass of mixed wheat, barley, poppyseed, chickpeas, lentils, and beans, demanding that she sort them into separate heaps by dawn. But when Venus withdraws to attend a wedding feast, a kind ant takes pity on Psyche, and assembles a fleet of insects to accomplish the task. Venus is furious when she returns drunk from the feast, and only tosses Psyche a crust of bread. At this point in the story, it is revealed that Cupid is also in the house of Venus, languishing from his injury. Psyche's Second Task (Mannerist, 1526–28) by Giulio Romano, from the Palazzo del Tè At dawn, Venus sets a second task for Psyche. She is to cross a river and fetch golden wool from violent sheep who graze on the other side. These sheep are elsewhere identified as belonging to the Helios.[13] Psyche's only intention is to drown herself on the way, but instead she is saved by instructions from a divinely inspired reed, of the type used to make musical instruments, and gathers the wool caught on briers. For Psyche's third task, she is given a crystal vessel in which to collect the black water spewed by the source of the rivers Styx and Cocytus. Climbing the cliff from which it issues, she is daunted by the foreboding air of the place and dragons slithering through the rocks, and falls into despair. Jupiter himself takes pity on her, and sends his eagle to battle the dragons and retrieve the water for her. Psyche and the underworld[edit] The last trial Venus imposes on Psyche is a quest to the underworld itself. She is to take a box (pyxis) and obtain in it a dose of the beauty of Proserpina, queen of the underworld. Venus claims her own beauty has faded through tending her ailing son, and she needs this remedy in order to attend the theatre of the gods (theatrum deorum). Psyché aux enfers (1865) by Eugène Ernest Hillemacher: Charon rows Psyche past a dead man in the water and the old weavers on shore Once again despairing of her task, Psyche climbs a tower, planning to throw herself off. The tower, however, suddenly breaks into speech, and advises her to travel to Lacedaemon, Greece, and to seek out the place called Taenarus, where she will find the entrance to the underworld. The tower offers instructions for navigating the underworld: The airway of Dis is there, and through the yawning gates the pathless route is revealed. Once you cross the threshold, you are committed to the unswerving course that takes you to the very Regia of Orcus. But you shouldn’t go emptyhanded through the shadows past this point, but rather carry cakes of honeyed barley in both hands,[14] and transport two coins in your mouth. The speaking tower warns her to maintain silence as she passes by several ominous figures: a lame man driving a mule loaded with sticks, a dead man swimming in the river that separates the world of the living from the world of the dead, and old women weaving. These, the tower warns, will seek to divert her by pleading for her help: she must ignore them. The cakes are treats for distracting Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog of Orcus, and the two coins for Charon the ferryman, so she can make a return trip. Everything comes to pass according to plan, and Proserpina grants Psyche's humble entreaty. As soon as she reenters the light of day, however, Psyche is overcome by a bold curiosity, and can't resist opening the box in the hope of enhancing her own beauty. She finds nothing inside but an "infernal and Stygian sleep," which sends her into a deep and unmoving torpor. Cupid and Psyche (1639–40) by Anthony van Dyck: Cupid finds the sleeping Psyche Reunion and immortal love[edit] Meanwhile, Cupid's wound has healed into a scar, and he escapes his mother's house by flying out of a window. When he finds Psyche, he draws the sleep from her face and replaces it in the box, then pricks her with an arrow that does no harm. He lifts her into the air, and takes her to present the box to Venus. He then takes his case to Zeus, who gives his consent in return for Cupid's future help whenever a choice maiden catches his eye. Zeus has Hermes convene an assembly of the gods in the theater of heaven, where he makes a public statement of approval, warns Venus to back off, and gives Psyche ambrosia, the drink of immortality,[15] so the couple can be united in marriage as equals. Their union, he says, will redeem Cupid from his history of provoking adultery and sordid liaisons.[16] Zeus's word is solemnized with a wedding banquet. With its happy marriage and resolution of conflicts, the tale ends in the manner of classic comedy[17] or Greek romances such as Daphnis and Chloe.[18] The child born to the couple will be Voluptas (Greek Hedone ‘Ηδονή), "Pleasure." The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche[edit] The Wedding Banquet of Cupid and Psyche (1517) by Raphael and his workshop, from the Loggia di Psiche, Villa Farnesina The assembly of the gods has been a popular subject for both visual and performing arts, with the wedding banquet of Cupid and Psyche a particularly rich occasion. With the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, this is the most common setting for a "Feast of the Gods" scene in art. Apuleius describes the scene in terms of a festive Roman dinner party (cena). Cupid, now a husband, reclines in the place of honor (the "top" couch) and embraces Psyche in his lap. Zeus and Hera situate themselves likewise, and all the other gods are arranged in order. The cupbearer of Jove (Zeus's other Roman name) serves him with nectar, the "wine of the gods"; Apuleius refers to the cupbearer only as ille rusticus puer, "that country boy," and not as Ganymede. Liber, the Roman god of wine, serves the rest of the company. Vulcan, the god of fire, cooks the food; the Horae ("Seasons" or "Hours") adorn, or more literally "empurple," everything with roses and other flowers; the Graces suffuse the setting with the scent of balsam, and the Muses with melodic singing. Apollo sings to his lyre, and Venus takes the starring role in dancing at the wedding, with the Muses as her chorus girls, a satyr blowing the aulos (tibia in Latin), and a young Pan expressing himself through the pan pipes (fistula). The wedding provides closure for the narrative structure as well as for the love story: the mysteriously provided pleasures Psyche enjoyed in the domus of Cupid at the beginning of her odyssey, when she entered into a false marriage preceded by funeral rites, are reimagined in the hall of the gods following correct ritual procedure for a real marriage.[19] The arranging of the gods in their proper order (in ordinem) would evoke for the Roman audience the religious ceremony of the lectisternium, a public banquet held for the major deities in the form of statues arranged on luxurious couches, as if they were present and participating in the meal.[20] Marriage of Cupid and Psyche (c. 1773), jasperware by Wedgwood based on the 1st-century Marlborough gem, which most likely was intended to depict an initiation rite (Brooklyn Museum) The wedding banquet was a favored theme for Renaissance art. As early as 1497, Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti made the banquet central to his now-lost Cupid and Psyche cycle at the Villa Belriguardo, near Ferrara. At the Villa Farnesina in Rome, it is one of two main scenes for the Loggia di Psiche (ca. 1518) by Raphael and his workshop, as well as for the Stanza di Psiche (1545–46) by Perino del Vaga at the Castel Sant' Angelo.[20] Hendrick Goltzius introduced the subject to northern Europe with his "enormous" engraving called The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche (1587, 43 by 85.4 cm),[21] which influenced how other northern artists depicted assemblies of the gods in general.[22] The engraving in turn had been taken from Bartholomaeus Spranger's 1585 drawing of the same title, considered a "locus classicus of Dutch Mannerism" and discussed by Karel Van Mander for its exemplary composition involving numerous figures.[23] In the 18th century, François Boucher's Marriage of Cupid and Psyche (1744) affirmed Enlightenment ideals with the authority figure Jupiter presiding over a marriage of lovely equals. The painting reflects the Rococo taste for pastels, fluid delicacy, and amorous scenarios infused with youth and beauty.[24] As allegory[edit] Psyche in the grove of Cupid, 1345 illustration of the Metamorphoses, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana[25] The story of Cupid and Psyche was readily allegorized. In late antiquity, Martianus Capella (5th century) refashions it as an allegory about the fall of the human soul.[26] For Apuleius, immortality is granted to the soul of Psyche as a reward for commitment to sexual love. In the version of Martianus, sexual love draws Psyche into the material world that is subject to death:[27] "Cupid takes Psyche from Virtue and shackles her in adamantine chains".[28] The tale thus lent itself to adaptation in a Christian or mystical context. In the Gnostic text On the Origin of the World, the first rose is created from the blood of Psyche when she loses her virginity to Cupid.[29] To the Christian mythographer Fulgentius (6th century), Psyche was an Adam figure, driven by sinful curiosity and lust from the paradise of Love's domain.[30] Psyche's sisters are Flesh and Free Will, and her parents are God and Matter.[31] To Boccaccio (14th century), the marriage of Cupid and Psyche symbolized the union of soul and God.[30] The temptation to interpret the story as a religious or philosophical allegory can still be found in modern scholarship; for was not Apuleius a serious Platonic philosopher? Surely Psyche by her very name represents the aspirations of the human soul – towards a divine love personified in Cupid? But this misses the characterisation of Cupid as a corrupter who delights in disrupting marriages (The Golden Ass IV. 30) and is himself "notorious for his adulteries" (VI. 23), the marked sensuality of his union with Psyche (V. 13), the help Jupiter offers him if he provides a new girl for Jupiter to seduce (VI. 22) and the name given to Cupid and Psyche’s child – Voluptas (Pleasure). Classical tradition[edit] Apuleius's novel was among the ancient texts that made the crucial transition from roll to codex form when it was edited at the end of the 4th century. It was known to Latin writers such as Augustine of Hippo, Macrobius, Sidonius Apollinaris, Martianus Capella, and Fulgentius, but toward the end of the 6th century lapsed into obscurity and survived what was formerly known as the "Dark Ages" through perhaps a single manuscript.[32] The Metamorphoses remained unknown in the 13th century,[33] but copies began to circulate in the mid-1300s among the early humanists of Florence.[34] Boccaccio's text and interpretation of Cupid and Psyche in his Genealogia deorum gentilium (written in the 1370s and published 1472) was a major impetus to the reception of the tale in the Italian Renaissance and to its dissemination throughout Europe.[35] One of the most popular images from the tale was Psyche's discovery of a naked Cupid sleeping, found in ceramics, stained glass, and frescos. Mannerist painters were intensely drawn to the scene.[36] In England, the Cupid and Psyche theme had its "most lustrous period" from 1566 to 1635, beginning with the first English translation by William Adlington. A fresco cycle for Hill Hall, Essex, was modeled indirectly after that of the Villa Farnesina around 1570,[37] and Thomas Heywood's masque Love's Mistress dramatized the tale to celebrate the wedding of Charles I and Henrietta Maria, who later had her withdrawing chamber decorated with a 22-painting Cupid and Psyche cycle by Jacob Jordaens. The cycle took the divinization of Psyche as the centerpiece of the ceiling, and was a vehicle for the Neoplatonism the queen brought with her from France.[38] The Cupid and Psyche produced by Orazio Gentileschi for the royal couple shows a fully robed Psyche whose compelling interest is psychological, while Cupid is mostly nude.[39] Orazio Gentileschi exposed the erotic vulnerability of the male figure in his Cupid and Psyche (1628–30) Another peak of interest in Cupid and Psyche occurred in the Paris of the late 1790s and early 1800s, reflected in a proliferation of opera, ballet, Salon art, deluxe book editions, interior decoration such as clocks and wall paneling, and even hairstyles. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the myth became a vehicle for the refashioning of the self.[40] In English intellectual and artistic circles around the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the fashion for Cupid and Psyche accompanied a fascination for the ancient mystery religions. In writing about the Portland Vase, which was obtained by the British Museum around 1810, Erasmus Darwin speculated that the myth of Cupid and Psyche was part of the Eleusinian cycle. With his interest in natural philosophy, Darwin saw the butterfly as an apt emblem of the soul because it began as an earthbound caterpillar, "died" into the pupal stage, and was then resurrected as a beautiful winged creature.[41] Literature[edit] In 1491, the poet Niccolò da Correggio retold the story with Cupid as the narrator.[42] John Milton alludes to the story at the conclusion of Comus (1634), attributing not one but two children to the couple: Youth and Joy. Shackerley Marmion wrote a verse version called Cupid and Psyche (1637), and La Fontaine a mixed prose and verse romance (1699).[42] William Blake's mythology draws on elements of the tale particularly in the figures of Luvah and Vala. Luvah takes on the various guises of Apuleius's Cupid: beautiful and winged; disembodied voice; and serpent. Blake, who mentions his admiration for Apuleius in his notes, combines the myth with the spiritual quest expressed through the eroticism of the Song of Solomon, with Solomon and the Shulamite as a parallel couple.[43] Cupid and Psyche (1817) by Jacques-Louis David: the choice of narrative moment—a libertine adolescent Cupid departs Psyche's bed with "malign joy"[44]—was a new twist on the well-worn subject[45] Mary Tighe published her poem Psyche in 1805. She added some details to the story, such placing two springs in Venus' garden, one with sweet water and one with bitter. When Cupid starts to obey his mother's command, he brings some of both to a sleeping Psyche, but places only the bitter water on Psyche's lips. Tighe's Venus only asks one task of Psyche, to bring her the forbidden water, but in performing this task Psyche wanders into a country bordering on Spenser's Fairie Queene as Psyche is aided by a mysterious visored knight and his squire Constance, and must escape various traps set by Vanity, Flattery, Ambition, Credulity, Disfida (who lives in a "Gothic castle"), Varia and Geloso. Spenser's Blatant Beast also makes an appearance. Tighe's work influenced English lyric poetry on the theme, including two poems by William Wordsworth called "To a Butterfly,"[46] and the Ode to Psyche (1820) by John Keats.[47][citation needed] Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem Cupid and Psyche (1826) illustrates an engraving of a painting by W. E. West. William Morris retold the Cupid and Psyche story in verse in The Earthly Paradise (1868–70), and a chapter in Walter Pater's Marius the Epicurean (1885) was a prose translation.[42] About the same time, Robert Bridges wrote Eros and Psyche: A Narrative Poem in Twelve Measures (1885; 1894). Sylvia Townsend Warner transferred the story to Victorian England in her novel The True Heart (1929), though few readers made the connection till she pointed it out herself.[48] Other literary adaptations include The Robber Bridegroom (1942), a novella by Eudora Welty; Till We Have Faces (1956), a version by C.S. Lewis narrated by a sister of Psyche; and the poem "Psyche: 'Love drove her to Hell'" by H.D. (Hilda Doolittle).[49] Robert A. Johnson made use of the story in his book She: Understanding Feminine Psychology, published in 1976 by HarperCollinsPublishers. Translations[edit] William Adlington made the first translation into English of Apuleius's Metamorphoses in 1566, under the title The XI Bookes of the Golden Asse, Conteininge the Metamorphosie of Lucius Apuleius. Adlington seems not to have been interested in a Neoplatonic reading, but his translation consistently suppresses the sensuality of the original.[36] Thomas Taylor published an influential translation of Cupid and Psyche in 1795, several years before his complete Metamorphoses.[50] A translation by Robert Graves appeared in 1951 as The Transformations of Lucius Otherwise Known as THE GOLDEN ASS, A New Translation by Robert Graves from Apuleius, published by Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York. Folklore and children's literature[edit] Pan and Psyche (1872-74) by Edward Burne-Jones German philologist Ludwig Friedländer listed several variants of "Animal Bridegroom" and "Search for the Lost Husband" tales, as collected or written in famous European works, as part of the "Cupid and Psyche" cycle of stories (which later became known as "The Search for the Lost Husband").[51] Bruno Bettelheim notes in The Uses of Enchantment that the 18th-century fairy tale Beauty and the Beast is a version of Cupid and Psyche. Motifs from Apuleius occur in several fairy tales, including Cinderella and Rumpelstiltskin, in versions collected by folklorists trained in the classical tradition, such as Charles Perrault and the Grimm brothers.[52] In the Grimm version, Cinderella is given the task of sorting lentils and peas from ash, and is aided by birds just as ants help Psyche in the sorting of grain and legumes imposed on her by Venus. Like Cinderella, Psyche has two envious sisters who compete with her for the most desirable male. Cinderella's sisters mutilate their own feet to emulate her, while Psyche's are dashed to death on a rocky cliff.[53] In Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid, the Little Mermaid is given a dagger by her sisters, who, in an attempt to end all the suffering she endured and to let her become a mermaid again, attempt to persuade her to use it to slay the Prince while he is asleep with his new bride. She cannot bring herself to kill the Prince, however. Unlike Psyche, who becomes immortal, she doesn't receive his love in return, but she, nevertheless, ultimately earns the eternal soul she yearns for. Thomas Bulfinch wrote a shorter adaptation of the Cupid and Psyche tale for his Age of Fable, borrowing Tighe's invention of Cupid's self-wounding, which did not appear in the original. Josephine Preston Peabody wrote a version for children in her Old Greek Folk Stories Told Anew (1897). C.S. Lewis' Till We Have Faces is a retelling of Apuleius' Cupid and Psyche from the perspective of one of Psyche's sisters. Till We Have Faces is C.S. Lewis' last work of fiction and elaborates on Apuleius' story in a modern way. Performing arts[edit] In 1634, Thomas Heywood turned the tale of Cupid and Psyche into a masque for the court of Charles I.[54] Lully's Psyché (1678) is a Baroque French opera (a "tragédie lyrique") based on the 1671 play by Molière, which had musical intermèdes by Lully. Matthew Locke's semi-opera Psyche (1675) is a loose reworking from the 1671 production. In 1800, Ludwig Abeille premièred his four-act German opera (singspiel) Amor und Psyche, with a libretto by Franz Carl Hiemer based on Apuleius. Psyche et L'Amour (1889) by Bouguereau In the 19th century, Cupid and Psyche was a source for "transformations," visual interludes involving tableaux vivants, transparencies and stage machinery that were presented between the scenes of a pantomime but extraneous to the plot.[55] During the 1890s, when tableaux vivants or "living pictures" were in vogue as a part of vaudeville, the 1889 Psyché et l'Amour of Bouguereau was among the artworks staged. To create these tableaux, costumed performers "froze" in poses before a background copied meticulously from the original and enlarged within a giant picture frame. Nudity was feigned by flesh-colored bodystockings that negotiated standards of realism, good taste, and morality.[56] Claims of educational and artistic value allowed female nudes—a popular attraction—to evade censorship.[57] Psyché et l'Amour was reproduced by the scenic painter Edouard von Kilanyi, who made a tour of Europe and the United States beginning in 1892,[58] and by George Gordon in an Australian production that began its run in December 1894.[59] The illusion of flight was so difficult to sustain that this tableau was necessarily brief.[57] The performer billed as "The Modern Milo" during this period specialized in recreating female sculptures, a Psyche in addition to her namesake Venus de Milo.[60] Frederick Ashton choreographed a ballet Cupid and Psyche with music by Lord Berners and decor by Sir Francis Rose, first performed on 27 April 1939 by the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now Royal Ballet). Frank Staff danced as Cupid, Julia Farron as Psyche, Michael Somes as Pan, and June Brae as Venus.[61] Modern Adaptations[edit] Cupid and Psyche continues to be a source of inspiration for modern playwrights and composers. Notable adaptations include: Psyche (symphonic poem) by César Franck (1888) [62] "Psyché:poème dramatique en trois actes," (play) by Gabriel Mourey, Paris, Mercure de France, 1913. "Syrinx" was composed by Claude Debussy as incidental music for the play.[63] Eros and Psyche (opera) with libretto by Jerzy Żuławski, composed by Ludomir Różycki (Wroclaw, Poland, 1917) [64] Psyche: An Opera in Three Acts (opera) based on the novel Psyche by Louis Couperus, composed by Meta Overman (1955) [65][66] Metamorphoses (play) by Mary Zimmerman, adapted from the classic Ovid poem Metamorphoses, including the myth of Eros and Psyche (Northwestern University, 1996; Circle in the Square Theatre, Broadway, NYC 2002) The Golden Ass (play) by Peter Oswald, adapted from Apuleius, commissioned for Shakespeare's Globe (London, England 2002) [67] Cupid and Psyche (musical) by with book and lyrics by Sean Hartley and music by Jihwan Kim (New York City, NY 2003).[68] Cupid and Psyche (verse drama) by Joseph Fisher (Stark Raving Theatre, Portland, OR 2002; Staged Reading: Oregon Shakespeare Festival, 2002) [69] Amor & Psyche (pastiche opera) arranged by Alan Dornak (Opera Feroce, part of Vertical Player Repertory, New York City, 2010) [70][71] Cupid and Psyche: An Internet Love Story (play) by Maria Hernandez, Emma Rosecan and Alexis Stickovitch (YouthPLAYS, 2012) [72] Psyche: A Modern Rock Opera (rock opera) by Cindy Shapiro (Greenway Court Theater, Los Angeles, CA, 2014) [73][74] Cupid and Psyche (verse drama) by Emily C. A. Snyder (Turn to Flesh Productions [TTF], New York City, NY, 2014).[75] As part of the Love and Death Trilogy (Staged Reading, TTF, New York City, NY 2018) [76] Amor and Psyche (In Times of Plagues) (Short film) by VestAndPage (2020) [77] Psychology[edit] Psyche showing her Sisters her Gifts from Cupid, Painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard Viewed in terms of psychology rather than allegory, the tale of Cupid and Psyche shows how "a mutable person … matures within the social constructs of family and marriage".[78] In the Jungian allegory of Erich Neumann (1956), the story of Psyche was interpreted as "the psychic development of the feminine".[79] Cupid and Psyche has been analyzed from a feminist perspective as a paradigm of how the gender unity of women is disintegrated through rivalry and envy, replacing the bonds of sisterhood with an ideal of heterosexual love.[80] This theme was explored in Psyche's Sisters: Reimagining the Meaning of Sisterhood (1988) by Christine Downing,[81] who uses myth as a medium for psychology. James Hillman made the story the basis for his critique of scientific psychology, The Myth of Analysis: Three Essays in Archetypal Psychology (1983). Carol Gilligan uses the story as the basis for much of her analysis of love and relationships in The Birth of Pleasure (Knopf, 2002). Fine and decorative arts[edit] The story of Cupid and Psyche is depicted in a wide range of visual media. Psyche is often represented with butterfly wings, and the butterfly is her frequent attribute and a symbol of the soul, though the literary Cupid and Psyche never says that she has or acquires wings. In antiquity, an iconographical tradition existed independently of Apuleius's tale and influenced later depictions.[82] Ancient art[edit] On this fragment from a sarcophagus used in the early 4th century, Cupid and a butterfly-winged Psyche frame a portrait of the deceased, carried on an eagle with a cornucopia and spilling basket of fruit[83] (Indianapolis Museum of Art) Eros and Psyche plaster medallion (1st century A.D.)[84] excavated in Begram, collections of National Museum of Afghanistan;[85] on exhibit at British Museum, London.[86] Some extant examples suggest that in antiquity Cupid and Psyche could have a religious or mystical meaning. Rings bearing their likeness, several of which come from Roman Britain, may have served an amuletic purpose.[87] Engraved gems from Britain represent spiritual torment with the image of Cupid torching a butterfly.[88] The two are also depicted in high relief in mass-produced Roman domestic plaster wares from 1st-2nd centuries AD found in excavations at Greco-Bactrian merchant settlements on the ancient Silk Road at Begram in Afghanistan[89] (see gallery below). The allegorical pairing depicts perfection of human love in integrated embrace of body and soul ('psyche' Greek for butterfly symbol for transcendent immortal life after death). On sarcophagi, the couple often seem to represent an allegory of love overcoming death.[6] A relief of Cupid and Psyche was displayed at the mithraeum of Capua, but it is unclear whether it expresses a Mithraic quest for salvation, or was simply a subject that appealed to an individual for other reasons. Psyche is invoked with "Providence" (Pronoia) at the beginning of the so-called Mithras Liturgy.[90] In late antiquity, the couple are often shown in a "chin-chuck" embrace, a gesture of "erotic communion" with a long history.[91] The rediscovery of freestanding sculptures of the couple influenced several significant works of the modern era. Other depictions surviving from antiquity include a 2nd-century papyrus illustration possibly of the tale,[92] and a ceiling fresco at Trier executed during the reign of Constantine I.[6] Modern era[edit] Cupid and Psyche (1867) by Alphonse Legros, criticized for rendering female nudity as "commonplace" Works of art proliferated after the rediscovery of Apuleius's text, in conjunction with the influence of classical sculpture. In the mid-15th century, Cupid and Psyche became a popular subject for Italian wedding chests (cassoni),[93] particularly those of the Medici. The choice was most likely prompted by Boccaccio's Christianized allegory. The earliest of these cassoni, dated variously to the years 1444–1470,[94] pictures the narrative in two parts: from Psyche's conception to her abandonment by Cupid; and her wanderings and the happy ending.[95] With the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the subject was the most common choice for specifying paintings of the Feast of the Gods, which were popular from the Renaissance to Northern Mannerism.[96] Cupid and Psyche is a rich source for scenarios, and several artists have produced cycles of works based on it, including the frescoes at the Villa Farnesina (ca. 1518) by Raphael and his workshop; frescoes at Palazzo del Tè (1527–28) by Giulio Romano; engravings by the "Master of the Die" (mid-16th century); and paintings by the Pre-Raphaelite Edward Burne-Jones (in the 1870s–90s).[93] Burne-Jones also executed a series of 47 drawings intended as illustrations for Morris's poem.[97] Cupid and Psyche was the subject of the only cycle of prints created by the German Symbolist Max Klinger (1857–1920) to illustrate a specific story.[98] The special interest in the wedding as a subject in Northern Mannerism seems to spring from a large engraving of 1587 by Hendrik Goltzius in Haarlem of a drawing by Bartholomeus Spranger (now Rijksmuseum) that Karel van Mander had brought back from Prague, where Spranger was court painter to Rudolf II. The Feast of the Gods at the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche was so large, at 16 7/8 x 33 5/8 in. (43 x 85.4 cm), that it was printed from three different plates. Over 80 figures are shown, placed up in the clouds over a world landscape that can be glimpsed below. The composition borrows from both Raphael and Giulio Romano's versions.[99] The most popular subjects for single paintings or sculpture are the couple alone, or explorations of the figure of Psyche, who is sometimes depicted in compositions that recall the sleeping Ariadne as she was found by Dionysus.[100] The use of nudity or sexuality in portraying Cupid and Psyche sometimes has offended contemporary sensibilities. In the 1840s, the National Academy of Art banned William Page's Cupid and Psyche, called perhaps "the most erotic painting in nineteenth-century America".[101] Classical subject matter might be presented in terms of realistic nudity: in 1867, the female figure in the Cupid and Psyche of Alphonse Legros was criticized as a "commonplace naked young woman".[102] But during the same period, Cupid and Psyche were also portrayed chastely, as in the pastoral sculptures Psyche (1845) by Townsend and Cupid and Psyche (1846) by Thomas Uwins, which were purchased by Queen Victoria and her consort Albert, otherwise keen collectors of nudes in the 1840s and 50s.[103] Portrayals of Psyche alone are often not confined to illustrating a scene from Apuleius, but may draw on the broader Platonic tradition in which Love was a force that shaped the self. The Psyche Abandoned of Jacques-Louis David, probably based on La Fontaine's version of the tale, depicts the moment when Psyche, having violated the taboo of looking upon her lover, is abandoned alone on a rock, her nakedness expressing dispossession and the color palette a psychological "divestment". The work has been seen as an "emotional proxy" for the artist's own isolation and desperation during his imprisonment, which resulted from his participation in the French Revolution and association with Robespierre.[104] Sculpture[edit] Cupid and Psyche (2nd century AD) Cupid and Psyche (ca. 150 AD) Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1793) by Antonio Canova Amor (Cupid) kisses Psyche by Antonio Canova, Louvre Cupid and Psyche by Clodion (d. 1814) Psyche by Bertel Thorvaldsen (d. 1844) [105] Paintings[edit] Amor and Psyche (1589) by Jacopo Zucchi Landscape with Psyche Outside the Palace of Cupid (The Enchanted Castle) (1664) by Claude Lorrain Amor and Psyche by Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée (d. 1805) Allegory of Love, Cupid and Psyche by Goya (d. 1828) Cupid and Psyche (1850–55) by Károly Brocky Cupid and Psyche (1843) by Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours Cupid and Psyche by Benjamin West PRA Cupid and Psyche in the nuptial bower by Hugh Douglas Hamilton The abduction of Psyche by William-Adolphe Bouguereau Psyche Lifted Up by Zephyrs (Romantic, ca. 1800) by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon Psyche Abandoned by François-Édouard Picot Psyche (1890) by John Reinhard Weguelin Psyche Opening the Golden Box (1903) by John William Waterhouse See also[edit] Beauty and the Beast Graciosa and Percinet East of the Sun and West of the Moon and other tales of the ATU type 425A and 425B Tulisa, the Wood-Cutter's Daughter (Indian myth) Snow-White and Rose-Red Pride and Prejudice Notes[edit] ^ Dorothy Johnson, David to Delacroix: The Rise of Romantic Mythology (University of North Carolina Press, 2011), pp. 81–87. ^ Lewis, C. S. (1956). Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 311. ISBN 0156904365. ^ Stephen Harrison, entry on "Cupid," The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 338. ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Cupid and Psyche," reprinted in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), pp. 84–92 online. ^ Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche," in Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 339. ^ a b c d Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche," Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 338. ^ Entry on "Apuleius," in The Classical Tradition (Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 56–57. ^ E.J. Kenney, Apuleius: Cupid and Psyche (Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 22–23; Sophia Papaioannou, "Charite's Rape, Psyche on the Rock and the Parallel Function of Marriage in Apuleius' Metamorphoses," Mnemosyne 51.3 (1998) 302–324. ^ Jane Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 164. ^ The following summary is condensed from the translation of Kenney (Cambridge University Press, 1990), and the revised translation of W. Adlington by S. Gaseless for the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press, 1915), with reference to the accompanying Latin text. ^ Papaioannou, "Charite's Rape, Psyche on the Rock," p. 319. ^ Max Nelson, "Narcissus: Myth and Magic," Classical Journal 95.4 (2000), p. 364, citing S. Lancel, "Curiositas et préoccupations spirituelles chez Apulée," Revue de l'histoire des religions 160 (1961), pp. 41–45. ^ By the 6th-century mythographer Fulgentius; Joel C. Relihan, Apuleius: The Tale of Cupid and Psyche (Hackett, 2009), p. 65. ^ Cakes were often offerings to the gods, particularly in Eleusinian religion; cakes of barley meal moistened with honey, called prokonia (προκώνια), were offered to Demeter and Kore at the time of first harvest. See Allaire Brumfield, “Cakes in the liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth,” Hesperia 66 (1997) 147–172. ^ Apuleius describes it as served in a cup, though ambrosia is usually regarded as a food and nectar as a drink. ^ Philip Hardie, Rumour and Renown: Representations of Fama in Western Literature (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 116; Papaioannou, "Charite's Rape, Psyche on the Rock," p. 321. ^ Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, p. 79. ^ Stephen Harrison, "Divine Authority in 'Cupid and Psyche': Apuleius Metamorphoses 6,23–24," in Ancient Narrative: Authors, Authority, and Interpreters in the Ancient Novel. Essays in Honor of Gareth L. Schmeling (Barkhuis, 2006), p. 182. ^ Harrison, "Divine Authority in 'Cupid and Psyche'," p. 179. ^ a b Harrison, "Divine Authority in 'Cupid and Psyche'," p. 182. ^ Ariane van Suchtelen and Anne T. Woollett, Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship (Getty Publications, 2006), p. 60; Susan Maxwell, The Court Art of Friedrich Sustris: Patronage in Late Renaissance Bavaria (Ashgate, 2011), pp. 172, 174. ^ Van Suchtelen and Woollett, Rubens and Brueghel, p. 60; Maxwell, The Court Art of Friedrich Sustris, p. 172. ^ Martha Hollander, An Entrance for the Eyes: Space and Meaning in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Art (University of California Press, 2002), pp. 11–12. ^ Michelle Facos, An Introduction to 19th Century Art (Routledge, 2011), p. 20. ^ Manuscript Vat. Lat. 2194, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. ^ Danuta Shanzer, A Philosophical and Literary Commentary on Martianus Capella's De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii Book 1 (University of California Press, 1986), p. 69. ^ Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, p. 59. ^ Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis 7; Chance, Medieval Mythography, p. 271. ^ Patricia Cox Miller, "'The Little Blue Flower Is Red': Relics and the Poeticizing of the Body," Journal of Early Christian Studies 8.2 (2000), p. 229. ^ a b Entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 56. ^ Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, p. 64. ^ Robert H.F. Carver, "The Rediscovery of the Latin Novels," in Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context (Routledge, 1999), p. 257; Regine May, "The Prologue to Apuleius' Metamorphoses and Coluccio Salutati: MS Harley 4838," in Ancient Narrative. Lectiones Scrupulosae: Essays on the Text and Interpretation of Apuleius' Metamorphoses in Honour of Maaike Zimmerman (Barkhuis, 2006), p. 282. ^ Carver, "The Rediscovery of the Latin Novels," p. 259. ^ May, "The Prologue to Apuleius' Metamorphoses," pp. 282–284. ^ Jane Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 11, 165. ^ a b Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture, p. 168. ^ Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture, pp. 163, 168. The fresco cycle, commissioned by Sir Thomas Smith, was based on engravings by the Master of the Die and Agostino Veneziano (1536), which had been taken from the work of Michiel Coxie that was modeled on the Loggia di Psiche. ^ Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture, p. 173. ^ Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early Modern Literature and Culture, p. 176. ^ Ewa Lajer-Burchart, Necklines: The Art of Jacques-Louis David After the Terror (Yale University Press, 1999), pp. 278–279. ^ Kathleen Raine, Blake and Tradition (Routledge, 1969, 2002), vol. 1, p. 183. ^ a b c Entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 57. ^ Raine, Blake and Tradition, vol. 1, pp. 182–203, quoting Blake's notes on A Vision of the Last Judgment, and especially pp. 183, 191 and 201. ^ As described by a contemporary reviewer of the new work, quoted by Philippe Bordes, Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile (Yale University Press, 2005), p. 234. ^ Bordes, Jacques-Louis David, p. 232. ^ Wordsworth, William. "To A Butterfly". Bartleby.com. ^ Keats, John. "Ode To Psyche". Poetry Foundation. ^ J. Lawrence Mitchell, "Ray Garnett as Illustrator". Powys Review 10 (spring 1982), pp. 9–28. ^ Entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 57. ^ Raine, Blake and Tradition, vol. 1, p. 182. ^ Friedländer, Ludwig. Roman life and manners under the early Empire. Vol. IV. London: Routledge. 1913. pp. 88-123. ^ Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche," Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, p. 339. ^ Amy K. Levin, The Suppressed Sister: A Relationship in Novels by Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century British Women (Associated University Presses, 1992), pp. 23–24 et passim. ^ Entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 57. ^ Anita Callaway, Visual Ephemera: Theatrical Art in Nineteenth-Century Australia (University of New South Wales Press, 2000), p. 177. ^ Charles Musser, "Comparison and Judgment across Theater, Film, and the Visual Arts during the Late Nineteenth Century," in Moving Pictures: American Art and Early Film, 1880-1910 (Hudson Hills Press for Williams College Museum of Art, 2005), pp. 6–7; pp. 73–74. ^ a b Callaway, Visual Ephemera, p. 76. ^ Musser, "Comparison and Judgment across Theater, Film, and the Visual Arts," p. 7. ^ Callaway, Visual Ephemera, p. 217. ^ Callaway, Visual Ephemera, p. 70 ^ Arnold Haskell (ed) 'Gala Performance' (Collins 1955) p213. ^ Tommasini, Anthony (1997-10-05). "CLASSICAL MUSIC; Spelling Out The Musical Tale of 'Psyche'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA265977519&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=87568667&p=AONE&sw=w ^ Nine, Keris (2018-05-15). "OperaJournal: Różycki - Eros and Psyche (Warsaw, 2017)". OperaJournal. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Psyche - An opera in 3 acts by Meta Overman". www.facebook.com. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Meta Overman's opera Psyche revived". Limelight. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ Guardian Staff (2002-07-31). "Something old, something new". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Cupid and Psyche | TheaterMania". www.theatermania.com. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Cupid & Psyche by Joseph Fisher | Playscripts Inc". www.playscripts.com. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ Schweitzer, Vivien (2010-10-25). "Opera Feroce's 'Amor and Psyche,' a Variety Show". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Repertoire". Opera Feroce. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Cupid and Psyche: An Internet Love Story by Maria Hernandez, Emma Rosecan, and Alexis Stickovitch". YouthPLAYS. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ Fresh, Opera (2014-09-03). "Opera Fresh: Rock Opera Offers New Telling Of The Psyche And Eros Story". Opera Fresh. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Psyche Rock Opera". psycherockopera. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Review: Cupid and Psyche". StageBuddy.com. 2014-03-06. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ Desk, BWW News. "Turn to Flesh Productions Celebrates Five Years". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved 2019-12-06. ^ "Review: Amor and Psyche". pixelsgarage.com. 2020-11-26. Retrieved 2020-11-27. ^ Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, p. 76. ^ , entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 56. ^ Amy K. Levin, The Suppressed Sister: A Relationship in Novels by Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century British Women (Associated University Presses, 1992), p. 22. ^ Levin, The Suppressed Sister, p. 14. ^ Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and Psyche, p. xvii; Jean Sorabella, "A Roman Sarcophagus and Its Patron," Metropolitan Museum Journal 36 (2001), p. 73. ^ "Sarcophagus panel: Cupid and Psyche", Indianapolis Museum of Art description. Archived 2012-06-22 at the Wayback Machine The sarcophagus was made for retail, and the portrait added later. ^ Kābul, Mūzah-ʼi (20 March 2018). "Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul". National Geographic Books. Retrieved 20 March 2018 – via Google Books. ^ http://www.nationalgeographic.com/mission/afghanistan-treasures/ ^ "Looted Afghan treasures identified". independent.co.uk. 1 March 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2018. ^ Jean Bagnall Smith, "Votive Objects and Objects of Votive Significance from Great Walsingham," Britannia 30 (1999), p. 36. ^ Dominic Perring, "'Gnosticism' in Fourth-Century Britain: The Frampton Mosaics Reconsidered," Britannia 34 (2003), p. 119, citing also M. Henig, "Death and the Maiden: Funerary Symbolism in Daily Life," in Roman Life and Art in Britain, British Archaeological Reports 41 (Oxford, 1977). ^ "Audio slide show, online at "Hidden Treasures of Afghanistan," website hosted by National Geographic for US venue of travelling exhibit". Nationalgeographic.com. 2002-10-17. Retrieved 2013-10-06. ^ R.L. Gordon, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Mithraic Studies (Manchester University Press, 1975), p. 239. ^ Leo Steinberg, The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion (University of Chicago Press, 1983, 2nd ed. 1996), p. 5. ^ Gaisser, The Fortunes of Apuleius and The Golden Ass, p. 20. ^ a b Entry on "Apuleius," Classical Tradition, p. 57. ^ According to Maria Grazia Pernis and Laurie Schneider Adams, Lucrezia Tornabuoni De' Medici and the Medici Family in the Fifteenth Century (Peter Lang, 2006), p. 24, the Medici family commissioned a pair illustrating the tale for the wedding of Lucrezia Tornabuoni and Piero di Cosimo de' Medici in 1444, owing perhaps to the appeal of Boccaccio's allegory to the intellectual but devout Piero. Other scholars hold the same view, but 1470 is perhaps the more widely accepted date. See Julia Haig Gaisser, The Fortunes of Apuleius and The Golden Ass: A Study in Transmission and Reception (Princeton University Press, 2008), p. 119, especially note 193 for further sources. In that case, the chests were created for the wedding of Lorenzo de' Medici, Piero's son, and Clarice Orsini. ^ Gaisser, The Fortunes of Apuleius, p. 119. ^ Bull, pp. 342-343 ^ Vera Schuster, "The Pre-Raphaelites in Oxford," Oxford Art Journal 1 (1978), p. 7. ^ J. Kirk T. Varnedoe with Elizabeth Streicher, Graphic Works of Max Klinger (Dover, 1977), p. 78. ^ The engraving at the Metropolitan Museum of Art; at the British Museum, in sections; Bull, 342–343 ^ Marion Lawrence, "Ships, Monsters and Jonah," American Journal of Archaeology 66.3 (1962), p. 290. ^ John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (University of Chicago Press, 1988, 1997), 2nd ed., pp. 108, 148. ^ Alison Smith, The Victorian Nude: Sexuality, Morality, and Art (Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 120. ^ Smith, The Victorian Nude, pp. 71–72. ^ Ewa Lajer-Burchart, Necklines: The Art of Jacques-Louis David After the Terror (Yale University Press, 1999), p. 54ff., especially p. 61. ^ ", Eros and Psyche 1st century BCE from Pella,..." museumofclassicalantiquities. Retrieved 20 March 2018. References[edit] Malcolm Bull, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, pp. 342–343, Oxford UP, 2005, ISBN 978-0195219234 Anita Callaway, Visual Ephemera: Theatrical Art in Nineteenth-Century Australia (University of New South Wales Press, 2000) Stephen Harrison, "Divine Authority in 'Cupid and Psyche': Apuleius Metamorphoses 6,23–24," in Ancient Narrative: Authors, Authority, and Interpreters in the Ancient Novel. Essays in Honor of Gareth L. Schmeling (Barkhuis, 2006) Further reading[edit] Belmont, Nicole. "La Tâche De Psyché." Ethnologie Française 21, no. 4 (1991): 386-91. Accessed June 13, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/40989292. Benson, Geoffrey C. "Cupid and Psyche and the Illumination of the Unseen." In Re-Wiring The Ancient Novel, 2 Volume Set: Volume 1: Greek Novels, Volume 2: Roman Novels and Other Important Texts, edited by Cueva Edmund, Harrison Stephen, Mason Hugh, Owens William, and Schwartz Saundra, 85-116. Luxembourg: Barkhuis, 2018. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvggx289.30. Bonilla y San Martin, Adolfo. El mito de Psyquis: un cuento de niños, una tradición simbólica y un estudio sobre el problema fundamental de la filosofía. Barcelona: Imprenta de Henrich y Cia. 1908. Bottigheimer, Ruth B. "CUPID AND PSYCHE vs. BEAUTY AND THE BEAST: THE MILESIAN AND THE MODERN." Merveilles & Contes 3, no. 1 (1989): 4-14. www.jstor.org/stable/41389987. Edwards, M. J. "The Tale of Cupid and Psyche." Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 94 (1992): 77-94. www.jstor.org/stable/20188784. Felton, D. "Apuleius' Cupid Considered as a Lamia (Metamorphoses 5.17-18)." Illinois Classical Studies, no. 38 (2013): 229-44. doi:10.5406/illiclasstud.38.0229. Gaisser, Julia. (2017). Cupid and Psyche. In: A Handbook to the Reception of Classical Mythology, pp. 337–351. 10.1002/9781119072034.ch23. Hood, Gwenyth. “Husbands and Gods as Shadowbrutes: Beauty and the Beast from Apuleius to C. S. Lewis.” Mythlore 56 Winter (1988): pp. 33–60. Hurbánková, Šárka. (2018). G.B. Basile and Apuleius: First literary tales. morphological analysis of three fairytales. In: Graeco-Latina Brunensia. 23. pp. 75–93. 10.5817/GLB2018-2-6. Jacobs, Joseph. European Folk and Fairy Tales. New York, London: G. P. Putnam's sons. 1916. pp. 246–249. E. J. Kenney (Ed.), Apuleius. Cupid and Psyche -Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. Cambridge University Press. 1990. ISBN 0-521-26038-8 MORWOOD, JAMES. "CUPID GROWS UP." Greece & Rome, Second Series, 57, no. 1 (2010): 107-16. Accessed May 12, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/40929430. Purser, Louis Claude. The Story of Cupid and Psyche as related by Apuleius. London: George Bell and Sons. 1910. pp. xlvii-li. Reider, Noriko T. "A Demon in the Sky: The Tale of Amewakahiko, a Japanese Medieval Story." Marvels & Tales 29, no. 2 (2015): 265-82. doi:10.13110/marvelstales.29.2.0265. Swahn, Jan-Ojvind. The Tale of Cupid and Psyche. Lund, C. W. Κ. Gleerup, s. d. (1955). Vertova, Luisa. "Cupid and Psyche in Renaissance Painting before Raphael." Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 42 (1979): 104-21. Accessed May 12, 2020. doi:10.2307/751087. Wright, James R. G. "Folk-Tale and Literary Technique in Cupid and Psyche." The Classical Quarterly 21, no. 1 (1971): 273-84. www.jstor.org/stable/637841. Zimmermann, Martin et al. (Ed.). Aspects of Apuleius' Golden Ass. Volume II. Cupid and Psyche. Groningen, Egbert Forsten. 1998. ISBN 90-6980-121-3. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Cupid and Psyche Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cupid and Psyche. Tales Similar to Beauty and the Beast (Texts of Cupid and Psyche and similar monster or beast as bridegroom tales, mostly of AT-425C form, with hyperlinked commentary). Robert Bridge's Eros and Psyche at archive.org: pdf or read online Mary Tighe, Psyche or, the Legend of Love (1820) HTML or PDF Cupid and Psyche. A poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon from The Literary Souvenir, 1827. Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, chapter 5 (1885) Gutenberg Project: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (Plain text.) Blackmask: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean: chapter 5 Victorian Prose: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (PDF) The Baldwin Project: The Enchanted Palace and The Trial of Psyche Thomas Bulfinch, The Age of Fable (1913) Folktexts: Cupid and Psyche by D. L. Ashliman Hermetic Philosophy: Cupid and Psyche (Illustrated with painting and sculpture.) [1] Cupid and Psyche ~ A New Play in Blank Verse" [2] Turn to Flesh Productions The Labors of Psyche: Toward a Theory of Female Heroism by Lee R. Edwards Art Art Renewal Center: "Cupid & Psyche" by Sharrell E. Gibson (Examples and discussion of Cupid and Psyche in painting.) Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 430 images of Cupid and Psyche) Tale of Cupid and Psyche engravings by Maestro del Dado and Agostino Veneziano from the De Verda collection Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cupid_and_Psyche&oldid=1001369237" Categories: Cupid and Psyche Roman mythology Greek mythology Latin prose texts Classical Latin literature Heroes who ventured to Hades Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch فارسی Italiano Jawa Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova မြန်မာဘာသာ Norsk bokmål پنجابی Română Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски ไทย اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 11:15 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4069	----	File:Nekyia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1494 n2.jpg - Wikipedia File:Nekyia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1494 n2.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 582 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 233 × 240 pixels | 466 × 480 pixels | 583 × 600 pixels | 746 × 768 pixels | 995 × 1,024 pixels | 1,760 × 1,812 pixels. Original file ‎(1,760 × 1,812 pixels, file size: 2.22 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary  (  ) Artist Deutsch: Schaukel-Maler English: Swing Painter Français : Peintre de la Balançoire Description Deutsch: Nekyia: Persephone beaufsichtigt Sisyphos mit seinem Stein in die Unterwelt. Seite A von einer schwarzfigurigen attischen Amphora, um 530 v. Chr. Aus Vulci. English: Nekyia: Persephone supervising Sisyphus pushing his rock in the Underworld. Side A of an Attic black-figure amphora, ca. 530 BC. From Vulci. Français : Nekyia : Perséphone surveillant Sisyphe avec son rocher dans les Enfers. Face A d'une amphore attique à figures noires, v. 530 av. J.-C. Provenance : Vulci. Collection Staatliche Antikensammlungen    Native name Staatliche Antikensammlungen Location Munich Coordinates 48° 08′ 42″ N, 11° 33′ 52.92″ E   Established 1848  Web page www.antike-am-koenigsplatz.mwn.de/antikensammlung/index.html  Authority control : Q707981 VIAF: 255683987 ULAN: 500267743 LCCN: n81002996 NLA: 36383826 GND: 4198941-7 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q707981 Current location Room 4 Accession number Inv. 1494 (= J 576) References Beazley, ABV, 308, 81 Source/Photographer User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-13 Other versions Licensing Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse I, the copyright holder of this work, release this work into the public domain. 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en-wikipedia-org-4088	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == Mythology == {{Greek myth (Hades)}} === Reign === Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]).<ref name=":0" /> King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of ''[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]'', which fell under [[Zeus]]' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. === Conflict with Salmoneus === Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the [[oracle]] of [[Delphi]] on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From [[Homer]] onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter [[Tyro]] in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. === Cheating death === Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the [[Asopides|Asopid]] [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]] to her father, the river god [[Asopus]], in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian [[acropolis]].<ref name=":0" /> Zeus then ordered [[Thanatos]] to chain Sisyphus in [[Tartarus]]. Sisyphus was curious as to why [[Charon]], whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and [[Ares]], annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|p=491}} In another version, [[Hades]] was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |title=Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? |publisher=Mlahanas.de |access-date=2014-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702053105/http://mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |archive-date=2 July 2014}}</ref> Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river [[Styx]]. Then, complaining to [[Persephone]], goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by [[Hermes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/sisyphus.html|title=Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus|website=www.mythweb.com|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref><!-- (This version is alluded to by [[Albert Camus|Camus]] without citation and also appears in [[Roberto Bolaño]]'s novel ''2666'', in a context that indicates it may have been made up rather than traditional.) --><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Sisyphus/sisyphus.html|title=Sisyphus|website=www.greekmythology.com}}</ref> In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to [[Tartarus]] by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.{{sfn|Evslin|2006|p=209-210}} In ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles play)|Philoctetes]]'' by [[Sophocles]], there is a reference to the father of [[Odysseus]] (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not [[Laërtes]], whom we know as the father in the ''[[Odyssey]]'') upon having returned from the dead. [[Euripides]], in ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. === Punishment in the underworld === As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2:11.13-11.13 |title=Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13 |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=2014-10-09}}</ref><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593">''[[Odyssey]]'', xi. 593</ref> The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his [[hubris]]tic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as ''Sisyphean''. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter [[Polygnotus]] on the walls of the [[Lesche]] at [[Delphi]].<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] x. 31</ref> Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4101	----	Thanatos - Wikipedia Thanatos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek personification of death This article is about the Greek personification of death. For other uses, see Thanatos (disambiguation). Thanatos Personification of death Thanatos as a winged and sword-girt youth. Sculptured marble column drum from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, c. 325–300 BC. Abode Underworld Symbol Theta, Poppy, Butterfly, Sword, Inverted Torch Personal information Parents Nyx, Erebus Siblings Hypnos, Nemesis, Eris, Keres, Oneiroi, and many others Roman equivalent Mors Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Other deities Personified concepts Achlys Adikia Alala Algos Amphillogiai Androktasiai Angelia Apate Atë Bia Charites Dike Dysnomia Epiales Eris Eros Harmonia Hedone Homados Horae Horkos Hypnos Hysminai Kratos Kydoimos Lampetia Limos Machai Metis Mnemosyne Moirai Neikea Nemesis Nike Palioxis Phaethusa Phonoi Polemos Ponos Proioxis Thanatos Themis Zelus v t e In Greek mythology, Thanatos (/ˈθænətɒs/;[1] Ancient Greek: Θάνατος, pronounced in Ancient Greek: [tʰánatos] "Death",[2] from θνῄσκω thnēskō "(I) die, am dying"[3][4]) was the personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referred to but rarely appearing in person. His name is transliterated in Latin as Thanatus, but his equivalent in Roman mythology is Mors or Letum. Mors is sometimes erroneously identified with Orcus, whose Greek equivalent was Horkos, God of the Oath.[citation needed] Contents 1 In myth and poetry 2 In art 3 In psychology and medicine 4 See also 5 References 6 External links In myth and poetry The Greek poet Hesiod established in his Theogony that Thánatos is a son of Nyx (Night) and Erebos (Darkness) and twin of Hypnos (Sleep).[5] Homer also confirmed Hypnos and Thanatos as twin brothers in his epic poem, the Iliad, where they were charged by Zeus via Apollo with the swift delivery of the slain hero Sarpedon to his homeland of Lycia. "Then (Apollon) gave him [Sarpedon] into the charge of swift messengers to carry him, of Hypnos and Thanatos, who are twin brothers, and these two presently laid him down within the rich countryside of broad Lycia." [6] Counted among Thanatos' siblings were other negative personifications such as Geras (Old Age), Oizys (Suffering), Moros (Doom), Apate (Deception), Momus (Blame), Eris (Strife), Nemesis (Retribution) and even the Acherousian/Stygian boatman Charon. Thanatos was loosely associated with the three Moirai (for Hesiod, also daughters of Night), particularly Atropos, who was a goddess of death in her own right. He is also occasionally specified as being exclusive to peaceful death, while the bloodthirsty Keres embodied violent death. His duties as a Guide of the Dead were sometimes superseded by Hermes Psychopompos. Conversely, Thanatos may have originated as a mere aspect of Hermes before later becoming distinct from him.[citation needed] The god's character is established by Hesiod in the following passage of the Theogony: And there the children of dark Night have their dwellings, Sleep and Death, awful gods. The glowing Sun never looks upon them with his beams, neither as he goes up into heaven, nor as he comes down from heaven. And the former of them roams peacefully over the earth and the sea's broad back and is kindly to men; but the other has a heart of iron, and his spirit within him is pitiless as bronze: whomsoever of men he has once seized he holds fast: and he is hateful even to the deathless gods.[5] Thanatos was thus regarded as merciless and indiscriminate, hated by – and hateful towards — mortals and gods alike. But in myths which feature him, Thanatos could occasionally be outwitted, a feat that the sly King Sisyphus of Korinth twice accomplished. When it came time for Sisyphus to die, Zeus ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus up in Tartarus. Sisyphus cheated death by tricking Thanatos into his own shackles, thereby preventing the demise of any mortal while Thanatos was so enchained. Eventually Ares, the bloodthirsty god of war, grew frustrated with the battles he incited, since neither side could suffer any casualties. He released Thanatos and handed his captor over to the god. Sisyphus would evade Death a second time by convincing Persephone to allow him to return to his wife stating that she never gave him a proper funeral. This time, Sisyphus was forcefully dragged back to the Underworld by Hermes, where he was sentenced to an eternity of frustration in Tartarus, rolling a boulder up a hill only to have it roll back down when he got close to the top.[citation needed] A fragment of Alcaeus, a Greek lyric poet of the 6th century BC, refers to this episode: "King Sisyphos, son of Aiolos, wisest of men, supposed that he was master of Thanatos; but despite his cunning he crossed eddying Akheron twice at fate's command." [7] As the son of Aeolus (and thus a descendant of the Titan Prometheus), Sisyphus was a more-than-mortal figure: when it came to ordinary humans, Thanatos was usually thought of as inexorable. The sole time he was successfully prevented from claiming a mortal life was by the intervention of the hero Heracles, a son of Zeus. Thanatos had come to take the soul of Alkestis, who had offered her life in exchange for the continued life of her husband, King Admetos of Pherai. Heracles was an honored guest in the House of Admetos at the time, and offered to repay the king's hospitality by contending with Death itself for Alkestis' life. When Thanatos ascended from Hades to claim Alkestis, Heracles sprung upon the god and overpowered him, winning the right to have Alkestis remain, while Thanatos fled, cheated of his quarry.[8] Euripides, in Alcestis: "Thanatos: Much talk. Talking will win you nothing. All the same, the woman goes with me to Hades' house. I go to take her now, and dedicate her with my sword, for all whose hair is cut in consecration by this blade's edge are devoted to the gods below." [9] In art Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, ca. 440 BC. Winged Eros Thanatos, with reversed torch and crossed legs (3rd century BC, Stoa of Attalus, Athens) An Orphic Hymn that invoked Thanatos, here given in late 18th century translation: To Death, Fumigation from Manna. Hear me, O Death, whose empire unconfin'd extends to mortal tribes of ev'ry kind. On thee, the portion of our time depends, whose absence lengthens life, whose presence ends. Thy sleep perpetual bursts the vivid folds by which the soul, attracting body holds: common to all, of ev'ry sex and age, for nought escapes thy all-destructive rage. Not youth itself thy clemency can gain, vigorous and strong, by thee untimely slain. In thee the end of nature’s works is known, in thee all judgment is absolved alone. No suppliant arts thy dreadful rage controul, no vows revoke the purpose of thy soul. O blessed power, regard my ardent prayer, and human life to age abundant spare.[10] In later eras, as the transition from life to death in Elysium became a more attractive option, Thanatos came to be seen as a beautiful Ephebe. He became associated more with a gentle passing than a woeful demise. Many Roman sarcophagi depict him as a winged boy, very much akin to Cupid: "Eros with crossed legs and torch reversed became the commonest of all symbols for Death", observes Arthur Bernard Cook.[11] Thanatos has also been portrayed as a slumbering infant in the arms of his mother Nyx, or as a youth carrying a butterfly (the ancient Greek word "ψυχή" can mean soul or butterfly, or life, amongst other things) or a wreath of poppies (poppies were associated with Hypnos and Thanatos because of their hypnogogic traits and the eventual death engendered by overexposure to them). He is often shown carrying an inverted torch (holding it upside down in his hands), representing a life extinguished. He is usually described as winged and with a sword sheathed at his belt. In Euripides' Alcestis (438 BCE), he is depicted dressed in black and carrying a sword. Thanatos was rarely portrayed in art without his twin brother Hypnos. Hypnos (left) and Thanatos (right) carrying dead Sarpedon, while Hermes watches. Inscriptions in ancient Greek read HVPNOS-HERMES-θΑΝΑΤΟS (here written vice versa). Attic red-figured calyx-krater, 515 BC. Thanatos is also famously shown on the Euphronios Krator where he and his brother Hypnos are shown carrying the body of Sarpedon to his home for burial. [12][13] Here he is pictured as a full-grown and bearded man with wings, as is his brother. In psychology and medicine Depiction of Thanatos by Mexican artist Mauricio García Vega Hypnos and Thanatos: Sleep and His Half-Brother Death, by John William Waterhouse, 1874. According to Sigmund Freud, humans have a life instinct—which he named "Eros"—and a death drive, which is commonly called (though not by Freud himself) "Thanatos". This postulated death drive allegedly compels humans to engage in risky and self-destructive acts that could lead to their own death. Behaviors such as thrill seeking and aggression are viewed as actions which stem from this Thanatos instinct. However, some scientists argue that there is little evidence that most people have a specific drive toward self-destruction. According to them, the behaviors Freud studied can be explained by simpler, known processes, such as salience biases (e.g., a person abuses drugs because the promise of immediate pleasure is more compelling than the intellectual knowledge of harm sometime in the future) and risk calculations (e.g., a person drives recklessly or plays dangerous sports because the increases in status and reproductive success outweigh the risk of injury or death). Thanatophobia is the fear of things associated with or reminiscent of death and mortality, such as corpses or graveyards. It is related to necrophobia, although the latter term typically refers to a specific fear of dead bodies rather than a fear of death in general. Thanatology is the academic and scientific study of death among human beings. It investigates the circumstances surrounding a person's death, the grief experienced by the deceased's loved ones, and larger social attitudes towards death such as ritual and memorialization. It is primarily an interdisciplinary study, frequently undertaken by professionals in nursing, psychology, sociology, psychiatry, social work and veterinary science. It also describes bodily changes that accompany death and the after-death period. Thanatophoric dysplasia, so named because of its lethality at birth, is the most common lethal congenital skeletal dysplasia with an estimated prevalence of one in 6,400 to one in 16,700 births. Its name Thanatophoros, means "death-bearing" in Greek. Euthanasia, "good death" in Greek, is the act or practice of ending the life of an individual who would otherwise experience severe, incurable suffering or disability. It typically involves lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. Doctor Jack Kevorkian named his euthanasia device the Thanatron.[14] See also Death drive Thanatosensitivity Thanatosis Pale Horseman, one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, also named Thanatos References ^ "Thanatos, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2014. ^ θάνατος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ θνῄσκω in Liddell and Scott. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 533. ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony 758 ff, trans. Evelyn-White, Greek epic 8th or 7th century BC ^ Homer, Iliad 16. 681 ff, trans. Lattimore, Greek epic 8th century BC ^ Alcaeus, Fragment 38a, trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I, . ^ "Heracles". www.timelessmyths.com. Retrieved 2015-12-11. ^ Euripides, Alcestis 19 ff, trans. Vellacott, Greek tragedy c. 5th century BC ^ Thomas Taylor (1792). The Hymns of Orpheus: Tr. from the Original Greek: with a Preliminary Dissertation on the Life and Theology of Orpheus. B. White and Sons. pp. 224–228. ^ Cook, Zeus: A study in ancient religion, 1940:1045., citing Adolf Furtwängler, in Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der grieschischen und römischen Mythologie. ^ "Euphronios Krater: The Continuing Saga (ca. 515 BC) – Ancient History Blog". ancientstandard.com. Retrieved 2017-09-28. ^ Von Bothner, Dietrich (1987). "Euphronios and Memnon? Observations on a Red-figures fragment" (PDF). Metropolitan Museum Journal. ^ PBS.org External links Thanatos at Theoi.com Thanatos at the Greek Mythology link Mythography : The Greek God Thanatos in Myth and Art Stewart, Michael. "Thanatos" Greek Mythology: From the Iliad to the Fall of the Last Tyrant Thanatos on IMDb Authority control GND: 124787614 LCCN: no2020015785 VIAF: 77257290 WorldCat Identities: viaf-77257290 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thanatos&oldid=1000762490" Categories: Greek death gods Chthonic beings Characters in Greek mythology Mythology of Heracles Death gods Personifications in Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Саха тыла Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 16:13 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4114	----	Johann Vogel (poet) - Wikipedia Johann Vogel (poet) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Johann Vogel (1589–1663) was a German poet and Lutheran minister. Born in Nuremberg, he published an emblem book entitled Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, or Emblematic Meditations on the Restored Peace of Germany (1649), designed to convince a wide audience to accept the terms of the Peace of Westphalia.[1][2] References[edit] ^ Sullivan, Joseph M. (2 Dec 2001). "The Emblem Book As Political Propaganda: Johann Vogel's Meditationes Emblematicae De Restaurata Pace Germaniae of 1649". Explorations in Renaissance Culture. 27 (1): 61–88. doi:10.1163/23526963-90000230. ^ Gerhild Scholz Williams, ed. (2019). Rethinking Europe: War and Peace in the Early Modern German Lands. Brill. p. 309. ISBN 9789004401921. This article about a poet is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Vogel_(poet)&oldid=991158604" Categories: Poet stubs Writers from Nuremberg 1589 births 1663 deaths 17th-century German poets Lutheran pacifists 17th-century Lutheran clergy Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch مصرى Edit links This page was last edited on 28 November 2020, at 16:15 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-415	----	File:Punishment sisyph.jpg - Wikipedia File:Punishment sisyph.jpg From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this preview: 528 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 211 × 240 pixels | 423 × 480 pixels | 529 × 600 pixels | 677 × 768 pixels | 902 × 1,024 pixels | 2,688 × 3,051 pixels. Original file ‎(2,688 × 3,051 pixels, file size: 11.54 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Titian: sisipho    Artist Titian  (1490–1576)     Alternative names Tiziano Vecelli; Tiziano Vecellio Description Italian painter, fresco painter and draughtsman Date of birth/death between 1485 and 1490 date QS:P,+1450-00-00T00:00:00Z/7,P1319,+1485-00-00T00:00:00Z/9,P1326,+1490-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 27 August 1576 Location of birth/death Pieve di Cadore, Republic of Venice Venice, Republic of Venice Work location Venice (1498), Ferrara, Mantua, Padua (1511), Milan (1540), Rome (1545–1546), Florence (1546), Augsburg (1548, 1550–1551), Constantinople (today Istanbul) (1555-1557) Authority control : Q47551 VIAF: 109266837 ISNI: 0000 0001 0787 9191 ULAN: 500031075 LCCN: n79074519 NLA: 36049955 WorldCat artist QS:P170,Q47551 Title Sisyphuslabel QS:Len,"Sisyphus" label QS:Les,"Sísifo" Object type painting  Genre mythological painting  Description Español: La obra representa a Sísifo, rey de Éfira y condenado por Zeus a hacer rodar con su cabeza y empujando una gran roca cuesta arriba, que continuamente se precipitaba hacia abajo, por haber revelado que Zeus había secuestrado a Egina. Depicted people Sisyphus  Date between 1548 and 1549 date QS:P571,+1548-00-00T00:00:00Z/8,P1319,+1548-00-00T00:00:00Z/9,P1326,+1549-00-00T00:00:00Z/9 Medium oil on canvasmedium QS:P186,Q296955;P186,Q12321255,P518,Q861259 Dimensions Height: 237 cm (93.3 in); Width: 216 cm (85 in)dimensions QS:P2048,237U174728 dimensions QS:P2049,216U174728 Collection Museo del Prado     (Inventory) Native name Museo Nacional del Prado Location Madrid, (Spain) Coordinates 40° 24′ 50″ N, 3° 41′ 32″ W   Established 1819 Web page museodelprado.es Authority control : Q160112 VIAF: 147181932 ISNI: 0000 0001 2294 2419 ULAN: 500270885 LCCN: n79064568 NLA: 36514982 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q160112 Current location Sala 027 Accession number P00426 References [1] Source/Photographer [2] Permission (Reusing this file) This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. You must also include a United States public domain tag to indicate why this work is in the public domain in the United States. This file has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/PDMCreative Commons Public Domain Mark 1.0falsefalse The official position taken by the Wikimedia Foundation is that "faithful reproductions of two-dimensional public domain works of art are public domain". This photographic reproduction is therefore also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. In other jurisdictions, re-use of this content may be restricted; see Reuse of PD-Art photographs for details. Captions EnglishAdd a one-line explanation of what this file represents Items portrayed in this file depicts sisipho digital representation of sisipho File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment current 00:43, 10 July 2012 2,688 × 3,051 (11.54 MB) Escarlati larger image http://www.museodelprado.es/imagen/alta_resolucion/P00438.jpg 13:47, 9 July 2012 1,128 × 1,280 (304 KB) Escarlati Better and larger image http://www.museodelprado.es/typo3temp/pics/b6e37723e7.jpg 19:23, 10 April 2008 1,102 × 1,200 (167 KB) Cerquozzi(") {{Information |Description=Sisifo, olio su tela di Tiziano Vecellio, 1548-1549, 237 x 216 cm, Madrid, Museo del Prado. |Source=http://www.wga.hu/art/t/tiziano/09/01sisyph.jpg |Date=04/10/2008 |Author=Tiziano |Permission=GFDL |other_ver File usage The following pages on the English Wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Chicago XXXII: Stone of Sisyphus Ixion (Ribera) List of works by Titian Pessimism Schischyphusch oder Der Kellner meines Onkels Sisyphus The Myth of Sisyphus User:ArmadniGeneral User:EEng User:Emijrp/Museo del Prado User:Estanfarhadgol User:GuyHimGuy/essay/wikifallen User:Ham II/Titian User:Jane023/Paintings by Titian User:Jane023/Paintings in the Prado User talk:Bgwhite/Archive 4 User talk:Eric Corbett/Archives/2010/October User talk:Graham87/Archive 42 User talk:Mauro Lanari User talk:The Interior/Archive 11 User talk:Vanamonde93/Archive 11 User talk:Voceditenore/IEP archive Wikipedia:Article creep Wikipedia:How articles are usually written Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ar.wikipedia.org أسطورة سيزيف Usage on ast.wikipedia.org Sísifu Usage on az.wikipedia.org Sizif haqqında mif Usage on bg.wikipedia.org Сизиф Usage on bs.wikipedia.org Sizif Usage on ca.wikipedia.org El mite de Sísif Usage on ckb.wikipedia.org سیزیف Usage on cs.wikipedia.org Sisyfos Wikipedista:Wesalius/Seznam děl Titiana Usage on cv.wikipedia.org Сизиф Usage on da.wikipedia.org Sisyfos Usage on de.wikipedia.org Sisyphos Benutzer:KarlV Sysyphus Benutzer:Jonathan Scholbach/Sisyphos Schischyphusch oder Der Kellner meines Onkels Wikipedia:Auskunft/Archiv/2015/Woche 10 Benutzer:Raubdinosaurier Usage on el.wikipedia.org Σίσυφος Κατάλογος έργων του Τιτσιάνο Usage on en.wikibooks.org Interesting social sciences/Ethics Usage on en.wikiquote.org Homer Usage on eo.wikipedia.org Sizifo Tartaro Enareto Usage on es.wikipedia.org Sísifo El mito de Sísifo Anexo:Cuadros de Tiziano Usuario:Bigsus/Acuerdo previo Ticio (Tiziano) Sísifo (Tiziano) Usuario discusión:Caraban Wikipedia:Café/Archivo/2014/Febrero Wikipedia:Tablón de anuncios de los bibliotecarios/Portal/Archivo/Solicitudes de nueva consulta/2014 Usuario discusión:Unusual Wikipedia:Café/Portal/Archivo/Miscelánea/2014/02 Usuario discusión:Totemkin/Archivo 2014 1 Usuaria Discusión:XanaG/Archivo 02 2014 Usuario discusión:Asqueladd/Archivo003 Usuario:Ángel Luis Alfaro/Taller Usuaria discusión:Rosymonterrey/Archivo 10 (2014) Anexo:Pintura italiana medieval y renacentista en las colecciones públicas madrileñas Usage on et.wikipedia.org Tiziani tööde loend Sisyphos Usage on eu.wikipedia.org Sisifo Usage on fa.wikipedia.org سیزیف Usage on fr.wikipedia.org Titien Marie de Hongrie (1505-1558) Wikipédia:Le Bistro/15 novembre 2013 Usage on he.wikipedia.org סיזיפוס View more global usage of this file. 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en-wikipedia-org-4194	----	Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus) - Wikipedia Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Bibliotheca (Photius). The Bibliotheca (Ancient Greek: Βιβλιοθήκη, Bibliothēkē, 'Library'), also known as the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, is a compendium of Greek myths and heroic legends, arranged in three books, generally dated to the first or second century AD.[1] The author was traditionally thought to be Apollodorus of Athens, but that attribution is now regarded as false, and so "Pseudo-" was added to Apollodorus. The Bibliotheca has been called "the most valuable mythographical work that has come down from ancient times."[2]:296, 300 An epigram recorded by the important intellectual Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople expressed its purpose:[i] It has the following not ungraceful epigram: 'Draw your knowledge of the past from me and read the ancient tales of learned lore. Look neither at the page of Homer, nor of elegy, nor tragic muse, nor epic strain. Seek not the vaunted verse of the cycle; but look in me and you will find in me all that the world contains'. The brief and unadorned accounts of myth in the Bibliotheca have led some commentators to suggest that even its complete sections are an epitome of a lost work.[3] Contents 1 Pseudo-Apollodorus 2 Manuscript tradition 3 Printed editions 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Citations 5.3 Works cited 6 External links Pseudo-Apollodorus[edit] A certain "Apollodorus" is indicated as author on some surviving manuscripts.[4] This Apollodorus has been mistakenly identified with Apollodorus of Athens (born c. 180 BC), a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace, mainly as it is known—from references in the minor scholia on Homer—that Apollodorus of Athens did leave a similar comprehensive repertory on mythology, in the form of a verse chronicle. The text which did survive to the present, however, cites a Roman author: Castor the Annalist, a contemporary of Cicero in the 1st century BC. The mistaken attribution was made by scholars following Photius' mention of the name, though Photius did not name him as the Athenian and the name was in common use at the time.[5] Since for chronological reasons Apollodorus of Athens could not have written the book, the author of the Bibliotheca is conventionally called the "Pseudo-Apollodorus" by those wishing to be scrupulously correct. Traditional references simply instance "the Library and Epitome". One of his many sources was the Tragodoumena (Subjects of Tragedies) a 4th-century BC analysis of the myths in Greek tragedies by Asclepiades of Tragilus,[6] the first known Greek mythographic compilation.[7] Manuscript tradition[edit] The first mention of the work is by Photius in the 9th century. It was almost lost in the 13th century, surviving in one now-incomplete manuscript,[8] which was copied for Cardinal Bessarion in the 15th century; the other surviving manuscripts derive from Bessarion's copy.[ii] Although the Bibliotheca is undivided in the manuscripts, it is conventionally divided into three books. Part of the third book, which breaks off abruptly in the story of Theseus, has been lost. Photius had the full work before him, as he mentions in his "account of books read" that it contained stories of the heroes of the Trojan War and the nostoi, missing in surviving manuscripts. Sir James George Frazer published an epitome of the book by conflating two manuscript summaries of the text,[9] which included the lost part. Printed editions[edit] The first printed edition of the Bibliotheca was published in Rome in 1555, edited by Benedetto Egio (Benedictus Aegius) of Spoleto, who divided the text in three books,[iii] but made many unwarranted emendations in the very corrupt text. Hieronymus Commelinus [fr] published an improved text at Heidelberg, 1559. The first text based on comparative manuscripts was that of Christian Gottlob Heyne, Göttingen, 1782–83.[2] See also[edit]  Ancient Greece portal References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Victim of its own suggestions, the epigraph, ironically, does not survive in the manuscripts. For the classic examples of epitomes and encyclopedias substituting in Christian hands for the literature of Classical Antiquity itself, see Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae and Martianus Capella. ^ Bessarion's copy, deposited in the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, found its way into the Greek manuscripts of Archbishop Laud and came with them to the Bodleian Library in 1636. (Diller 1935:308, 310). ^ He based his division on attributions in the scholia minora on Homer to Apollodorus, in three books. (Diller 1935:298 and 308f). Citations[edit] ^ Perseus Encyclopedia, "Apollodorus (4)"; Simpson, p. 1. ^ a b Diller, Aubrey. 1935. "The Text History of the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus." Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 66:296–313. ^ Frazer, J. G.; Apollodorus (2017-06-21). The Library of Greek Mythology. Independently Published. ISBN 9781521558911. ^ Diller, Aubrey. 1983. "The Text History of the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus." Pp. 199–216 in Studies in Greek Manuscript Tradition, edited by A. Diller. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert. ^ Aldrich, Keith (1975). The Library of Greek Mythology. Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press. p. 1. ISBN 0872910725. ^ Smith, R. Scott; Trzaskoma, Stephen M., eds. (2007). "Introduction". Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing. pp. xxii–xxiii. ISBN 978-0-87220-820-9. ^ Graf, Fritz. Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-8018-5395-1. ^ Bibliothèque nationale, Paris. ^ Frazer, James G. 1913. Apollodorus. Loeb Classical Library. Works cited[edit] Diller, Aubrey. 1983. "The Text History of the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus." Pp. 199–216 in Studies in Greek Manuscript Tradition, edited by A. Diller. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert. Dowden, Ken. 1992. The Uses of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge. Fletcher, K. F. B. 2008. "Systematic Genealogies in Apollodorus’ Bibliotheca and the Exclusion of Rome from Greek Myth." Classical Antiquity 27:59–91. Hard, Robin. 1997. Apollodorus: The Library of Greek Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Higbie, Carolyn. 2007. "Hellenistic Mythographers." Pp. 237–54 in The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology, edited by R. D. Woodard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huys, Marc. 1997. "Euripides and the Tales from Euripides: Sources of Apollodoros' Bibliotheca?" Rheinisches Museum 140 308–27. Kenens, Ulrike. 2013. "Text and Transmission of Ps.-Apollodorus’ Bibliotheca: Avenues for Future Research." Pp. 95–114 in Writing Myth: Mythography in the Ancient World, edited by S. M. Trzaskoma and R. S. Smith. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. Kenens, Ulrike. 2011. "The Sources of Ps.-Apollodorus' Library: A Case Study." Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 97:129–46. Simpson, Michael, trans. 1976. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The "Library" of Apollodorus. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Scully, Stephen. 2015. "Echoes of the Theogony in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods." In Hesiod's 'Theogony', From Near Eastern Creation Myths to 'Paradise Lost'. New York: Oxford University Press. Smith, R. Scott, and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, trans. 2007. Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology. Cambridge, MA: Hackett. Trzaskoma, Stephen. 2013. "Citation, Organization and Authorial Presence in Ps.-Apollodorus’ Bibliotheca." Pp. 75–94 in Writing Myth: Mythography in the Ancient World, edited by S. M. Trzaskoma and R. S. Smith. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. Trzaskoma, Stephen M. and R. Scott Smith. 2008. "Hellas in the Bibliotheke of Apollodorus." Philologus 152(1):90–6. External links[edit] Apollodorus The Library translated by J. G. Frazer Archive org Library resources about Bibliotheca Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Apollodorus at Perseus Digital Library  Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: (Ψευδο-)Ἀπολλόδωρος Mythographoi. Scriptores poetiace historiae graeci, Antonius Westermann (ed.), Brunsvigae sumptum fecit Georgius Westermann, 1843, pagg. 1-123. Apollodori Bibliotheca, Immanuel Bekker (ed.), Lipsiae sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1854. Mythographi graeci, Richardus Wagner (ed.), vol. 1, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1894: pp. 1-169 (the epitome in pp. 171-237). Apollodorus, The Library translated by J. G. Frazer Apollodorus the Mythographer Online text: Apollodorus The Library translated by J. G. Frazer (condensed text) Authority control VIAF: 269132997 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 269132997 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)&oldid=1000291037" Categories: Ancient Greek pseudepigrapha 1st-century books 2nd-century books References on Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 14:35 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4199	----	Asphodel Meadows - Wikipedia Asphodel Meadows From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Section of the Greek underworld Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e The Asphodel Meadows is a section of the ancient Greek underworld where ordinary souls were sent to live after death. Contents 1 Origin 2 Later depictions 3 References 4 Bibliography Origin[edit] The Oxford English Dictionary gives Homer as the source for the English poetic tradition of describing the meadows of the afterlife as being covered in asphodel. Homer's "asphodel meadow" (ἀσφοδελὸν λειμῶνα), "where the spirits of the dead dwell" (Od. 24.14), has throughout Western literary history been envisioned as a pleasant and even desirable place. This was the impression among many of the ancient Greek poets and Homeric commentators, who understood the adjective ἀσφοδελός to mean "flowery," "fragrant," "fertile," and “lush,” and who even referred to the asphodel meadow as a “paradise” (παράδεισος). This was all the more so among the post-Renaissance English poets, especially those of the Romantic tradition, who painted colorful pictures of “happy souls who dwell in yellow meads of asphodel.” But this is not the picture drawn in books 11 and 24 of the Odyssey, our earliest extended descriptions of Hades, and our earliest references to an “asphodel meadow.” The three Odyssean passages in which Hades features an “asphodel meadow” (11.539, 573; 24.13) portray a dark, gloomy, and mirthless place. This is not the Elysian Plain, where life is easy, and there ever blows a refreshing West wind (Od. 4.561-69); nor is it the Isles of the Blessed, where the grain-giving soil bears its sweet fruit for the most distinguished, and carefree, heroes (Hesiod’s Op. 167-73); this is Hades – dark, dank, and sunless (Od. 10.512; 24.10; cf. Il. 20.65; H.Dem. 337) – where disembodied and senseless spirits of the dead weep and wail pathetically (Od. 11.391, 475-6, 605-6; 24.5-9) and flit about purposelessly like shadows or dreams (Od. 10.495; 11.207-8, 222). The disjunction has caused Classical scholar and linguist Steve Reece to propose a period in the development of the epic diction when the shape of the formula used to describe Hades was κατὰ σποδελὸν λειμῶνα “throughout the ash-filled meadow." This formula, Reece proposes, was misheard, misunderstood, and misanalyzed by a pre-Homeric bard as κατ’ ἀσφοδελὸν λειμῶνα “throughout the asphodel (i.e. flowery) meadow.”[1] Later depictions[edit] The Asphodel Meadows is most probably where the souls of people who lived mediocre lives remain, but its relationship to other places in the Greek afterlife remains uncertain. For later Greek poets the very ancient pre-Homeric association of the asphodel flower with a positive form of afterlife as well as the enlarged role of Elysium as it became the destination of more than just a few lucky heroes, altered the character of the meadows. Greek poets who wrote after Homer's time describe them as untouched, lovely, soft and holy. Such an evolutionary change is quite common: "Like most cultures throughout human history, both ancient and modern, the Greeks held complex and sometimes contradictory views about the afterlife".[2] Some depictions describe it as a land of utter neutrality. That is, while the inhabitants were in life neither good nor evil, so they are treated in the afterlife. Other depictions have also stated that all residents drink from the river Lethe before entering the fields, thus losing their identities. This somewhat negative outlook on the afterlife for those who make little impact was perhaps passed down to encourage militarism in Greek cultures (as opposed to inaction). In fact, those who did take up arms and became heroes were rewarded with everlasting joy in the fields of Elysium. Edith Hamilton suggests that the asphodel of these fields are not exactly like the asphodel of our world, but are "presumably strange, pallid, ghostly flowers."[3] Others suggest that they were actually narcissi.[4] References[edit] ^ Reece, Steve, "Homer's Asphodel Meadow," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 389-400. ^ Reece, Steve, "Homer's Asphodel Meadow," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 389-400. ^ Edith Hamilton. Mythology. New York: Warner Books, 1999. Ch. 1, p. 40. ^ Dweck, A. C. The folklore of Narcissus (PDF). pp. 19–29. In Hanks (2002) Bibliography[edit] Hanks, Gordon R (2002). Narcissus and Daffodil: The Genus Narcissus. London: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0415273447. Retrieved 2 October 2014. Anonymous (May–October 1887). "Homer the botanist". Macmillan's Magazine. London: Macmillan and Company. 56: 428–436. Retrieved 3 November 2014. v t e Underworlds Aztec mythology Mictlān Buddhism Naraka Chinese mythology Diyu Christianity Lake of fire Outer darkness Purgatory Limbo Hades Christian views on Hell Ancient Egyptian religion Duat Germanic and Norse paganism Hel (heimr) Náströnd Niflheim Niflhel Greek and Roman mythology Asphodel Meadows Elysium Erebus Fortunate Isles Hades Orcus Tartarus Hell Hinduism Naraka Patala Islam Jahannam Sijjin Jainism Naraka Judaism Abaddon Azazel Dudael Gehenna Sheol Tehom Tzoah Rotachat Maya mythology Xibalba Mesopotamian mythology Irkalla Persian mythology Duzakh Slavic mythology Nav Shinto Yomi Sumerian mythology Kur Turkic-Mongolian Tamag Welsh mythology Annwn Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asphodel_Meadows&oldid=1002917630" Categories: Afterlife places Locations in the Greek underworld Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Español Français Galego Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Occitan Português Română Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 16:48 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4206	----	Eurynomos (daemon) - Wikipedia Eurynomos (daemon) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Eurynomus (mythology). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Eurynomos" daemon – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Eurynomos (/jʊəˈrɪnəməs/; Greek Εὐρύνομος; Latin Eurynomus) was the netherworld daimon (spirit) of rotting corpses dwelling in the Underworld.[1] Eurynomos is either a minor figure whose associated literature is lost to time, or possibly an invention by the painter Polygnotos. The sole piece of evidence concerning him is the following paragraph by Pausanias in a painting of Hades by Polygnotos at Delphoi, Phocis: Eurynomos, said by the Delphian guides to be one of the daimones of Hades, who eats off all the flesh of the corpses, leaving only their bones. But Homer’s Odyssey, the poem called the Minyad, and the Returns, although they tell of Hades and its horrors, know of no daimon called Eurynomos. However, I will describe what he is like and his attitude in the painting. He is of a colour between blue and black, like that of meat flies; he is showing his teeth and is seated, and under him is spread a vulture’s skin.[2] In popular culture[edit] In the last book of The Cronus Chronicles, The Immortal Flame, Eurynomus is mentioned. He was stated as wearing vulture feathers as a cloak, with blue-black skin the colour of flies. He also had the ability to turn invisible and intangible, the perfect spy. He was "hired" by the antagonist Philonecron to spy on the protagonist, and Philonecron stated that he had hygiene issues. In the Japanese animated series Yondemasuyo, Azazel-san, Eurynomos appears as a blue-black pig demon who spreads despair by inflicting his victims with severe hemorrhoids. This character is found in Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum (chapter 41) with the spelling 'Eurynomius' as an example of a "principal of evil." The Swiss extreme metal band Hellhammer have a track entitled "Eurynomos", which appears on their 1983 demo tape Satanic Rites. Eurynomos appears in the fourth book of The Trials of Apollo, The Tyrant's Tomb, by Rick Riordan as a species of ghouls who eat the flesh off of corpses, raising up the picked-clean bodies as elite skeleton warriors. Their claws also carry a disease that, should a scratch victim die from it, will rise up as a zombie, also dubbed a vrykolakas. Notes[edit] ^ Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Eurynomus" ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 10.28.7 Further reading[edit] Anton LaVey, The Satanic Bible Miriam Van Scott, The Encyclopedia of Hell This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eurynomos_(daemon)&oldid=1000627619" Categories: Greek underworld Greek legendary creatures Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2010 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles needing additional references from January 2010 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Français Hrvatski Polski Português Русский Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 23:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4233	----	Almus of Orchomenus - Wikipedia Almus of Orchomenus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Almus (son of Sisyphus)) Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Almus /ˈælməs/ (Ancient Greek: Ἄλμος) or Halmus was a son of Sisyphus and brother of Glaucus, Ornytion and Thersander.[1] Family[edit] Pausanias informs that Almus had two daughters, Chryse and Chrysogeneia, who consorted with Ares and Poseidon respectively. Chryse's son with Ares was Phlegyas, who inherited the kingdom of Orchomenus as Eteocles had died childless. Chrysogeneia had by Poseidon a son Chryses, who succeeded Phlegyas as king of Orchomenus, and in his turn became father of Minyas.[2] In another account, the second daughter is named Chrysogone and Minyas is given as her son by Poseidon, and not grandson.[3] Almus was also credited as the possible father of Minyas.[citation needed] Mythology[edit] Most of the available information concerning him is recorded in Pausanias' Description of Greece. According to said author, Almus received a small tract of land in Orchomenus from King Eteocles and dwelt there; a village was believed to have been named Almones (later Olmones) after him.[4] This is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium, who refers to Pausanias' work but calls the character Olmus (Ὄλμος) to account for the most recent form of the village's name.[5] References[edit] ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 4. 3 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9. 36. 1 & 4 ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3. 1094 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9. 34. 10 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Olmones This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Almus_of_Orchomenus&oldid=886417577" Categories: Boeotian mythology Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Ελληνικά Français Italiano 日本語 Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 6 March 2019, at 04:12 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4254	----	Persephone - Wikipedia Persephone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Persephone (disambiguation). Greek goddess of spring and the underworld Persephone Queen of the Underworld Goddess of spring, flowers, death, life and vegetation Statue of Persephone with a sistrum. Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete Abode The underworld, Sicily, Mount Olympus Symbol Pomegranate, seeds of grain, torch, flowers and deer Personal information Parents Zeus and Demeter Siblings Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Arion, Artemis, Athena, Chrysothemis, Despoina, Dionysus, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Eubuleus, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Heracles, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Philomelus, Plutus, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Spouse Hades Children Melinoë, Plutus, Dionysus (Orphic), Zagreus Roman equivalent Proserpina This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. 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She became the queen of the underworld through her abduction by Hades, the god of the underworld, with the approval of her father, Zeus.[1] The myth of her abduction represents her function as the personification of vegetation, which shoots forth in spring and withdraws into the earth after harvest; hence, she is also associated with spring as well as the fertility of vegetation. Similar myths appear in the cults of male gods like Attis, Adonis, and Osiris,[2] and in Minoan Crete. Persephone as a vegetation goddess and her mother Demeter were the central figures of the Eleusinian mysteries, which promised the initiated a more enjoyable prospect after death. The origins of her cult are uncertain, but it was based on ancient agrarian cults of agricultural communities. Persephone was commonly worshipped along with Demeter and with the same mysteries. To her alone were dedicated the mysteries celebrated at Athens in the month of Anthesterion. In Classical Greek art, Persephone is invariably portrayed robed, often carrying a sheaf of grain. She may appear as a mystical divinity with a sceptre and a little box, but she was mostly represented in the process of being carried off by Hades. Her name has numerous historical variants. These include Persephassa (Περσεφάσσα) and Persephatta (Περσεφάττα). In Latin her name is rendered Proserpina. She was identified by the Romans as the Italic goddess Libera. Contents 1 Name 2 Titles and functions 2.1 Goddess of Spring and Nature 2.2 Goddess of the Underworld 2.3 Nestis 2.4 Epithets 3 Mythology 3.1 Abduction myth 3.2 Interpretation of the myth 3.3 Arcadian myths 4 Worship 4.1 Origins 4.2 In the Near East and Minoan Crete 4.3 In Mycenaean Greece 4.4 The Thesmophoria 4.5 The Eleusinian mysteries 4.6 In Rome 4.7 In Magna Graecia 4.8 In Orphism 4.9 Other local cults 5 Ancient literary references 6 Modern reception 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Sources 10 External links Name[edit] Persephone or "the deceased woman" holding a pomegranate. Etruscan terracotta cinerary statue. National archaeological museum in Palermo, Italy In a Linear B Mycenaean Greek inscription on a tablet found at Pylos dated 1400–1200 BC, John Chadwick reconstructed[n 1] the name of a goddess, *Preswa who could be identified with Persa, daughter of Oceanus and found speculative the further identification with the first element of Persephone.[4][5] Persephonē (Greek: Περσεφόνη) is her name in the Ionic Greek of epic literature. The Homeric form of her name is Persephoneia (Περσεφονεία,[6] Persephoneia). In other dialects, she was known under variant names: Persephassa (Περσεφάσσα), Persephatta (Περσεφάττα), or simply Korē (Κόρη, "girl, maiden").[7] Plato calls her Pherepapha (Φερέπαφα) in his Cratylus, "because she is wise and touches that which is in motion". There are also the forms Periphona (Πηριφόνα) and Phersephassa (Φερσέφασσα). The existence of so many different forms shows how difficult it was for the Greeks to pronounce the word in their own language and suggests that the name may have a Pre-Greek origin.[8] Persephatta (Περσεφάττα) is considered to mean "female thresher of grain"; the first constituent of the name originates in Proto-Greek "perso-" (related to Sanskrit "parṣa-"), "sheaf of grain" and the second constituent of the name originates in Proto-Indo European *-gʷn-t-ih, from the root *gʷʰen- "to strike".[9] A popular folk etymology is from φέρειν φόνον, pherein phonon, "to bring (or cause) death".[10] Titles and functions[edit] The epithets of Persephone reveal her double function as chthonic (underworld) and vegetation goddess. The surnames given to her by the poets refer to her character as Queen of the lower world and the dead, or her symbolic meaning of the power that shoots forth and withdraws into the earth. Her common name as a vegetation goddess is Kore, and in Arcadia she was worshipped under the title Despoina, "the mistress", a very old chthonic divinity.[10] Goddess of Spring and Nature[edit] Plutarch writes that Persephone was identified with the spring season[11] and Cicero calls her the seed of the fruits of the fields. In the Eleusinian Mysteries, her return from the underworld each spring is a symbol of immortality, and hence she was frequently represented on sarcophagi. In the religions of the Orphics and the Platonists, Kore is described as the all-pervading goddess of nature[12] who both produces and destroys everything, and she is therefore mentioned along with or identified as other such divinities including Isis, Rhea, Ge, Hestia, Pandora, Artemis, and Hecate.[13] The Orphic Persephone is said to have become by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus, Zagreus,[10] and the little-attested Melinoe.[14] Goddess of the Underworld[edit] Seated goddess, probably Persephone on her throne in the underworld, Severe style ca 480–460, found at Tarentum, Magna Graecia (Pergamon Museum, Berlin) In mythology and literature she is often called dread(ed) Persephone, and queen of the Underworld, within which tradition it was forbidden to speak her name. This tradition comes from her conflation with the very old chthonic divinity Despoina ("[the] mistress"), whose real name could not be revealed to anyone except those initiated into her mysteries.[15] As goddess of death, she was also called a daughter of Zeus and Demeter,[16] the river that formed the boundary between Earth and the underworld. In Homer's epics, she appears always together with Hades and the Underworld, apparently sharing with Hades control over the dead.[17] In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus encounters the "dread Persephone" in Tartarus when he visits his dead mother. Odysseus sacrifices a ram to the chthonic goddess Persephone and the ghosts of the dead who drink the blood of the sacrificed animal. In the reformulation of Greek mythology expressed in the Orphic Hymns, Dionysus and Melinoe are separately called children of Zeus and Persephone.[18] Groves sacred to her stood at the western extremity of the earth on the frontiers of the lower world, which itself was called "house of Persephone".[19] Her central myth served as the context for the secret rites of regeneration at Eleusis,[20] which promised immortality to initiates. Nestis[edit] In a Classical period text ascribed to Empedocles, c. 490–430 BC,[n 2] describing a correspondence among four deities and the classical elements, the name Nestis for water apparently refers to Persephone: "Now hear the fourfold roots of everything: enlivening Hera, Hades, shining Zeus. And Nestis, moistening mortal springs with tears."[21] Of the four deities of Empedocles' elements, it is the name of Persephone alone that is taboo—Nestis is a euphemistic cult title[n 3]—for she was also the terrible Queen of the Dead, whose name was not safe to speak aloud, who was euphemistically named simply as Kore or "the Maiden", a vestige of her archaic role as the deity ruling the underworld. Nestis means "the Fasting One" in ancient Greek.[citation needed] Epithets[edit] As a goddess of the underworld, Persephone was given euphemistically friendly names.[22] However it is possible that some of them were the names of original goddesses: Despoina (dems-potnia) "the mistress" (literally "the mistress of the house") in Arcadia. Hagne, "pure", originally a goddess of the springs in Messenia.[23] Melindia or Melinoia (meli, "honey"), as the consort of Hades, in Hermione. (Compare Hecate, Melinoe)[22] Malivina[22] Melitodes[22] Aristi cthonia, "the best chthonic".[22] Praxidike, the Orphic Hymn to Persephone identifies Praxidike as an epithet of Persephone: "Praxidike, subterranean queen. The Eumenides' source [mother], fair-haired, whose frame proceeds from Zeus' ineffable and secret seeds."[24][25] As a vegetation goddess, she was called:[23][26] Kore, "the maiden". Kore Soteira, "the savior maiden", in Megalopolis. Neotera, "the younger", in Eleusis. Kore of Demeter Hagne in the Homeric hymn. Kore memagmeni, "the mixed daughter" (bread). Demeter and her daughter Persephone were usually called:[26][27] The goddesses, often distinguished as "the older" and "the younger" in Eleusis. Demeters, in Rhodes and Sparta The thesmophoroi, "the legislators" in the Thesmophoria. The Great Goddesses, in Arcadia. The mistresses in Arcadia.[28] Karpophoroi, "the bringers of fruit", in Tegea of Arcadia. Mythology[edit] Abduction myth[edit] Sarcophagus with the abduction of Persephone. Walters Art Museum. Baltimore, Maryland Persphone's abduction by Hades[n 4] is mentioned briefly in Hesiod's Theogony,[29] and told in considerable detail in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Zeus, it is said, permitted Hades, who was in love with the beautiful Persephone, to abduct her as her mother Demeter was not likely to allow her daughter to go down to Hades. Persephone was gathering flowers with the Oceanids along with Artemis and Pallas, daughter of Triton, as the Homeric Hymn says, in a field when Hades came to abduct her, bursting through a cleft in the earth.[30] Demeter, when she found her daughter had disappeared, she searched for her all over the earth with Hecate's torches. In most versions she forbids the earth to produce, or she neglects the earth and in the depth of her despair she causes nothing to grow. Helios, the sun, who sees everything, eventually told Demeter what had happened and at length she discovered the place of her abode. Finally, Zeus, pressed by the cries of the hungry people and by the other deities who also heard their anguish, forced Hades to return Persephone.[31] The Rape of Proserpina by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1621–22) at the Galleria Borghese in Rome. Hades complies with the request, but first he tricks Persephone, giving her some pomegranate seeds to eat.[32] Hermes is sent to retrieve her but, because she had tasted the food of the underworld, she was obliged to spend a third of each year (the winter months) there, and the remaining part of the year with the gods above.[33] With the later writers Ovid and Hyginus, Persephone's time in the underworld becomes half the year.[34] It was explained to Demeter, her mother, that she would be released, so long as she did not taste the food of the dead. Various local traditions place Persephone's abduction in different locations. The Sicilians, among whom her worship was probably introduced by the Corinthian and Megarian colonists, believed that Hades found her in the meadows near Enna, and that a well arose on the spot where he descended with her into the lower world. The Cretans thought that their own island had been the scene of the abduction, and the Eleusinians mentioned the Nysian plain in Boeotia, and said that Persephone had descended with Hades into the lower world at the entrance of the western Oceanus. Later accounts place the abduction in Attica, near Athens, or near Eleusis.[31] The Return of Persephone, by Frederic Leighton (1891) The Homeric hymn mentions the Nysion (or Mysion) which was probably a mythical place. The location of this mythical place may simply be a convention to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[26] Before Persephone was abducted by Hades, the shepherd Eumolpus and the swineherd Eubuleus saw a girl in a black chariot driven by an invisible driver being carried off into the earth which had violently opened up. Eubuleus was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her, and the myth is an etiology for the relation of pigs with the ancient rites in Thesmophoria,[35] and in Eleusis. In the hymn, Persephone returns and she is reunited with her mother near Eleusis. Demeter, as she had promised, established her mysteries (orgies) when the Eleusinians built for her a temple near the spring of Callichorus. These were awful mysteries which were not allowed to be uttered. The uninitiated would spend a miserable existence in the gloomy space of Hades after death.[n 5] In some versions, Ascalaphus informed the other deities that Persephone had eaten the pomegranate seeds. When Demeter and her daughter were reunited, the Earth flourished with vegetation and color, but for some months each year, when Persephone returned to the underworld, the earth once again became a barren realm. This is an origin story to explain the seasons. In an earlier version, Hecate rescued Persephone. On an Attic red-figured bell krater of c. 440 BC in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Persephone is rising as if up stairs from a cleft in the earth, while Hermes stands aside; Hecate, holding two torches, looks back as she leads her to the enthroned Demeter.[36] The 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia Suda introduces a goddess of a blessed afterlife assured to Orphic mystery initiates. This Macaria is asserted to be the daughter of Hades, but no mother is mentioned.[37] Interpretation of the myth[edit] Pinax of Persephone and Hades from Locri. Reggio Calabria, National Museum of Magna Graecia. In the myth Pluto abducts Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm (this is the myth which explains their marriage).[38] Pluto (Πλούτων, Ploutōn) was a name for the ruler of the underworld; the god was also known as Hades, a name for the underworld itself. The name Pluton was conflated with that of Ploutos (Πλούτος Ploutos, "wealth"), a god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because Pluto as a chthonic god ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.[39] Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone's husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility.[40] In the Theogony of Hesiod, Demeter was united with the hero Iasion in Crete and she bore Ploutos.[29] This union seems to be a reference to a hieros gamos (ritual copulation) to ensure the earth's fertility.[40] This ritual copulation appears in Minoan Crete, in many Near Eastern agricultural societies, and also in the Anthesteria.[n 6] Nilsson believes that the original cult of Ploutos (or Pluto) in Eleusis was similar with the Minoan cult of the "divine child", who died to be reborn. The child was abandoned by his mother and then it was brought up by the powers of nature. Similar myths appear in the cults of Hyakinthos (Amyklai), Erichthonios (Athens), and later in the cult of Dionysos.[42] The Greek version of the abduction myth is related to grain – important and rare in the Greek environment – and the return (ascent) of Persephone was celebrated at the autumn sowing. Pluto (Ploutos) represents the wealth of the grain that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi), during summer months. Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for burials and Pluto is fused with Hades, the King of the realm of the dead. During summer months, the Greek grain-Maiden (Kore) is lying in the grain of the underground silos in the realm of Hades, and she is fused with Persephone, the Queen of the Underworld. At the beginning of the autumn, when the seeds of the old crop are laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at that time the old crop and the new meet each other. For the initiated, this union was the symbol of the eternity of human life that flows from the generations which spring from each other.[43][44] Arcadian myths[edit] From L-R, Artemis, Demeter, Veil of Despoina, Anytus, Tritoness from the throne of Despoina at Lycosura. National Archaeological Museum of Athens The primitive myths of isolated Arcadia seem to be related to the first Greek-speaking people who came from the north-east during the Bronze Age. Despoina (the mistress), the goddess of the Arcadian mysteries, is the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios (horse), who represents the river spirit of the underworld as a horse, as often happens in northern-European folklore. He pursues the mare-Demeter and from their union she bears the horse Arion and a daughter who originally had the form or shape of a mare. The two goddesses were not clearly separated, and they were closely connected with springs and animals. They were connected with Poseidon, the god of rivers and springs, and especially with Artemis, the Mistress of the Animals who was the first nymph.[1] According to the Greek tradition a hunt-goddess preceded the harvest goddess.[45] In Arcadia, in historical times Demeter and Persephone were often called Despoinai (Δέσποιναι, "the mistresses"). They are the two Great Goddesses of the Arcadian cults, and evidently they come from a more primitive religion.[26] The Greek god Poseidon probably substituted for the companion (Paredros, Πάρεδρος) of the Minoan Great goddess[46] in the Arcadian mysteries. Worship[edit] Persephone was worshipped along with her mother Demeter and in the same mysteries. Her cults included agrarian magic, dancing, and rituals. The priests used special vessels and holy symbols, and the people participated with rhymes. In Eleusis there is evidence of sacred laws and other inscriptions.[47] The Cult of Demeter and the Maiden is found at Attica, in the main festivals Thesmophoria and Eleusinian mysteries and in a number of local cults. These festivals were almost always celebrated at the autumn sowing, and at full-moon according to the Greek tradition. In some local cults the feasts were dedicated to Demeter. Origins[edit] Gold ring from Isopata tomb, near Knossos, Crete, 1400–1500 BC. Depicted are female figures dancing among blossoming vegetation; Heraklion Archaeological Museum The myth of a goddess being abducted and taken to the Underworld is probably Pre-Greek in origin. Samuel Noah Kramer, the renowned scholar of ancient Sumer, has posited that the Greek story of the abduction of Persephone may be derived from an ancient Sumerian story in which Ereshkigal, the ancient Sumerian goddess of the Underworld, is abducted by Kur, the primeval dragon of Sumerian mythology, and forced to become ruler of the Underworld against her own will.[48] The location of Persephone's abduction is different in each local cult. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter mentions the "plain of Nysa".[49] The locations of this probably mythical place may simply be conventions to show that a magically distant chthonic land of myth was intended in the remote past.[50][51] Demeter found and met her daughter in Eleusis, and this is the mythical disguise of what happened in the mysteries.[52] Persephone is an old chthonic deity of the agricultural communities, who received the souls of the dead into the earth, and acquired powers over the fertility of the soil, over which she reigned. The earliest depiction of a goddess who may be identified with Persephone growing out of the ground, is on a plate from the Old-Palace period in Phaistos. The goddess has a vegetable-like appearance, and she is surrounded by dancing girls between blossoming flowers.[53] A similar representation, where the goddess appears to come down from the sky, is depicted on the Minoan ring of Isopata. Rape of Persephone. Hades with his horses and Persephone (down). An Apulian red-figure volute krater, c. 340 BC. Antikensammlung Berlin In some forms Hades appears with his chthonic horses. The myth of the abduction of Persephone was derived from the idea that Hades catches the souls of the dead and then carries them with his horses into his kingdom. This idea is vague in Homer, but appears in later Greek depictions, and in Greek folklore. "Charos" appears with his horse and carries the dead into the underworld.[54][55] The cults of Persephone and Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries and in the Thesmophoria were based on old agrarian cults.[56] A lot of ancient beliefs were based on initiation into jealously-guarded mysteries (secret rites) because they offered prospects after death more enjoyable than the final end at the gloomy space of the Greek Hades. There is evidence that some practices were derived from the religious practices of the Mycenaean age.[57][53] Kerenyi asserts that these religious practices were introduced from Minoan Crete.,[58][59] The idea of immortality which appears in the syncretistic religions of the Near East did not exist in the Eleusinian mysteries at the very beginning.[60][61] In the Near East and Minoan Crete[edit] The Lady of Auxerre, an Archaic (640 BC) image from Crete. A version of a Minoan goddess who may be identified with Kore In the Near Eastern myth of the early agricultural societies, every year the fertility goddess bore the "god of the new year", who then became her lover, and died immediately to be reborn and face the same destiny. Some findings from Catal Huyuk since the Neolithic age, indicate the worship of the Great Goddess accompanied by a boyish consort, who symbolizes the annual decay and return of vegetation.[62] Similar cults of resurrected gods appear in the Near East and Egypt in the cults of Attis, Adonis and Osiris.[63] In Minoan Crete, the "divine child" was related to the female vegetation divinity Ariadne who died every year.[64] The Minoan religion had its own characteristics. The most peculiar feature of the Minoan belief in the divine, is the appearance of the goddess from above in the dance. Dance floors have been discovered in addition to "vaulted tombs", and it seems that the dance was ecstatic. Homer memorializes the dance floor which Daedalus built for Ariadne in the remote past.[65] On the gold ring from Isopata, four women in festal attire are performing a dance between blossoming flowers. Above a figure apparently floating in the air seems to be the goddess herself, appearing amid the whirling dance.[66] An image plate from the first palace of Phaistos, seems to be very close to the mythical image of the Anodos (ascent) of Persephone. Two girls dance between blossoming flowers, on each side of a similar but armless and legless figure which seems to grow out of the ground. The goddess is bordered by snake lines which give her a vegetable like appearance She has a large stylized flower turned over her head. The resemblance with the flower-picking Persephone and her companions is compelling.[53] The depiction of the goddess is similar to later images of "Anodos of Pherephata". On the Dresden vase, Persephone is growing out of the ground, and she is surrounded by the animal-tailed agricultural gods Silenoi.[67] Kerenyi suggests that the name Ariadne (derived from ἁγνή, hagne, "pure"), was an euphemistical name given by the Greeks to the nameless "Mistress of the labyrinth" who appears in a Mycenean Greek inscription from Knossos in Crete. The Greeks used to give friendly names to the deities of the underworld. Cthonic Zeus was called Eubuleus, "the good counselor", and the ferryman of the river of the underworld Charon, "glad".[55] Despoina and "Hagne" were probably euphemistic surnames of Persephone, therefore he theorizes that the cult of Persephone was the continuation of the worship of a Minoan Great goddess. The labyrinth was both a winding dance-ground and, in the Greek view, a prison with the dreaded Minotaur at its centre.[68][69] It is possible that some religious practices, especially the mysteries, were transferred from a Cretan priesthood to Eleusis, where Demeter brought the poppy from Crete.[70] Besides these similarities, Burkert explains that up to now it is not known to what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenean religion.[71] In the Anthesteria Dionysos is the "divine child". In Mycenaean Greece[edit] Two women or goddesses on a chariot. Fresco from Tiryns, 1200 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens. There is evidence of a cult in Eleusis from the Mycenean period;[72] however, there are not sacral finds from this period. The cult was private and there is no information about it. As well as the names of some Greek gods in the Mycenean Greek inscriptions, also appear names of goddesses, like "the divine Mother" (the mother of the gods) or "the Goddess (or priestess) of the winds", who don't have Mycenean origin .[52] In historical times, Demeter and Kore were usually referred to as "the goddesses" or "the mistresses" (Arcadia) in the mysteries .[73] In the Mycenean Greek tablets dated 1400–1200 BC, the "two queens and the king" are mentioned. John Chadwick believes that these were the precursor divinities of Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.[74][75] Some information can be obtained from the study of the cult of Eileithyia at Crete, and the cult of Despoina. In the cave of Amnisos at Crete, Eileithyia is related with the annual birth of the divine child and she is connected with Enesidaon (The earth shaker), who is the chthonic aspect of the god Poseidon.[76] Persephone was conflated with Despoina, "the mistress", a chthonic divinity in West-Arcadia.[59] The megaron of Eleusis is quite similar with the "megaron" of Despoina at Lycosura.[52] Demeter is united with her, the god Poseidon, and she bears him a daughter, the unnameable Despoina.[77] Poseidon appears as a horse, as it usually happens in Northern European folklore. The goddess of nature and her companion survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered "Mighty Potnia bore a great sun".[76] In Eleusis, in a ritual, one child ("pais") was initiated from the hearth. The name pais (the divine child) appears in the Mycenean inscriptions,[52] and the ritual indicates the transition from the old funerary practices to the Greek cremation.[78] In Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with an unknown location.[51] Nysion (or Mysion), the place of the abduction of Persephone was also probably a mythical place which did not exist on the map, a magically distant chthonic land of myth which was intended in the remote past.[79] The Thesmophoria[edit] Main article: Thesmophoria Kore, daughter of Demeter, celebrated with her mother by the Thesmophoriazusae (women of the festival). Acropolis Museum, Athens Thesmophoria, were celebrated in Athens, and the festival was widely spread in Greece. This was a festival of secret women-only rituals connected with marriage customs and commemorated the third of the year, in the month Pyanepsion, when Kore was abducted and Demeter abstained from her role as goddess of harvest and growth. The ceremony involved sinking sacrifices into the earth by night and retrieving the decaying remains of pigs that had been placed in the megara of Demeter (trenches and pits or natural clefts in rock), the previous year. These were placed on altars, mixed with seeds, then planted.[80] Pits rich in organic matter at Eleusis have been taken as evidence that the Thesmophoria was held there as well as in other demes of Attica.[81] This agrarian magic was also used in the cult of the earth-goddesses potniai (mistresses) in the Cabeirian, and in Knidos.[82] The festival was celebrated over three days. The first was the "way up" to the sacred space, the second, the day of feasting when they ate pomegranate seeds and the third was a meat feast in celebration of Kalligeneia a goddess of beautiful birth. Zeus penetrated the mysteries as Zeus- Eubuleus[80] which is an euphemistical name of Hades (Chthonios Zeus).[22] In the original myth which is an etiology for the ancient rites, Eubuleus was a swineherd who was feeding his pigs at the opening to the underworld when Persephone was abducted by Plouton. His swine were swallowed by the earth along with her.[35] The Eleusinian mysteries[edit] Main article: Eleusinian mysteries The Eleusinian trio: Persephone, Triptolemus and Demeter on a marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440–430 BC. National Archaeological Museum of Athens The Eleusinian mysteries was a festival celebrated at the autumn sowing in the city of Eleusis. Inscriptions refer to "the Goddesses" accompanied by the agricultural god Triptolemos (probably son of Ge and Oceanus),[83] and "the God and the Goddess" (Persephone and Plouton) accompanied by Eubuleus who probably led the way back from the underworld.[84] The myth was represented in a cycle with three phases: the "descent", the "search", and the "ascent", with contrasted emotions from sorrow to joy which roused the mystae to exultation. The main theme was the ascent of Persephone and the reunion with her mother Demeter.[43] The festival activities included dancing, probably across the Rharian field, where according to the myth the first grain grew. At the beginning of the feast, the priests filled two special vessels and poured them out, the one towards the west, and the other towards the east. The people looking both to the sky and the earth shouted in a magical rhyme "rain and conceive". In a ritual, a child was initiated from the hearth (the divine fire). It was the ritual of the "divine child" who originally was Ploutos. In the Homeric hymn the ritual is connected with the myth of the agricultural god Triptolemos[78] The high point of the celebration was "an ear of grain cut in silence", which represented the force of the new life. The idea of immortality didn't exist in the mysteries at the beginning, but the initiated believed that they would have a better fate in the underworld. Death remained a reality, but at the same time a new beginning like the plant which grows from the buried seed.[52] In the earliest depictions Persephone is an armless and legless deity, who grows out of the ground.[53] In Rome[edit] Main article: Proserpina Cinerary altar with tabula representing the abduction of Proserpina. White marble, Antonine Era, 2nd century Rome, Baths of Diocletian Persephone opening a cista containing the infant Adonis, on a pinax from Locri The Romans first heard of her from the Aeolian and Dorian cities of Magna Graecia, who used the dialectal variant Proserpinē (Προσερπίνη). Hence, in Roman mythology she was called Proserpina, a name erroneously derived by the Romans from proserpere, "to shoot forth"[85] and as such became an emblematic figure of the Renaissance.[86] In 205 BC, Rome officially identified Proserpina with the local Italic goddess Libera, who, along with Liber, were strongly associated with the Roman grain goddess Ceres (considered equivalent to the Greek Demeter). The Roman author Gaius Julius Hyginus also considered Proserpina equivalent to the Cretan goddess Ariadne, who was the bride of Liber's Greek equivalent, Dionysus.[87][88] In Magna Graecia[edit] At Locri, a city of Magna Graecia situated on the coast of the Ionian Sea in Calabria (a region of southern Italy), perhaps uniquely, Persephone was worshiped as protector of marriage and childbirth, a role usually assumed by Hera; in the iconography of votive plaques at Locri, her abduction and marriage to Hades served as an emblem of the marital state, children at Locri were dedicated to Proserpina, and maidens about to be wed brought their peplos to be blessed.[89] Diodorus Siculus knew the temple there as the most illustrious in Italy.[90] During the 5th century BC, votive pinakes in terracotta were often dedicated as offerings to the goddess, made in series and painted with bright colors, animated by scenes connected to the myth of Persephone. Many of these pinakes are now on display in the National Museum of Magna Græcia in Reggio Calabria. Locrian pinakes represent one of the most significant categories of objects from Magna Graecia, both as documents of religious practice and as works of art.[91] The temple at Lorci was looted by Pyrrhus.[92] The importance of the regionally powerful Lokrian Persephone influenced the representation of the goddess in Magna Graecia. Pinakes, terracotta tablets with brightly painted sculptural scenes in relief were founded in Locri. The scenes are related to the myth and cult of Persephone and other deities. They were produced in Locri during the first half of the 5th century BC and offered as votive dedications at the Locrian sanctuary of Persephone. More than 5,000, mostly fragmentary, pinakes are stored in the National Museum of Magna Græcia in Reggio Calabria and in the museum of Locri.[91] Representations of myth and cult on the clay tablets (pinakes) dedicated to this goddess reveal not only a 'Chthonian Queen,’ but also a deity concerned with the spheres of marriage and childbirth.[90] The Italian archaeologist Paolo Orsi, between 1908 and 1911, carried out a meticulous series of excavations and explorations in the area which allowed him to identify the site of the renowned Persephoneion, an ancient temple dedicated to Persephone in Calabria which Diodorus in his own time knew as the most illustrious in Italy.[93] The place where the ruins of the Sanctuary of Persephone were brought to light is located at the foot of the Mannella hill, near the walls (upstream side) of the polis of Epizephyrian Locri. Thanks to the finds that have been retrieved and to the studies carried on, it has been possible to date its use to a period between the 7th century BC and the 3rd century BC. Archaeological finds suggest that worship of Demeter and Persephone was widespread in Sicily and Greek Italy. In Orphism[edit] Evidence from both the Orphic Hymns and the Orphic Gold Leaves demonstrate that Persephone was one of the most important deities worshiped in Orphism.[94] In the Orphic religion, gold leaves with verses intended to help the deceased enter into an optimal afterlife were often buried with the dead. Persephone is mentioned frequently in these tablets, along with Demeter and Euklês, which may be another name for Plouton.[94] The ideal afterlife destination believers strive for is described on some leaves as the "sacred meadows and groves of Persephone". Other gold leaves describe Persephone's role in receiving and sheltering the dead, in such lines as "I dived under the kolpos [portion of a Peplos folded over the belt] of the Lady, the Chthonian Queen", an image evocative of a child hiding under their mother's apron.[94] In Orphism, Persephone is believed to be the mother of the first Dionysus. In Orphic myth, Zeus came to Persephone in her bedchamber in the underworld and impregnated her with the child who would become his successor. The infant Dionysus was later dismembered by the Titans, before being reborn as the second Dionysus, who wandered the earth spreading his mystery cult before ascending to the heavens with his second mother, Semele.[95] The first, "Orphic" Dionysus is sometimes referred to with the alternate name Zagreus (Greek: Ζαγρεύς). The earliest mentions of this name in literature describe him as a partner of Gaia and call him the highest god. The Greek poet Aeschylus considered Zagreus either an alternate name for Hades, or his son (presumably born to Persephone).[96] Scholar Timothy Gantz noted that Hades was often considered an alternate, cthonic form of Zeus, and suggested that it is likely Zagreus was originally the son of Hades and Persephone, who was later merged with the Orphic Dionysus, the son of Zeus and Persephone, owing to the identification of the two fathers as the same being.[97] However, no known Orphic sources use the name "Zagreus" to refer to Dionysus. It is possible that the association between the two was known by the 3rd century BC, when the poet Callimachus may have written about it in a now-lost source.[98] Other local cults[edit] A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC Hades abducting Persephone, wall painting in the small royal tomb at Vergina. Macedonia, Greece Italy. Renaissance relief, Rape of Persephone. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection Fragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea), Bosporan Kingdom Local cults of Demeter and Kore existed in Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, Magna Graecia, and Libya. Attica:[99] Athens, in the mysteries of Agrae. This was a local cult near the river Ilissos. They were celebrated during spring in the month Anthesterion. Later they became an obligation for the participants of the "greater" Eleusinian mysteries. There was a temple of Demeter and Kore and an image of Triptolemos.[100] Demeter drives her horse-drawn chariot containing her daughter Persephone at Selinunte, Sicily 6th century BC Piraeus: The Skirophoria, a festival related to the Thesmophoria. Megara: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore. The city was named after its megara .[101] Aegina: Cult of Demeter thesmophoros and Kore. Phlya, near Koropi, in the mysteries of Phlya: These have very old roots and were probably originally dedicated to Demeter Anesidora, Kore, and Zeus Ktesios, who was the god of the underground stored grain. Pausanias mentions a temple of Demeter-Anesidora, Kore Protogone, and Zeus Ktesios. The surname Protogonos, indicates a later Orphic influence. It seems that the mysteries were related to the mysteries of Andania in Messene.[102] Boeotia: Thebes, which Zeus is said to have given to her as an acknowledgement for a favour she had bestowed upon him.[103] Pausanias records a grove of Cabeirian Demeter and the Maid, three miles outside the gates of Thebes, where a ritual was performed, so-called on the grounds that Demeter gave it to the Cabeiri, who established it at Thebes. The Thebans told Pausanias that some inhabitants of Naupactus had performed the same rituals there, and had met with divine vengeance.[104] The Cabeirian mysteries were introduced from Asia Minor at the end of the archaic period. Nothing is known of the older cult, and it seems that the Cabeiri were originally wine-daemons. Inscriptions from the temple in Thebes mention the old one as Cabir, and the new one as son (pais), who are different.[102] According to Pausanias, Pelarge, the daughter of Potnieus, was connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian (potniai).[82] A feast in Boeotia, in the month Demetrios (Pyanepsion), probably similar with the Thesmophoria. Thebes: Cult of Demeter and Kore in a feast named Thesmophoria but probably different. It was celebrated in the summer month Bukatios.[26][105] Peloponnese (except Arcadia)[26] Hermione: An old cult of Demeter Chthonia, Kore, and Klymenos (Hades). Cows were pushed into the temple, and then they were killed by four women. It is possible that Hermione was a mythical name, the place of the souls.[22] Asine: Cult of Demeter Chthonia. The cult seems to be related to the original cult of Demeter in Hermione.[22] Lakonia: Temple of Demeter Eleusinia near Taygetos. The feast was named Eleuhinia, and the name was given before the relation of Demeter with the cult of Eleusis. Lakonia at Aigila: Dedicated to Demeter. Men were excluded. near Sparta: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Demeters (Δαμάτερες, "Damaters"). According to Hesychius, the feast lasted three days (Thesmophoria). Corinth: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Pluton.[22] Triphylia in Elis: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Hades.[22] Pellene: Dedicated to the Mysian Demeter. Men were excluded. The next day, men and women became naked. Andania in Messenia (near the borders of Arcadia): Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Hagne. Hagne, a goddess of the spring, was the original deity before Demeter. The temple was built near a spring. Arcadia[27] Pheneos : Mysteries of Demeter Thesmia and Demeter Eleusinia. The Eleusinian cult was introduced later. The priest took the holy book from a natural cleft. He used the mask of Demeter Kidaria, and he hit his stick on the earth, in a kind of agrarian magic. An Arcadian dance was named kidaris. Pallantion near Tripoli: Cult of Demeter and Kore. Karyai: Cult of Kore and Pluton.[22] Tegea: Cult of Demeter and Kore, the Karpophoroi, "Fruit givers". Megalopolis: Cult of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore Sotira, "the savior". Mantineia: Cult of Demeter and Kore in the fest Koragia.[106] Trapezus: Mysteries of the Great goddesses, Demeter and Kore. The temple was built near a spring, and a fire was burning out of the earth. near Thelpusa in Onkeion: Temple of Demeter Erinys (vengeful) and Demeter Lusia (bathing). In the myth Demeter was united with Poseidon Hippios (horse), and bore him the horse Arion and the unnamed. The name Despoina was given in West Arcadia. Phigalia: Cult of the mare-headed Demeter (black), and Despoina. Demeter was depicted in her archaic form, a Medusa type with a horse's head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin.[107] The temple was built near a spring. Lycosura,Main article: Despoina Cult of Demeter and Despoina. In the portico of the temple of Despoina there was a tablet with the inscriptions of the mysteries. In front of the temple there was an altar to Demeter and another to Despoine, after which was one of the Great Mother. By the sides stood Artemis and Anytos, the Titan who brought up Despoine. Besides the temple, there was also a hall where the Arcadians celebrated the mysteries[108][109] A fire was always burning in front of the temple of Pan (the goat-god), the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks. In a relief appear dancing animal-headed women (or with animal-masks) in a procession. Near the temple have been found terracotta figures with human bodies, and heads of animals.[27] Islands Paros: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus.[22] Amorgos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus.[22] Delos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Eubuleus. Probably a different feast with the name Thesmophoria, celebrated in a summer month (the same month in Thebes). Two big loaves of bread were offered to the two goddesses. Another feast was named Megalartia.[26][105] Mykonos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Zeus-Buleus. Crete : Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios. Rhodes: Cult of Demeter and Kore, in the month Thesmophorios. The two goddesses are the Damaters in an inscription from Lindos Egypt Alexandria: According to Epiphanius, a temple of Kore existed in Alexandria. He describes a celebration of the birth of Aion from Kore the Virgin which took place there on 6 January. During the ceremony, a wood statue of Aion, marked with gold-inlaid crosses on his hands, knees, and forehead, was brought up from an underground vault and processed through the temple. A feast would follow, after which the icon was returned to the vault.[110] Epiphanius noted that the celebration coincided with Aion's birth: "On this day and at this hour, Kore gave birth to Aion." The date, which coincides with the Christian feast of the Epiphany, brought new year's celebrations to a close.[111] Aion may be a form of Dionysus, reborn annually;[112] an inscription from Eleusis also identifies Aion as a son of Kore.[113] Asia Minor Knidos: Cult of Demeter, Kore, and Pluton.[22] Agrarian magic similar to the one used in Thesmophoria and in the cult of the potniai (Cabeirian).[26] Ephesos : Cult of Demeter and Kore, celebrated at night-time.[114] Priene: Cult of Demeter and Kore, similar to the Thesmophoria.[26] Head of Persephone. Earthenware. From Sicily, Centuripae, c. 420 BC. The Burrell Collection, Glasgow, UK Sicily Syracuse: There was a harvest festival of Demeter and Persephone at Syracuse when the grain was ripe (about May).[115] A fest Koris katagogi, the descent of Persephone into the underworld.[26] Libya Cyrene: Temple of Demeter and Kore[26] Ancient literary references[edit] Homer: Iliad: "the gods fulfilled his curse, even Zeus of the nether world and dread Persephone." (9, line 457; A. T. Murray, trans) "Althea prayed instantly to the gods, being grieved for her brother's slaying; and furthermore instantly beat with her hands upon the all-nurturing earth, calling upon Hades and dread Persephone" (9, 569) Odyssey: "And come to the house of Hades and dread Persephone to seek sooth saying of the spirit of Theban Teiresias. To him even in death Persephone has granted reason that ..." (book 10, card 473) Hymns to Demeter[116] Hymn 2: "Mistress Demeter goddess of heaven, which God or mortal man has rapt away Persephone and pierced with sorrow your dear heart? (hymn 2, card 40) Hymn 13: "I start to sing for Demeter the lovely-faced goddess, for her and her daughter the most beautiful Persephone. Hail goddess keep this city safe!" (hymn 13, card 1) Pindar[116] Olympian: "Now go Echo, to the dark-walled home of Persephone."(book O, poem 14) Isthmean: "Aecus showed them the way to the house of Persephone and nymphs, one of them carrying a ball."(book 1, poem 8) Nemean: "Island which Zeus, the lord of Olympus gave to Persephone;he nodded descent with his flowers hair."(book N, poem 1) Pythian: "You splendor-loving city, most beautiful on earth, home of Persephone. You who inhabit the hill of well-built dwellings."(book P, poem 12) Aeschylus[116] Libation bearers: Electra:"O Persephone, grant us indeed a glorious victory!" (card 479) Aristophanes[116] Thesmophoriazusae: Mnesilochos:"Thou Mistress Demeter, the most valuable friend and thou Persephone, grant that I may be able to offer you!" (card 266) Euripides[116] Alcestis: "O you brave and best hail, sitting as attendand Beside's Hades bride Persephone!" (card 741) Hecuba: "It is said that any of the dead that stand beside Persephone, that the Danaids have left the plains to Troy." (card 130) Bacchylides[116] Epinicians: "Flashing thunderbolt went down to the halls of slender-ankled Persephone to bring up into the light of Hades." (book Ep. poem 5) Vergil[117] The Aeneid: "For since she had not died through fate, or by a well-earned death, but wretchedly, before her time, inflamed with sudden madness, Proserpine had not yet taken a lock of golden hair from her head, or condemned her soul to Stygian Orcus." (IV.696–99) Modern reception[edit] Main article: Persephone in popular culture Persephone also appears many times in popular culture. Featured in a variety of young adult novels such as Persephone[118] by Kaitlin Bevis, Persephone's Orchard[119] by Molly Ringle, The Goddess Test by Aimee Carter, The Goddess Letters by Carol Orlock, Abandon by Meg Cabot, and Lore Olympus by Rachel Smythe, her story has also been treated by Suzanne Banay Santo in Persephone Under the Earth in the light of women's spirituality. Here Santo treats the mythic elements in terms of maternal sacrifice to the burgeoning sexuality of an adolescent daughter. Accompanied by the classic, sensual paintings of Fredric Lord Leighton and William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Santo portrays Persephone not as a victim but as a woman in quest of sexual depth and power, transcending the role of daughter, though ultimately returning to it as an awakened Queen.[120] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Myths portal Religion portal Anthesphoria, festival honoring Proserpina, and Persephon Eleusinian Mysteries Rape of Persephone Sporus Notes[edit] ^ The actual word in Linear B is 𐀟𐀩𐁚, pe-re-*82 or pe-re-swa; it is found on the PY Tn 316 tablet.[3] ^ Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher who was a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily. ^ Kingsley 1995 identifies Nestis as a cult title of Persephone. ^ In art the abduction of Persephone is often referred to as the "Rape of Persephone". ^ Hom. Hymn. to Demeter 470: "Awful mysteries which no one may in any way transgress or pry into or utter, for deep awe of the gods checks the voice. Happy is he among men upon earth who has seen these mysteries; but he who is uninitiate and who has no part in them, never has lot of like good things once he is dead, down in the darkness and gloom". ^ "This is the time when Zeus mated with Semele, who is also Persephone, and Dionysos was conceived. It is also the time when Dionysos took Ariadne to be His wife, and so we celebrate the marriage of the Basilinna (religious Queen) and the God". [41] References[edit] ^ a b Martin Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I pp 462–463, 479–480 ^ Fraser. The golden bough. Adonis, Attis and Osiris. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215 ^ Raymoure, K.A. "pe-re-*82". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. "PY 316 Tn (44)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. ^ Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. At Google Books. ^ Comments about the goddess pe-re-*82 of Pylos tablet Tn 316, tentatively reconstructed as *Preswa "It is tempting to see ... the classical Perse ... daughter of Oceanus ... ; whether it may be further identified with the first element of Persephone is only speculative." John Chadwick. Documents in Mycenean Greek. Second Edition ^ Homer (1899). Odyssey. Clarendon Press. p. 230. Retrieved 31 March 2014. ^ H.G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon ^ Martin P. Nilsson (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, Volume I, C.F. Beck Verlag, p. 474. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, pp. 1179–80. ^ a b c Smith, "Perse'phone" ^ Plutarch, Moralia (On Isis and Osiris, Ch. 69) ^ Orphic Hymn 29.16 ^ Schol. ad. Theocritus 2.12 ^ In the Hymn to Melinoe, where the father is Zeus Chthonios, either Zeus in his chthonic aspect, or Pluto; Radcliffe G. Edmonds III, "Orphic Mythology," in A Companion to Greek Mythology (Blackwell, 2011), p. 100. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece (Book 8, Ch. 37, sect. 9)" ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca (Book 1, Ch. 3). ^ Gantz, p. 64; Homer, Odyssey (Book 10, ln. 494). ^ Orphic Hymn 26, 71 ^ Homer, Odyssey (Book 10, ln. 491; Book 10, ln. 509). ^ Károly Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, 1967, passim ^ Peter Kingsley, in Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1995). ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Rhode (1961), Psyche I, pp. 206–210 ^ a b Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 478–480 ^ Orphic Hymn 29 to Persephone ^ "PERSEPHONE – Greek Goddess of Spring, Queen of the Underworld (Roman Proserpina)". ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463–466 ^ a b c Nilsson, pp. 477–480 :"The Arcadian Great goddesses" ^ Pausanias.Description of Greece 5.15.4, 5, 6 ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony 914. ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 4–20, 414–434. ^ a b "Theoi Project – Persephone". Theoi.com. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 411–412, has Persephone say: "but he secretly put in my mouth sweet food, a pomegranate seed, and forced me to taste against my will.". ^ Gantz, p. 65. ^ Gantz, p. 67. ^ a b Reference to the Thesmophoria in Lucian's Dialogues of the Courtesans 2.1. ^ The figures are unmistakable, as they are inscribed "Persophata, Hermes, Hekate, Demeter"; Gisela M. A. Richter, "An Athenian Vase with the Return of Persephone" The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 26.10 (October 1931:245–248) ^ Suidas s.v. Makariai, with English translation at Suda On Line, Adler number mu 51 ^ William Hansen (2005) Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 180–182. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. ^ a b Ap. Athanassakis (2004), Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield ,Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 56. ^ The Anthesteria Archived 20 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine Bibliotheca Arcana (1997) ^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 215–219 ^ a b "Martin Nilsson, The Greek popular religion, The religion of Eleusis, pp 51–54". Sacred-texts.com. 8 November 2005. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 473–474. ^ Pausanias 2.30.2 ^ Nilsson, VoI, p. 444 ^ Burkert (1985), pp. 285–289 ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961, Philadelphia. ISBN 0-8122-1047-6 (Pages 76–79) available at sacred-texts.com. "Moreover, the crime involved is probably that of abducting a goddess; it therefore brings to mind the Greek story of the abduction of Persephone." ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 17. ^ Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463 ^ a b "In Greek mythology Nysa is a mythical mountain with unknown location, the birthplace of the god Dionysos.": Fox, William Sherwood (1916), The Mythology of All Races, v.1, Greek and Roman, General editor, Louis Herbert Gray, p.217 ^ a b c d e Burkert (1985), pp. 285–290. ^ a b c d Burkert (1985) p. 42 ^ Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 453–455 ^ a b Charon, "glad", probably euphemistically "death". Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on χαροπός and χάρων, pp. 1980–1981; Brill's New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on "Charon", pp. 202–203. ^ Nilsson, Vol I, p.470 ^ Dietrich "The origins of the Greek Religion" p.220,221 ^ "Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos, archetypal image of indestructible life. Princeton University Press. p. 24 ^ a b Karl Kerenyi (1967). Eleusis. Archetypal image of mother and daughter. Princeton University Press. p. 31f ^ Burkert (1985) p. 289 ^ "According to the Greek popular belief,ἕν ἀνδρῶν, ἕν θεῶν γένος".(One is the nature of men, another one the nature of gods): Erwin Rhode (1961), Psyche Band I, p. 293 ^ Burkert p.12 ^ J.Frazer The Golden Bough, Part IV, Adonis, Attis and Osiris ^ F.Schachermeyer (1972), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, pp. 141, 308 ^ Burkert (1985) pp. 34–40 ^ Burkert (1985) p. 40 ^ "Hermes and the Anodos of Pherephata": Nilsson (1967) p. 509 taf. 39,1 ^ Karl Kerenyi (1976), Dionysos: archetypal image of indestructible life, pp. 89, 90 ISBN 0-691-02915-6 ^ Hesychius, listing of ἀδνόν, a Cretan-Greek form for ἁγνόν, "pure" ^ Kerenyi(1976), p.24 ^ "To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a conclusive answer" :.Burkert (1985). p. 21. ^ G. Mylonas (1932). Eleusiniaka. I,1 ff ^ Nilsson (1967), pp. 463–465 ^ John Chadwick (1976).The Mycenean World. Cambridge University Press ^ "Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain ": George Mylonas (1966) Mycenae and the Mycenean age" p. 159 : Princeton University Press ^ a b Dietrich p. 220,221 ^ "Pausanias 8.37.9". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ a b "In Greek mythology Achileus becomes immortal by the divine fire. His heel was his only mortal element, because it was not touched by the fire : Wunderlich (1972), The secret of Crete p. 134 ^ Nilsson, Vol I p. 463 ^ a b Burkert (1985), pp. 240–243 ^ Clinton, Greek Sanctuaries, p. 113. ^ a b Potniai: Pelarge daughter of Potnieus is connected with the cult of Demeter in the Cabeirian : Pausanias 9.25,8, Nilsson (1967) Vol I pp. 151, 463 ^ Pseudo Apollodorus Biblioteca IV.2 ^ Kevin Klinton (1993), Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, Routledge, p. 11 ^ Cicero. De Natura Deorum 2.26 ^ Welch (2013), p. 164 ^ T. P. Wiseman, "Satyrs in Rome? The Background to Horace's Ars Poetica", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 78 (1988), p 7, note 52. ^ Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996 ^ Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Persephone" The Journal of Hellenic Studies 98 (1978:101–121). ^ a b Eisenfeld, Hanne (1 October 2016). "Life, Death, and a Lokrian Goddess. Revisiting the Nature of Persephone in the Gold Leaves of Magna Graecia". Kernos. Revue internationale et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique (29): 41–72. doi:10.4000/kernos.2388 – via journals.openedition.org. ^ a b Bennett, Michael; Bennett, Michael J.; Bennett, Professor of Palliative Medicine Michael; etc; Paul, Aaron J.; Iozzo, Mario; al, et; White, Bruce M.; Art, Cleveland Museum of; Art, Tampa Museum of (14 May 2019). "Magna Graecia: Greek Art from South Italy and Sicily". Hudson Hills – via Google Books. ^ Livy: 29.8, 29.18 ^ "Locri Epizephyrii, The Archaeological Site – Persephoneion, the Sanctuary of Persephone". www.locriantica.it. ^ a b c Bremmer, J. N. (2013). Divinities in the Orphic Gold Leaves: Euklês, Eubouleus, Brimo, Kybele, Kore and Persephone. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 35–48. ^ Edmonds, R.G. III. (2011). Orphic Mythology. A Companion to Greek Mythology, First Edition. Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ^ Sommerstein, p. 237 n. 1; Gantz, p. 118; Smyth, p. 459. ^ Gantz, p. 118. ^ Gantz, pp. 118–119; West 1983, pp. 152–154; Linforth, pp. 309–311. ^ Nilsson (1967) Vol I, pp. 463–465 ^ Pausanias 1.14,1: Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668–670 ^ Pausanias I 42,6 , Nilsson (1967), Vol I, p. 463 ^ a b Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 668–670 ^ Scholia ad. Euripides Phoen. 487 ^ Pausanias 9.25.5 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus (v.4.7) :"At Thebes or Delos the festival occurred two months earlier, so any seed-sowing connection was not intrinsic." ^ For Mantinea, see Brill's New Pauly "Persephone", II D. ^ L. H. Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c. 800–500 B.C (Ernest Benn Limited) p. 23 ISBN 0-510-03271-0 ^ "Pausanias 8.37.1,8.38.2". Theoi.com. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ "Reconstruction of interior of Sanctuary of Despoina". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ Fossum, "The Myth of the Eternal Rebirth," pp. 306–307. ^ Gilles Quispel, "Hermann Hesse and Gnosis," in Gnostica, Judaica, Catholica: Collected Essays (Brill, 2008), p. 258; Gary Forsythe, Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History (Routledge, 2012), p. 122. ^ Fossum, "The Myth of the Eternal Rebirth," p. 309. ^ Dittenberger: Sylloge Inscriptionum, 3rd ed., 1125 ^ Herodotus VI, 16: Nilsson (1967) ,Vol I, p. 464 ^ Brill's New Pauly, "Persephone", citing Diodorus 5.4 ^ a b c d e f "perseus tufts-persephone". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ "Virgil: Aeneid IV". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 6 July 2012. ^ "Persephone (Daughters of Zeus, #1)". ^ "Persephone's Orchard". ^ Santo, Suzanne Banay (2012). Persephone Under the Earth. Red Butterfly Publications. ISBN 978-0-9880914-0-5. Sources[edit] Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Bowra Maurice (1957), The Greek experience. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York. Burkert Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press . ISBN 0-674-36281-0 Farnell, Lewis Richard (1906), The Cults of the Greek States, Volume 3 (Chapters on: Demeter and Kore-Persephone; Cult-Monuments of Demeter-Kore; Ideal Types of Demeter-Kore). Gantz, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2), in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Janda, Michael (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos. Innsbruck Kerenyi Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal image of mother and daughter . Princeton University Press. Kerenyi, Karl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton: Bollingen, Google Books preview Nilsson Martin (1967), Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion, Vol I, C.F Beck Verlag, Muenchen. Revised ed. Nilsson Martin (1950), Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, and its Survival in Greek Religion, Lund:Gleerup. Revised 2nd ed. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Rohde Erwin (1961), Psyche. Seelenkult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellshaft. Darmstad. (First edition 1893): full text in German downloadable as pdf. Rohde Erwin (2000), Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks , trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000), online Schachermeyr Fritz (1964), Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta, W.Kohlhammer Verlag Stuttgart. Stephen King (2008), Duma Key Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Perse'phone" Anthony Welch (2013), The Renaissance Epic and the Oral Past. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300178867 Zuntz Günther (1973), Persephone: Three Essays on Religion and Thought in Magna Graecia External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persephone. Look up persephone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Martin Nilsson. The Greek popular religion Adams John Paul. 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en-wikipedia-org-4274	----	Georges Dumézil - Wikipedia Georges Dumézil From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search French philologist and historian Georges Dumézil Born (1898-03-04)4 March 1898 Paris, France Died 11 October 1986(1986-10-11) (aged 88) Paris, France Nationality French Occupation Philologist, linguist, religious studies scholar Spouse(s) Madeleine Legrand ​ (m. after 1925)​ Children 2 Academic background Alma mater École normale supérieure Thesis Le festin d'immortalité (1924) Doctoral advisor Antoine Meillet Other academic advisors Michel Bréal Influences Max Müller James George Frazer Ernst Kuhn Émile Durkheim Marcel Granet Hermann Güntert Jan de Vries Otto Höfler Émile Benveniste Stig Wikander Academic work Discipline Philology Sub-discipline Comparative mythology Indo-European studies Institutions Istanbul University École pratique des hautes études Collège de France Main interests Proto-Indo-European mythology and society Notable works Mythe et epopee (1968–1973) Notable ideas Trifunctional hypothesis Influenced Jan de Vries Otto Höfler Stig Wikander Émile Benveniste Mircea Eliade Claude Lévi-Strauss Gabriel Turville-Petre Werner Betz Edgar C. Polomé Jaan Puhvel C. Scott Littleton Dean A. Miller Nicholas Allen Georges Edmond Raoul Dumézil (4 March 1898 – 11 October 1986) was a French philologist, linguist, and religious studies scholar who specialized in comparative linguistics and mythology. He was a professor at Istanbul University, École pratique des hautes études and the Collège de France, and a member of the Académie Française. Dumézil is well known for his formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis on Proto-Indo-European mythology and society. His research has had a major influence on the fields of comparative mythology and Indo-European studies. Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Early career 3 Return to France 4 Formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis 5 Career during World War II 6 Expanding the trifunctional hypothesis 7 Retirement 8 Death and legacy 9 Personal life 10 Selected works 11 See also 12 References 13 Sources 14 Further reading 15 External links Early life and education[edit] Georges Dumézil was born in Paris, France on 4 March 1898, the son Jean Anatole Jean Dumézil and Marguerite Dutier. His father was a highly educated general in the French Army.[1] Dumézil received an elite education in Paris at the Collège de Neufchâteau, Lycée de Troyes, Lycée Louis-le-Grand and Lycée de Tarbes.[1] He came to master Ancient Greek and Latin at an early age. Through the influence of Michel Bréal, who was a student of Franz Bopp and the grandfather of one of Dumézil's friends, Dumézil came to master Sanskrit, and developed a strong interest in Indo-European mythology and religion.[2] He began studying at École normale supérieure (ENS) in 1916.[1] During World War I, Dumézil served as an artillery officer in the French Army, for which he received the Croix de Guerre. His father was inspector-general of the French artillery corps during the war.[2] Dumézil returned to his studies at ENS in 1919. His most important teacher there was Antoine Meillet, who gave him a rigorous introduction in Iranian and Indo-European linguistics.[2] Meillet was to have a great influence on Dumézil.[1] Unlike other students of Meillet, Dumézil was more interested in mythology than linguistics.[2] In the 19th century, philologists such as Franz Felix Adalbert Kuhn, Max Müller and Elard Hugo Meyer (who had influenced Bréal) had conducted notable work on comparative mythology, but their theories had since been found to be mostly untenable.[2][3] Dumézil became determined to restore the field of comparative mythology from its contemporary discredit.[2] Dumézil lectured at Lycee de Beauvais in 1920, and taught French at the University of Warsaw in 1920–1921.[2] While lecturing at Warsaw, Dumézil was struck by striking similarities between Sanskrit literature and the works of Ovid, which suggested to him that these pieces of literature contained traces of a common Indo-European heritage.[4] Dumézil gained his PhD in comparative religion in 1924 with the thesis Le festin d'immortalité. Inspired by the works of Ernst Kuhn, the thesis examined ritual drinks in Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic and Italic religion. Dumezíl's early writings were also inspired by the research of James George Frazer, whose views were however becoming discredited due to advances in the field of anthropology. At ENS, Dumézil became a close friend of Pierre Gaxotte. Gaxotte was a follower of Charles Maurras, leader of the nationalist Action Française movement.[2][5] Though some have accused Dumézil of being in sympathy with Action Française, this has been denied by Dumézil, who was never a member of the organization.[6] Dumézil's PhD thesis was highly praised by Meillet, who requested Marcel Mauss and Henri Hubert, both followers of Émile Durkheim, to assist Dumézil with further studies. For reasons unknown, the request was turned down. Mauss and Hubert were both socialists in the spirit of Jean Jaurès, who actively used their academic influence to advance their own political ideology. Hubert in particular was a fervent Dreyfusard known for his philosemitism, republicanism, anti-racism and Germanophobia. Dumézil had deliberately avoided attending Hubert's lectures, and had to be convinced by Meillet to provide Hubert with a copy of his PhD thesis, which Hubert subsequently bitterly criticized.[7] The refusal of Mauss and Hubert to provide Dumézil with a position may have been motivated by suspicions that Dumézil did not agree with them politically. The rejection by Hubert led to Dumézil losing support from Meillet as well. Meilett informed Dumézil that it would be impossible for him to acquire a position in France, and encouraged him to move abroad.[2] Early career[edit] Scythian comb from Solokha. Dumézil was greatly interested in Scythian and Ossetian mythology, and its relationship with wider Indo-European mythology. From 1925 to 1931, Dumézil was Professor of the History of Religions at Istanbul University.[1] During his years in Istanbul, Dumézil acquired proficiency in Armenian and Ossetian, and many non-Indo-European languages of the Caucasus. This enabled him to study the Nart saga, on which he published a number of influential monographs.[2] Dumézil developed a strong interest in the Ossetians and their mythology, which was to prove indispensable for his future research. For the rest of his life, Dumézil would make yearly visits to Istanbul to conduct field research among Ossetians in Turkey.[8] During this time he also published his Le problème des centaures (1929), which examined similarities in Greek and Indo-Iranian. It was inspired by Elard Hugo Meyer.[2] Together with Le festin d'immortalité (1924) and Le crime des Lemniennes (1924), Le problème des centaures would form part of the works Dumézil referred to as his "Ambrosia cycle".[8] Dumézil's work in Istanbul would be of enormous importance to his future research, and he would later consider his years in Istanbul as the happiest of his life.[1][2] In 1930, Dumézil published his important La préhistoire indo-iranienne des castes. Drawing upon evidence from Avestan, Persian, Greek, Ossetian and Arabic sources, Dumézil suggested that ancient Indo-Iranians, including the Scythians, maintained a caste system before which had been established before the Indo-Iranian migrations into South Asia. This article eventually caught the attention of French linguist Émile Benveniste, with whom Dumézil entered a fruitful correspondence.[8] From 1931 to 1933, Dumézil taught French at Uppsala University. Here he became acquainted with the influential professor Henrik Samuel Nyberg and the latter's favourite students, Stig Wikander and Geo Widengren. Through Wikander and Widengren, Dumézil further became acquainted with Otto Höfler. Wikander, Widengren and Höfler would remain lifelong friends and intellectual collaborators of Dumézil. Throughout their careers, these scholars would have a strong influence on each other's research.[2] Most notably, Höflers research on the Germanic comitatus, and Wikander's subsequent research on related warrior fraternities among early Indo-Iranians, would have enormous influence on Dumézil's later research.[3][9] Return to France[edit] Dumézil returned to France in 1933, where he through the assistance of Sylvain Lévi, a friend of Meillet, was able to gain a position at the École pratique des hautes études (EPHE). From 1935 to 1968, Dumézil was Director of Studies at the Department of Comparative Religion at EPHE.[2] In this capacity he was responsible for teaching and research on Indo-European religions. Students of Dumézil during this time include Roger Caillois. At EPHE, through the recommendation of Lévi, Dumézil also attended lectures by sinologist Marcel Granet, whose methodology for the study of religions was to have a strong influence on Dumézil. Seeking to acquire knowledge of non-Indo-European cultures, Dumézil became proficient in Chinese and gained a deep understaning of Chinese mythology.[10] Depiction of ancient rituals on a Nordic Bronze Age stone slab from The King's Grave in southern Sweden. In his trifunctional hypothesis, Dumézil suggested that Proto-Indo-European society was characterized by an ideology in which the Proto-Indo-Europeans and their deities were hierarchically divided into classes of priests, warriors and producers. In his research on the social structure of ancient Indo-Iranians, Dumézil was greatly aided by Benveniste, who had earlier been critical of Dumézil's theories.[2] During his early years at EPHE, Dumézil modified many his theories. Most importantly, he increasingly shifted his focus from linguistic evidence to evidence from ancient social structures. Iranologists who influenced Dumézil in this approach include Arthur Christensen, James Darmesteter, Hermann Güntert and Herman Lommel.[2] Notable works of Dumézil from this period include Ouranos-Varuna (1934) and Flamen-Brahman (1935). Ouranos-Varuna examined similarities in Greek and Vedic mythology, while Flamen-Brahman examined the existence of a distinct priestly class among the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[11] In the early 1930s, under the pseudonym "Georges Marcenay", he wrote some articles for the right-wing newspapers Candide and Le Jour, where he advocated an alliance between France and Italy against Nazi Germany.[12][13] Dumézil's opposition to Nazism figures prominently in several of his later works on Germanic religion.[14] At this time Dumézil joined the Grande Loge de France, a pro-Jewish masonic lodge, for which he would later be persecuted by the Nazis.[15][16] Formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis[edit] In the late 1930s, Dumézil broadened his research to include the study of Germanic religion.[2] His research on Germanic religion was greatly influenced by the renowned Dutch philologist Jan de Vries, and also by Höfler.[9] It was while lecturing on the Indo-European component in Germanic religion at Uppsala University in the spring of 1938 that Dumézil made a major discovery which was to revolutionize his future research.[17] In his subsequent Mythes et dieux des Germains (1939), Dumézil found that early Germanic society was characterized by the same social divisions as those among the early Indo-Iranians. On this basis, Dumézil formulated his trifunctional hypothesis, which argued that ancient Indo-European societies were characterized by a trifunctional hierarchy respectively composed of priests, warriors and commoners.[2] In Dumézil's trifunctional model, the priests were responsible for the "maintenance of cosmic and juridical sovereignty", while warriors were tasked with the "exercise of physical prowess", and the commoners were responsible for "the promotion of physical well-being, fertility, wealth, and so on".[3] In Norse mythology, these functions were according to Dumézil represented by Týr and Odin, Thor, and Njörðr and Freyr, while in Vedic mythology, they were represented by Varuna and Mitra, Indra, and the Aśvins.[3] Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis would come to revolutionize modern research on ancient civilizations.[4] Career during World War II[edit] Marble statue of the Roman sky god Jupiter. During World War II, Dumézil conducted pioneering studies on Roman mythology. In the prelude to World War II, Dumézil returned to military service as a captain of the reserves in the French Army. He was subsequently posted at Liége as a liaison officer with the Belgian Army. Through the assistance of Maxime Weygand, a friend of his father, Dumézil was in April 1940 posted to the French military mission in Ankara, Turkey, where he remained during the Battle of France. He was repatriated to France in September 1940, and subsequently returned to full-time teaching at EPHE.[18] Because he had been a Freemason as a young man, Dumézil was fired from EPHE by the pro-Nazi Vichy government in early 1941. Through the influence of colleagues, he was however able to regain his position in the fall of 1943.[18] During the war, Dumézil significantly reformulated his theories, and applied his trifunctional hypothesis to the study of Indo-Iranians, most notably in his work Mitra-Varuna (1940). In this work, Dumézil suggested that the Indo-Iranian gods Mitra and Varuna represented juridical and religious sovereignty respectively, and that these functions were relics of an earlier Indo-European tradition also manifested in Roman and Norse mythology.[19] In works such as Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus (1941), Horace et les Curiaces (1942), Servius et la Fortune (1943) and Naissance de Rome (1944), Dumézil applied his trifunctional hypothesis to the study of the Indo-European heritage of ancient Rome.[2] Expanding the trifunctional hypothesis[edit] From the late 1940s onwards, the comparative study of Vedic, Roman and Norse mythology and society would constitute the main focus of Dumézil's research. Iranian and Greek mythology played less conspicuous roles in his research. Naissance des archanges (1945) is his sole book on Iranian and Zoroastrian material. In this work, Dumézil suggests that the pantheon of the Mitanni was derived from an earlier pantheon shared by all Indo-Iranians, and that the main deities in the Indo-Iranian pantheon represented the three functions of Indo-European society. According to Dumézil, it was only during the rise of Zoroaster that Ahura Mazda became the chief deity in Iranian mythology.[2] Collège de France, where Dumézil from 1949 to 1968 served as Chair of Indo-European Civilization In the years immediately after World War II, Dumézil recruited Claude Lévi-Strauss and Mircea Eliade to EPHE, and both became close friends whom he strongly influenced. These three men are widely considered the most influential mythographers of all time.[20] Notable works published by Dumézil in the late 1940s include Tarpeia (1947), Loki (1948), L'héritage indo-europeen a Rome (1949) and Le troisième souverain (1949). The latter work examined the role of Aryaman and his Indo-European counterparts, such the Norse god Heimdallr, in wider Indo-European mythology.[18] Through several influential works of his friend Wikander, Dumézil came to doubt the universalist theories of Durkheim and Lévi-Strauss, and thus contended that the trinfuctional structure of Indo-European society was a distinct characteristic of the Indo-Europeans. Dumézil had studied the languages and mythology of several indigenous peoples of the Americas, and contended that trifunctionalism was not prevalent among those peoples.[21] Dumézil was elected to the Collège de France in 1949, where he until 1968 was Chair of Indo-European Civilization.[1] This position was specifically created for him.[3] In the 1950s and 1960s, Dumézil's theories gained increasing acceptance among scholars. The spread of Dumézil's theories was greatly aided by support he received from friends such as Émile Benveniste, Stig Wikander, Otto Höfler and Jan de Vries.[22] Notable Iranologists who adopted Dumézil's theories include Benveniste, Wikander, Geo Widengren, Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin and Marijan Mole. Dumézil was however also criticized by certain Indologists, Iranologists and Romanists. Indologist Paul Thieme notably argued that the gods of the Mitanni were distinctly Indo-Aryan rather than Indo-Iranian, and that Dumézil's reconstruction of Indo-Iranian religion was thus mistaken. Dumézil responded vigorously to such criticism, while also continuously refining his theories. Most notably, Dumézil modified his theories on the trifunctional Indo-European social structure, which he now regarded more as an ideology than an established system.[2] In 1955, Dumézil spent several months as a visiting professor at the University of Lima, during which he dedicated much time the study of the language and mythology of the Quechua people.[23] During the 1950s, Dumézil conducted much research on what he hypothesised to be a war between the various functions in Indo-European mythology, which he suggested culminated in the incorporation of the third function into the first and second function. Dumézil's ideas on this topic were published in Aspects de la fonction guerriere chez les Indo-Europennes (1956). Other notable works published by Dumézil in the 1950s include Hadingus (1953), and several works on Roman, Celtic and Germanic religion.[24] His L'idéologie tripartie des indo-européens, published in 1958, has been described as the best introductory work on Dumézil's core ideas.[3] Retirement[edit] Académie Française, to which Dumézil was elected in 1975. Dumézil retired from teaching in 1968, but nevertheless continued a vigorous program of research and writing which continued until his death.[2] He would eventually become proficient in more than 40 languages, including all branches of the Indo-European languages, most languages of the Caucasus, and indigenous languages of the Americas (most notably Quechuan). Dumézil is credited with having saved the Ubykh language from extinction.[25] His magnum opus, Mythe et epopee, provides a thorough overview of the trifunctional ideology of Indo-European mythology, and was published in three volumes in (1968–1973).[26] In 1974, Dumézil would earn the Prix Paul Valery for this work.[2] Dumézil research has been credited with being largely responsible for the revival of Indo-European studies and comparative mythology in the latter parth of the 20th century.[1] He was generally regarded as the world's foremost expert on the comparative study of Indo-European mythology.[27][28] From the late 1960s towards the end of his life, Dumézil's research came to be widely celebrated in the United States, where many of his works on Indo-European mythology were translated into English and published. Additional works inspired by Dumézil's theories were also published in the United States by scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, C. Scott Littleton, Donald J. Ward, Udo Strutynski and Dean A. Miller. Many of these scholars were associated with the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).[3] Carlo Ginzburg charged Dumézil with having "sympathy for Nazi culture" for his works on Germanic and Indo-European religion, and accused Dumézil of conspiring to undermine "Judeo-Christian" values.[29][30] Dumézil was made an Honorary Professor of the College de France in 1969, and became a Member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1970. Dumézil was a visiting professor at UCLA in 1971. He was elected to the highly prestigious Académie Française in 1975. His election to Académie Française was sponsored by Lévi-Strauss, who gave him the welcoming address.[31] Dumézil was also an Associate Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium, Corresponding Member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, Honorary Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, and the recipient of honorary doctorates from the universities of Uppsala, Istanbul, Berne and Liége. He was an Officer of the Legion of Honor.[1] In the 1970s and 1980s, Dumézil vigorously continued with research and publishing, and devoted himself particularly to the study of the Indo-European components in Ossetian and Scythian mythology. The much awaited third edition of his Mitra-Varuna was published in 1977.[31] He received the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca in 1984. In his later years, Dumézil became a visible figure in French society, and was frequently interviewed and cited in the public press. His theories on Indo-European society were celebrated by Nouvelle Droite figures such as Alain de Benoist, Michel Poniatowski and Jean Haudry, but Dumézil was careful to distance himself from them. Dumézil openly identified with the political right, but always presented his works as apolitical, and had many friends and admirers on the left, such as Michel Foucault.[25] In the 1980s, while suffering from poor health and recovering from the death of his wife, Dumézil came under heavy criticism from certain scholars, particularly Marxist historians, who accused Dumézil of being a crypto-Fascist.[32][33] Many of these critics pointed out that Dumézil's lifelong close friend Pierre Gaxotte had been the secretary of Action Française leader Charles Maurras.[31] Some critics, particularly adherents of Lévi-Strauss, contended that the mythological and social structures Dumézil identified with Indo-Europeans were not distinctly Indo-European, but rather characteristic of all humanity. Among those were Colin Renfrew, who doubts that Indo-Europeans had anything distinctly in common beyond speaking Indo-European languages.[31] The harshest critics of Dumézil were Arnaldo Momigliano and Carlo Ginzburg, who charged Dumézil with having "sympathy for Nazi culture" due to his writings on Germanic religion in the 1930s.[34][35][36] They also charged that Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis was similar to Fascism, and that reconstruction of Indo-European society was motivated by a desire to abolish "Judeo-Christian" values.[5][30] Momigliano was himself a former member of the National Fascist Party, but was not open about this. Dumézil responded vigorously to this criticism, pointing out that he had never been a member of a Fascist organization, never been sympathetic to Fascist ideology, and that the ancient Indo-European social structure did not appeal to him.[5][37] He was also defended by many colleagues, including C. Scott Littleton, Jaan Puhvel, Edgar C. Polomé, Dean A. Miller, Udo Strutynski and most notably Didier Eribon.[2][5] Polomé and Miller saw the criticism of Dumézil as an expression of political correctness and Marxist ideology, and questioned the scholarly credentials of the critics.[16][38] Death and legacy[edit] Animated map of Indo-European migrations in accordance with the Kurgan hypothesis. Along with that of Marija Gimbutas, Dumézil research formed a basis for modern Indo-European studies. Dumézil died in Paris from a massive stroke on 11 October 1986. He had deliberately refrained from writing a memoir, believing that the legacy of his work should stand on its scholarly merits alone.[31] However, shortly before his death, Dumézil made a series of in-depth interviews with his defender Eribon, which were subsequently published in Entretiens avec Georges Dumézil (1987). This book remains the closest Dumézil ever came to writing a memoir.[3] Upon his death, Dumézil left a number of unfishined works on Indo-European mythology, some of which were subsequently edited by his friends and published.[31] Accusations of Fascist sympathies continued after Dumézil's death. Eribon's Faut-il brûler Dumézil? (1992) has been credited with permanently debunking accusations that Dumézil was a crypto-Fascist.[3] Charges of Fascist sympathies have nevertheless continued to be leveled, most notably by Eliade's former student Bruce Lincoln. Inspired by the critique of Momigliano and Ginzburg, Lincoln has criticized Dumézil from a Marxist perspective, and suggested that Dumézil was a Germanophobic Fascist.[32][39] Similar accusations have also been leveled by the Swedish Marxist historian Stefan Arvidsson, who hopes that the "exposure" of Dumézil's alleged political Fascist sympathies may lead to the abolishment ("Ragnarök") of the concept of Indo-European mythology .[40] Throughout his career, Dumézil published more than seventy-five books and hundreds of scholarly articles.[3] His research continues to have a strong influence among Indo-Europeanists, classicists, Celticists, Germanicists, and Indologists.[2] Prominent scholars heavily influenced by Dumézil include Emile Benveniste, Stig Wikander, Jan de Vries, Gabriel Turville-Petre, Werner Betz, Edgar C. Polomé, Jaan Puvhvel, Joël Grisward, Nicholas Allen, Georges Charachidzé, François-Xavier Dillmann, Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, Daniel Dubuisson [fr], Lucien Gerschel, Emily Lyle, Dean A. Miller, Alwyn Rees, Brinley Rees, Robert Schilling, Bernard Sergent, Udo Strutynski, Donald J. Ward and Atsuhiko Yoshida.[31] Along with Marija Gimbutas, the research of Dumézil continues to form the basis for modern Indo-European studies.[41] His formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis has been described by C. Scott Littleton as one of the most important scholarly achievements of the 20th century.[31] Since 1995, the Académie Française awards the annual Prix Georges Dumézil [fr] for a work of philology.[42] Personal life[edit] Dumézil married Madeleine Legrand in 1925, with whom he had a son and a daughter.[1] Selected works[edit] Le crime des Lemniennes: rites et legendes du monde egeen, Geuthner (Paris), 1924. Le festin d'immortalite: Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europenne, Volume 34, Annales du MuseeGuimet, Bibliothèque d'etudes, Geuthner (Paris), 1924. Le probleme des Centaures: Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europenne, Volume 41, Annales du MuseeGuimet, Bibliothèque d'etudes, Geuthner (Paris), 1929. Legendes sur les Nartes, Champion (Paris), 1930. La langue des Oubykhs, Champion (Paris), 1931. Etudes comparatives sur les langues caucasiennes du nord-ouest, Adrien-Maisonneuve (Paris), 1932. Introduction a la grammaire comparee des langues caucasiennes du nord, Champion (Paris), 1933. Recherches comparatives sur le verbe caucasien, 1933. Ouranos-Varuna: Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europenne, Adrien-Maisonneuve (Paris), 1934. Flamen-Brahman, Volume 51, Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque de vulgarisation, Geuthner (Paris), 1935. Contes lazes, Institut d'ethnologie (Paris), 1937. Mythes et dieux des Germains: Esai d'interpretation comparative, Leroux (Paris), 1939. Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus: Essai sur la conception indo-europennes de la societe et sur les origines de Rome, Gallimard (Paris), 1941. Horace et les Curiaces, Gallimard (Paris), 1942. Servius et la fortune, Gallimard (Paris), 1943. Naissance de Rome: Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus II, Gallimard (Paris), 1944. Naissance d'archanges, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus III: Essai sur la formation de la theologie zoroastrienne, Gallimard (Paris), 1945. Tarpeia, Gallimard (Paris), 1947. Loki, G. P. Maisonneuve (Paris), 1948. Mitra-Varuna: Essai sur deux representations indo-europennes de la souverainete, Gallimard (Paris), 1948, translation by Derek Coltman published as Mitra-Varuna: An Essay on Two Indo-European Representations of Sovereignty, Zone Books (New York, NY), 1988. L'heritage indo-europenne a Rome, Gallimard (Paris), 1949. Le troiseme souverain: Essai sur le dieu indo-iranien Aryaman et sur la formation de l'histoire mythique d'Irlande, G. P. Maisonneuve, 1949. Les dieux des Indo-Europennes, Presses Universitaires de France (Paris), 1952. Rituels indo-europennes a Rome, Klincksieck (Paris), 1954. Aspects de la fonction guerriere chez les Indo-Europennes, Presses Universitaires de France (Paris), 1956. Deesses latines et mythes vediques, Collection Latomus (Brussels), 1956. (Editor and translator) Contes et legendes des Oubykhs, Institut d'ethnologie (Paris), 1957. L'ideologie tripartie des Indo-Europennes, Collection Latomus, 1958. Etudes oubykhs, A. Maisonneuve, 1959. Notes sur le parler d'un Armenien musulman de Hemsin, Palais des Academies (Brussels), 1964. (Editor and translator) Le livre des heros, Gallimard (Paris), 1965. Les dieux des Germains: Essai sur la formation de la religion scandinave, Presses Universitaires de France (Paris), 1959, translation published in Mythe et epopee, three volumes, Gallimard (Paris), 1968–73. Documents anatoliens sur les langues et les traditions du Caucase, A. Maisonneuve, 1960. La religion romaine archaique, Payot (Paris), 1966, translation by Philip Krapp published as Archaic Roman Religion, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1970. The Destiny of the Warrior, translation by Alf Hiltebeitel, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1970. Du myth au roman: La saga de Hadingus, Press universitaires de France (Paris), 1970, translation by Derek Coltman published as From Myth to Fiction: The Saga of Hadingus, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1973. Heur et malheur de guerrier, second edition, Presses Universitaires de France (Paris), 1970. Gods of the Ancient Northmen, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1973. The Destiny of a King, translation by Alf Hiltebeitel, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1974. Fetes romaines d'ete et d'automne suivi de Dix questions romaines, Gallimard (Paris), 1975. Les dieux souverains des indo-europennes, Gallimard (Paris), 1977. Romans de Scythie et d'alentour, Payot (Paris), 1978. Discours, Institut de France (Paris), 1979. Mariages indo-europennes, suivi de Quinze questions romaines, Payot (Paris), 1979. Camillus: A Study of Indo-European Religion as Roman History, translation by Annette Aronowicz and Josette Bryson, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1980. Pour un Temps, Pandora Editions (Paris), 1981. La courtisane et les seigneurs colores, et autres essais, Gallimard (Paris), 1983. The Stakes of the Warrior, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1983. L'Oubli de l'homme et l'honneur des dieux, Gallimard (Paris), 1986. The Plight of a Sorceror, University of California Press (Berkeley, CA), 1986. Apollon sonore et autres essais: vingt-cinq esquisses de mythologie, Gallimard (Paris), 1987. Entretiens avec Didier Eribon, Gallimard (Paris), 1987. Le Roman des jumeaux et autres essais: vingt-cinq esquisses de mythologie, Gallimard (Paris), 1994. Archaic Roman Religion: With an Appendix on the Religion of the Etruscans, Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, MD), 1996. The Riddle of Nostradamus: A Critical Dialogue, translated by Betsy Wing, Johns Hopkins University Press (Baltimore, MD), 1999. See also[edit] Hector Munro Chadwick John Colarusso Dennis Howard Green Winfred P. Lehmann J. P. Mallory Franz Rolf Schröder Calvert Watkins Martin Litchfield West References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g h i j Scott 2003. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Lincoln 2010. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Littleton 2005, pp. 2518–2520. ^ a b The Times. 16 October 1986, p. 22. ^ a b c d Littleton 1999, p. 566. ^ Dumézil & Eribon 1987. ^ Lincoln 1999, pp. 126–127. ^ a b c Littleton 1999, p. 559. ^ a b Lincoln 1999, pp. 125–126. "No Germanist was more influential on Dumezil than Höfler, nor more closely associated with him throughout his career, except the Dutch historian of religions Jan de Vries... Also noteworthy is the Swedish Indo Europeanist Stig Wikander (1908–83), who remained a close friend and made fundamental contributions to Dumezil's thought over a period of five decades." ^ Littleton 1999, p. 560. ^ Littleton 1999, pp. 559–560. ^ Lincoln 1999, p. 128. ^ Eribon 1992, p. 124. ^ Lincoln 1999, pp. 131–134. ^ Eribon 1992, p. 249. ^ a b Polomé 1999, pp. 248–251. ^ Littleton 1999, pp. 560–561. ^ a b c Littleton 1999, p. 562. ^ Littleton 1999, p. 561. ^ Lincoln 1999, pp. 141–142. ^ Littleton 1999, pp. 563–564. ^ Lincoln 1999, pp. XIII-XIV. ^ Littleton 1999, p. 564. ^ Littleton 1999, p. 563. ^ a b Lincoln 1999, p. 123. ^ Littleton 1999, pp. 564–565. ^ The Times. 16 October 1986, p. 22. "His authority in the field was supreme... it was generally recognized that the sphere of comparative Indo-European mythology virtually belonged to him." ^ Lincoln 1999, p. 123. "Dumézil's [work] won him virtually universal admiration. [He was a] scholar of extraordinary abilities and erudition... Among his other gifts, he was master of countless languages: virtually all the Indo-European family, including some of its more obscure members (Armenian, Ossetic), as well as most of the Caucasian languages, one of which (Oubykh) he saved from extinction, and a few outliers like Quechua, which he seems to have acquired simply for fun. His oeuvre spanned six decades and includes more than fifty books, all of which are marked by extraordinary lucidity, ingenuity, rigor, and intelligence. His accomplishments have won wide acclaim among philologians, historians of religions, and anthropologists." ^ Lincoln 1999, p. 125. ^ a b Arvidsson 2006, p. 2. ^ a b c d e f g h Littleton 1999, p. 565. ^ a b Carlson 2008, p. 5. "Another issue is Bruce Lincoln’s overtly Marxist point of view. Marxism has traditionally criticized the neo-traditionalist and reactionary aspects of the Indo-European discourse and has been criticized by it in turn." ^ Arvidsson 1999, p. 349. ^ Momigliano 1984, pp. 312–330; Momigliano 1994, pp. 286–301 ^ Ginzburg 1989, pp. 114–131. ^ Lincoln 1999, p. 124; Scott 2003 ^ Dumézil 1985, pp. 985–989; Dumézil & Eribon 1987, p. 162. "Je n'aurais pas du tout aimé vivre chez aucun de ceux que j'ai étudiés. Je n'aurais pu respirer dans une société dominée par des druides, ou par des brahmanes."; Dumézil 2006 ^ Miller 2000, pp. 27–40. ^ Lincoln 1991, pp. 231–243; Lincoln 1999, pp. 121–137; Lincoln 2010; Arvidsson 2006, p. 2 ^ Arvidsson 2006, pp. 2–3; Arvidsson 1999, pp. 353–354; Carlson 2008, p. 8 ^ Arvidsson 2006, p. 315. ^ academie-francaise.fr. Sources[edit] Académie Française. "Prix Georges Dumézil". academie-francaise.fr (in French). Retrieved 6 October 2020. Arvidsson, Stefan (June 1999). "Aryan Mythology As Science and Ideology". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. Oxford University Press. 67 (2): 327–354. doi:10.1093/jaarel/67.2.327. JSTOR 1465740. Retrieved 8 September 2020. Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226028607. Carlson, Maria (2008). "A Detailed Look at Stefan Arvidsson's Aryan Idols". Slavic Cultural Studies. University of Kansas. Retrieved 13 September 2020. Dumézil, Georges (1985). "Science et politique. Réponse à Carlo Ginzburg". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales (in French). School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences. 40 (5): 985–989. doi:10.3406/ahess.1985.283216. JSTOR 27583135. Retrieved 17 September 2020. Dumézil, Georges; Eribon, Didier (1987). Entretiens avec Didier Eribon (in French). Gallimard. ISBN 2070323986. Dumézil, Georges (2006). "Une idylle de vingt ans (A. Momigliano, OPVS, II, 2 pp. 329–341)". L'oubli de l'homme et l'honneur des dieux et autres essais (in French). Gallimard. ISBN 2070703169. Eribon, Didier (1992). Faut-il brûler Dumézil? (in French). Flammarion. ISBN 2080667092. Ginzburg, Carlo (1989). "Germanic Mythology and Nazism: Thoughts on an Old Book by Georges Dumézil". Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 114–131. ISBN 1-4214-0991-7. Lincoln, Bruce (1991). "Shaping the Past and the Future". Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology & Practice. University of Chicago Press. pp. 231–243. ISBN 0-226-48199-9. Lincoln, Bruce (1999). Theorizing Myth: Narrative, Ideology, and Scholarship. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226482022. Lincoln, Bruce (15 March 2010). "DUMÉZIL, Georges". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 16 September 2020. Littleton, C. Scott (2005). "DUMÈZIL, GEORGES". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. 4 (2 ed.). Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 2518–2520. ISBN 0-02-865737-3. Littleton, C. Scott (1999). "Gods, Myths And Structures: Dumézil". In Glendinning, Simon (ed.). The Edinburgh Encyclopedia of Continental Philosophy. Psychology Press. pp. 558–568. ISBN 1579581528. Miller, Dean A. (2000). "Georges Dumézil: Theories, Critiques and Theoretical Extensions". Journal. Routledge. 30: 27–40. doi:10.1006/reli.1999.0239. S2CID 171034204. Retrieved 17 September 2020. Momigliano, Arnoldo (October 1984). "Georges Dumézil and the Trifunctional Approach to Roman Civilization". History and Theory. Wiley-Blackwell. 23 (3): 312–330. doi:10.2307/2505078. JSTOR 2505078. Retrieved 17 September 2020. Momigliano, Arnoldo (1994). "Introduction to a Discussion to Georges Dumézil". Studies on Modern Scholarship. University of California Press. pp. 286–301. ISBN 0-520-07001-1. Polomé, Edgar C. (1999). "About Dumézil". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 27 (1): 248–251. ProQuest 206808390. Scott, Paula Pyzik (5 November 2003). "Georges (Edmond Raoul) Dumezil". Contemporary Authors. Gale. Retrieved 16 September 2020. "M George Dumézil". The Times. 16 October 1986. p. 22 – via Gale. Further reading[edit] Allen, Nicholas (1987). "The ideology of the Indo-Europeans: Dumézil's theory and the idea of a fourth function". International Journal of Moral and Social Studies. 2 (1): 23–39. Allen, Nicholas (1999). "Hinduism, structuralism and Dumézil" (PDF). In Polomé, Edgar C. (ed.). Miscellanea Indo-Europea. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series. 33. Institute for the Study of Man. pp. 241–260. ISBN 0941694712. ISSN 0895-7258. Belier, Wouter W. (1991). Decayed Gods: Origin and Development of Georges Dumézil's Idéologie Tripartie. BRILL. ISBN 9004301518. Burgess, Patricia, ed. (1986). "Georges Dumézil". Annual Obituary. 86. St. James Press. pp. 575–576. ISBN 1558620133. Coutau-Bégarie, Hervé (1998). L'œuvre de Georges Dumézil: Catalogue Raisonné. Economica. ISBN 2717835482. Dubuiosson, Daniel (2006). Twentieth Century Mythologies: Dumézil, Lévi-Strauss, Eliade (2 ed.). Equinox Publishing. ISBN 1845530217. Fussman, Gerard (1987). "Hommage à Georges Dumézil". Collège de France. Retrieved 16 September 2020. Haugen, Einar (1956). The Mythical Structure of the Ancient Scandinavians: Some Thoughts on Reading Dumézil. Littleton, C. Scott (1982). The New Comparative Mythology: An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumézil (3 ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0520041038. Segal, Robert Allan, ed. (2006). Structuralism in Myth: Lévi-Strauss, Barthes, Dumézil, and Propp. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0815322607. Polomé, Edgar C., ed. (1996). Indo-European Religion After Dumézil. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series. 16. Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 0941694518. ISSN 0895-7258. Strutynski, Udo (1975). George Dumézil and the Study of the Indo-European Component in Germanic Mythology. University of California, Los Angeles. ISBN 9780942299120. OCLC 320183328. External links[edit] Overview of Dumézil's career (in French) Academie Française biography of Dumézil (in French) v t e Académie française seat 40 Daniel de Priézac (1639) Michel Le Clerc (1662) Jacques de Tourreil (1692) Jean-Roland Malet (1714) Jean-François Boyer (1736) Nicolas Thyrel de Boismont (1755) Claude-Carloman de Rulhière (1787) Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1803) Antoine Destutt de Tracy (1808) François Guizot (1836) Jean-Baptiste Dumas (1875) Joseph Bertrand (1884) Marcellin Berthelot (1900) Francis Charmes (1908) Jules Cambon (1918) Marie-Jean-Lucien Lacaze (1936) Jacques Chastenet (1956) Georges Dumézil (1978) Pierre-Jean Rémy (1988) Xavier Darcos (2013) Authority control BIBSYS: 90204419 BNC: 000042498 BNE: XX911760 BNF: cb119010948 (data) CANTIC: a10846645 CiNii: DA01499191 GND: 118672681 ISNI: 0000 0001 2096 338X LCCN: n50030551 LNB: 000138356 NDL: 00438373 NKC: jn19990001909 NLA: 35048856 NLG: 79564 NLI: 000041338 NLK: KAC200602674 NLP: A11868028 NSK: 000259967 NTA: 068388160 PLWABN: 9810594985405606 RERO: 02-A003197487 SELIBR: 184157 SUDOC: 026843056 Trove: 811708 VcBA: 495/74410 VIAF: 68928415 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50030551 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georges_Dumézil&oldid=999164646" Categories: 1898 births 1986 deaths 20th-century French non-fiction writers 20th-century linguists Celtic studies scholars Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques Collège de France faculty Corresponding Members of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Comparative mythologists École Normale Supérieure alumni École pratique des hautes études faculty Fellows of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Freemasons of the Grand Lodge of France French Army officers French historians of religion French philologists French military personnel of World War I French people of World War II Germanic studies scholars Indo-Europeanists Iranologists Istanbul University faculty Linguists from France Linguists of 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en-wikipedia-org-4355	----	Système universitaire de documentation - Wikipedia Système universitaire de documentation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from SUDOC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Sudoc" redirects here. For the US government document classification system, see United States Government Printing Office. Screenshot from the Système Universitaire de Documentation (Sudoc) The système universitaire de documentation or SUDOC is a system used by the libraries of French universities and higher education establishments to identify, track and manage the documents in their possession. The catalog, which contains nearly 13 million references, allows students and researchers to search for bibliographical and location information in more than 3,400 documentation centers. It is maintained by the Bibliographic Agency for Higher Education [fr] (ABES). External links[edit] Official website v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities This article relating to library science or information science is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Système_universitaire_de_documentation&oldid=922032708" Categories: Libraries in France Library cataloging and classification Library and information science stubs Hidden categories: AC with 0 elements All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Български Català Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia עברית Malagasy مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 October 2019, at 13:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4391	----	Danaïdes - Wikipedia Danaïdes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the butterfly genus, see Danaus (genus). mythical characters This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Danaides (1903), a Pre-Raphaelite interpretation by John William Waterhouse In Greek mythology, the Danaïdes (/dəˈneɪ.ɪdiːz/; Greek: Δαναΐδες), also Danaides or Danaids, were the fifty daughters of Danaus. In the Metamorphoses,[1] Ovid refers to them as the Belides after their grandfather Belus. They were to marry the 50 sons of Danaus' twin brother Aegyptus, a mythical king of Egypt. In the most common version of the myth, all but one of them killed their husbands on their wedding night, and are condemned to spend eternity carrying water in a sieve or perforated device. In the classical tradition, they came to represent the futility of a repetitive task that can never be completed (see also Sisyphus). Contents 1 Mythology 2 The Danaïds and their husbands 2.1 Apollodorus 2.2 Hyginus 2.3 Ellis 3 Other Danaïdes 4 Modern literature 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Mythology[edit] The Danaïdes kill their husbands, miniature by Robinet Testard. Danaus did not want his daughters to go ahead with the marriages and he fled with them in the first boat to Argos, which is located in Greece near the ancient city of Mycenae. Danaus agreed to the marriage of his daughters only after Aegyptus came to Argos with his fifty sons in order to protect the local population, the Argives, from any battles. The daughters were ordered by their father to kill their husbands on the first night of their weddings and this they all did with the exception of one, Hypermnestra, who spared her husband Lynceus because he respected her desire to remain a virgin. Danaus was angered that his daughter refused to do as he ordered and took her to the Argives courts. Lynceus killed Danaus as revenge for the death of his brothers and he and Hypermnestra started the Danaid Dynasty of rulers in Argos. The other 49 daughters remarried by choosing their mates in footraces. Some accounts tell that their punishment in Tartarus was being forced to carry a jug to fill a bathtub (pithos) without a bottom (or with a leak) to wash their sins off. Because the water was always leaking, they would forever try to fill the tub. Probably this myth is connected with a ceremony having to do with the worship of waters, and the Danaïdes were water-nymphs. The Danaïds and their husbands[edit] Apollodorus[edit] The list in the Bibliotheca[2] preserves not only the names of brides and grooms but also those of their mothers. A lot was cast among the sons of Aegyptus to decide which of the Danaids each should marry except for those daughters born to Memphis who were joined by their namesakes, the sons of Tyria. According to Hippostratus, Danaus had all these progeny begotten by a single woman, Europa, the daughter of Nilus.[3] Apollodorus' List of Danaids No. Danaids Mother Aegyptus' Sons Mother No. Danaids Mother Aegyptus' Sons Mother 1 Hypermnestra Elephantis Lynceus Argyphia 26 Chrysippe Memphis Chrysippus Tyria 2 Gorgophone Proteus 27 Autonoe Polyxo, a naiad Eurylochus Caliadne, a naiad 3 Automate Europe Busiris 28 Theano Phantes 4 Amymone Enceladus 29 Electra Peristhenes 5 Agave Lycus 30 Cleopatra (different one) Hermus 6 Scaea Daiphron 31 Eurydice Dryas 7 Hippodamia Atlanteia or of Phoebe, the Hamadryads Istrus Arabian woman 32 Glaucippe Potamon 8 Rhodia Chalcodon 33 Antheleia Cisseus 9 Cleopatra Agenor 34 Cleodore Lixus 10 Asteria Chaetus 35 Evippe (different one) Imbrus 11 Hippodamia (different one) Diocorystes 36 Erato Bromius 12 Glauce Alces 37 Stygne Polyctor 13 Hippomedusa Alcmenor 38 Bryce Chthonius 14 Gorge Hippothous 39 Actaea Pieria Periphas Gorgo 15 Iphimedusa Euchenor 40 Podarce Oeneus 16 Rhode Hippolytus 41 Dioxippe Aegyptus 17 Pirene Ethiopian woman Agaptolemus Phoenician woman 42 Adite Menalces 18 Dorion Cercetes 43 Ocypete Lampus 19 Phartis Eurydamas 44 Pylarge Idmon 20 Mnestra Aegius 45 Hippodice Herse Idas Hephaestine 21 Evippe Argius 46 Adiante Daiphron (different one) 22 Anaxibia Archelaus 47 Callidice Crino Pandion 23 Nelo Menemachus 48 Oeme Arbelus 24 Clite Memphis Clitus Tyria 49 Celaeno Hyperbius 25 Sthenele Sthenelus 50 Hyperippe Hippocorystes Hyginus[edit] Hyginus' list[4] is partially corrupt and some of the names are nearly illegible. Nevertheless, it is evident that this catalogue has almost nothing in common with that of Pseudo-Apollodorus. Names with (†) symbol means corrupted entries but annotations from various editors were provided to rationalize their possible names. Hyginus' List of Danaids No. Danaïdes Aegyptus' Sons No. Danaïdes Aegyptus' Sons 1 Idea † (possibly Midea[5]) Antimachus 26 Autodice Clytus 2 Philomela Panthius (possibly Panthous[5] or Pandion[6]) 27 Polyxena Aegyptus 3 Scylla Proteus 28 Hecabe Dryas 4 Phicomone † (possibly Iphigomene[7]) Plexippus 29 Acamantis or Achamantis † Echomius † 5 Evippe ? 30 Arsalte † Ephialtes 6 ? ? 31 Monuste † Eurysthenes † 7 ? Agenor 32 Amymone Midamus † 8 Demoditas (possibly Demodice[5]) ? 33 Helice Evideas † 9 ? (possibly Chrysippe[8]) Chrysippus 34 Amoeme or Oeme Polydector 10 Hyale † Perius (possibly Pierus[9]) 35 Polybe Itonomus † 11 Trite (possibly Trete[10]) Enceladus 36 Helicta † Cassus 12 Damone † (possibly Damno[9]) Amyntor 37 Electra Hyperantus † 13 Hippothoe[11] (possibly Hypothoe[5]) Obrimus (possibly Bromius)[12] 38 Eubule Demarchus 14 Myrmidone[13] Mineus †[14] (possibly Oeneus 39 Daplidice † Pugnon † 15 Eurydice Canthus 40 Hero Andromachus 16 Cleo[15] Asterius[16] 41 Europome † Atlites or Athletes † 17 Arcania †[17] Xanthus 42 Pyrantis † Plexippus 18 Cleopatra Metalces 43 Critomedia Antipaphus 19 Philea †[18] Philinas[19] 44 Pirene Dolichus 20 Hyparete Protheon 45 Eupheme or Eupheno † Hyperbius 21 Chrysothemis Asterides † 46 Themistagora Podasimus 22 Pyrante Athamas 47 Celaeno Aristonoos † 23 Armo † asbus † 48 Itea † Antiochus 24 Glaucippe Niavius † 49 Erato † Eudaemon 25 Demophile Pamphilus 50 Hypermnestra Lynceus Ellis[edit] A third list was provided by the English antiquarian, Henry Ellis which was derived from Hyginus. The names of the Danaïdes was complete but with new entries and some alteration in the spellings.[20] It can be observed that the names Armoaste and Danaes (Danais), was an addition to complete the list while Scea (Scaea) and Autonomes (Automate) which was obviously borrowed from Apollodorus' accounts were also added. Comparison of Hyginus' and Ellis' List of Danaids Hyginus Ellis Hyginus Ellis Hyginus Ellis Hyginus Ellis Hyginus Ellis 1 Midea or Idea Idea 11 Trite Trite 21 Chrysothemis Chrysothemis 31 Monuste Monuste 41 Europome Europomene 2 Philomela Philomela 12 Damone Damone 22 Pyrante Heranta 32 Amymone Amimone 42 Pyrantis Chrysanta 3 Scylla Scillo 13 Hippothoe Hippothoe 23 ? Armoaste 33 Helice Helice 43 Critomedia Critomedia 4 (Am)Phicomone Phicomene 14 Myrmidone Mirmidone 24 Glaucippe Glaucippe 34 Oeme Amaome 44 Pirene Pyrene 5 Evippe Euippe 15 Eurydice Euridice 25 Demophile Demophile 35 Polybe Polybe 45 Eupheme Eupheno 6 ? Danaes 16 Cleo Chleo 26 Autodice Autodice 36 Helicta Helicte 46 Themistagora Themistagora 7 ? Scea 17 Arcadia or Arcania Vrania 27 Polyxena Polyxena 37 Electra Electra 47 Celaeno Paleno 8 Demoditas Demoditas 18 Cleopatra Cleopatra 28 Hecabe Hecate 38 Eubule Eubule 48 Itea Itea 9 ? Autonomes 19 Phila or Philae Phylea 29 Acamantis Achamantis 39 Daplidice Daphildice 49 Erato Erato 10 Hyale Hyale 20 Hipparete Hypareta 30 Arsalte Arsalte 40 Hero Hero 50 Hypermnestra Hypermnestra Other Danaïdes[edit] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Several minor female characters, mentioned in various accounts unrelated to the main myth of Danaus and the Danaïdes, are also referred to as daughters of Danaus. These include: Archedice, along with her sister Helice and two others, chosen by lot by the rest, had founded the temple of Lindian Athene where they made offerings on Lindos in Rhodes.[21][22] Anaxithea, mother of Olenus by Zeus.[23] Amphimedusa, mother of Erythras by Poseidon[24] Astyoche, a nymph who was called the mother of Chrysippus by Pelops.[25] Eurythoe, one of the possible mothers of Oenomaus by Ares;[26] alternatively, mother of Hippodamia by Oenomaus[27] Hippe, who, like her sister Amymone, gave her name to a freshwater source[28] Hippodamia, mother of Olenus by Zeus.[29] (Maybe the same as the above Anaxithea) Isonoe or Isione or Hesione, mother of Orchomenus[30] or Chryses[29] by Zeus. Kamira Phaethusa, one of the possible mothers of Myrtilus by Hermes[26] Phylodameia, mother of Pharis by Hermes[31] Physadeia, who, like her sister Amymone, gave her name to a freshwater source[28] Polydora, nymph-mother of Dryops (Oeta) by the river god Spercheus[32] Side, mythical eponym of a town in Laconia[33] Modern literature[edit] The Daughters of Danaus is also the title of an 1894 novel by Mona Caird, also dealing with imposed marriage although, in this case, it is a single marriage instead of 50, and in 19th-century Great Britain. In 1910,[34] the Hungarian poet Mihály Babits published his poem The Danaids, translated into English by Peter Zollman (Q30605210)[35] and István Tótfalusi (Q1326991).[36] Magda Szabó's 1964 novel, A Danaida (The Danaid), is about a woman who lives selfishly for two-thirds of her life without realizing that even she can change the course of history. Le châtiment des Danaïdes is an essay by the French-Canadian author Henri Paul Jacquesthe applying the Freudian concept of psychoanalysis to the study of the punishment imposed on the Danaïdes after they committed their crimes. In Monday Begins on Saturday, it is mentioned that the Danaïdes had their case reviewed in modern times, and, due to mitigating circumstances (the marriage being forced), had their punishment changed to laying down and then immediately demolishing asphalt. See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Danaides. Names of the Greeks (Danaans) Las Danaides, Alameda Central, Mexico City Notes[edit] ^ Book 10, lines 10–63. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 ^ Tzetzes, Chiliades 7.37 p. 370-371 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 170 ^ a b c d Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Mauricius Schmidt ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 ^ can be read possibly also as Iphinoe and Theonoe as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Mauricius Schmidt ^ as cited in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 p. 85 Heyne, according to Mauricius Schmidt in his annotations of Hyginus, Fabulae 170 ^ a b Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Bernhardus Bunte ^ Statius' Thebaid p. 195 with annotations by Robert Unger ^ compare with Hippothous in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 ^ compare with Bromius in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Mauricius Schmidt ^ can be read as Myrmydone as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Mauricius Schmidt ^ corrected as Oeneus by Bernhardus Bunte in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 and compare to Oeneus in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 ^ can be read possibly as Cleodora (Mauricius Schmidt) or simply Clio (Bernhardus Bunte) in their annotations of Hyginus, Fabulae 170 ^ compare with Asteria in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.5 as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 with annotations by Mauricius Schmidt ^ the name was corrupted according to Mauricius Schmidt in his annotations in Hyginus, Fabulae 170 [1] ^ can be read possibly as Philinna according to Mauricius Schmidt in his annotations of Hyginus, Fabulae 170 ^ can be read possibly as Phileas (Phileam) according to Mauricius Schmidt in his annotations of Hyginus, Fabulae 170 ^ Raphaell Holinshed, William Harrison, Richard Stanyhurst, John Hooker, Francis Thynne, Abraham Fleming, John Stow. Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Chapter 3. Henry Ellis' Edition. J. Johnson. London. 1807. ^ The Parian Marble, Fragment 9 (March 7, 2001). "Interleaved Greek and English text (translation by Gillian Newing)". Archived from the original on December 25, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2019. ^ Herodotus, Histories 2.182 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Olenos ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad, 2. 499 ^ Robert Graves. The Greek Myths, section 110 s.v. The Children of Pelops ^ a b Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 752 ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 157 ^ a b Callimachus, Hymn 5 to Athena, 47–48 ^ a b Clement of Alexandria, Recognitions 10.21 ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.230 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 4.30.2 ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 32 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 3.22.11 ^ Issue 5, vol. 1910 of the semimonthly literary journal Nyugat ^ The Danaids in Hungarian and in English, translated by Peter Zollman ^ The Danaids in Hungarian and in English, translated by István Tótfalusi References[edit] Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992). Online version at the Topos Text Project. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Callimachus. Hymns, translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928). London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1921. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Clement of Alexandria, Recognitions from Ante-Nicene Library Volume 8, translated by Smith, Rev. Thomas. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh. 1867. Online version at theio.com. Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. John Tzetzes, Book of Histories, Books VII-VIII translated by Vasiliki Dogani from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version at theio.com. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. ISBN 0-674-99328-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Authority control BNF: cb150828126 (data) GND: 134104293 LCCN: sh2002009350 SUDOC: 195652134 VIAF: 1220864 WorldCat Identities: viaf-1220864 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danaïdes&oldid=1000422728" Categories: Condemned souls into Tartarus Danaids Denyen Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Corsu Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 01:30 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4396	----	Apology (Plato) - Wikipedia Apology (Plato) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Work by Plato For the article on Xenophon's work on the same subject, see Apology of Socrates to the Jury. For other uses, see Apology (disambiguation). Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy The dialogues of Plato Early: Apology Charmides Crito Euthyphro Hippias Minor Ion Laches Lysis Transitional and middle: Cratylus Euthydemus Gorgias Menexenus Meno Phaedo Protagoras Symposium Later middle: Parmenides Phaedrus Republic Theaetetus Late: Critias Laws Philebus Sophist Statesman Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity: Axiochus Clitophon Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Other works of doubtful authenticity: Definitions Epigrams Epistles Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e The Apology of Socrates (Greek: Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους, Apología Sokrátous; Latin: Apologia Socratis), written by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue of the speech of legal self-defence which Socrates spoke at his trial for impiety and corruption in 399 BCE.[1] Specifically, the Apology of Socrates is a defence against the charges of "corrupting the youth" and "not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel" to Athens (24b).[2] Among the primary sources about the trial and death of the philosopher Socrates (469–399 BCE), the Apology of Socrates is the dialogue that depicts the trial, and is one of four Socratic dialogues, along with Euthyphro, Phaedo, and Crito, through which Plato details the final days of the philosopher Socrates. Contents 1 The text of apology 2 Introduction 3 Accusers of Socrates 4 The dialogue 4.1 Part one: The defence of Socrates 4.2 Part two: Socrates' sentencing plea 4.3 Part three: Socrates' departing remarks 5 Adaptations 6 Texts and translations 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 Further reading 10 External links The text of apology[edit] The Apology of Socrates, by the philosopher Plato (429–347 BCE), was one of many explanatory apologia about Socrates's legal defence against accusations of corruption and impiety; most apologia were published in the decade after the Trial of Socrates (399 BCE).[3] As such, Plato's Apology of Socrates is an early philosophic defence of Socrates, presented in the form of a Socratic dialogue. Although Aristotle later classified it as a genre of fiction,[4][5] it is still a useful historical source about Socrates (469–399 BCE) the philosopher.[6] Aristotle believed the dialogue, particularly the scene where Socrates questions Meletus, represented a good use of interrogation.[7] Except for Socrates's two dialogues with Meletus, about the nature and logic of his accusations of impiety, the text of the Apology of Socrates is in the first-person perspective and voice of the philosopher Socrates (24d–25d and 26b–27d). Moreover, during the trial, in his speech of self-defence, Socrates twice mentions that Plato is present at the trial (34a and 38b). Introduction[edit] The Apology of Socrates begins with Socrates addressing the jury of perhaps 500 Athenian men to ask if they have been persuaded by the Orators Lycon, Anytus, and Meletus, who have accused Socrates of corrupting the young people of the city and impiety against the pantheon of Athens. The first sentence of his speech establishes the theme of the dialogue — that philosophy begins with an admission of ignorance. Socrates later clarifies that point of philosophy when he says that whatever wisdom he possesses comes from knowing that he knows nothing (23b, 29b). In the course of the trial, Socrates imitates, parodies, and corrects the Orators, his accusers, and asks the jury to judge him by the truth of his statements, not by his oratorical skill (cf. Lysias XIX 1,2,3; Isaeus X 1; Isocrates XV 79; Aeschines II 24). Socrates says he will not use sophisticated language — carefully arranged ornate words and phrases — but will speak using the common idiom of the Greek language. Socrates says that he will speak in the manner he has used in the agora and at the money tables which he states is his native tongue and the fashion of his country. Although offered the opportunity to appease the prejudices of the jury, with a minimal concession to the charges of corruption and impiety, Socrates does not yield his integrity to avoid the penalty of death. The jury condemns Socrates to death. Accusers of Socrates[edit] In the society of 5th-century BCE Athens, the three men who formally accused the philosopher Socrates of impiety and corruption against the people and the city, officially represented the interests of the politicians and the craftsmen, of the scholars, poets, and rhetoricians. The accusers of Socrates were: Anytus, a rich and socially prominent Athenian who opposed the Sophists on principle.[8] Socrates says that Anytus joined the prosecution because he was "vexed on behalf of the craftsmen and politicians" (23e–24a); moreover, Anytus appears in the Meno dialogue (90f). Whilst Socrates and Meno (a visitor to Athens) are discussing Virtue, Anytus unexpectedly appears before them, and overhears their conversation. From the philosophic stance that virtue cannot be taught, Socrates adduces that many socially prominent Athenians have produced sons who are inferior to themselves, as fathers; Socrates names several such men, including Pericles and Thucydides. In the event, Anytus is offended by the observation, and warns Socrates that stepping on people’s toes (kakós legein) could, someday, cause trouble for him (Meno 94e–95a). Meletus, the only accuser to speak during Socrates's speech of self-defence; he was the tool of Anytus, the true enemy of Socrates.[9] Socrates says that Meletus joined the prosecution because he was "vexed on behalf of the poets" (23e); moreover, Meletus features in the Euthyphro dialogue. At trial, Socrates identifies Meletus as an unknown, young man with an aquiline nose. In the Apology of Socrates, Meletus agrees to be cross-examined by Socrates, whose questions lead Meletus into a semantic trap. Inattentive to the logical implications of his accusations of corruption and impiety, Meletus contradicts himself in accusing Socrates of atheism and of believing in demigods. Lycon, who represented the professional rhetoricians as an interest group.[10] Socrates says that Lycon joined the prosecution because he was "vexed on behalf of the rhetoricians" (24a). That he joined the prosecution because he associated Socrates with the pro–Spartan Oligarchy of the Thirty Tyrants (404 BCE), who killed his son, Autolycus.[11] As a prosecutor of Socrates, Lycon also is a figure of ridicule in a play by Aristophanes and had become a successful democratic politician in the democracy restored after the fall of the Oligarchy of the Four Hundred (411 BCE).[11] The accusations In his defence at trial, Socrates faced two sets of accusations: (i) asebeia (impiety) against the pantheon of Athens, by introducing new gods; and (ii) corruption of Athenian youth, by teaching them to doubt the status quo. Socrates says to the court that these old accusations arise from years of gossip and prejudice against him; hence, are matters difficult to address. He then reformulates the diffuse accusations from the orators against him into the proper legal form: "Socrates is committing an injustice, in that he inquires into things below the earth and in the sky; and makes the weaker argument the stronger; and teaches others to follow his example" (19b-c). Socrates also says that the accusations for which he is answering in court already had been spoken and published by the comic poet Aristophanes, and are therefore beyond the legal scope of a trial for corruption and impiety. Years earlier, in the play The Clouds (423 BCE), Aristophanes lampooned Socrates as a charlatan, the paradigm philosopher of atheist and scientific sophistry — carefully arranged arguments constructed of ornate words and phrases — misrepresented as wisdom. In light of that definition, Socrates defensively argues that he cannot be mistaken for a Sophist philosopher because Sophists are wise men, are thought to be wise by the people of Athens, and, thus, are highly paid for their teaching; whereas he (Socrates) lives in ten-thousand-fold poverty, and knows nothing noble and good (23c). Impiety For his self-defence, Socrates first eliminates any claim that he is a wise man. He says that Chaerephon, reputed to be impetuous, went to the Oracle of Delphi and asked her, the prophetess, Pythia, to tell him of anyone wiser than Socrates. The Pythia answered to Chaerephon that there was no man wiser. On learning of that oracular pronouncement, Socrates says he was astounded, because, on the one hand, it is against the nature of the Oracle to lie, but, on the other hand, he knew he was not wise. Therefore, Socrates sought to find someone wiser than himself, so that he could take that person as evidence to the Oracle at Delphi. Hence why Socrates minutely queried everyone who appeared to be a wise person. In that vein, he tested the minds of politicians, poets, and scholars, for wisdom; although he occasionally found genius, Socrates says that he found no one who possessed wisdom; yet, each man was thought wise by the people, and each man thought himself wise; therefore, he thought he was the better man, because he was aware that he was not wise. Corruption of the Athenian youth Socrates explained that the young, rich men of the city of Athens have little to do with their time. They, therefore, follow him about the city, observing his questioning of intellectual arguments in dialogue with other intellectual men. In turn, young men imitate the method of Socrates. Socrates thought that the arguments of the men he examined were wanting, and when he said this, to not lose face, they would restate stock accusations against Socrates; that he is a morally abominable man who corrupts the youth of Athens with sophistry and atheism. In his defence, Socrates said: "For those who are examined, instead of being angry with themselves, are angry with me!". The dialogue[edit] Part of a series on Socrates "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony · Socratic method Socratic paradox · Socratic questioning Socratic problem · Socratici viri Disciples Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus · Aeschines Related topics Academic Skepticism · Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics · Platonism · Aristotelianism · Stoicism · Virtue ethics · The Clouds Category v t e The Apology of Socrates, by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue in three parts that cover the Trial of Socrates (399 BCE): (i) the legal self-defence of Socrates, (ii) the verdict of the jury, and (iii) the sentence of the court. Part one: The defence of Socrates[edit] Socrates begins his legal defence by telling the jury that their minds were poisoned by his enemies when they (the jury) were young and impressionable. He also says that his false reputation as a sophistical philosopher comes from his enemies and that all of them are malicious, yet must remain nameless — except for the playwright Aristophanes, who lampooned him (Socrates) as a charlatan-philosopher in the comedy play The Clouds (423 BCE). About corrupting the rich, young men of Athens, Socrates argues that deliberate corruption is an illogical action because it would hurt him, as well. He says that the accusations of him being a corrupter of youth began at the time of his obedience to the Oracle at Delphi, and tells how Chaerephon went to the Oracle, to ask her, the Pythian prophetess, if there was a man wiser than Socrates.[12] When Chaerephon reported to him that the Oracle said there is no wiser man, Socrates interpreted that divine report as a riddle — because he was aware of possessing no wisdom "great or small", and that lying is not in the nature of the gods. The wisest man Socrates then sought to solve the divine paradox — how an ignorant man also could be the wisest of all men — in effort to illuminate the meaning of the Oracles' categorical statement that he is the wisest man in the land. After systematically interrogating the politicians, the poets, and the craftsmen, Socrates determined that the politicians were not wise like he was. He says of himself, in reference to a politician: "I am wiser than this man; it is likely that neither of us knows anything worthwhile, but he thinks he knows something when he does not."(21d).[13] Socrates says that the poets did not understand their poetry; that the prophets and seers did not understand what they said; and that the craftsmen while knowing many things, thought they also had much knowledge on things of which they had none. In that light, Socrates saw himself as a spokesman for the Oracle at Delphi (22e). He asked himself if he would rather be an impostor, like the "wise people" he interrogated, or if he would rather be himself, Socrates of Athens. Socrates tells the jury that he would rather be himself than be anyone else. He says that in searching for a man wiser than himself, he came to be regarded as a social gadfly and acquired a bad reputation among Athens' politically powerful personages. Corrupter of youth Having addressed the social prejudices against him, Socrates addresses the first accusation — the moral corruption of Athenian youth — by accusing his accuser, Meletus, of being indifferent to the persons and things about which he professes to care. Whilst interrogating Meletus, Socrates says that no one would intentionally corrupt another person — because the corrupter later stands to be harmed in vengeance by the corrupted person. The matter of moral corruption is important for two reasons: (i) the accusation is that Socrates corrupted the rich, young men of Athens by teaching atheism; (ii) that if he is convicted of corruption, it will be because the playwright Aristophanes already had corrupted the minds of his audience, when they were young, by lampooning Socrates as the "Sophistical philosopher" in The Clouds, a comic play produced about twenty-four years earlier. Atheist Socrates then addresses the second accusation — asebeia (impiety) against the pantheon of Athens — by which Meletus says that Socrates is an atheist. In cross-examination, Socrates leads Meletus to contradict himself: that Socrates is an atheist who also believes in spiritual agencies and demigods. Socrates tells the judges that Meletus has contradicted himself and then asks if Meletus has designed a test of intelligence for identifying logical contradictions. On death Socrates proceeds to say that people who fear death are showing their ignorance, because death might be a good thing, yet people fear it as if it is evil; even though they cannot know whether it is good or evil. Socrates says that his wisdom is in being aware that he is ignorant on this, and other topics. [13] Precedence of authority Regarding a citizen's obedience to authority, Socrates says that a lawful authority, either human or divine, should always be obeyed. In a conflict of obedience to such authorities, he thinks that obeying divine authority supersedes obeying human authority: "Gentlemen, I am your grateful and devoted servant, but I owe a greater obedience to the [Delphic] god than to you; and, as long as I draw breath and have my faculties, I shall never stop practising philosophy"(29d). As a spokesman for the Oracle at Delphi, he is to spur the Athenians to greater awareness of ethics and moral conduct and always shall question and argue. Therefore, the philosopher Socrates of Athens asks his fellow citizens: "Are you not ashamed that you give your attention to acquiring as much money as possible, and similarly with reputation and honour, and give no attention or thought to truth and understanding, and the perfection of your soul?"(29e) Provocateur Granting no concession to his precarious legal situation, Socrates speaks emotionally and provocatively to the court and says that the greatest good to occur upon Athens is his moral concern for them as fellow citizens. He thinks that material wealth is a consequence of goodness; that the god does not permit a better man to be harmed by a lesser man; and that he is the social gadfly required by Athens: "All day long, I will never cease to settle here, there, and everywhere — rousing, persuading, and reproving every one of you." In support of the moral mission assigned him by the Oracle at Delphi, Socrates tells the court that his daimonion continually forbids him to act unethically (implicitly validating Meletus' accusation that Socrates believes in novel deities not of the Athenian pantheon). Socrates says he never was a paid teacher; therefore, he is not responsible for the corruption of any Athenian citizen. If he had corrupted anyone, he asks: why have they not come forward to bear witnesses? If the corrupted Athenians are ignorant of having been corrupted, then why have their families not spoken on their behalf? Socrates indicates, in point of fact, relatives of the Athenian youth he supposedly corrupted are present in court, giving him moral support. Socrates concludes his legal defence by reminding the judges that he shall not resort to emotive tricks and arguments, shall not cry in public regret, and that his three sons will not appear in court to pathetically sway the judges. Socrates says he is not afraid of death and shall not act contrary to religious duty. He says he will rely solely upon sound argument and truth to present his case at trial. Part two: Socrates' sentencing plea[edit] The jurors of the trial voted the guilt of Socrates by a relatively narrow margin(36a). In the Apology of Socrates, Plato cites no total numbers of votes condemning or acquitting the philosopher of the accusations of moral corruption and impiety;[14][15] Socrates says that he would have been acquitted if thirty more jurors had voted in his favour.[15] This would likely mean that if the court were composed of 500 people then 280 voted against Socrates and 220 voted in his favor. This would make the margin about 12 percent.[16] In such cases — where the penalty of death might arise as a legal sanction for the accusations is presented — Athenian law required that the prosecutor and the defendant each propose an administrative penalty to punish the actions reported in the accusations. Socrates antagonises the court by proposing, rather than a penalty, a reward — perpetual maintenance at public expense. He notes that the vote of judgement against him was close. In that vein, Socrates then engages in dark humour, suggesting that Meletus narrowly escaped a great fine for not meeting the statutory requirement of receiving one-fifth of the votes of the assembled judges in favour of his accusations against Socrates. In that way, Socrates published the financial consequence for Meletus to consider as a plaintiff in a lawsuit — because the Athenian legal system discouraged frivolous lawsuits by imposing a financially onerous fine upon the plaintiff if the vote of the judges was less than one-fifth of the number of judges required by the type of lawsuit. As punishment for the two accusations formally presented against him at trial, Socrates proposed to the court that he be treated as a benefactor to the city of Athens; that he should be given free meals, in perpetuity, at the Prytaneum, the public dining hall of Athens. Receiving such public largesse is an honour reserved for Olympic athletes, prominent citizens, and benefactors of Athens, as a city and as a state. Finally, after the court dismisses the proposed reward — free meals at the Prytaneum — Socrates considers imprisonment and banishment, before settling upon a punishment fine of 100 drachmae. Despite his poverty, this was a minor punishment compared to the death penalty proposed by the prosecutors, and encouraged by the judges of the trial. His supporters, Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus offered even more money to pay as a fine – 3,000 drachmae (thirty minae);[17] nonetheless, to the judges of the trial of Socrates, a pecuniary fine was insufficient punishment. Part three: Socrates' departing remarks[edit] In the Trial of Socrates, the judgement of the court was death for Socrates; most of the jurors voted for the death penalty (Apology 38c), yet Plato provides no jury-vote numbers in the text of the Apology of Socrates; but Diogenes Laërtius reports that 280 jurors voted for the death penalty and 220 jurors voted for a pecuniary fine for Socrates (2.42).[18] Moreover, the politically provocative language and irreverent tone of Socrates's self-defence speech angered the jurors and invited their punishment of him.[19] Socrates responds to the death-penalty verdict by first addressing the jurors who voted for his death. He says that instead of waiting a short time for him to die from old age, they will now have to accept the harsh criticisms from his supporters. He prophesied that his death will cause the youngsters to come forward and replace him as a social gadfly, spurring ethical conduct from the citizens of Athens, in a manner more vexing than him(39d). To the jurors who voted to acquit him, Socrates gives encouragement: his supernatural daimonion did not interfere with his conduct of the legal defence, which he viewed as a sign that such a defence was the correct action. In that way, the daimonion communicated to Socrates that death might be a good thing; either death is annihilation (release from earthly worry) and not to be feared, or death is migration to a higher plane of existence in which reside the souls of personages and heroes, such as Hesiod and Homer and Odysseus. Socrates concludes his self-defence by saying to the court that he bears no ill-will, neither towards his accusers — Lycon, Anytus, and Meletus — nor the jurors. He then asks the Athenians to correct his three sons if they value material wealth more than living virtuously, or if they become too prideful; and in doing that, justice will finally be served. Adaptations[edit] Socrates on Trial: A Play Based on Aristophane's Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo Adapted for Modern Performance (2007), by Andrew David Irvine, is a contemporary play that portrays Socrates as philosopher and man, based upon The Clouds (423 BC), by Aristophanes, and three Socratic dialogues, by Plato, the Apology of Socrates (the philosopher's defence at trial), the Crito (discussion of the nature of Justice), and the Phaedo (discussion of the nature of the Afterlife). Roberto Rossellini's 1971 television film Socrates largely lifts its action and script from this dialogue. Texts and translations[edit] Greek text at Perseus Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus. Greek with translation by Harold N. Fowler. Loeb Classical Library 36. Harvard Univ. Press (originally published 1914). Fowler translation at Perseus Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo. Greek with translation by Chris Emlyn-Jones and William Preddy. Loeb Classical Library 36. Harvard Univ. Press, 2017. ISBN 9780674996878 HUP listing Plato. Opera, volume I. Oxford Classical Texts. ISBN 978-0198145691 Plato. Complete Works. Hackett, 1997. ISBN 978-0872203495 See also[edit] Otium Trial of Socrates References[edit] ^ Plato; Estienne, Henri; Serres, Jean de; Adams, John; Adams, John Quincy (1578). "Platonis opera quae extant omnia". archive.org. [Genevae?] : Excudebat Henr. Stephanus. p. 17. ^ "Socrates," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 16 Sept. 2005. See: Doug Lindner, "The Trial of Socrates, "Univ. of Missouri-Kansas City Law School 2002. ^ Schofield, Malcolm (2016). "Plato (427–347 BC)". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-A088-1. ISBN 9780415250696. Retrieved 23 July 2008. ^ Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues: Earlier Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-521-31101-4. ^ Kahn, Charles H. (1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-521-64830-1. ^ Brickhouse, Thomas; Smith, Nicholas D. "Plato". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Rhetoric, Aristotle ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary 1966, p. 65 ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary 1966, p. 554 ^ Plato (1916). Adam, James (ed.). Platonis Apologia Socratis. Cambridge University Press. p. xxvi. ^ a b Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-1-60384-027-9. ^ Plato (1924). "The Dialogues of Plato". Translated by Jowett, Benjamin. Oxford University Press, American branch. ^ a b Plato (2000). The Trial and Death of Socrates. Translated by Grube, G. M. A. (Third ed.). Hackett Publishing Company. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-87220-554-3. ^ Plató; Burnet, John (1924). Plato's Euthyphro, Apology of Socrates, and Crito. Clarendon Press. pp. 150–151. ISBN 9780198140153. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith 1990, p. 26. ^ Barnes and Noble, Essential Dialogues of Plato ^ Eliot, Charles William (1909). "The Harvard Classics: Plato: The Apology, Phaedo, and Crito ; The golden sayings of Epictetus ; The meditations of Marcus Aurelius". P. F. Collier & Son. ^ Brickhouse & Smith 1990, pp. 230-231. ^ MacDowell, Douglas Maurice (1986). The Law in Classical Athens. Cornell University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8014-9365-2. Bibliography[edit] Brickhouse, Thomas C.; Smith, Nicholas D. (1990). Socrates on Trial. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823938-3. Hammond, Scullard H. H. (1966). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Seventh Printing ed.). Oxford. Further reading[edit] Allen, Reginald E. (1980). Socrates and Legal Obligation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Brickhouse, Thomas C. (1989). Socrates on Trial. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Brickhouse, Thomas C.; Smith, Nicholas D. (2004). Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Plato and the Trial of Socrates. New York: Routledge. Cameron, Alister (1978). Plato's Affair with Tragedy. Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati. Compton, Todd, "The Trial of the Satirist: Poetic Vitae (Aesop, Archilochus, Homer) as Background for Plato's Apology", The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 111, No. 3 (Autumn, 1990), pp. 330–347, The Johns Hopkins University Press Fagan, Patricia; Russon, John (2009). Reexamining Socrates in the Apology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Hackforth, Reginald (1933). The Composition of Plato's Apology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A Play Based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo Adapted for Modern Performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (e-pub) Reeve, C.D.C. (1989). Socrates in the Apology. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0872200892. West, Thomas G. (1979). Plato's Apology of Socrates. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Stone, I. F. (1988). The Trial of Socrates. Boston: Little, Brown. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Apology Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους (Πλάτων) (Greek original) Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apology (Plato) Library resources about Apology (Plato) Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Translated by Woods & Pack, 2010 Bundled with Euthyphro, Crito and the death scene from Phaedo Project Gutenberg has English translations of Plato's Apology of Socrates: Translated by Benjamin Jowett, 1891 Bundled with Plato's Crito and Phaedo, translated by Henry Cary, introduced by Edward Brooks Jr. 1901 The Apology public domain audiobook at LibriVox The Apology of Socrates, free professional-quality downloadable audio book (part one as parts are indicated in this article) from ThoughtAudio.com, in the translation by Benjamin Jowett Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues Guides to the Socratic Dialogues: Plato's Apology, a beginner's guide to the Apology, by Dale E. 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Theodoridis, 2015: full-text translation v t e Socrates General Trial of Socrates Concepts Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning Legacy Socratic problem Socratici viri Phrases "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" Related Euthyphro dilemma Form of the Good Peritrope Religious skepticism Family Sophroniscus (father) Phaenarete (mother) Xanthippe (wife) Lamprocles (son) Menexenus (son) Myrto (wife) Works about Socrates Art Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd century sculpture) The Death of Socrates (1787 painting) Socrates (1950 sculpture) Stage The Clouds (423 BC play) Der geduldige Socrates (1721 opera) Socrates (1759 play) Socrate (1919 oratorio) Socrates on Trial (2007 play) Literature De genio Socratis (1st century essay) On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis) The Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel) Other Barefoot in Athens 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en-wikipedia-org-4407	----	Attica - Wikipedia Attica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search historical region of Greece, including the city of Athens This article is about the historical region of Greece. For the modern administrative region, see Attica (region). For the former prefecture, see Attica Prefecture. For the Athenian neighbourhood, see Attiki, Athens. For other uses, see Attica (disambiguation). Coordinates: 38°05′0″N 23°30′0″E / 38.08333°N 23.50000°E / 38.08333; 23.50000 Region of Greece Attica Αττική Region of Greece View from Kaisariani Hill looking towards Athens, with Salamis visible in the background Map of municipalities (demoi) in ancient Attica Location Central Greece Major cities Athens Dialects Attic Key periods Athenian Empire (477–404 BC) Second Athenian League (378–338 BC) Attica (Greek: Αττική, Ancient Greek Attikḗ or Attikī́, Ancient Greek: [atːikɛ̌ː] or Modern: [atiˈci]), or the Attic peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece and its countryside. It is a peninsula projecting into the Aegean Sea, bordering on Boeotia to the north and Megaris to the west. The southern tip of the peninsula, known as Laurion, was an important mining region. The history of Attica is tightly linked with that of Athens, and specifically the Golden Age of Athens during the classical period. Ancient Attica (Athens city-state) was divided into demoi or municipalities from the reform of Cleisthenes in 508/7 BC, grouped into three zones: urban (astu) in the region of Athens main city and Piraeus (port of Athens), coastal (paralia) along the coastline and inland (mesogeia) in the interior. The modern administrative region of Attica is more extensive than the historical region and includes Megaris as part of the regional unit West Attica, and the Saronic Islands and Cythera, as well as the municipality of Troizinia on the Peloponnesian mainland, as the regional unit Islands. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Ancient history 2.1.1 Fortresses 2.1.2 Places of worship 2.2 Medieval period 2.3 Attica after 1829 3 Climate 3.1 European temperature record 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Geography[edit] View from Anavyssos, looking south-east towards Palaia Fokaia. Lake Marathon Attica is a triangular peninsula jutting into the Aegean Sea. It is naturally divided to the north from Boeotia by the 10 mi (16 km) long Cithaeron and Parnes mountain ranges. To the west of Eleusis, the Greek mainland narrows into Megaris, connecting to the Peloponnese at the Isthmus of Corinth. The western coast of Attica, also known as the Athens Riviera, forms the eastern coastline of the Saronic Gulf. Mountains separate the peninsula into the plains of Pedias, Mesogeia, and the Thriasian Plain. The mountains of Attica are the Hymettus, the eastern portion of the Geraneia, Parnitha (the highest mountain of Attica), Aigaleo and Penteli. Four mountains — Aigaleo, Parnitha, Penteli and Hymettus (clockwise from the southwest) — delineate the hilly plain on which the Athens urban area now spreads. The plain is pockmarked by a plethora of semi-continuous hills, the most notable ones being the Tourkovounia, Lykavittos, the Acropolis of Athens itself and Philopappou. Mesogeia lies to the east of Mount Hymettus and is bound to the north by the foothills of Mount Penteli, to the east by the Euboean Gulf and Mount Myrrhinous, and to the south by the mountains of Lavrio (modern Lavreotiki), Paneio (Πάνειον Όρος), and Laureotic Olympus (Λαυρεωτικός Όλυμπος). The Lavrio region terminates in Cape Sounion, forming the southeastern tip of the Attic peninsula. Athens' water reservoir, Lake Marathon, is an artificial reservoir created by damming in 1920. Pine and fir forests cover the area around Parnitha. Hymettus, Penteli, Myrrhinous and Lavrio are forested with pine trees, whereas the rest are covered by shrubbery. Parts of the sprawling forests of mount Penteli and Parnitha have been lost to forest fires, while the Synngrou Estate on the foothills of the former (intersecting the border between the neighborhoods of Kifisia, Melissia and Marousi is home to the sole remaining natural forest in the Athenian plain. The Kifisos is the longest river in Attica, which starts from the foothills of mount Parnitha near Varibobi, crosses the Athenian plain and empties into the delta of Faliro east of the port of Piraeus. According to Plato, Attica's ancient boundaries were fixed by the Isthmus, and, toward the continent, they extended as far as the heights of Cithaeron and Parnes. The boundary line came down toward the sea, bounded by the district of Oropus on the right and by the river Asopus on the left. History[edit] Ancient history[edit] Further information: Classical Athens The Temple of Poseidon (c.440 BC) at Cape Sounion, the southernmost point of Attica. During antiquity, the Athenians boasted about being 'autochthonic', which is to say that they were the original inhabitants of the area and had not moved to Attica from another place. The traditions current in the classical period recounted that, during the Greek Dark Ages, Attica had become the refuge of the Ionians, who belonged to a tribe from the northern Peloponnese. Supposedly, the Ionians had been forced out of their homeland by the Achaeans, who had been forced out of their homeland by the Dorian invasion.[1] Supposedly, the Ionians integrated with the ancient Atticans, who, afterward, considered themselves part of the Ionian tribe and spoke the Ionian dialect of Ancient Greek. Many Ionians later left Attica to colonize the Aegean coast of Asia Minor and to create the twelve cities of Ionia.[according to whom?] Ancient site of Vravrona During the Mycenaean period, the inhabitants of Attica lived in autonomous agricultural societies. The main places where prehistoric remains were found are Marathon, Rafina, Nea Makri, Brauron, Thorikos, Agios Kosmas, Eleusis, Menidi, Markopoulo, Spata, Aphidnae and Athens. All of these settlements flourished during the Mycenaean period.[2] According to tradition, Attica comprised twelve small communities during the reign of Cecrops, the legendary Ionian king of Athens. Strabo assigns these the names of Cecropia, Tetrapolis, Epacria, Decelea, Eleusis, Aphidna, Thoricus, Brauron, Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia, and possibly Phaleron. These were said to have been later incorporated in an Athenian state during the reign of Theseus, the mythical king of Athens.[3] Modern historians consider it more likely that the communities were progressively incorporated into an Athenian state during the 8th and the 7th centuries BC.[4][unreliable source?] Until the 6th century BC, aristocratic families lived independent lives in the suburbs of Athens, such as Hippios Kolonos. Only after Peisistratos's tyranny and the reforms implemented by Cleisthenes did the local communities lose their independence and succumb to the central government in Athens. As a result of these reforms, Attica was divided into approximately a hundred municipalities, the demes (dēmoi, δῆμοι), and also into three large sectors: the city (ἄστυ), which comprised the areas of central Athens, Ymittos, Aegaleo and the foot of Mount Parnes, the coast (παράλια), that included the area between Eleusis and Cape Sounion and the area around the city (ἐσωτερικό-μεσογαία), inhabited by people living on the north of Mount Parnitha, Penteliko and the area east of the mountain of Hymettus on the plain of Mesogeia. Principally, each civic unit would include equal parts of townspeople, seamen, and farmers. A “trittýs” ("third") of each sector constituted a tribe. Consequently, Attica comprised ten tribes. During the Peloponnesian war, Attica was invaded and raided several times by the Lacedaemonians, while in the war's third phase the fortress of Decelea was captured and fortified by Lacedaemon. Fortresses[edit] View of Rhamnous During the classical period, Athens was fortified to the north by the fortress of Eleutherae, which is preserved well. Other fortresses are those of Oenoe, Decelea, Phyle and Aphidnae. To protect the mines at Laurium, on the coast, Athens was protected by the walls at Rhamnus, Thoricus, Sounion, Anavyssos, Piraeus, and Eleusis.[2] Although these forts and walls had been constructed, Attica did not establish a fortification system until later, in the 4th century BC.[5] Attica's warfare is displayed by piles of rubble from fortresses from the Chremonidean war.[6] Places of worship[edit] Spata airview Even though archaeological ruins of religious importance are found in nearly the whole area of Attica, the most important are those found in Eleusis. The worship of the goddesses Demeter and Cora, beginning in the Mycenaean period, continued until the late years of antiquity. Many other types of worship can be traced to the prehistory. For example, the worship of Pan and the Nymphs was common in many areas of Attica such as Marathon, Parnes and Ymittos. The god of wine, Dionysus, was worshipped mainly in the area of Icaria, now the suburb of Dionysus. Iphigeneia and Artemis were worshipped in Brauron, Artemis in Rafina, Athena on Sounion, Aphrodite on Iera Odos, and Apollo in Daphne.[2] The festival of Chalceia was celebrated every autumn in Attica. The festival honored the gods Hephaestus and Athena Ergane. In the deme of Athmonon, in modern-day Marousi, the Athmoneia games were also celebrated. Medieval period[edit] Main articles: Byzantine Greece, Duchy of Athens, and Ottoman Greece View over the excavation site towards Eleusis. After the period of antiquity, Attica came under Roman, Byzantine, Venetian, and Ottoman rule. In the Roman period, the Scandinavian Heruli tribe raided Athens and Attica in 267 AD, destroying most of the city and laying waste to the countryside. During the Byzantine period, Attica was invaded by the Goths under the command of Alaric in 396. Attica's population diminished in comparison to the neighboring area of Boeotia. The sites of historical interest date to the 11th and 12th centuries, when Attica was under the rule of the Franks. The great monastery of Dafni, that was built under Justinian I's rule, is an isolated case that does not signify a widespread development of Attica during the Byzantine period. On the other hand, the buildings built during the 11th and 12th centuries show a greater development that continued during the rule of the Franks, who did not impose strict rule.[citation needed] During the Ottoman rule, Athens enjoyed some rights. However, that was not the case for the villages of Attica. Great areas were possessed by the Turks, who terrorized the population with the help of sipahis. The monasteries of Attica played a crucial role in preserving the Greek element of the villages. In spite of its conquerors, Attica managed to maintain its traditions. This fact is proved by the preservation of ancient toponyms such as Oropos, Dionysus, Eleusis, and Marathon. During the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s, the peasants of Attica were the first to revolt (April 1821), occupying Athens and seizing the Acropolis that was handed over to the Greek revolutionaries in June, 1822.[2] Attica after 1829[edit] Saronida Aerial view of Rafina. The port of Lavrio Attica belonged to the newly-founded Greek state from its founding. From 1834, Athens was refounded and made the new Greek capital (moved from Nafplio in Argolis), which caused the gradual repopulation of Attica by other people around Greece. The most dramatic surge came with Greek refugees from Anatolia following the population exchanges between Greece and Turkey under the Treaty of Lausanne. Today, much of Attica is occupied by urban Athens, encompassing the entirety of the Athenian plain.[7] The modern Greek region of Attica includes classical Attica as well as the Saronic Islands, a small part of the Peloponnese around Troezen, and the Ionian Island of Kythira. Climate[edit] Attica enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate. It has a distinct, long, dry period in the summer and a short, wet period in the winter. The highest precipitation is experienced during the winter months. The southern part of the peninsula has a hot, semi-arid climate. Climate data for Athens Hellinikon, 10 m asl (1955–1997) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 13.6 (56.5) 14.1 (57.4) 15.7 (60.3) 19.4 (66.9) 24.1 (75.4) 28.7 (83.7) 32.0 (89.6) 31.7 (89.1) 28.2 (82.8) 23.2 (73.8) 18.8 (65.8) 15.2 (59.4) 22.1 (71.7) Average low °C (°F) 7.0 (44.6) 7.1 (44.8) 8.4 (47.1) 11.4 (52.5) 15.8 (60.4) 20.1 (68.2) 22.8 (73.0) 22.8 (73.0) 19.6 (67.3) 15.6 (60.1) 12.0 (53.6) 8.8 (47.8) 14.3 (57.7) Average precipitation mm (inches) 48.3 (1.90) 40.9 (1.61) 39.7 (1.56) 26.0 (1.02) 15.2 (0.60) 5.6 (0.22) 5.2 (0.20) 7.0 (0.28) 9.6 (0.38) 47.8 (1.88) 55.4 (2.18) 64.1 (2.52) 364.8 (14.35) Source: Hellenic National Meteorological Service[8] Climate data for Elefsina, 30 m asl (1958–1997) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 13.0 (55.4) 13.6 (56.5) 15.8 (60.4) 20.1 (68.2) 25.7 (78.3) 30.6 (87.1) 32.9 (91.2) 32.7 (90.9) 28.9 (84.0) 23.2 (73.8) 18.5 (65.3) 14.7 (58.5) 22.5 (72.5) Average low °C (°F) 5.4 (41.7) 5.6 (42.1) 7.1 (44.8) 10.1 (50.2) 14.9 (58.8) 19.5 (67.1) 22.3 (72.1) 22.2 (72.0) 18.8 (65.8) 14.6 (58.3) 10.4 (50.7) 7.2 (45.0) 13.2 (55.7) Average precipitation mm (inches) 48.4 (1.91) 40.1 (1.58) 39.3 (1.55) 26.7 (1.05) 19.5 (0.77) 8.4 (0.33) 5.5 (0.22) 5.4 (0.21) 11.3 (0.44) 41.6 (1.64) 58.8 (2.31) 67.9 (2.67) 372.9 (14.68) Source: Hellenic National Meteorological Service[9] Climate data for National Observatory of Athens (Thissio), 107 m asl (1971–2000), (1961–1990)rain Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 13.0 (55.4) 13.7 (56.7) 16.1 (61.0) 20.5 (68.9) 25.8 (78.4) 30.6 (87.1) 33.1 (91.6) 32.8 (91.0) 29.2 (84.6) 23.5 (74.3) 18.1 (64.6) 14.4 (57.9) 22.6 (72.6) Average low °C (°F) 6.7 (44.1) 6.8 (44.2) 8.2 (46.8) 11.6 (52.9) 16.0 (60.8) 20.4 (68.7) 22.8 (73.0) 22.5 (72.5) 19.4 (66.9) 15.1 (59.2) 11.2 (52.2) 8.2 (46.8) 14.1 (57.3) Average precipitation mm (inches) 44.6 (1.76) 48.3 (1.90) 42.6 (1.68) 28.2 (1.11) 17.2 (0.68) 9.7 (0.38) 4.2 (0.17) 4.6 (0.18) 11.9 (0.47) 47.7 (1.88) 50.6 (1.99) 66.6 (2.62) 376.2 (14.82) Source: National Observatory of Athens[10] Climate data for Athens Nea Filadelfia, 136 m asl (1955–1997) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 12.5 (54.5) 13.5 (56.3) 15.7 (60.3) 20.2 (68.4) 26.0 (78.8) 31.1 (88.0) 33.5 (92.3) 33.2 (91.8) 29.2 (84.6) 23.3 (73.9) 18.1 (64.6) 14.1 (57.4) 22.5 (72.6) Average low °C (°F) 5.2 (41.4) 5.4 (41.7) 6.7 (44.1) 9.6 (49.3) 13.9 (57.0) 18.2 (64.8) 20.8 (69.4) 20.7 (69.3) 17.3 (63.1) 13.4 (56.1) 9.8 (49.6) 6.8 (44.2) 12.3 (54.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 56.9 (2.24) 46.7 (1.84) 40.7 (1.60) 30.8 (1.21) 22.7 (0.89) 10.6 (0.42) 5.8 (0.23) 6.0 (0.24) 13.9 (0.55) 52.6 (2.07) 58.3 (2.30) 69.1 (2.72) 414.1 (16.31) Source: Hellenic National Meteorological Service[11] Climate data for Tatoi, 235 m asl (1958–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 11.7 (53.1) 12.5 (54.5) 14.7 (58.5) 19.3 (66.7) 24.9 (76.8) 29.9 (85.8) 32.1 (89.8) 31.8 (89.2) 28.0 (82.4) 22.5 (72.5) 17.4 (63.3) 13.2 (55.8) 21.5 (70.7) Average low °C (°F) 3.2 (37.8) 3.5 (38.3) 4.9 (40.8) 7.7 (45.9) 11.9 (53.4) 16.2 (61.2) 19.2 (66.6) 19.3 (66.7) 15.6 (60.1) 11.8 (53.2) 7.9 (46.2) 4.9 (40.8) 10.5 (50.9) Average precipitation mm (inches) 69.2 (2.72) 48.6 (1.91) 51.1 (2.01) 26.2 (1.03) 20.4 (0.80) 9.8 (0.39) 10.0 (0.39) 6.0 (0.24) 17.6 (0.69) 47.6 (1.87) 60.2 (2.37) 83.9 (3.30) 450.6 (17.72) Source: Hellenic National Meteorological Service[12] European temperature record[edit] According to the World Meteorological Organisation, the official European record for highest temperature was 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) was recorded in the areas of Eleusina and Tatoi in 1977, by the use of minimum-maximum thermometers.[13] See also[edit] Attic Greek Atticism Attic orators Ascolia Neo-Attic References[edit] ^ Pausanias VIII, 1 ^ a b c d "History" (PDF). Prefecture of Attica. Democritus University of Thrace. Retrieved 13 January 2013. ^ Strabo 9.1.20 ^ Ancient History until 30 BC (Ιστορία των αρχαίων χρόνων ως το 30 πΧ), L. Tsaktsiras, M. Tiverios, schoolbook for A' Gymnasiou, 13th edition, Athens, 1994, p. 115 ^ Osborne, Robin (December 2015). "Oxford Classical Dictionary". Attica. Retrieved 2017-09-29. ^ Osborne, Robin (2015-12-22). "Attica". doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-952. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ National Statistical Service of Greece (2002). Στατιστική Επετηρίδα της Ελλάδος 2002 (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. p. 54. The table includes the urban areas of Greece, officially defined by the National Statistical Service of Greece, powered by the Ministry of Finance of Greece. The municipality of Piraeus and its greater area belong to the Athens urban area or Greater Athens (Πολεοδομικό Συγκρότημα Αθηνών). ^ "Climatological Information for Athens Hellinikon, Greece", HNMS climatological table, web: [1] Archived 2016-06-11 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Climatological Information for Elefsina, Greece", HNMS climatological table, web: [2] Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Monthly bulletins", N.O.A, web: [3]. ^ "Climatological Information for Nea Filadelfia, Greece", HNMS climatological table, web: [4]. ^ "Climatological Information for Tatoi, Greece", HNMS climatological table, web: [5]. ^ [6]. Arizona State University World Meteorological Organization. External links[edit] Official Travel website of Attica v t e Landmarks of Attica* Aigosthena Amphiareion of Oropos Artemida Brauron Eleutherae Eleusis Lagonisi Lake Marathon Laurium Marathon Mount Pentelicus Parnitha Porto Rafti Queen's Tower (Serpieri) Rhamnous Saronida Sounion Tatoi Palace Temple of Apollo Zoster *Not included the most parts of Athens urban area v t e Traditional geographic regions of Greece Aegean Islands Central Greece (Attica) Crete Epirus Ionian Islands Macedonia Peloponnese Thessaly Thrace Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attica&oldid=1003284931" Categories: Attica Historical regions in Greece Historical regions Central Greece Peninsulas of Greece Hidden categories: CS1 errors: missing periodical CS1 uses Greek-language script (el) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with missing country Pages using infobox settlement with no coordinates Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2019 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2009 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikivoyage Languages Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית Jawa Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 January 2021, at 07:38 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-455	----	Information for "Sisyphus" - Wikipedia Help Information for "Sisyphus" Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents Basic information Page protection Edit history Page properties External tools Basic information Display title Sisyphus Default sort key Sisyphus Page length (in bytes) 18,574 Page ID 75864 Page content language en - English Page content model wikitext Indexing by robots Allowed Number of page watchers 371 Number of page watchers who visited recent edits 31 Number of redirects to this page 20 Counted as a content page Yes Page image Page views in the past 30 days 80,646 Wikidata item ID Q102561 Local description King of Ephyra in Greek mythology Central description king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Page protection Edit Allow all users (no expiry set) Move Allow all users (no expiry set) View the protection log for this page. Edit history Page creator 62.30.112.2 (talk) Date of page creation 09:13, 25 August 2002 Latest editor ClueBot NG (talk | contribs) Date of latest edit 08:51, 21 January 2021 Total number of edits 1,458 Recent number of edits (within past 30 days) 4 Recent number of distinct authors 4 Page properties Hidden categories (14) This page is a member of 14 hidden categories (help) : Category:Articles with short description Category:Commons category link from Wikidata Category:Short description matches Wikidata Category:Use dmy dates from September 2020 Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Category:Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Transcluded templates (121) Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Sisyphus (edit) Template:Abbr (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Authority control (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Catalog lookup link (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Circa (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite EB1911 (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite NIE (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite OED (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Cite book (view source) (protected) Template:Cite dictionary (view source) (protected) Template:Cite encyclopedia (view source) (protected) Template:Cite web (view source) (protected) Template:Cite wikisource/make link (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Commons category (view source) (template editor protected) Template:DMCA (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Dated maintenance category (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Div col (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Div col end (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Div col/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Template:EditAtWikidata (view source) (protected) Template:Error-small (view source) (template editor protected) Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Greek myth (Hades) (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Hide in print (view source) (template editor protected) Template:IPAc-en (view source) (template editor protected) Template:ISBN (view source) (template editor protected) Template:If then show (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Link note (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Main other (view source) (protected) Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Ns has subpages (view source) (template editor protected) Template:OED (view source) (semi-protected) Template:OEDsub (view source) (semi-protected) Template:Other uses (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Pagetype (view source) (protected) Template:Refbegin (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Refbegin/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Refend (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Reflist (view source) (protected) Template:Rulers of Corinth (edit) Template:SDcat (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Sfn (view source) (template editor protected) Template:SfnRef (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Short description (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Side box (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Sister project (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Small (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Tl (view source) (protected) Template:Transl (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Trim (view source) (protected) This list may be incomplete. Wikidata entities used in this page Sisyphus Sitelink Other (Statements) Title Some statements Description: en External tools Revision history search Revision history statistics Edits by user Page view statistics WikiChecker Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-461	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: === Conflict with Salmoneus === Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the [[oracle]] of [[Delphi]] on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From [[Homer]] onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter [[Tyro]] in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-464	----	Periander - Wikipedia Periander From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tyrant of Corinth Periander Tyrant of Corinth Periander, Roman copy after a Greek original of the 4th century BC, Vatican Museums. Reign 627–585 BC Predecessor Cypselus Successor Psammetichus Born prior to 635 BC Corinth Died 585 BC Corinth Consort Lyside Issue Cypselus II Lycophron Greek Περίανδρος House Cypselid Father Cypselus Mother Cratea Religion Greek polytheism Periander (/ˌpɛriˈændər/; Greek: Περίανδρος; died c. 585 BC), was the Second Tyrant of the Cypselid dynasty that ruled over Corinth. Periander's rule brought about a prosperous time in Corinth's history, as his administrative skill made Corinth one of the wealthiest city states in Greece.[1] Several accounts state that Periander was a cruel and harsh ruler, but others[citation needed] claim that he was a fair and just king who worked to ensure that the distribution of wealth in Corinth was more or less even. He is often considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece, men of the 6th century BC who were renowned for centuries for their wisdom. (The other Sages were most often considered to be Thales, Solon, Cleobulus, Chilon, Bias, and Pittacus.)[1] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Family 1.2 Rule 2 Writing and philosophy 3 Influences 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] Family[edit] Periander was the second tyrant of Corinth[2] and the son of Cypselus, the founder of the Cypselid dynasty. Cypselus’ wife was named Cratea. There were rumors that she and her son, Periander, slept together.[3] Periander married Lyside (whom he often referred to as Melissa), daughter of Procles and Eristenea.[3] They had two sons: Cypselus, who was said to be weak-minded, and Lycophron, a man of intelligence.[3] According to the book Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Periander, in a fit of rage, kicked his wife or threw her down a set of stairs so hard that she was killed.[3][4] Greek historian Herodotus has alluded to suggestions that Periander had defiled the corpse of his wife, employing a metaphor: "Periander baked his bread in a cold oven.",[5] Grief for his mother and anger at his father drove Lycophron to take refuge in Corcyra.[4] When Periander was much older and looking to have his successor at his side, he sent for Lycophron.[3] When the people of Corcyra heard of this, they killed Lycophron rather than let him depart. The death of his son caused Periander to fall into a despondency that eventually led to his death.[3] Periander was succeeded by his nephew, Psammetichus, who ruled for just three years and was the last of the Cypselid tyrants.[6] Rule[edit] Periander built Corinth into one of the major trading centers in Ancient Greece.[2] He established colonies at Potidaea in Chalcidice and at Apollonia in Illyria,[2] conquered Epidaurus, formed positive relationships with Miletus and Lydia, and annexed Corcyra, where his son lived much of his life.[2] Periander is also credited with inventing a transport system, the Diolkos, across the Isthmus of Corinth. Tolls from goods entering Corinth's port accounted for nearly all the government revenues, which Periander used to build temples and other public works, and to promote literature and arts. He had the poet Arion come from Lesbos to Corinth for an arts festival in the city. Periander held many festivals and built many buildings in the Doric style. The Corinthian style of pottery was developed by an artisan during his rule. Writing and philosophy[edit] Periander was said to be a patron of literature, who both wrote and appreciated early philosophy. He is said to have written a didactic poem 2,000 lines long.[3] Influences[edit] Periander is referenced by many contemporaries in relation to philosophy and leadership. Most commonly he is mentioned as one of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece, a group of philosophers and rulers from early Greece, but some authors leave him out of the list. In Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laertius, a philosopher of the 3rd century AD, lists Periander as one of these seven sages. Ausonius also refers to Periander as one of the Sages in his work The Masque of the Seven Sages.[7] Some scholars have argued that the ruler named Periander was a different person from the sage of the same name. Diogenes Laertius writes that "Sotion, and Heraclides, and Pamphila in the fifth book of her Commentaries say that there were two Perianders; the one a tyrant, and the other a wise man, and a native of Ambracia. Neanthes of Cyzicus makes the same assertion, adding, that the two men were cousins to one another. Aristotle says, that it was the Corinthian Periander who was the wise one; but Plato contradicts him." [8] See also[edit] Diolkos Seven Sages References[edit] ^ a b "Seven Wise Men of Greece". ^ a b c d "Periander". ^ a b c d e f g Laertius, Diogenes. "Life of Periander". Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2014-05-02. ^ a b Gentleman of Cambridge (1731). The history of Periander, King of Corinth. printed: and sold by J. Roberts in Warwick-Lane. ^ Herodotus The Histories, 5.92g ^ "Corinth, Ancient". ^ Ausonius. "The Masque of the Seven Sages". ^ Pausanias. "Description of Greece". External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Periander   Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Seven Sages: Periander" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:1. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) v t e Seven Sages of Greece Cleobulus of Lindos Solon of Athens Chilon of Sparta Bias of Priene Thales of Miletus Pittacus of Mytilene Periander of Corinth (Myson of Chenae) Authority control BNF: cb14925402p (data) GND: 102402086 ISNI: 0000 0000 0474 8375 SUDOC: 128437472 VIAF: 15160053 WorldCat Identities: viaf-15160053 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Periander&oldid=987718346" Categories: Ancient Greek rulers 7th-century BC Greek people 6th-century BC Greek people Seven Sages of Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating the template Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Italiano עברית Latina Magyar مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 November 2020, at 20:42 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4731	----	Aeacus - Wikipedia Aeacus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek mythological ruler of the Myrmidons and judge of the dead For the butterfly, see Troides aeacus. "Eacus" redirects here. For the Iberian deity, see Eacus (god). Aeacus and Telamon by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune. Aeacus (/ˈiːəkəs/; also spelled Eacus; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός Aiakos or Aiacos) was a mythological king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf. Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 2.1 Birth and early days 2.2 Later adventures 2.3 In the afterlife 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources Family[edit] Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia.[1] In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon.[2][3] He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris.[4] Aeacus’ sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon.[5] Mythology[edit] Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus, engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's Metamorphoses Book VII, 622–642. Birth and early days[edit] Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina.[6][7][8][9][10] Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth.[6][11][12] Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.[13][14][15] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves.[16][17] He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it.[6][18] Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on Mount Panhellenion,[19] and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.[20] Later adventures[edit] A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy.[21] When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule. Later, his great grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse). Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates.[22] Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid.[23] By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island. In the afterlife[edit] Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys by Ludwig Mack, Bildhauer After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with the Cretan brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos)[24][25] and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld.[26][27] In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades.[6][28] Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina,[20][29][30] and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island by celebrating the Aeacea in his honor.[31] In The Frogs (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons. Alexander the Great traced his ancestry through his mother to Aeacus. See also[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Aeacus. Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition References[edit] ^ Scholia on Pindar, Olympian Ode 9, 107 ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Aeacus", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, pp. 22–23 ^ Compare Plato, Gorgias, 524a ^ Scholia on Iliad, 13. 694 ^ Roman, L., & Roman, M. (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology., p. 12, at Google Books ^ a b c d Bibliotheca iii. 12. § 6 ^ Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 52 ^ Pausanias ii. 29. § 2 ^ comp. Nonn. Dionys. vi. 212 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses vi. 113, vii. 472, &c. ^ Hesiod, Fragm. 67, ed. Gottling ^ Pausanias, l.c. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 520 ^ comp. Hygin. Fab. 52 ^ Strabo, viii. p. 375 ^ Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 48, &c. ^ Pausanias, i. 39. § 5 ^ Diodorus Siculus, iv. 60, 61 ^ Pausanias, ii. 30. § 4 ^ a b Pausanias, ii. 29. § 6 ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes viii. 39, &c. ^ Pausanias, ii. 29. § 5 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 506, &c., ix. 435, &c ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 25 ^ Horace, Carmen ii. 13. 22 ^ Plato. Gorgias, p.524a ^ Isocrates, Evagoras 15 ^ Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 47, &c. ^ Hesychius s.v. ^ Schol. ad Pind. Nem. xiii. 155 ^ Pindar, Nemean Odes viii. 22 Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Aeacus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra Find out more on Wikipedia's Sister projects Media from Commons Authority control GND: 12972033X VIAF: 65094032 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 65094032 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeacus&oldid=1002197140" Categories: Greek judges of the dead Kings of the Myrmidons Children of Zeus Aeginetan mythology Chthonic beings Underworld gods Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Articles with short 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العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 08:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4753	----	Template:Rulers of Corinth - Wikipedia Template:Rulers of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Initial visibility: currently defaults to autocollapse To set this template's initial visibility, the |state= parameter may be used: |state=collapsed: {{Rulers of Corinth|state=collapsed}} to show the template collapsed, i.e., hidden apart from its title bar |state=expanded: {{Rulers of Corinth|state=expanded}} to show the template expanded, i.e., fully visible |state=autocollapse: {{Rulers of Corinth|state=autocollapse}} shows the template collapsed to the title bar if there is a {{navbar}}, a {{sidebar}}, or some other table on the page with the collapsible attribute shows the template in its expanded state if there are no other collapsible items on the page If the |state= parameter in the template on this page is not set, the template's initial visibility is taken from the |default= parameter in the Collapsible option template. For the template on this page, that currently evaluates to autocollapse. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Rulers_of_Corinth&oldid=999018345" Categories: Ancient Greece templates Ruler navigational boxes Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Ελληνικά Français മലയാളം Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2021, at 03:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-4855	----	Naranath Bhranthan - Wikipedia Naranath Bhranthan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Statue of Naranath Naranath Branthan (The madman of Naranam) is a character in Malayalam folklore. He was considered to be a divine person, a Mukhta who pretended to be mad. His chief activity consisted of rolling a big stone up a hill and then letting it fall back down. There is a large statue of Naranath in Pattambi, Palakkad district of Kerala where he is believed to have lived. Naranathu was born as the son of Vararuchi, the famous astrologer who adorned the court of Vikrama. Naranathu was one among the twelve offspring or the Parayi Petta panthirukulam(12 children born from the Pariah woman), of Vararuchi and was brought up in the Naranathu Mangalathu Mana, situated at Chethallur in Palakkad. Naranthu came to Thiruvegappura for mastering 'Vedas'. Thiruvegappura and the nearby Rayiranelloor Mountain, which is known as 'Branthachalam', became his usual abode. Due to his strange behaviour and odd activities, people perceived him as 'mad'. At Rayiranellor Mountain he had the vision of the Devi (Goddess), and later for the benevolence of the people he enshrined Devi in the Mountain and started his worship there. No clear descriptions have yet been received of Naranath's last days. The most famous facet of Naranath's life is his apparently eccentric habit of rolling big stones up the hill and letting them roll down back and laughing thunderously on seeing this sight. However, this act has been often considered allegorical and has been applied for social critiquing for myriad contexts. The Naranathu Branthan Mala (hill) is located at Rayiranelloor in Palakkad district on the Valanchery - Pattambi road after Thiruvegappura Shiv temple. It takes 1.5 hours to climb the hill. Many climb the hill during the 1st of Thulam (mid-October). On top, there is a statue of Naranathu Branthan. The nearest railhead is Kuttipuram in Malappuram district on the Shornur - Kozhikode route. Contents 1 Stories of Naranath Bhranthan 1.1 Story of Sri Rama Temple at Thriprayar 1.2 Story of Naranath Bhranthan and Bhadrakali 1.3 Story of Naranath Bhranthan and Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple 2 Pranthan Kunnu village 3 Contemporary Literature 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Stories of Naranath Bhranthan[edit] Story of Sri Rama Temple at Thriprayar[edit] One day Naranathu came to worship at the temple of Triprayar. He was surprised to see the movement of the altar stone, yet fathomed the reason through his yogic powers. He called the temple Tantri and had a nail driven on the stone, chanting mantras. The movement stopped forthwith. The portion where the nail was thrust can be seen even today. In order to prevent any decline in the power of the idol on account of the change in its location, Naranathu also arranged to install two goddesses on either side of the deity -Sri Devi on the right and Bhumi Devi on the left. Story of Naranath Bhranthan and Bhadrakali[edit] Another of the popular stories which are associated with Naranath goes as follows. The deity or the female goddess bhadrakaali ( as in the story of Kalidasa) goes out of the temple, She performs a dance called chutalanritha, accompanied by some of her assistants. Once Goddess Bhadrakali went to a graveyard and saw Naranath sleeping there. They had to perform that dance so the goddess sent her accomplices to scare him off that spot. Her accomplices tried to scare him with their most terrifying faces, but after seeing them he began laughing. So the goddess herself appeared before him and offered to grant boons to him in return for him leaving the ground. But Naranath declined to accept the offer. But the goddess persuaded him to ask something for her satisfaction. He then asked the Goddess to make his lifespan increase by one day. The goddess told him that she didn't have the power to do so. Then he asked her to decrease his lifespan by one day. The goddess was unable to grant that too. Laughing at this, Naranath asked the Goddess to shift the swelling Manth(Malayalam) from his left leg to right leg, which the goddess readily did. In yet another story a man wanted Naranath to be his Guru and followed him. As a good disciple, he wished to do everything his Guru did. Naranath told him to go away but the disciple stuck on. After walking for long their mouths were parched and there was no water source nearby. Naranath spotted a blacksmith and asked him to give him molten metal to drink, and he drank it. The disciple was sure that he himself couldn't do it. And Naranath told him to go away. Story of Naranath Bhranthan and Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple[edit] The swayambhu idol of Lord Sri Krishna installed in Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Swami Temple, Ambalappuzha, in Alappuzha District of Kerala is said to be installed by Naranathu Bhranthan. The story goes like this: The swayambhu idol of Sri Krishna was installed by some other Brahman initially and the temple poojas used to go on as usual for only a few days. Each day for nirmalyam the melshanthi, the chief priest of the temple used to open the nada (the door of sanctum sanctorum) with fear in mind if the idol would be intact or if he would see it fallen. Once found fallen reinstallation would be conducted after a ritual. Frustrated with the repeated incidence the temple authorities decided to know the reason behind it and conducted a devaprashnam before reinstallation and in the devaprashnam it was observed that only Naranathu Bhranthan could install the idol permanently. The authorities sought for him and got him through with half mind because he was always in dirty upkeep and attire and chewing pan. As it came up in devaprashnam they had no option. Naranathu too tried to fix the idol on the platform but each time it used to fall off. When it happened over and over again and meanwhile his mouth was full of pan spit he spat into the slot on the platform and uttered, ‘irikkeda pulayadimone avide’ meaning: ‘sit there you, son of a pulayi’ and the idol got fixed. The slot full of betel leaf (taamboolam) spit spilled over the slot and hence the place got the name ‘Taamboolappuzha’ which later got distorted to ‘Ambalappuzha’. It is believed that there was no change in the installation after that and this also confirms that Naranathu was an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Pranthan Kunnu village[edit] Pranthan Kunnu or Branthan Kunnu is a small village between Karimbam and Taliparamba in Kannur district of Kerala, India. This village is located on the back side of Sir Syed College, Taliparamba. The etymology of the village name is based upon the vast emptiness of the area in ancient times when foxes used to roam and cry giving the place an odd reputation.[1][2] Contemporary Literature[edit] Naranath Branthan is the title character of an acclaimed poem by V. Madhusoodhanan Nair. See also[edit] Parayi petta panthirukulam Sisyphus, a similar character References[edit] ^ https://www.google.co.in/maps/place/Pranthan+Kunnu/@12.0374107,75.3729703,17z/data=!4m12!1m6!3m5!1s0x3ba43f8f9322d2e3:0x7b593b2864ed1542!2sPranthan+Kunnu!8m2!3d12.0374107!4d75.3751644!3m4!1s0x3ba43f8f9322d2e3:0x7b593b2864ed1542!8m2!3d12.0374107!4d75.3751644?hl=en ^ http://www.tendertiger.com/viewtenderdetail.aspx?SrNo=18132032&tendertype=9d09819bf4266dce2eviL&Year=2015&Retarring%20of%20Chinmayamission%20Road%20To%20Branthan%20Kunnu. External links[edit] A tribute to Naranath and Branthachalam Temple at Kaippuram Story of Naranath Branthan Bhagavathi Temple situated near Naranathu Branthachalam Temple v t e Hindu deities and texts Gods Trimurti Brahma Vishnu Rama Krishna more avatars Shiva Ganesha Kartikeya Hanuman Indra Surya Agni Varuna Vayu Kamadeva Yama more Goddesses Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Sita Rukmini Radha Parvati Sati Mahavidya Durga Kali Shakti Adi Parashakti Navadurga Matrikas more Other deities Asuras Rakshasas Yakshas Vahanas Texts Vedas Rig Sama Yajur Atharva Upanishads Puranas Ramayana Mahabharata Bhagavad Gita Yoga Sutras of Patanjali more Hinduism Hindu mythology Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naranath_Bhranthan&oldid=996261914" Categories: Culture of Kerala People in Hindu mythology Kerala society Kerala folklore Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from September 2019 Use Indian English from September 2019 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages മലയാളം Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2020, at 13:57 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4920	----	Merope (Pleiad) - Wikipedia Merope (Pleiad) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Merope (Pleiades)) Jump to navigation Jump to search One of the seven Pleiades sisters from Greek mythology and wife of Sisyphus L'Etoile Perdue (The Lost Star, 1884) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau: Merope with her sister Pleiades in the background In Greek mythology, Merope /ˈmɛrəpiː/[1] (Greek: Μερόπη) is one of the seven Pleiades, daughters of Atlas and Pleione. Pleione, their mother, is the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys and is the protector of sailors.[2] Their transformation into the star cluster known as the Pleiades is the subject of various myths. Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Contents 1 Mythology 1.1 Among the Pleiades 1.2 Marriage 2 In art 3 In popular culture 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Mythology[edit] Among the Pleiades[edit] In one story, the Pleiades, along with their half sisters the Hyades, were virgin companions to Artemis.[3] Artemis was the twin of Apollo and daughter of Leto and Zeus, and a protector of both hunters and wild animals. The Pleiades were nymphs, and along with their half sisters, were called Atlantides, Modonodes, or Nysiades and were the caretakers of the infant Bacchus.[4] Orion pursued the Pleiades named Maia, Electra, Taygete, Celaeno, Alcyone, Sterope, and Merope after he fell in love with their beauty and grace. Artemis asked Zeus to protect the Pleiades and in turn, Zeus turned them into stars. Artemis was angry because she no longer could see her companions and had her brother, Apollo, send a giant scorpion to chase and kill Orion. Zeus then turned Orion into a constellation to further pursue the Pleiades in the skies.[5] In another legend, the sisters were transformed by Zeus into stars because Orion fell in love with them and relentlessly pursued their affection for 12 years. At first they were turned into doves, but later, along with Orion, into stars so that forever the hunter Orion would pursue them.[2] In either legend the Pleiades were turned into stars and now, along with their half sisters, the Hyades (who died weeping for their dead brother Hyas), are part of the star constellation Taurus. Marriage[edit] Merope is the faintest of the stars because she was the only of the Pleiades to have married a mortal. Her sisters had relations with gods and bore them sons, but Merope married Sisyphus and lived on the island Chios. Merope gave birth to Glaukos, Ornytion, Almus, Thersander, Sinon and possibly Porphyrion.[6] The star Merope is often called the "lost Pleiad" because she was at first not seen by astronomers or charted like her sisters. One myth[7] says that she hid her face in shame because she had an affair with a mortal man, another says she went to Hades with her husband, Sisyphus.[8] The Lost Pleiade (marble sculpture, 1874/75) by Randolph Rogers is on display at the Art Institute of Chicago In art[edit] L'etoile Perdue (The Lost Star, 1884) by William Adolphe Bouguereau depicts Merope with her sister Pleiades in the background. The Lost Pleiade (marble sculpture, 1874/75) by Randolph Rogers depicts Merope, as inspired by the Roman author Ovid's poem Fasti which recounts the legend of the seven sister stars. It is on display in the Art Institute of Chicago. A dark interstellar cloud ravaged by the passage of Merope, one of the brightest stars in the Pleiades star cluster. In popular culture[edit] Merope is the name of the absent mother of the young protagonist in The Game by Diana Wynne Jones. Merope is the real name of the time traveler "Eileen O'Reilly" in the novel Blackout/All Clear by Connie Willis. It is appropriate because she marries a "contemporary" of the era to which she time-travels. Merope Gaunt is the name of Voldemort's mother in the Harry Potter series. She marries a Muggle against the wishes of her family, and produces one son, Tom Marvolo Riddle, who would grow up to be Lord Voldemort. The star Merope (and the Pleiades cluster) is involved in an ongoing alien mystery within the game Elite Dangerous; specifically the planet Merope 5c has been strangely targeted by alien Unknown Artifacts. Merope is the sun of the planet Darqueworld in the novel Monster Stalker: A Darquepunk Novel by Elizabeth Watasin. References[edit] ^ Noah Webster (1884) A Practical Dictionary of the English Language ^ a b The Pleiades in mythology, Pleiade.org ^ Scholiast to Iliad, 18.486. https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg5026.tlg001.1st1K-grc1:2.18.198/ This in turn cites the lost Epic Cycle ^ Mythology of the Seven Sisters (Pleiads), National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (Arecibo Observatory) ^ Pleiades, in Greek mythology, InfoPlease ^ Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ Ovid, Fasti 4.169–178; Robert A. Kaster, Emotion, Restraint, and Community in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 79. ^ Merope: Definition, Answers.com Bibliography[edit] Gibson, Steven. "Merope". Pleiades Mythology. Retrieved 22 April 2009. "Merope". Answers.com. 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2009. "Pleiades". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Infoplease. 2007. Retrieved 22 April 2009. Further reading[edit] Calame, Claude. Myth and History in Ancient Greece. 1996. Trans. Daniel W. Berman. New Jersey: Princeton University, 2003. Ceci, Lynn. "Watchers of the Pleiades: Ethnoastronomy among Native Cultivators in Northeastern North America." Ethnohistory 25.4 (1978): 301-317. Gould, John. "Law, Custom, and Myth: Aspects of the Social Position of Women in Classical Athens." Myth, Ritual, Memory, and Exchange Essays in Greek Literature and Culture. New York: Oxford University, 2001. 112-157. Interpretations of Greek Mythology. 1987. Comp. Jan Bremmer. London: Routedge, 1990. Kellett, E. E. The Story of Myths. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1927. Kershaw, Stephen P. The Greek Myths Gods, Monsters, Heroes, and the Origins of Storytelling. Brief Guide. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2007. Larson, Jennifer. Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore. New York: Oxford University, 2001. Women’s Roles in Ancient Civilizations. Ed. Bella Vivante. Connecticut: Greenwood, 1999. External links[edit] Condos, Theony; Hyginus (1997). Eratosthenes (ed.). Star Myths of Greeks and Romans: A Sourcebook. Grand Rapids: Phanes Press. ISBN 978-1-890482-92-3. Retrieved 22 April 2009. Merope role with Atlas. Theoi Project - Nymphe Merope Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merope_(Pleiad)&oldid=1002146998" Categories: Pleiades (Greek mythology) Metamorphoses in Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Latina Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 02:14 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-4952	----	Sisyphus - Wikipedia Sisyphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the current revision of this page, as edited by ClueBot NG (talk | contribs) at 08:51, 21 January 2021 (Reverting possible vandalism by 5.132.113.238 to version by Mandarax. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3873097) (Bot)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version. Revision as of 08:51, 21 January 2021 by ClueBot NG (talk | contribs) (Reverting possible vandalism by 5.132.113.238 to version by Mandarax. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3873097) (Bot)) (diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Jump to navigation Jump to search King of Ephyra in Greek mythology For other uses, see Sisyphus (disambiguation). Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attica black-figure amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen[1] In Greek mythology Sisyphus or Sisyphos (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Ancient Greek: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) was the king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the classical influence on modern culture, tasks that are both laborious and futile are therefore described as Sisyphean (/sɪsɪˈfiːən/).[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family 3 Mythology 3.1 Reign 3.2 Conflict with Salmoneus 3.3 Cheating death 3.4 Punishment in the underworld 4 Interpretations 4.1 Literary interpretations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Etymology[edit] Linguistics Professor R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word sophos (σοφός, "wise").[3] German mythographer Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from sisys (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.[4] Family[edit] Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete[5] and the brother of Salmoneus. He married the Pleiad Merope by whom he became the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus, Sinon and Porphyrion.[6] Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus,[7][8] and Minyas, founder of Orchomenus, through Almus.[6] Mythology[edit] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Reign[edit] Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth).[7] King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. Conflict with Salmoneus[edit] Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. Cheating death[edit] Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the Asopid Aegina to her father, the river god Asopus, in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis.[7] Zeus then ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Charon, whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and Ares, annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.[9] In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.[10] Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone, goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes.[11][12] In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.[13] In Philoctetes by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the Odyssey) upon having returned from the dead. Euripides, in Cyclops, also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. Punishment in the underworld[edit] As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.[7][14][15] The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as Sisyphean. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.[16] Interpretations[edit] Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649 According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.[17] Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.[17] The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[18] Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach[19] that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese,[20] building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.[21] In his book The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking,[22] German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. Literary interpretations[edit] Sisyphus (1548–49) by Titian, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the Iliad and Book XI of the Odyssey.[8][15] Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").[23] In Plato's Apology, Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"[24] Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[25] The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.[26] Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons.[27] See also[edit] The Hill (film) The Myth of Sisyphus, a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd Sisyphus cooling, a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth Sisyphus (dialogue), written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works Syzyfowe prace, a novel by Stefan Żeromski Triangle (2009 British film) Comparable characters: Naranath Bhranthan, a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore Wu Gang – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree Notes[edit] ^ museum inv. 1494 ^ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ^ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ a b Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ a b c d Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.3 ^ a b Homer, Iliad VI 152ff ^ Morford & Lenardon 1999, p. 491. ^ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ "Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus". www.mythweb.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019. ^ "Sisyphus". www.greekmythology.com. ^ Evslin 2006, p. 209-210. ^ "Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 9 October 2014. ^ a b Odyssey, xi. 593 ^ Pausanias x. 31 ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ^ De Rerum Natura III ^ Revue archéologique, 1904 ^ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. ISBN 0-89281-409-8 ^ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7. ^ Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. ISBN 978-3-7438-7149-6 ^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44. ^ Apology, 41a ^ Karl, Frederick. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 ^ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. ^ Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. References[edit] Evslin, Bernard (2006). Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84511-321-6. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Morford, Mark P. O.; Lenardon, Robert J. (1999). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514338-6. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External links[edit] Look up Sisyphean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sisyphus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sisyphus "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. "Sisyphus" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Authority control BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 PLWABN: 9810697447205606 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67258418 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392" Categories: Aeolides Corinthian mythology Condemned souls into Tartarus Kings of Corinth Heroes who ventured to Hades Mythological tricksters Mythological city founders Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 08:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5020	----	Franz Kafka - Wikipedia Franz Kafka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Kafka" redirects here. For other uses, see Kafka (disambiguation). Bohemian novelist and short-story writer (1883–1924) Franz Kafka Kafka in 1923 Born (1883-07-03)3 July 1883 Prague, Kingdom of Bohemia, Austria-Hungary (present day Czech Republic) Died 3 June 1924(1924-06-03) (aged 40) Kierling, part of Klosterneuburg, Lower Austria, Austria Resting place New Jewish Cemetery, Prague-Žižkov Citizenship born with General Austrian citizenship based on Austro-Hungarian nationality law of 1867 Czechoslovakia (1918–1924)[1][2] Alma mater German Charles-Ferdinand University, Prague Occupation Novelist short story writer insurance officer Notable work "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis") Der Process (The Trial) "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment") Das Schloss (The Castle) Betrachtung (Contemplation) Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist) Briefe an Felice (Letters to Felice) Style Modernism Parent(s) Hermann Kafka Julie Kafka (née Löwy) Signature Franz Kafka[a] (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic.[4] It typically features isolated protagonists facing bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible socio-bureaucratic powers. It has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity.[5] His best known works include "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"), Der Process (The Trial), and Das Schloss (The Castle). The term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those found in his writing.[6] Kafka was born into a middle-class German-Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, today the capital of the Czech Republic.[7] He trained as a lawyer and after completing his legal education was employed full-time by an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship. He became engaged to several women but never married. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis. Few of Kafka's works were published during his lifetime: the story collections Betrachtung (Contemplation) and Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor), and individual stories (such as "Die Verwandlung") were published in literary magazines but received little public attention. In his will, Kafka instructed his executor and friend Max Brod to destroy his unfinished works, including his novels Der Prozess, Das Schloss and Der Verschollene (translated as both Amerika and The Man Who Disappeared), but Brod ignored these instructions. His work has influenced a vast range of writers, critics, artists, and philosophers during the 20th and 21st centuries. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Education 1.3 Employment 1.4 Private life 1.5 Personality 1.6 Political views 1.7 Judaism and Zionism 2 Death 3 Works 3.1 Stories 3.2 Novels 3.3 Publishing history 3.3.1 Max Brod 3.3.2 Modern editions 3.3.3 Unpublished papers 4 Critical response 4.1 Critical interpretations 4.2 Translations 4.3 Translation problems to English 5 Legacy 5.1 Literary and cultural influence 5.2 "Kafkaesque" 5.3 Commemorations 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Hermann and Julie Kafka Franz Kafka's sisters, from the left Valli, Elli, Ottla Kafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His family were German-speaking middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka (1854–1931), was the fourth child of Jakob Kafka,[8][9] a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek, a Czech village with a large Jewish population located near Strakonice in southern Bohemia.[10] Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague. After working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fashion retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw (kavka in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as kafka) as his business logo.[11] Kafka's mother, Julie (1856–1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous retail merchant in Poděbrady,[12] and was better educated than her husband.[8] Kafka's parents probably spoke a German influenced by Yiddish that was sometimes pejoratively called Mauscheldeutsch, but, as the German language was considered the vehicle of social mobility, they probably encouraged their children to speak Standard German.[13] Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest.[14] Franz's two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven; his three sisters were Gabriele ("Ellie") (1889–1944), Valerie ("Valli") (1890–1942) and Ottilie ("Ottla") (1892–1943). All three were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II. Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in occupied Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her. Ottilie was Kafka's favourite sister.[15] Hermann is described by the biographer Stanley Corngold as a "huge, selfish, overbearing businessman"[16] and by Franz Kafka as "a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, [and] knowledge of human nature".[17] On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business. Consequently, Kafka's childhood was somewhat lonely,[18] and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his Brief an den Vater (Letter to His Father) of more than 100 pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character;[19] his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy.[20] The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing.[21] The Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. Franz's room was often cold. In November 1913 the family moved into a bigger apartment, although Ellie and Valli had married and moved out of the first apartment. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, the sisters did not know where their husbands were in the military and moved back in with the family in this larger apartment. Both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Valli's former apartment, quiet by contrast, and lived by himself for the first time.[22] Education[edit] From 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the Deutsche Knabenschule German boys' elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt (meat market), now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his bar mitzvah celebration at the age of 13. Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year.[17][23][24] Kinský Palace where Kafka attended gymnasium and his father owned a shop After leaving elementary school in 1893, Kafka was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium, an academic secondary school at Old Town Square, within the Kinský Palace. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and wrote in Czech.[25][26] He studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades.[27] Although Kafka received compliments for his Czech, he never considered himself fluent in Czech, though he spoke German with a Czech accent.[1][26] He completed his Matura exams in 1901.[28] Admitted to the Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universität of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry, but switched to law after two weeks.[29] Although this field did not excite him, it offered a range of career possibilities which pleased his father. In addition, law required a longer course of study, giving Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history.[30] He also joined a student club, Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten (Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students), which organised literary events, readings and other activities.[31] Among Kafka's friends were the journalist Felix Weltsch, who studied philosophy, the actor Yitzchak Lowy who came from an orthodox Hasidic Warsaw family, and the writers Ludwig Winder, Oskar Baum and Franz Werfel.[32] At the end of his first year of studies, Kafka met Max Brod, a fellow law student who became a close friend for life.[31] Brod soon noticed that, although Kafka was shy and seldom spoke, what he said was usually profound.[33] Kafka was an avid reader throughout his life;[34] together he and Brod read Plato's Protagoras in the original Greek, on Brod's initiative, and Flaubert's L'éducation sentimentale and La Tentation de St. Antoine (The Temptation of Saint Anthony) in French, at his own suggestion.[35] Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gustav Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer,[36] and Heinrich von Kleist to be his "true blood brothers".[37] Besides these, he took an interest in Czech literature[25][26] and was also very fond of the works of Goethe.[38][39] Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 July 1906[b] and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.[6] Employment[edit] Former home of the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute On 1 November 1907, Kafka was hired at the Assicurazioni Generali, an insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. His correspondence during that period indicates that he was unhappy with a work schedule—from 08:00 until 18:00[42][43]—that made it extremely difficult to concentrate on writing, which was assuming increasing importance to him. On 15 July 1908, he resigned. Two weeks later, he found employment more amenable to writing when he joined the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. The job involved investigating and assessing compensation for personal injury to industrial workers; accidents such as lost fingers or limbs were commonplace, owing to poor work safety policies at the time. It was especially true of factories fitted with machine lathes, drills, planing machines and rotary saws, which were rarely fitted with safety guards.[44] The management professor Peter Drucker credits Kafka with developing the first civilian hard hat while employed at the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute, but this is not supported by any document from his employer.[45][46] His father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a Brotberuf, literally "bread job", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it. Kafka was rapidly promoted and his duties included processing and investigating compensation claims, writing reports, and handling appeals from businessmen who thought their firms had been placed in too high a risk category, which cost them more in insurance premiums.[47] He would compile and compose the annual report on the insurance institute for the several years he worked there. The reports were well received by his superiors.[48] Kafka usually got off work at 2 P.M., so that he had time to spend on his literary work, to which he was committed.[49] Kafka's father also expected him to help out at and take over the family fancy goods store.[50] In his later years, Kafka's illness often prevented him from working at the insurance bureau and at his writing. Years later, Brod coined the term Der enge Prager Kreis ("The Close Prague Circle") to describe the group of writers, which included Kafka, Felix Weltsch and him.[51][52] In late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka. Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business, but he later resented the encroachment of this work on his writing time.[53] During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre. After seeing a Yiddish theatre troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka "immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature".[54] This interest also served as a starting point for his growing exploration of Judaism.[55] It was at about this time that Kafka became a vegetarian.[56] Around 1915, Kafka received his draft notice for military service in World War I, but his employers at the insurance institute arranged for a deferment because his work was considered essential government service. He later attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis,[57] with which he was diagnosed in 1917.[58] In 1918, the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute put Kafka on a pension due to his illness, for which there was no cure at the time, and he spent most of the rest of his life in sanatoriums.[6] Private life[edit] Kafka never married. According to Brod, Kafka was "tortured" by sexual desire,[59] and Kafka's biographer Reiner Stach states that his life was full of "incessant womanising" and that he was filled with a fear of "sexual failure".[60] Kafka visited brothels for most of his adult life,[61][62][63] and was interested in pornography.[59] In addition, he had close relationships with several women during his lifetime. On 13 August 1912, Kafka met Felice Bauer, a relative of Brod, who worked in Berlin as a representative of a dictaphone company. A week after the meeting at Brod's home, Kafka wrote in his diary: Miss FB. When I arrived at Brod's on 13 August, she was sitting at the table. I was not at all curious about who she was, but rather took her for granted at once. Bony, empty face that wore its emptiness openly. Bare throat. A blouse thrown on. Looked very domestic in her dress although, as it turned out, she by no means was. (I alienate myself from her a little by inspecting her so closely ...) Almost broken nose. Blonde, somewhat straight, unattractive hair, strong chin. As I was taking my seat I looked at her closely for the first time, by the time I was seated I already had an unshakeable opinion.[64][65] Shortly after this meeting, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment") in only one night and worked in a productive period on Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared) and "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"). Kafka and Felice Bauer communicated mostly through letters over the next five years, met occasionally, and were engaged twice.[66] Kafka's extant letters to Bauer were published as Briefe an Felice (Letters to Felice); her letters do not survive.[64][67][68] According to the biographers Stach and James Hawes, Kafka became engaged a third time around 1920, to Julie Wohryzek, a poor and uneducated hotel chambermaid.[66][69] Although the two rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place. During this time, Kafka began a draft of Letter to His Father, who objected to Julie because of her Zionist beliefs. Before the date of the intended marriage, he took up with yet another woman.[70] While he needed women and sex in his life, he had low self-confidence, felt sex was dirty, and was cripplingly shy—especially about his body.[6] Stach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe "Grete" Bloch,[71] a Jewish woman from Berlin. Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child. The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921.[72][73] However, Kafka's biographer Peter-André Alt says that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father as the pair were never intimate.[74][75] Stach points out that there is a great deal of contradictory evidence around the claim that Kafka was the father.[76] Kafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in August 1917 and moved for a few months to the Bohemian village of Zürau (Siřem in the Czech language), where his sister Ottla worked on the farm of her brother-in-law Karl Hermann. He felt comfortable there and later described this time as perhaps the best period of his life, probably because he had no responsibilities. He kept diaries and Oktavhefte (octavo). From the notes in these books, Kafka extracted 109 numbered pieces of text on Zettel, single pieces of paper in no given order. They were later published as Die Zürauer Aphorismen oder Betrachtungen über Sünde, Hoffnung, Leid und den wahren Weg (The Zürau Aphorisms or Reflections on Sin, Hope, Suffering, and the True Way).[77] In 1920, Kafka began an intense relationship with Milena Jesenská, a Czech journalist and writer. His letters to her were later published as Briefe an Milena.[78] During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family. Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin (September 1923-March 1924) and lived with Diamant. She became his lover and sparked his interest in the Talmud.[79] He worked on four stories, all of which were intended for publication, including Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist).[78] Personality[edit] Kafka had a lifelong suspicion that people found him mentally and physically repulsive. However, those who met him invariably found him to possess a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence, and a dry sense of humour; they also found him boyishly handsome, although of austere appearance.[80][81][82] Kafka in 1906 Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details.[83] Brod thought Kafka was one of the most entertaining people he had met; Kafka enjoyed sharing humour with his friends, but also helped them in difficult situations with good advice.[84] According to Brod, he was a passionate reciter, able to phrase his speech as though it were music.[85] Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were "absolute truthfulness" (absolute Wahrhaftigkeit) and "precise conscientiousness" (präzise Gewissenhaftigkeit).[86][87] He explored details, the inconspicuous, in depth and with such love and precision that things surfaced that were unforeseen, seemingly strange, but absolutely true (nichts als wahr).[88] Although Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later developed a passion for games and physical activity,[34] and was an accomplished rider, swimmer, and rower.[86] On weekends, he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself.[89] His other interests included alternative medicine, modern education systems such as Montessori,[86] and technological novelties such as airplanes and film.[90] Writing was vitally important to Kafka; he considered it a "form of prayer".[91] He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred absolute quiet when writing.[92] Pérez-Álvarez has claimed that Kafka may have possessed a schizoid personality disorder.[93] His style, it is claimed, not only in "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"), but in various other writings, appears to show low to medium-level schizoid traits, which Pérez-Álvarez claims to have influenced much of his work.[94] His anguish can be seen in this diary entry from 21 June 1913:[95] Die ungeheure Welt, die ich im Kopfe habe. Aber wie mich befreien und sie befreien, ohne zu zerreißen. Und tausendmal lieber zerreißen, als in mir sie zurückhalten oder begraben. Dazu bin ich ja hier, das ist mir ganz klar.[96] The tremendous world I have inside my head, but how to free myself and free it without being torn to pieces. And a thousand times rather be torn to pieces than retain it in me or bury it. That, indeed, is why I am here, that is quite clear to me.[97] and in Zürau Aphorism number 50: Man cannot live without a permanent trust in something indestructible within himself, though both that indestructible something and his own trust in it may remain permanently concealed from him.[98] Alessia Coralli and Antonio Perciaccante of San Giovanni di Dio Hospital have posited that Kafka may have had borderline personality disorder with co-occurring psychophysiological insomnia.[99] Joan Lachkar interpreted Die Verwandlung as "a vivid depiction of the borderline personality" and described the story as "model for Kafka's own abandonment fears, anxiety, depression, and parasitic dependency needs. Kafka illuminated the borderline's general confusion of normal and healthy desires, wishes, and needs with something ugly and disdainful."[100] Though Kafka never married, he held marriage and children in high esteem. He had several girlfriends and lovers across his life.[101] He may have suffered from an eating disorder. Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented "evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa",[102] and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also "occasionally suicidal".[81] In his 1995 book Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient, Sander Gilman investigated "why a Jew might have been considered 'hypochondriacal' or 'homosexual' and how Kafka incorporates aspects of these ways of understanding the Jewish male into his own self-image and writing".[103] Kafka considered suicide at least once, in late 1912.[104] Political views[edit] Prior to World War I,[105] Kafka attended several meetings of the Klub mladých, a Czech anarchist, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization.[106] Hugo Bergmann, who attended the same elementary and high schools as Kafka, fell out with Kafka during their last academic year (1900–1901) because "[Kafka's] socialism and my Zionism were much too strident".[107][108] "Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898. The synthesis of Zionism and socialism did not yet exist".[108] Bergmann claims that Kafka wore a red carnation to school to show his support for socialism.[108] In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: "Don't forget Kropotkin!"[109] During the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern bloc socialism was hotly debated. Opinions ranged from the notion that he satirised the bureaucratic bungling of a crumbling Austro-Hungarian Empire, to the belief that he embodied the rise of socialism.[110] A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation. While the orthodox position was that Kafka's depictions of alienation were no longer relevant for a society that had supposedly eliminated alienation, a 1963 conference held in Liblice, Czechoslovakia, on the eightieth anniversary of his birth, reassessed the importance of Kafka's portrayal of bureaucracy.[111] Whether or not Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.[112] Judaism and Zionism[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka and Judaism Kafka in 1910 Kafka grew up in Prague as a German-speaking Jew.[113] He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe, who he thought possessed an intensity of spiritual life that was absent from Jews in the West. His diary is full of references to Yiddish writers.[114] Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life. On 8 January 1914, he wrote in his diary: Was habe ich mit Juden gemeinsam? Ich habe kaum etwas mit mir gemeinsam und sollte mich ganz still, zufrieden damit daß ich atmen kann in einen Winkel stellen.[115] (What have I in common with Jews? I have hardly anything in common with myself and should stand very quietly in a corner, content that I can breathe.)[116][117] In his adolescent years, Kafka declared himself an atheist.[118] Hawes suggests that Kafka, though very aware of his own Jewishness, did not incorporate it into his work, which, according to Hawes, lacks Jewish characters, scenes or themes.[119][120][121] In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, although Kafka was uneasy with his Jewish heritage, he was the quintessential Jewish writer.[122] Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: "The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's oeuvre is no longer subject to doubt".[123] Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets Der Process (The Trial) as the embodiment of the "triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague ... his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer). He stands for the 'guiltless guilt' that imbues the Jew in the modern world, although there is no evidence that he himself is a Jew".[124] In his essay Sadness in Palestine?!, Dan Miron explores Kafka's connection to Zionism: "It seems that those who claim that there was such a connection and that Zionism played a central role in his life and literary work, and those who deny the connection altogether or dismiss its importance, are both wrong. The truth lies in some very elusive place between these two simplistic poles".[114] Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant. He studied Hebrew while living in Berlin, hiring a friend of Brod's from Palestine, Pua Bat-Tovim, to tutor him[114] and attending Rabbi Julius Grünthal's[125] and Rabbi Julius Guttmann's classes in the Berlin Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums (College for the Study of Judaism).[126] Livia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the "symbolic figure of his era".[124] His contemporaries included numerous Jewish, Czech, and German writers who were sensitive to Jewish, Czech, and German culture. According to Rothkirchen, "This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation. An illustrious example is Franz Kafka".[124] Towards the end of his life Kafka sent a postcard to his friend Hugo Bergman in Tel Aviv, announcing his intention to emigrate to Palestine. Bergman refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis.[127] Death[edit] Franz Kafka's grave in Prague-Žižkov designed by Leopold Ehrmann Kafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague,[66] where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla and Dora Diamant, took care of him. He went to Dr. Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling just outside Vienna for treatment on 10 April,[78] and died there on 3 June 1924. The cause of death seemed to be starvation: the condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him.[128][129] Kafka was editing "A Hunger Artist" on his deathbed, a story whose composition he had begun before his throat closed to the point that he could not take any nourishment.[130] His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-Žižkov.[62] Kafka was virtually unknown during his own lifetime, but he did not consider fame important. He rose to fame rapidly after his death,[91] particularly after World War II. The Kafka tombstone was designed by architect Leopold Ehrmann.[131] Works[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka bibliography First page of Kafka's Letter to His Father All of Kafka's published works, except some letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention. Kafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work,[132][133] much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts.[134] In his early years as a writer, he was influenced by von Kleist, whose work he described in a letter to Bauer as frightening, and whom he considered closer than his own family.[135] Stories[edit] Kafka's earliest published works were eight stories which appeared in 1908 in the first issue of the literary journal Hyperion under the title Betrachtung (Contemplation). He wrote the story "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Description of a Struggle")[c] in 1904; he showed it to Brod in 1905 who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to Hyperion. Kafka published a fragment in 1908[136] and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich.[137] In a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment", literally: "The Verdict") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer. Brod noted the similarity in names of the main character and his fictional fiancée, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer.[138] The story is often considered Kafka's breakthrough work. It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement.[139][140] Kafka later described writing it as "a complete opening of body and soul",[141] a story that "evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime".[142] The story was first published in Leipzig in 1912 and dedicated "to Miss Felice Bauer", and in subsequent editions "for F."[78] In 1912, Kafka wrote "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis", or "The Transformation"),[143] published in 1915 in Leipzig. The story begins with a travelling salesman waking to find himself transformed into an ungeheures Ungeziefer, a monstrous vermin, Ungeziefer being a general term for unwanted and unclean animals. Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century.[144][145][146] The story "In der Strafkolonie" ("In the Penal Colony"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914,[78] revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919. The story "Ein Hungerkünstler" ("A Hunger Artist"), published in the periodical Die neue Rundschau in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods.[147] His last story, "Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse" ("Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience.[148] Franz Kafka Notebook with words in German and Hebrew. from the Collection of the National Library of Israel. Novels[edit] Kafka began his first novel in 1912;[149] its first chapter is the story "Der Heizer" ("The Stoker"). He called the work, which remained unfinished, Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared or The Missing Man), but when Brod published it after Kafka's death he named it Amerika.[150] The inspiration for the novel was the time spent in the audience of Yiddish theatre the previous year, bringing him to a new awareness of his heritage, which led to the thought that an innate appreciation for one's heritage lives deep within each person.[151] More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, the novel shares the motif of an oppressive and intangible system putting the protagonist repeatedly in bizarre situations.[152] It uses many details of experiences of his relatives who had emigrated to America[153] and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending.[154] During 1914, Kafka began the novel Der Process (The Trial),[137] the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader. He did not complete the novel, although he finished the final chapter. According to Nobel Prize winner and Kafka scholar Elias Canetti, Felice is central to the plot of Der Process and Kafka said it was "her story".[155][156] Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice Kafka's Other Trial, in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel.[156] Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for The New York Times that Kafka's letters have the "earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocation—combined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardor and delight."[156] According to his diary, Kafka was already planning his novel Das Schloss (The Castle), by 11 June 1914; however, he did not begin writing it until 27 January 1922.[137] The protagonist is the Landvermesser (land surveyor) named K., who struggles for unknown reasons to gain access to the mysterious authorities of a castle who govern the village. Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his "legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there".[157] Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unobtainable goal. Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: "Like dreams, his texts combine precise 'realistic' detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness."[158] Publishing history[edit] First edition of Betrachtung, 1912 Kafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals. His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly Hyperion.[159] Franz Blei published two dialogues in 1909 which became part of "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Description of a Struggle").[159] A fragment of the story "Die Aeroplane in Brescia" ("The Aeroplanes at Brescia"), written on a trip to Italy with Brod, appeared in the daily Bohemia on 28 September 1909.[159][160] On 27 March 1910, several stories that later became part of the book Betrachtung were published in the Easter edition of Bohemia.[159][161] In Leipzig during 1913, Brod and publisher Kurt Wolff included "Das Urteil. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka." ("The Judgment. A Story by Franz Kafka.") in their literary yearbook for the art poetry Arkadia. In the same year, Wolff published "Der Heizer" ("The Stoker") in the Jüngste Tag series, where it enjoyed three printings.[162] The story "Vor dem Gesetz" ("Before the Law") was published in the 1915 New Year's edition of the independent Jewish weekly Selbstwehr; it was reprinted in 1919 as part of the story collection Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor) and became part of the novel Der Process. Other stories were published in various publications, including Martin Buber's Der Jude, the paper Prager Tagblatt, and the periodicals Die neue Rundschau, Genius, and Prager Presse.[159] Kafka's first published book, Betrachtung (Contemplation, or Meditation), was a collection of 18 stories written between 1904 and 1912. On a summer trip to Weimar, Brod initiated a meeting between Kafka and Kurt Wolff;[163] Wolff published Betrachtung in the Rowohlt Verlag at the end of 1912 (with the year given as 1913).[164] Kafka dedicated it to Brod, "Für M.B.", and added in the personal copy given to his friend "So wie es hier schon gedruckt ist, für meinen liebsten Max‍—‌Franz K." ("As it is already printed here, for my dearest Max").[165] Kafka's story "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis") was first printed in the October 1915 issue of Die Weißen Blätter, a monthly edition of expressionist literature, edited by René Schickele.[164] Another story collection, Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor), was published by Kurt Wolff in 1919,[164] dedicated to Kafka's father.[166] Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist), which appeared in 1924 after his death, in Verlag Die Schmiede. On 20 April 1924, the Berliner Börsen-Courier published Kafka's essay on Adalbert Stifter.[167] Max Brod[edit] First edition of Der Prozess, 1925 Kafka left his work, both published and unpublished, to his friend and literary executor Max Brod with explicit instructions that it should be destroyed on Kafka's death; Kafka wrote: "Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me ... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread".[168][169] Brod ignored this request and published the novels and collected works between 1925 and 1935. He took many papers, which remain unpublished, with him in suitcases to Palestine when he fled there in 1939.[170] Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20 notebooks and 35 letters. These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them.[171] As Brod published the bulk of the writings in his possession,[172] Kafka's work began to attract wider attention and critical acclaim. Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order. One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end.[173][174] Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication. For example, Kafka left Der Process with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and Das Schloss with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content;[174] Brod rearranged chapters, copy-edited the text, and changed the punctuation. Der Process appeared in 1925 in Verlag Die Schmiede. Kurt Wolff published two other novels, Das Schloss in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. In 1931, Brod edited a collection of prose and unpublished stories as Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer (The Great Wall of China), including the story of the same name. The book appeared in the Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag. Brod's sets are usually called the "Definitive Editions".[175] Modern editions[edit] In 1961, Malcolm Pasley acquired most of Kafka's original handwritten work for the Oxford Bodleian Library.[176][177] The text for Der Process was later purchased through auction and is stored at the German Literary Archives in Marbach am Neckar, Germany.[177][178] Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit and Jürgen Born) which reconstructed the German novels; S. Fischer Verlag republished them.[179] Pasley was the editor for Das Schloss, published in 1982, and Der Process (The Trial), published in 1990. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of Der Verschollene (Amerika) published in 1983. These are called the "Critical Editions" or the "Fischer Editions".[180] Unpublished papers[edit] When Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe.[181] She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers. A court battle began in 2008 between the sisters and the National Library of Israel, which claimed these works became the property of the nation of Israel when Brod emigrated to British Palestine in 1939. Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of Der Process for US$2 million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar.[132][182] Only Eva was still alive as of 2012.[183] A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued.[184] The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library of Israel argues they are "cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people".[184] The National Library also suggests that Brod bequeathed the papers to them in his will. The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012 that the papers were the property of the National Library.[185] Critical response[edit] Critical interpretations[edit] The poet W. H. Auden called Kafka "the Dante of the twentieth century";[186] the novelist Vladimir Nabokov placed him among the greatest writers of the 20th century.[187] Gabriel García Márquez noted the reading of Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" showed him "that it was possible to write in a different way".[117][188] A prominent theme of Kafka's work, first established in the short story "Das Urteil",[189] is father–son conflict: the guilt induced in the son is resolved through suffering and atonement.[19][189] Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation.[190] Kafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of "Die Verwandlung" and "Der Heizer" by Oscar Walzel in Berliner Beiträge.[191] The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools.[112] Marxists, for example, have sharply disagreed over how to interpret Kafka's works.[106][112] Some accused him of distorting reality whereas others claimed he was critiquing capitalism.[112] The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism.[192] Some of Kafka's books are influenced by the expressionist movement, though the majority of his literary output was associated with the experimental modernist genre. Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy. William Burrows claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships.[193] Others, such as Thomas Mann, see Kafka's work as allegorical: a quest, metaphysical in nature, for God.[194][195] According to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the themes of alienation and persecution, although present in Kafka's work, have been over-emphasised by critics. They argue Kafka's work is more deliberate and subversive—and more joyful—than may first appear. They point out that reading the Kafka work while focusing on the futility of his characters' struggles reveals Kafka's play of humour; he is not necessarily commenting on his own problems, but rather pointing out how people tend to invent problems. In his work, Kafka often created malevolent, absurd worlds.[196][197] Kafka read drafts of his works to his friends, typically concentrating on his humorous prose. The writer Milan Kundera suggests that Kafka's surrealist humour may have been an inversion of Dostoyevsky's presentation of characters who are punished for a crime. In Kafka's work a character is punished although a crime has not been committed. Kundera believes that Kafka's inspirations for his characteristic situations came both from growing up in a patriarchal family and living in a totalitarian state.[198] Attempts have been made to identify the influence of Kafka's legal background and the role of law in his fiction.[199][200] Most interpretations identify aspects of law and legality as important in his work,[201] in which the legal system is often oppressive.[202] The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces. These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control.[201] Critics who support this absurdist interpretation cite instances where Kafka describes himself in conflict with an absurd universe, such as the following entry from his diary: Enclosed in my own four walls, I found myself as an immigrant imprisoned in a foreign country;... I saw my family as strange aliens whose foreign customs, rites, and very language defied comprehension;... though I did not want it, they forced me to participate in their bizarre rituals;... I could not resist.[203] However, James Hawes argues many of Kafka's descriptions of the legal proceedings in Der Process—metaphysical, absurd, bewildering and nightmarish as they might appear—are based on accurate and informed descriptions of German and Austrian criminal proceedings of the time, which were inquisitorial rather than adversarial.[204] Although he worked in insurance, as a trained lawyer Kafka was "keenly aware of the legal debates of his day".[200][205] In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure,[206] Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law "has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination".[207] Translations[edit] The earliest English translations of Kafka's works were by Edwin and Willa Muir, who in 1930 translated the first German edition of Das Schloss. This was published as The Castle by Secker & Warburg in England and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States.[208] A 1941 edition, including a homage by Thomas Mann, spurred a surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States during the late 1940s.[209] The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces,[210] including additionally The First Long Train Journey, written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's "A Novel about Youth", a review of Felix Sternheim's Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald, his essay on Kleist's "Anecdotes", his review of the literary magazine Hyperion, and an epilogue by Brod. Later editions, notably those of 1954 (Dearest Father. Stories and Other Writings), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser,[211] which had been deleted by earlier publishers.[179] Known as "Definitive Editions", they include translations of The Trial, Definitive, The Castle, Definitive, and other writings. These translations are generally accepted to have a number of biases and are considered to be dated in interpretation.[212] Published in 1961 by Schocken Books, Parables and Paradoxes presented in a bilingual edition by Nahum N. Glatzer selected writings,[213] drawn from notebooks, diaries, letters, short fictional works and the novel Der Process. New translations were completed and published based on the recompiled German text of Pasley and Schillemeit‍—‌The Castle, Critical by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998),[177] The Trial, Critical by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998),[214] and Amerika: The Man Who Disappeared by Michael Hofmann (New Directions Publishing, 2004).[215] Translation problems to English[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka bibliography § English translations Kafka often made extensive use of a characteristic particular to the German language which permits long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page. Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—this being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is due to the construction of subordinate clauses in German which require that the verb be positioned at the end of the sentence. Such constructions are difficult to duplicate in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same (or at least equivalent) effect found in the original text.[216] German's more flexible word order and syntactical differences provide for multiple ways in which the same German writing can be translated into English.[217] An example is the first sentence of Kafka's "The Metamorphosis", which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:[218] Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Träumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheuren Ungeziefer verwandelt. (original) As Gregor Samsa one morning from restless dreams awoke, found he himself in his bed into a monstrous vermin transformed. (literal word-for-word translation)[219] Another difficult problem facing translators is how to deal with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings which results in phrasing that is difficult to translate precisely.[220][221] One such instance is found in the first sentence of "The Metamorphosis". English translators often render the word Ungeziefer as "insect"; in Middle German, however, Ungeziefer literally means "an animal unclean for sacrifice";[222] in today's German it means vermin. It is sometimes used colloquially to mean "bug"—a very general term, unlike the scientific "insect". Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing, but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation.[144][145] Another example is Kafka's use of the German noun Verkehr in the final sentence of "Das Urteil". Literally, Verkehr means intercourse and, as in English, can have either a sexual or non-sexual meaning; in addition, it is used to mean transport or traffic. The sentence can be translated as: "At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge".[223] The double meaning of Verkehr is given added weight by Kafka's confession to Brod that when he wrote that final line, he was thinking of "a violent ejaculation".[142][224] Legacy[edit] Literary and cultural influence[edit] Jaroslav Róna's bronze Statue of Franz Kafka in Prague Unlike many famous writers, Kafka is rarely quoted by others. Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective.[225] Shimon Sandbank, a professor, literary critic, and writer, identifies Kafka as having influenced Jorge Luis Borges, Albert Camus, Eugène Ionesco, J. M. Coetzee and Jean-Paul Sartre.[226] A Financial Times literary critic credits Kafka with influencing José Saramago,[227] and Al Silverman, a writer and editor, states that J. D. Salinger loved to read Kafka's works.[228] In 1999 a committee of 99 authors, scholars, and literary critics ranked Der Process and Das Schloss the second and ninth most significant German-language novels of the 20th century.[229] Sandbank argues that despite Kafka's pervasiveness, his enigmatic style has yet to be emulated.[226] Neil Christian Pages, a professor of German Studies and Comparative Literature at Binghamton University who specialises in Kafka's works, says Kafka's influence transcends literature and literary scholarship; it impacts visual arts, music, and popular culture.[230] Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka "has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century".[6] Brod said that the 20th century will one day be known as the "century of Kafka".[6] Michel-André Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe. Kafka wrote in an aloof manner full of legal and scientific terms. Yet his serious universe also had insightful humour, all highlighting the "irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world".[190] His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world. Much of the post-Kafka fiction, especially science fiction, follow the themes and precepts of Kafka's universe. This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.[190] The following are examples of works across a range of dramatic, literary, and musical genres which demonstrate the extent of Kafka's cultural influence: Title Year Medium Remarks Ref Ein Landarzt 1951 opera by Hans Werner Henze, based on Kafka's story [231] "A Friend of Kafka" 1962 short story by Nobel Prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer, about a Yiddish actor called Jacques Kohn who said he knew Franz Kafka; in this story, according to Jacques Kohn, Kafka believed in the Golem, a legendary creature from Jewish folklore [232] The Trial 1962 film the film's director, Orson Welles, said, "Say what you like, but The Trial is my greatest work, even greater than Citizen Kane" [233][234] Watermelon Man 1970 film partly inspired by "The Metamorphosis", where a white bigot wakes up as a black man [235] Klassenverhältnisse 1984 film film adaptation of Amerika directed by Straub-Huillet Kafka-Fragmente, Op. 24 1985 music by Hungarian composer György Kurtág for soprano and violin, using fragments of Kafka's diary and letters [236] Kafka's Dick 1986 play by Alan Bennett, in which the ghosts of Kafka, his father Hermann and Brod arrive at the home of an English insurance clerk (and Kafka aficionado) and his wife [237] Better Morphosis 1991 short story parodic short story by Brian W. Aldiss, where a cockroach wakes up one morning to find out that it has turned into Franz Kafka [238] Northern Exposure 1992 television series episode in the season 3 episode "Cicely", Kafka finds himself in "The Paris of the North" to break his writer's block. He was invited to town by his letter correspondences' Roslyn and Cicely, who founded the town. In this story it is claimed that he had thought of the premise of The Metamorphosis here. Kafka's Hell-Paradise 2006 play by Milan Richter, in which Kafka re-tells his engagement stories with Felice Bauer and Julie Wohryzek, while all 5 persons use his aphorisms and Kafka tells his dreams; venues: Berlin, Marianske Lazne and Tatranske Matliary Kafka's Second Life 2007 play by Milan Richter, in which Kafka's life is prolonged by 41 years and Kafka experiences a happy life in Argentina, eventually to return to his Prague on the eve of WWII, with his fiancé and a servant Kafka 1991 film stars Jeremy Irons as the eponymous author; written by Lem Dobbs and directed by Steven Soderbergh, the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works; Kafka investigates the disappearance of one of his colleagues, taking Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably The Castle and The Trial [239] Das Schloß 1992 opera German-language opera by Aribert Reimann who wrote his own libretto based on Kafka's novel and its dramatization by Max Brod, premiered on 2 September 1992 at the Deutsche Oper Berlin, staged by Willy Decker and conducted by Michael Boder. [240] The Metamorphosis of Franz Kafka 1993 film film adaptation directed by Carlos Atanes. Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life 1993 film short comedy film made for BBC Scotland, won an Oscar, was written and directed by Peter Capaldi, and starred Richard E. Grant as Kafka [241] Bad Mojo 1996 computer game loosely based on The Metamorphosis, with characters named Franz and Roger Samms, alluding to Gregor Samsa [242] In the Penal Colony 2000 opera by Philip Glass [243] Kafka on the Shore 2002 novel by Japanese writer Haruki Murakami, on The New York Times 10 Best Books of 2005 list, World Fantasy Award recipient [244] Statue of Franz Kafka 2003 sculpture an outdoor sculpture on Vězeňská street in the Jewish Quarter of Prague, by artist Jaroslav Róna [245] Kafka's Trial 2005 opera by Danish composer Poul Ruders, based on the novel and parts of Kafka's life; first performed in 2005, released on CD [246] Kafka's Soup 2005 book by Mark Crick, is a literary pastiche in the form of a cookbook, with recipes written in the style of a famous author [247] Introducing Kafka 2007 graphic novel by Robert Crumb and David Zane Mairowitz, contains text and illustrations introducing Kafka's life and work A Country Doctor 2007 short film by Kōji Yamamura "Kafkaesque" 2010 TV series Breaking Bad Season 3 episode written by Peter Gould & George Mastras. Jesse Pinkman, at a group therapy meeting, describes his new workplace as a dreary, "totally corporate" laundromat mired in bureaucracy. He complains about his boss and that he's not worthy to meet the owner, whom everyone fears. "Sounds kind of Kafkaesque," responds the group leader. Kafka the Musical 2011 radio play by BBC Radio 3 produced as part of their Play of the Week programme. Franz Kafka was played by David Tennant [248] Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka 2012 music HAZE Netlabel released musical compilation Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka. In this release musicians rethink the literary heritage of Kafka [249] Google Doodle 2013 internet culture Google had a sepia-toned doodle of a roach in a hat opening a door, honoring Kafka's 130th birthday [250] The Metamorphosis 2013 dance Royal Ballet production of The Metamorphosis with Edward Watson [251] Café Kafka 2014 opera by Spanish composer Francisco Coll on a text by Meredith Oakes, built from texts and fragments by Franz Kafka; Commissioned by Aldeburgh Music, Opera North and Royal Opera Covent Garden [252] Head of Franz Kafka 2014 sculpture an outdoor sculpture in Prague by David Černý [253] VRwandlung 2018 virtual reality a virtual reality experience of the first part of The Metamorphosis directed by Mika Johnson [254] "Kafkaesque"[edit] "Kafkaesque" redirects here. For the Breaking Bad episode, see Kafkaesque (Breaking Bad). The term "Kafkaesque" is used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of his work, particularly Der Process (The Trial) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). Examples include instances in which bureaucracies overpower people, often in a surreal, nightmarish milieu which evokes feelings of senselessness, disorientation, and helplessness. Characters in a Kafkaesque setting often lack a clear course of action to escape a labyrinthine situation. Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical.[6][233][255][256] Numerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction. Works in this genre that have been thus described include Patrick Bokanowski's film The Angel (1982), Terry Gilliam's film Brazil (1985), and Alex Proyas' science fiction film noir, Dark City (1998). Films from other genres which have been similarly described include Roman Polanski's The Tenant (1976) and the Coen brothers' Barton Fink (1991).[257] The television series The Prisoner and The Twilight Zone are also frequently described as Kafkaesque.[258][259] However, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it is often misused.[260] More accurately then, according to author Ben Marcus, paraphrased in "What it Means to be Kafkaesque" by Joe Fassler in The Atlantic, "Kafka’s quintessential qualities are affecting use of language, a setting that straddles fantasy and reality, and a sense of striving even in the face of bleakness—hopelessly and full of hope." [261] Commemorations[edit] Plaque marking the birthplace of Franz Kafka in Prague, designed by Karel Hladík and Jan Kaplický, 1966 3412 Kafka is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 10 January 1983 by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States,[262] and named after Kafka by them.[263] Apache Kafka, an open-source stream processing platform originally released in January 2011, is named after Kafka.[264] The Franz Kafka Museum in Prague is dedicated to Kafka and his work. A major component of the museum is an exhibit, The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague, which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and finally established in Prague in Malá Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau, in 2005. The Franz Kafka Museum calls its display of original photos and documents Město K. Franz Kafka a Praha ("City K. Kafka and Prague") and aims to immerse the visitor into the world in which Kafka lived and about which he wrote.[265] The Franz Kafka Prize, established in 2001, is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague. It recognizes the merits of literature as "humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times".[266] The selection committee and recipients come from all over the world, but are limited to living authors who have had at least one work published in the Czech language.[266] The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall, on the Czech State Holiday in late October.[266] San Diego State University operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings.[171] Kafka Dome is an off-axis oceanic core complex in the central Atlantic named after Kafka. [267] See also[edit] Modernist literature Notes[edit] ^ UK: /ˈkæfkə/, US: /ˈkɑːf-/;[3] German: [ˈkafkaː]; Czech: [ˈkafka]; in Czech he was sometimes called František Kafka. ^ Some sources list June (Murray) as Kafka's graduation month and some list July (Brod).[40][41] ^ "Kampf" also translates to "fight". References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Koelb 2010, p. 12. ^ Czech Embassy 2012. ^ "Kafka", Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary ^ Spindler, William (1993). "Magical Realism: A Typology". Forum for Modern Language Studies. XXIX (1): 90–93. doi:10.1093/fmls/XXIX.1.75. ^ Franz Kafka at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b c d e f g Steinhauer 1983, pp. 390–408. ^ "Heroes – Trailblazers of the Jewish People". Beit Hatfutsot. ^ a b Gilman 2005, pp. 20–21. ^ Northey 1997, pp. 8–10. ^ Kohoutikriz 2011. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 3–5. ^ Northey 1997, p. 92. ^ Gray 2005, pp. 147–148. ^ Hamalian 1974, p. 3. ^ Kafka, Franz (2009). The Metamorphosis. New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4165-9968-5. ^ Corngold 1972, pp. xii, 11. ^ a b Kafka-Franz, Father 2012. ^ Brod 1960, p. 9. ^ a b Brod 1960, pp. 15–16. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 19–20. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 15, 17, 22–23. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 390–391, 462–463. ^ Stach 2005, p. 13. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 26–27. ^ a b Hawes 2008, p. 29. ^ a b c Sayer 1996, pp. 164–210. ^ Kempf 2005, pp. 159–160. ^ Corngold 2004, p. xii. ^ Diamant 2003, pp. 36–38. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 40–41. ^ a b Gray 2005, p. 179. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 43–70. ^ Brod 1960, p. 40. ^ a b Brod 1960, p. 14. ^ Brod 1966, pp. 53–54. ^ Stach 2005, p. 362. ^ Gray 2005, pp. 74, 273. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 51, 122–124. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 80–83. ^ Murray 2004, p. 62. ^ Brod 1960, p. 78. ^ Karl 1991, p. 210. ^ Glen 2007, pp. 23–66. ^ Corngold et al. 2009, p. 28. ^ Drucker 2002, p. 24. ^ Corngold et al. 2009, pp. 250–254. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 26–30. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 81–84. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 23–25. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 25–27. ^ Spector 2000, p. 17. ^ Keren 1993, p. 3. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 34–39. ^ Koelb 2010, p. 32. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 56–58. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 29, 73–75, 109–110, 206. ^ Brod 1960, p. 154. ^ Corngold 2011, pp. 339–343. ^ a b Hawes 2008, p. 186. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 44, 207. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 186, 191. ^ a b European Graduate School 2012. ^ Stach 2005, p. 43. ^ a b Banville 2011. ^ Köhler 2012. ^ a b c Stach 2005, p. 1. ^ Seubert 2012. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 196–197. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 129, 198–199. ^ Murray 2004, pp. 276–279. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 379–389. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 240–242. ^ S. Fischer 2012. ^ Alt 2005, p. 303. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 180–181. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 1, 379–389, 434–436. ^ Apel 2012, p. 28. ^ a b c d e Brod 1966, p. 389. ^ Hempel 2002. ^ Janouch 1971, pp. 14, 17. ^ a b Fichter 1987, pp. 367–377. ^ Repertory 2005. ^ Brod 1966, p. 41. ^ Brod 1966, p. 42. ^ Brod 1966, p. 97. ^ a b c Brod 1966, p. 49. ^ Brod 1960, p. 47. ^ Brod 1966, p. 52. ^ Brod 1966, p. 90. ^ Brod 1966, p. 92. ^ a b Brod 1960, p. 214. ^ Brod 1960, p. 156. ^ Pérez-Álvarez 2003, pp. 181–194. ^ Miller 1984, pp. 242–306. ^ McElroy 1985, pp. 217–232. ^ Sokel 2001, pp. 67–68. ^ Kafka & Brod 1988, p. 222. ^ Gray 1973, p. 196. ^ Coralli, Alessia; Perciaccante, Antonio (12 April 2016). "Franz Kafka: An emblematic case of co-occurrence of sleep and psychiatryc disorders". Sleep Science. Sleep Sci. 9 (1): 5–6. doi:10.1016/j.slsci.2016.02.177. PMC 4866976. 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Stone, Peter H. (1981). "Gabriel Garcia Marquez, The Art of Fiction No. 69". The Paris Review. Winter 1981 (82). Archived from the original on 10 May 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2012. "Allegory". The Guardian. London. 4 April 1930. Retrieved 22 August 2012. "Disappearing Act". American Repertory Theatre. 2005. Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2012. "Drama on BBC Radio 3, Kafka the Musical". BBC. 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012. "Franz Kafka" (in Czech). The Research Library of South Bohemia in České Budějovice. 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2012. "Franz Kafka – Articles". European Graduate School. 2012. Archived from the original on 27 October 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012. "Franz Kafka – Biography". European Graduate School. 2012. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012. "Ein Landarzt Rundfunkoper auf die Erzählung von Franz Kafka" (in German). Hans Werner Henze Stiftung. Retrieved 6 February 2019. "Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism". Libertarian-Socialism. 14 December 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2012. "Franz Kafka Museum". Franz Kafka Museum. 2005. Retrieved 7 August 2012. "The Franz Kafka Prize". Franz Kafka Society. 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2012. "Franz Kafka: Tagebücher 1910–1923 – Kapitel 5". Der Spiegel (in German). Project Gutenberg – Spiegel Online. 21 June 1913. Retrieved 29 August 2012. Die ungeheure Welt, die ich im Kopfe habe. Aber wie mich befreien und sie befreien, ohne zu zerreißen. Und tausendmal lieber zerreißen, als in mir sie zurückhalten oder begraben. Dazu bin ich ja hier, das ist mir ganz klar. "Franz Kafka Writing". Kafka-Franz. 2011. Archived from the original on 20 December 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2012. "Franz Kafka: Writing of the System's Despair and Alienation". Socialist Worker Online. 17 March 2007. Retrieved 6 August 2012. "Faksimiles der Kafka-Drucke zu Lebzeiten (Zeitschriften und Zeitungen)" (in German). ITK Institut für Textkritik. 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2012. "Grete Bloch" (in German). S. Fischer Verlag. Retrieved 24 August 2012. "Kafka". New York State Writer's Institute. State University of New York. Retrieved 4 August 2012. "Lothar Hempel". Atlegerhardsen. 2002. Archived from the original on 24 September 2005. Retrieved 2 August 2012. "Musils 'Mann ohne Eigenschaften' ist 'wichtigster Roman des Jahrhunderts'" (in German). LiteraturHaus. 1999. Archived from the original on 7 June 2001. Retrieved 22 August 2012. "Orson Welles on The Trial (BBC interview)". Welles Net. 1962. Retrieved 22 September 2012. "Oxford Kafka Research Centre". University of Oxford. 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2012. "Poul Ruders Biography – 06/2005". Poul Ruders. June 2005. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 4 August 2012. "Solving a Literary Mystery". Kafka Project, San Diego State University. 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012. "Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka". HAZE Netlabel. 2012. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012. "Who Is Citizen? Guide to Czech Citizenship in 1918–1949". Embassy of the Czech Republic in Tel Aviv. 25 October 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2013. Further reading[edit] Gray, Ronald (1962). Kafka: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-1-199-77830-7. Greenberg, Martin (1968). The Terror of Art: Kafka and Modern Literature. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08415-9. Deleuze, Gilles; Guattari, Félix (1986). Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature. Theory and History of Literature. 30. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1515-5. Glatzer, Nahum Norbert (1986). The Loves of Franz Kafka. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-8052-4001-6. Glasauer, Willi (1986). Exposición Kafka & CIA.: Hitos y Mitos de la Cultura Dibujos (in Spanish). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Glasauer, Willi (1986). Kafka Gesamtwerk. Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Citati, Pietro (1987). Kafka. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56840-9. Montalbán, Manuel Vázquez; Glasauer, Willi (1988). Escenas de la Literatura Universal y Retratos de Grandes Autores (in Spanish). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Heller, Paul (1989). Franz Kafka: Wissenschaft und Wissenschaftskritik (in German). Tübingen: Stauffenburg. ISBN 978-3-923721-40-5. Czech, Danuta (1992). Kalendarz wydarzeń w KL Auschwitz (in Polish). Oświęcim: Wydawn. Kopić, Mario (1995). "Franz Kafka and Nationalism". Erewhon: An International Quarterly. Amsterdam. 2 (2). Hayman, Ronald (2001). K: A Biography of Kafka. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-84212-415-4. Coots, Steve (2002). Franz Kafka (Beginner's Guide). London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-84648-3. Calasso, Roberto (2005). K. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4189-3. Begley, Louis (2008). The Tremendous World I Have Inside My Head, Franz Kafka: A Biographical Essay. New York: Atlas & Co. ISBN 978-1-934633-06-9. Corngold, Stanley; Wagner, Benno (2011). Franz Kafka: The Ghosts in the Machine. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-2769-2. Corngold, Stanley; Gross, Ruth V. (2011). Kafka for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Camden House. ISBN 978-1-57113-482-0. Lundberg, Phillip (2011). Essential Kafka: Rendezvous with Otherness. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4389-9021-7. Major, Michael (2011). Kafka ... For Our Time. San Diego, [California: Harcourt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9567982-1-3. Suchoff, David (2012). Kafka's Jewish Languages: The Hidden Openness of Tradition. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4371-0. Thiher, Allen (2012). Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction. Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction. 12. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8057-8323-0. Baruffi, Alessandro (2016). The Tales of Franz Kafka: English Translation with Original Text in German. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: LiteraryJoint Press. ISBN 978-1-329-82109-5. Journals Ryan, Michael P. (1999). "Samsa and Samsara: Suffering, Death and Rebirth in 'The Metamorphosis'". German Quarterly. Durham, North Carolina. 72 (2): 133–152. doi:10.2307/408369. JSTOR 408369. S2CID 59481029. Kopić, Mario (2004). "Kafka and Nationalism". Odjek. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013. Danta, Chris (April 2008). "Sarah's Laughter: Kafka's Abraham". Modernism/Modernity. Baltimore, Maryland. 15 (2): 343–359. doi:10.1353/mod.2008.0048. S2CID 170492502. Jirsa, Tomáš (2015). "Reading Kafka Visually: Gothic Ornament and the Motion of Writing in Kafka's Der Process" (PDF). Central Europe. London. 13 (1–2): 36–50. doi:10.1080/14790963.2015.1107322. S2CID 159892429. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2020. McGee, Kyle. "Fear and Trembling in the Penal Colony". Kafka Project. External links[edit] Franz Kafkaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Look up Kafkaesque in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. German Wikisource has original text related to this article: Franz Kafka Franz Kafka at the Encyclopædia Britannica Kafka Society of America Literature by and about Franz Kafka in the German National Library catalogue Works by Franz Kafka at Project Gutenberg Franz Kafka at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Works by or about Franz Kafka at Internet Archive Franz Kafka at IMDb  Works by Franz Kafka at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Oxford Kafka Research Centre – information on ongoing international Kafka research Translated excerpts from Kafka's Diaries 1910–1923 Franz Kafka at Curlie The Album of Franz Kafka, Franz Kafka receives a tribute in this album of "recomposed photographs". Journeys of Franz Kafka Photographs of places where Kafka lived and worked Letters to Felice at Archive.org Společnost Franze Kafky a nakladatelství Franze Kafky Franz Kafka Society and Publishing House in Prague What makes something "Kafkaesque"? A Ted talk on Kafka, his works and his legacy, by Noah Tavlin Franz Kafka v t e Franz Kafka (works) Novels The Trial The Castle Amerika Short stories 1902–1912 "Shamefaced Lanky and Impure in Heart" "Description of a Struggle" "Wedding Preparations in the Country" "The Judgment" "The Stoker" The Metamorphosis "The Aeroplanes at Brescia" 1914–1917 "In the Penal Colony" "The Village Schoolmaster" "Before the Law" "Blumfeld, an Elderly Bachelor" "A Country Doctor" "The Hunter Gracchus" "The Great Wall of China" "A Message from the Emperor" "A Report to an Academy" "A Dream" "Up in the Gallery" "A Fratricide" "The Next Village" "A Visit to a Mine" "Jackals and Arabs" "The Bridge" "The Bucket Rider" "The New Advocate" "An Old Manuscript" "The Knock at the Manor Gate" "Eleven Sons" "My Neighbor" "A Crossbreed" "The Cares of a Family Man" 1917–1923 "The Refusal" "A Hunger Artist" "Investigations of a Dog" "A Little Woman" "The Burrow" "Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk" "A Common Confusion" "The Truth about Sancho Panza" "The Silence of the Sirens" "Prometheus" "The City Coat of Arms" "Poseidon" "Fellowship" "At Night" "The Problem of Our Laws" "The Conscription of Troops" "The Test" "The Vulture" "The Helmsman" "The Top" "A Little Fable" "Homecoming" "First Sorrow" "The Departure" "Advocates" "The Married Couple" "Give It Up!" "On Parables" Short story collections Contemplation A Country Doctor A Hunger Artist The Great Wall of China The Complete Stories The Sons The Penal Colony Parables and Paradoxes Dearest Father Description of a Struggle Diaries and notebooks The Diaries 1910–1923 The Blue Octavo Notebooks The Zürau Aphorisms Letters and essays Letter to His Father Letters to Felice Letters to Ottla Letters to Milena Letters to Family, Friends, and Editors The Office Writings Plays The Warden of the Tomb Related Ottla Kafka (sister) Franz Kafka and Judaism Richard and Samuel Franz Kafka Museum Franz Kafka Society Franz Kafka Prize Kafka Project Head of Franz Kafka statue Statue of Franz Kafka Kafka's Dick (1986 play) Kafka (1991 film) Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993 film) Category v t e Franz Kafka's The Trial Adaptations Der Prozeß (1953 opera) The Trial (1962 film) The Trial (1993 film) The Trial (2014 opera) Film variations Kafka (1991) Other Break-Up v t e Franz Kafka's The Castle Film The Castle (1968) The Castle (1994) The Castle (1997) Related Kafka The Prisoner v t e Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis Film adaptations Metamorphosis (2012) Film variations Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993) Rat (2000) Novel variations Insect Dreams: The Half Life of Gregor Samsa (2002) Kockroach (2007) Anxious Pleasures (2007) Other Solo Piano (album) Bad Mojo (video game) v t e Adaptations of works by Franz Kafka Films The Trial (1962) The Castle (1968) The Penal Colony (1970) Klassenverhältnisse (1984) Kafka (1991) The Trial (1993) Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993) The Castle (1994) The Castle (1997) K (2002) Metamorphosis (2012) Literature Kafka Americana Comics Give It Up! 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en-wikipedia-org-4807	----	Spain - Wikipedia Spain From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Kingdom in Southwestern Europe This article is about the country. For other uses, see Spain (disambiguation). "España" redirects here. For other uses, see España (disambiguation). Coordinates: 40°N 4°W / 40°N 4°W / 40; -4 Kingdom of Spain Reino de España  (Spanish) 4 other official names[a][b] Catalan: Regne d'Espanya Basque: Espainiako Erresuma Galician: Reino de España Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha Flag Coat of arms Motto: Plus ultra  (Latin) "Further Beyond" Anthem: Marcha Real  (Spanish)[2] "Royal March" Show globe Show map of Europe Location of Spain (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) Capital and largest city Madrid 40°26′N 3°42′W / 40.433°N 3.700°W / 40.433; -3.700 Official language and national language Spanish[c] Religion (2020)[4] 62% Christianity —61% Roman Catholic —1% Other Christian 34% No religion 3% Others 1% No answer Demonym(s) Spanish Spaniard Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy • Monarch Felipe VI • Prime Minister (President of the Government) Pedro Sánchez • President of the Senate Pilar Llop • President of the Congress of Deputies Meritxell Batet • President of the Supreme Court Carlos Lesmes Serrano Legislature Cortes Generales • Upper house Senate • Lower house Congress of Deputies Formation • De facto 20 January 1479 • De jure 9 June 1715 • First constitution 19 March 1812 • Current democracy 29 December 1978 • EEC accession[d] 1 January 1986 Area • Total 505,990[5] km2 (195,360 sq mi) (51st) • Water (%) 0.89 (as of 2015)[6] Population • 2020 estimate 47,431,256[7] [e] (30th) • Density 94/km2 (243.5/sq mi) (120th) GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate • Total $2.016 trillion[8] (15th) • Per capita $38,143[8] (36th) GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate • Total $1.440 trillion[8] (13th) • Per capita $26,831[8] (29th) Gini (2019)  33.0[9] medium · 103rd HDI (2019)  0.904[10] very high · 25th Currency Euro[f] (€) (EUR) Time zone UTC⁠±0 to +1 (WET and CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+1 to +2 (WEST and CEST) Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except the Canary Islands which observe WET/WEST. Date format dd/mm/yyyy (CE) Driving side right Calling code +34 ISO 3166 code ES Internet TLD .es[g] Spain (Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa] (listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain[11] (Spanish: Reino de España),[a][b] is a country in Southwestern Europe with some pockets of territory across the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean.[11] Its continental European territory is situated on the Iberian Peninsula. Its territory also includes two archipelagos: the Canary Islands off the coast of North Africa, and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The African exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera[12] make Spain the only European country to have a physical border with an African country (Morocco).[h] Several small islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory. The country's mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean respectively. With an area of 505,990 km2 (195,360 sq mi), Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second-largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth-largest country by area on the European continent. With a population exceeding 47.3 million, Spain is the sixth-most populous country in Europe, and the fourth-most populous country in the European Union. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid; other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Málaga, and Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek, Celtic and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BC, after which the region was named Hispania, based on the earlier Phoenician name Sp(a)n or Spania.[13] At the end of the Western Roman Empire, Germanic tribal confederations migrated from Central Europe, invaded the Iberian peninsula and established relatively independent realms in its western provinces. One of them, the Visigoths, forcibly integrated all remaining independent territories in the peninsula, including the Byzantine province of Spania, into the Visigothic Kingdom. In the early eighth century the Visigothic Kingdom was conquered by the Umayyad Islamic Caliphate. The Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula (al-Andalus) soon became autonomous from Baghdad. A handful of small Christian pockets in the north were left out of Muslim rule, along the presence of the Carolingian Empire near the Pyrenées, eventually led to the emergence of the Christian kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, Portugal and Navarre. Over seven centuries, an intermittent southwards expansion of these kingdoms (metahistorically dubbed as a reconquest: the Reconquista) culminated with the Christian seizure of the last Muslim polity (the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada) in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World. A process of political conglomeration among the Christian kingdoms also ensued, and the late 15th-century saw the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon under the Catholic Monarchs, sometimes considered to be the emergence of Spain as a unified country. The Conquest of Navarre occurred in 1512, while the Kingdom of Portugal was also ruled by the Hapsburg Dynasty between 1580 and 1640. In the early modern period, Spain ruled one of the largest empires in history which was also one of the first global empires, spawning a large cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 570 million Hispanophones,[14] making Spanish the world's second-most spoken native language, after Mandarin Chinese. Spain hosts the world's third-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a parliamentary monarchy,[15] with King Felipe VI as head of state. It is a highly developed country[16] and a high income country, with the world's fourteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixteenth-largest by PPP. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Eurozone, the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Schengen Area, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations. While not an official member, Spain has a "Permanent Invitation" to the G20 summits, participating in every summit, which makes it a de facto member of the group.[17] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples 2.2 Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom 2.3 Muslim era and Reconquista 2.4 Spanish Empire 2.5 Liberalism and nation state 2.6 Civil War and Francoist dictatorship 2.7 Restoration of democracy 3 Geography 3.1 Islands 3.2 Mountains and rivers 3.3 Climate 3.4 Fauna and flora 4 Politics 4.1 Government 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Military 4.4 Human rights 4.5 Administrative divisions 4.5.1 Autonomous communities 4.5.2 Provinces and municipalities 5 Economy 5.1 Automotive industry 5.2 Agriculture 5.3 Tourism 5.4 Energy 5.5 Transport 5.6 Science and technology 6 Demographics 6.1 Urbanisation 6.2 Peoples 6.3 Minority groups 6.4 Immigration 6.5 Languages 6.6 Education 6.7 Health 6.8 Religion 7 Culture 7.1 World Heritage Sites 7.2 Literature 7.3 Philosophy 7.4 Art 7.5 Sculpture 7.6 Cinema 7.7 Architecture 7.8 Music and dance 7.9 Cuisine 7.10 Sport 7.11 Public holidays and festivals 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology The origins of the Roman name Hispania, and the modern España, are uncertain, although the Phoenicians and Carthaginians referred to the region as Spania, therefore the most widely accepted etymology is a Semitic-Phoenician one.[13][18] There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses of its origin: The Lady of Elche, possibly depicting Tanit, from Carthaginian Iberia, 4th century BC The Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning "city of the western world". Jesús Luis Cunchillos [es] argued that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning "to forge metals". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are forged".[19] It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,[20] and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits".[21] The word in question (compare modern Hebrew Shafan) actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to Phoenicians confusing the two animals.[22] Hispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a "western land" or "land of the setting sun" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.[23] There is the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.[23] Two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. Phiros was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. Phiros became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE.[24] History Main article: History of Spain Reproduction of the Altamira Cave paintings,[25] in Cantabria Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe's most ancient cities Cádiz and Málaga. Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theatre of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman rule. During the early Middle Ages it came under Visigothic rule, and then much of it was conquered by Muslim invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Muslim state fell in 1492, the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for one and a half centuries, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic conflict in Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Spain suffered a devastating civil war in the 1930s and then came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually, democracy was restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth until the beginning of the 21st century, that started a new globalised world with economic and ecological challenges. Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples Main article: Prehistoric Iberia Celtic castro in Galicia Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago.[26] In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago.[27][failed verification] The best known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon.[25][28] Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age. The largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Phoenician-influenced Tartessians culture flourished in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians got settled in the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom Main articles: Hispania and Visigothic Kingdom The Roman Theatre in Mérida During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BC the expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.[29] The cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of Hispania they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.[i][30] Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania.[j] Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century AD and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century AD.[30] Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.[29] Reccared I and bishops during Council III of Toledo, 589. Codex Vigilanus, fol. 145, Biblioteca del Escorial The weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans entered the peninsula at the invitation of a Roman usurper. These tribes had crossed the Rhine in early 407 and ravaged Gaul. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal whereas the Vandals established themselves in southern Spain by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429 and taking Carthage in 439. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation to the evolving Roman culture. Votive crown of Reccesuinth from the Treasure of Guarrazar The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule. These Visigoths, or Western Goths, after sacking Rome under the leadership of Alaric (410), turned towards the Iberian Peninsula, with Athaulf for their leader, and occupied the northeastern portion. Wallia extended his rule over most of the peninsula, keeping the Suebians shut up in Galicia. Theodoric I took part, with the Romans and Franks, in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, where Attila was routed. Euric (466), who put an end to the last remnants of Roman power in the peninsula, may be considered the first monarch of Spain, though the Suebians still maintained their independence in Galicia. Euric was also the first king to give written laws to the Visigoths. In the following reigns the Catholic kings of France assumed the role of protectors of the Hispano-Roman Catholics against the Arianism of the Visigoths, and in the wars which ensued Alaric II and Amalaric lost their lives. Athanagild, having risen against King Agila, called in the Byzantines and, in payment for the succour they gave him, ceded to them the maritime places of the southeast (554). Liuvigild restored the political unity of the peninsula, subduing the Suebians, but the religious divisions of the country, reaching even the royal family, brought on a civil war. St. Hermengild, the king's son, putting himself at the head of the Catholics, was defeated and taken prisoner, and suffered martyrdom for rejecting communion with the Arians. Recared, son of Liuvigild and brother of St. Hermengild, added religious unity to the political unity achieved by his father, accepting the Catholic faith in the Third Council of Toledo (589). The religious unity established by this council was the basis of that fusion of Goths with Hispano-Romans which produced the Spanish nation. Sisebut and Suintila completed the expulsion of the Byzantines from Spain.[21] Intermarriage between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans was prohibited, though in practice it could not be entirely prevented and was eventually legalised by Liuvigild.[31] The Spanish-Gothic scholars such as Braulio of Zaragoza and Isidore of Seville played an important role in keeping the classical Greek and Roman culture. Isidore was one of the most influential clerics and philosophers in the Middle Ages in Europe, and his theories were also vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom from an Arian domain to a Catholic one in the Councils of Toledo. Isidore created the first western encyclopedia which had a huge impact during the Middle Ages.[32] Muslim era and Reconquista Main articles: Al-Andalus and Reconquista The death of the Frankish leader Roland defeated by a Basque and Muslim-Mulwallad (Banu Qasi) alliance at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass (778) originated the Kingdom of Navarre led by Íñigo Arista. In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion. Legend has it that Count Julian, the governor of Ceuta, in revenge for the violation of his daughter, Florinda, by King Roderic, invited the Muslims and opened to them the gates of the peninsula. Under Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.[33][34] Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[35][36] The Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East.[k] Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.[36] The Great Mosque of Córdoba is among the oldest mosque buildings in the world Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture.[36] Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture introducing new produces which originally came from Asia or the former territories of the Roman Empire.[37] In the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa states (Arab, Berber, and Slav),[38] allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories.[36] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains. The Basilica of San Isidoro, León The Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. In 1030, the Kingdom of Navarre controlled the Count of Aragon and the Count of Castile, who later became major kingdoms of its time. The Vikings invaded Galicia in 844, but were heavily defeated by Ramiro I of Asturias at A Coruña.[39] Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows.[39] 70 Viking ships were captured and burned.[39][40] Vikings raided Galicia in 859, during the reign of Ordoño I of Asturias. Ordoño was at the moment engaged against his constant enemies the Moors; but a count of the province, Don Pedro, attacked the Vikings and defeated them.[41] The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism. Petronilla of Aragon and Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona. Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia and pushed out of the very southernmost region of France along the seacoast by the 760s. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon.[42] For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe. The Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as "Spanish" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses (found at the Monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla and written in Latin, Basque and Romance) hold a great value as one of the first written examples of Iberian Romance.[43] The break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Castile in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid dynasty of Morocco invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish North African rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. Portrait of Alfonso X of Castile and Leon from the codex Tumbo 'A' de Santiago (Dated between 1229 and 1255) After 781 years of Muslim presence in Spain, the last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile[44] and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.[45][46][47] The Battle of La Rochelle, 1372 From the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. Alfonso worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and Naples.[48] Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.[49] The Catalans and Aragonese offered themselves to the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus to fight the Turks. Having conquered these, they turned their arms against the Byzantines, who treacherously slew their leaders; but for this treachery, the Spaniards, under Bernard of Rocafort and Berenguer of Entenca, exacted the terrible penalty celebrated in history as "The Catalan Vengeance" and seized the Frankish Duchy of Athens (1311).[21] The royal line of Aragon became extinct with Martin the Humane, and the Compromise of Caspe gave the Crown to the House of Trastámara, already reigning in Castile. As in the rest of Europe during the Late Middle Ages, Antisemitism greatly increased during the 14th century in the Christian kingdoms (a key event in that regard was the Black Death, as Jews were accused of poisoning the waters).[50] There were mass killings in Aragon in the mid-14th century, and 12,000 Jews were killed in Toledo. In 1391, Christian mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews.[51][52][53][54][55][56] Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to Hasdai Crescas, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.[57] St. Vincent Ferrer converted innumerable Jews, among them the Rabbi Josuah Halorqui, who took the name of Jerónimo de Santa Fe and in his town converted many of his former coreligionists in the famous Disputation of Tortosa (1413–14). Spanish Empire Main article: Spanish Empire Christopher Columbus meets Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in the Alcázar of Córdoba In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada from its last ruler Muhammad XII, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia. That same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition.[58] As many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain.[59][60][61] This was followed by expulsions in 1493 in Aragonese Sicily and Portugal in 1497. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,[62] for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in the Kingdom of Castile and 1527 in the Kingdom of Aragon, leading to Spain's Muslim population becoming nominally Christian Moriscos. A few decades after the Morisco rebellion of Granada known as the War of the Alpujarras, a significant proportion of Spain's formerly-Muslim population was expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.[l][63] From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.[64][65][66] The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although Columbus remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. Large numbers of indigenous Americans died in battle against the Spaniards during the conquest,[67] while others died from various other causes. Some scholars consider the initial period of the Spanish conquest— from Columbus's first landing in the Bahamas until the middle of the sixteenth century—as marking the most egregious case of genocide in the history of mankind.[68] The death toll may have reached some 70 million indigenous people (out of 80 million) in this period, as diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, and typhus, brought to the Americas by the conquest, decimated the pre-Columbian population.[69] Depiction of the 1519 meeting of conquistador Hernán Cortés and his counsellor woman La Malinche with Aztec emperor Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlan Although the Casa de Contratación was not located in a specific building, its documents can now be seen in the Archive of the Indies in Seville. The colonisation of the Americas started with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the Spanish cultures and people. Juan Sebastian Elcano completed the first voyage around the world in human history, the Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation. Florida was colonised by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés when he founded St. Augustine, Florida and then defeated an attempt led by the French Captain Jean Ribault to establish a French foothold in Spanish Florida territory. St. Augustine became a strategic defensive base for Spanish ships full of gold and silver sailing to Spain. Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico, making possible the Manila galleon trading route. The Spanish once again encountered Islam, but this time in Southeast Asia and in order to incorporate the Philippines, Spanish expeditions organised from newly Christianised Mexico had invaded the Philippine territories of the Sultanate of Brunei. The Spanish considered the war with the Muslims of Brunei and the Philippines, a repeat of the Reconquista.[70] The Spanish explorer Blas Ruiz intervened in Cambodia's succession and installed Crown Prince Barom Reachea II as puppet.[71] As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.[63] With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power. The death of their son Prince John caused the Crown to pass to Charles I (the Emperor Charles V), son of Juana la Loca. The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.[72][73] María Pacheco, last leader of the Revolt of the Comuneros, one of the first modern revolutions There were two big revolts against the new Habsburg monarch and the more authoritarian and imperial-style crown: Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile and Revolt of the Brotherhoods in Majorca and Valencia. After years of combat, Comuneros Juan López de Padilla, Juan Bravo and Francisco Maldonado were executed and María Pacheco went into exile. Germana de Foix also finished with the revolt in the Mediterranean. Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession, clashes with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War.[74] Anachronous map of the Spanish Empire Main Trade Routes of the Spanish Empire Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.[75] The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights. Juan Luis Vives was another prominent humanist during this period. Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottomans at Lepanto in 1571, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the United Provinces and then England; that by the 1660s it was struggling grimly to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers. The Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.[76] By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.[77] In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century. The family of Philip V. During the Enlightenment in Spain a new royal family reigned, the House of Bourbon. The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent.[78] During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.[79] The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Bourbon reformers created formal disciplined militias across the Atlantic. Spain needed every hand it could take during the seemingly endless wars of the eighteenth century—the Spanish War of Succession or Queen Anne's War (1702–13), the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–42) which became the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), the Seven Years' War (1756–63) and the Anglo-Spanish War (1779–83)—and its new disciplined militias served around the Atlantic as needed. Liberalism and nation state Main articles: Mid-19th-century Spain, Spanish American wars of independence, Spanish–American War, Anarchism in Spain, and Spanish Second Republic Rafael del Riego led the anti-absolutist uprising that started the Trienio Liberal, part of the Revolutions of 1820 in Europe. When absolutists took power again, he was executed. In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Joseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime.[80] These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime.[81] The most celebrated battles of this war were those of Bruch, in the highlands of Montserrat, in which the Catalan peasantry routed a French army; Bailén, where Castaños, at the head of the army of Andalusia, defeated Dupont; and the sieges of Zaragoza and Girona, which were worthy of the ancient Spaniards of Saguntum and Numantia.[21] Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.[82] During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[83] It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.[84] In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Spain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favoured Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of the branch issued from Carlos María Isidro of Bourbon, younger brother of Ferdinand VII), fought against the cristinos or isabelinos (supportive of Queen Isabella II, daughter of Ferdinand VII) in the Carlist Wars. Isabelline forces prevailed, but the conflict between progressives and moderates ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, the latter yielded to a stable monarchic period, the Restoration, a rigid bipartisan regime fuelled up by the turnismo (the prearranged rotation of government control between liberals and conservatives) and the form of political representation at the countryside (based on clientelism) known as caciquismo [es].[85] Puerta del Sol, Madrid, after the Spanish Revolution of 1868 In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98 who were analyzing the country. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy. Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as Labour movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition and the 1870 Barcelona Labour Congress are good examples of this. In 1879, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party is founded. Linked trade union to this party, Unión General de Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-sindicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927. Catalanism and vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period, being the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist League of Catalonia in 1901. Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system.[86] The Tragic Week events and repression examples the social instability of the time. Demonstration in Barcelona during the Tragic Week events The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[87] After a period of dictatorship during the governments of Generals Miguel Primo de Rivera and Dámaso Berenguer and Admiral Aznar-Cabañas (1923–1931), the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government. A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. The violent acts during this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization and women's right to vote. Civil War and Francoist dictatorship Main articles: Spanish Civil War, Spanish Revolution of 1936, and Francoist Spain The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial Social revolution also ensued. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country.[88][89] On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936 The regime remained chiefly "neutral" from a nominal standpoint in the Second World War (it briefly switched its position to "non-belligerent"), although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s. After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies. On 17 January 1966, a fatal collision occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over Palomares. The conventional explosives in two of the Mk28-type hydrogen bombs detonated upon impact with the ground, dispersing plutonium over nearby farms.[90] Restoration of democracy Main articles: Spanish transition to democracy and Spanish society after the democratic transition In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.[91][92][93] With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the franquist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha. Felipe González signing the treaty of accession to the European Economic Community on 12 June 1985 In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018.[94] The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy. On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[95] During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña and a culture of human rights arose with Gregorio Peces-Barba. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against ETA; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office. The 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[96] In 2002 the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. On 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid.[97] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[98] The elections on 14 March were won by the PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[99] The proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic boom in the early 2000s, but then declined due to the financial crisis.[100] In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage.[101] Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.[102] The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16 Spanish financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in Royal family and People's Party served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests.[103] Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[104] As prime minister, he continued to implement austerity measures required by the EU Stability and Growth Pact.[105] On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.[106] Demonstration against the crisis and high youth unemployment in Madrid, 15 May 2011 A Catalan independence referendum was held on 1 October 2017 and then, on 27 October, the Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic[107][108] on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[109][110] Later that day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Mr Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[111] No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[112] On 1 June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez.[113] On 31 January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread to Spain. On 25 March, the death toll in Spain was the second highest in the world.[114] Geography Main article: Geography of Spain Topographic map of Spain At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) smaller than France and 81,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi) larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa. Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E. On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France. Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.[115] Islands Main article: List of islands of Spain Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as plazas de soberanía ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium. The ten most populous islands of Spain (2019): Mt Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands Island Population Tenerife 917,841 Mallorca 896,038 Gran Canaria 851,231 Lanzarote 152,289 Ibiza (Eivissa) 147,914 Fuerteventura 116,887 Menorca 93,397 La Palma 82,671 La Gomera 21,503 Formentera 12,111 Mountains and rivers Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park in the Pyrenees, a World Heritage Site Mainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as "Inner Plateau") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain. There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia. Climate Main article: Climate of Spain Fragas do Eume, Atlantic nature in Galicia The southeasternmost end of the Iberian peninsula features an arid climate. In the image, Murcia region Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions:[116][117][118] The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm/hot and dry summers, is dominant in the peninsula. It has two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csa zone is associated to areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Mediterranean and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia, Extremadura and much, if not most, of the centre of the country. The Csa zone covers climatic zones with both relatively warm and cold winters which are considered extremely different to each other at a local level, reason for which Köppen classification is often eschewed within Spain. Local climatic maps generally divide the Mediterranean zone (which covers most of the country) between warm-winter and cold-winter zones, rather than according to summer temperatures. The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably Galicia). Note areas with relatively high rainfall such as Galicia are not considered Mediterranean under local classifications, but classed as oceanic. The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh), is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern Valencia and eastern Andalusia, where true hot desert climates also exist. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia. It also is found in Madrid, Extremadura, Castilla-La Mancha, and some locations of western Andalusia. The dry season extends beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude. The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). Additionally it is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought. Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc, Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coldest month, thus having a tropical climate. Fauna and flora The Iberian wolf in Castile and Leon. The region has the 25% of the land covered by Natura 2000 protected natural spaces. Main article: Wildlife of Spain The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions. The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.[119] Politics Main article: Politics of Spain See also: Spanish Constitution of 1978 The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King Juan Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister.[120][121] The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.[122] After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution – a culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. As a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish. The Spanish administration approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life.[123] According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower (or single) House.[124] The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.[125] Government The Congress of Deputies Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts).[126] The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), a lower house with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and the Senate (Senado), an upper house with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote, using a limited voting method, and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the Prime Minister, who is nominated as candidate by the monarch after holding consultations with representatives from the different parliamentary groups, voted in by the members of the lower house during an investiture session and then formally appointed by the monarch. King Philip VI PM Pedro Sánchez Head of State (King) Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014 Government Main article: Government of Spain See also: Spanish government departments Prime Minister (head of government) or "President of the Government" (Presidente del Gobierno): Pedro Sánchez Pérez-Castejón, elected 1 June 2018. Deputy prime ministers (designated by the Prime Minister): Currently Carmen Calvo Poyato (1st), Pablo Iglesias Turrión (2nd), Nadia Calviño Santamaría (3rd), Teresa Ribera Rodríguez (4th). Ministers (designated by the Prime Minister). The Prime Minister, deputy prime ministers and the rest of ministers convene at the Council of Ministers. Spain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías ("State of Autonomies"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium;[127] for example, all autonomous communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed by the Spanish communities, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral/Foruzaingoa and Policía Canaria). Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Spain Palau Reial de Pedralbes in Barcelona, headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean. After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West. As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.[vague] Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the concept of "Hispanidad" or "Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."[128] Territorial disputes Spain claims Gibraltar, a 6-square-kilometre (2.3 sq mi) Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne. The legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown[129] stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty.[130] UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.[131][132] Aerial view showing the Rock of Gibraltar, the isthmus of Gibraltar and the Bay of Gibraltar. The Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the "occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law".[133] The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus,[134] as there has been "continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period".[135] Another claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, part of Portugal. In clash with the Portuguese position, Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore Spain does not accept any extension of the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands, while acknowledging the Selvagens having territorial waters (12 nautical miles). On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views.[136][137] Spain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 metres (820 ft) just off the coast of Morocco, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Ceuta and 13.5 kilometres (8.4 mi) from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty. Besides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza which was annexed by Spain in 1801 after the War of the Oranges. Portugal stance has been the territory being de iure Portuguese territory and de facto Spanish.[138] Military Main article: Spanish Armed Forces Almirante Juan de Borbón (F-102), a Spanish navy's F100 class frigate incorporating the Aegis Combat System. The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.[139] The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the Chief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD).[140] The Defence Staff (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body. The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches:[141] Army (Ejército de Tierra) Navy (Armada) Air Force (Ejército del Aire) Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.[142] Human rights Main article: Human rights in Spain See also: LGBT rights in Spain Europride in Madrid. In 2017 a summit on LGBTI human rights took place at the same time as World Pride celebrations.[143] The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".[144] According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light.[145] Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.[146][147] Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[148] Administrative divisions Main article: Political divisions of Spain The Spanish State is divided into 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions. Autonomous communities Main article: Autonomous communities of Spain See also: Nationalities and regions of Spain Galicia Navarre Madrid La Rioja Aragon Catalonia Valencia Castilla– La Mancha Extremadura Portugal Castile and León Asturias Cantabria Basque Country Murcia Andalusia Ceuta Melilla France Balearic Islands Canary Islands Mediterranean Sea Atlantic Ocean Andorra Atlantic Ocean Gibraltar (UK) Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalities and regions of Spain".[149] The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies". The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.[150] The governments of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers and comprise a legislative assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented; a government council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain; a supreme court, under the supreme court of Spain, which heads the judiciary in the autonomous community. Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as nationalities, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community,[151] the Canary Islands,[152] the Balearic Islands,[153] and Aragon.[154] The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Beyond fiscal autonomy, the nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza[155] in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid. Nonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the nationalities and the rest of the regions. Finally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast. Provinces and municipalities Main articles: Provinces of Spain and Municipalities of Spain Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[156] The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community. Economy Main article: Economy of Spain Spain is a member of the Schengen Area, the Eurozone and the European Single Market. Spain's capitalist mixed economy is the 14th largest worldwide and the 4th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest. The centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 17.1% in June 2017,[157] below Spain's early 1990s unemployment rate of at over 20%. The youth unemployment rate (35% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards.[158] Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large informal economy,[159][160][161] and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.[162] By the mid-1990s the economy had commenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment rate began to steadily decline. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999. Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India.[163] This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest towards Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets. Iberdrola Tower in Bilbao Spanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator[164]), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation (which is the world's largest worker-owned cooperative), Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol or Cepsa and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.[165] In 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world.[166] In 2013 the same survey (now called the "Where-to-be-born index"), ranked Spain 28th in the world.[167] In 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize,[168] and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012.[169] The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012.[170] Automotive industry Main article: Automotive industry in Spain Renault factory in Valladolid The automotive industry is one of the largest employers in the country. In 2015 Spain was the 8th largest automobile producer country in the world and the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe after Germany.[171] By 2016, the automotive industry was generating 8.7 percent of Spain's gross domestic product, employing about nine percent of the manufacturing industry.[171] By 2008 the automobile industry was the 2nd most exported industry[172] while in 2015 about 80% of the total production was for export.[171] German companies poured €4.8 billion into Spain in 2015, making the country the second-largest destination for German foreign direct investment behind only the U.S. The lion's share of that investment—€4 billion—went to the country's auto industry.[171] Agriculture Main article: Agriculture in Spain Crop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe. A vineyard in Rioja Though only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40 and 45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land. Citrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the European Community. Tourism Main article: Tourism in Spain Benidorm, one of Europe's largest coastal tourist destinations In 2017, Spain was the second most visited country in the world, recording 82 million tourists which marked the fifth consecutive year of record-beating numbers.[173] The headquarters of the World Tourism Organization are located in Madrid. Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure has made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.[174][175] Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its environmental and architectural heritage. Energy Main article: Energy in Spain Photovoltaic plants (foreground) and solar thermal plants (background) in the province of Seville Spain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy.[176] In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz.[177][178] Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy.[179][180] In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain.[181][182][183] On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand[184] and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors.[185] Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction).[186] Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[187] Transport Main article: Transport in Spain The Port of Valencia, one of the busiest in the Golden Banana The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency.[188] The former Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[189] Spain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China.[190][191] As of 2019, Spain has a total of over 3,400 km (2,112.66 mi) of high-speed tracks[192] linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 310 km/h (190 mph).[193] On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV.[194] Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[195] Should the aims of the ambitious AVE programme (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7,000 km (4,300 mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours. There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million. Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Spain Roque de los Muchachos Observatory, Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias In the 19th and 20th centuries, science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, Margarita Salas and Severo Ochoa. The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[196] Since 2006, the Mobile World Congress has taken place in Barcelona. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Spain See also: List of Spanish autonomous communities by population In 2019, the population of Spain officially reached 47 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register).[197] Spain's population density, at 91/km2 (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen 2 1/2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.[198] Population pyramid of Spain from 1950 to 2014 In 2017, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.33 children born per woman,[199] one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.[200] Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.[201] Native Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%).[202] In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty programme through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.[203] In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.[204] A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute. Substantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Mexico.[205] Another 450,000 left in the 17th century.[206] The estimate between 1492 and 1832 is 1.86 million.[207] Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil.[208] Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America.[209] Urbanisation   v t e Largest cities or towns in Spain Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2019) Rank Name Autonomous community Pop. Rank Name Autonomous community Pop. Madrid Barcelona 1 Madrid Community of Madrid 3,266,126 11 Alicante Valencian Community 334,887 Valencia Seville 2 Barcelona Catalonia 1,608,746 12 Córdoba Andalusia 325,701 3 Valencia Valencian Community 794,288 13 Valladolid Castile and León 298,412 4 Seville Andalusia 688,592 14 Vigo Galicia 295,364 5 Zaragoza Aragon 674,997 15 Gijón Principality of Asturias 271,780 6 Málaga Andalusia 574,654 16 L'Hospitalet Catalonia 254,804 7 Murcia Region of Murcia 453,258 17 Vitoria-Gasteiz Basque Country 251,774 8 Palma Balearic Islands 416,065 18 A Coruña Galicia 245,711 9 Las Palmas Canary Islands 379,925 19 Elche Valencian Community 232,517 10 Bilbao Basque Country 346,843 20 Granada Andalusia 232,462 Metropolitan areas Main article: List of metropolitan areas in Spain Geographical distribution of the Spanish population in 2008 Source: "Áreas urbanas +50", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013)[210] e • d  Rank Metro area Autonomous community Population Government data Other estimations 1 Madrid Madrid 6,052,247 5.4 – 6.5 m[211][212] 2 Barcelona Catalonia 5,030,679 4.2 – 5.1 m[211][213] 3 Valencia Valencia 1,551,585 1.5 – 2.3 m[214] 4 Seville Andalusia 1,294,867 1.2 – 1.3 m 5 Málaga Andalusia 953,251 6 Bilbao Basque Country 910,578 7 Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés Asturias 835,053 8 Zaragoza Aragon 746,152 9 Alicante–Elche Valencia 698,662 10 Murcia Murcia 643,854 Peoples Main articles: Spanish people and National and regional identity in Spain The Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises several contemporary entities—nationalities—[m] and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. Spain has been described as a de facto plurinational state.[215][216] The identity of Spain rather accrues of an overlap of different territorial and ethnolinguistic identities than of a sole Spanish identity. In some cases some of the territorial identities may conflict with the dominant Spanish culture. Distinct traditional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians,[217] although to some extent all of the 17 autonomous communities may claim a distinct local identity. It is this last feature of "shared identity" between the more local level or autonomous community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal. Minority groups Celebration of the Romani Day on 24 May 2018 in Madrid Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, Germans, French and others.[218] The arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Roma population range from 750,000 to over one million.[219][220][221][222][223] There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear. Historically, Sephardi Jews and Moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture.[224] The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to Sephardi Jews.[225] Immigration Main article: Immigration to Spain Distribution of the foreign population in Spain in 2005 by percentage According to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian.[226] Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians.[227] Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[228] Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.[229] The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[230][231] In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[232] There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce. Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[233] In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[234] In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security.[235] The programme had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer.[236] What the programme failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.[237] For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[237] Languages Main article: Languages of Spain Languages of Spain Spain is legally multilingual,[238] and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect "all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.[239] Spanish (español)— recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that "the other Spanish languages"—that is, the other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the "richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection."[240] The other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are: Catalan (català or valencià) in Catalonia, the Valencian Community and the Balearic Islands; Galician (galego) in Galicia; Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre; and Occitan (aranés) in Catalonia. As a percentage of the general population of all Spain, Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of all Spaniards. Occitan is spoken by less than 5,000 people, only in the small region of Val d'Aran.[241] Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese language (asturianu, bable[242] or llionés) in Asturias and in northwestern Castile and León, and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon. In the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. Similarly, in Ceuta Darija Arabic is spoken by a significant percentage of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.[243] Education Main article: Education in Spain Poblenou Campus, Universitat Pompeu Fabra – Barcelona State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[244] In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[245] Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[246] The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[247] secondary education[248] and post-16 education.[249] In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[250] Health Main articles: Health care in Spain and Abortion in Spain The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organization.[251] The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[252] The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the OECD. Religion Main article: Religion in Spain The interior of the Hermitage of El Rocío during a Catholic ceremony. Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,[253] Judaism,[254] and evangelical Christianity[255] is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with no religion.[4] Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. A 2019 study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 62% hardly ever or never go to church, 16% go to church some times a year, 7% some time per month and 13% every Sunday or multiple times per week.[256] Recent polls and surveys suggest that 20% to 27% of the Spanish population is irreligious.[256][257][258] The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character," while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups. There have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish mysticism provided an important intellectual resource against Protestantism with Carmelites like Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun and John of the Cross, a priest, taking the lead in their reform movement. Later, they became Doctors of the Church. The Society of Jesus was co-founded by Ignatius of Loyola, whose Spiritual Exercises and movement led to the establishment of hundreds of colleges and universities in the world, including 28 in the United States alone. The Society's co-founder, Francis Xavier, was a missionary who reached India and later Japan. In the 1960s, Jesuits Pedro Arrupe and Ignacio Ellacuría supported the movement of Liberation Theology.[citation needed] Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members.[259] There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.[260] Saints Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Ávila, and Francis Xavier were prominent figures of the Counter-Reformation. A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019[update], accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[261] The recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims. After the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.[citation needed] Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion.[262] However the Jewish Encyclopedia states the number over 800,000 to be too large and 235,000 as too small: 165,000 is given as expelled as possibly too small in favour of 200,000, and the numbers of converts after the 1391 pogroms as less. Other sources suggest 200,000 converts mostly after the pogroms of 1391 and upwards of 100,000 expelled. Descendants of these Sephardic Jews expelled in 1492 are given Spanish nationality if they request it.[263] Culture Main article: Culture of Spain Procession with statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Love of Saint Ferdinand (Maria santísima del amor de San Fernando), Malaga. Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire. World Heritage Sites Main article: World Heritage Sites in Spain See also: Castles in Spain and Cathedrals in Spain Spain has 47 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal, the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests, shared with other countries of Europe.[264] In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or "Human treasures".[265] Literature This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main articles: Spanish literature, Royal Spanish Academy, and Instituto Cervantes See also: Basque literature, Catalan literature, Galician literature, and Latin American literature Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, at the Plaza de España in Madrid The earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the kharjas (jarchas) During the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life. The Valencian chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch written in Valencian is also remarkable. Other major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love). During the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc. The Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina. During the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín. During the Romantic period, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra. Emilia Pardo Bazán Miguel Delibes describes the situation of rural Spain after the Rural flight in the 1950s. Artists such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín), Concepción Arenal, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo created Realist artworks. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general "Realism", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations. The group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The "Disaster" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the Generation of '98. The Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed "generation" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field. Mercè Rodoreda Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, Clara Campoamor and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International. The Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards. José Ortega y Gasset Spain's two most preeminent writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes from Generation of '36. Spain is one of the countries with the most laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature, and including Latin American Nobel laureates, Spanish language literature ranks among the highest in numbers of laureates. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. Saramago was also well known by his Iberist ideas. The Generation of '50 are also known as the children of the civil war. Rosa Chacel, Gloria Fuertes, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Juan Goytisolo, Carmen Martín Gaite, Ana María Matute, Juan Marsé, Blas de Otero, Gabriel Celaya, Antonio Gamoneda, Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio or Ignacio Aldecoa. Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards nowadays in Spanish literature. Philosophy School of Salamanca, where humanist scholar Francisco de Vitoria developed theories about international law. Seneca was a philosopher residing in Spain during the time of the Roman Empire. During the period of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus, Muslim, Jewish and Christian philosophies flourished, including the works of such philosophers such as Ibn Arabi, Averroes and Maimonides.[266][267] In the Middle Ages Ramon Llull flourished in Spain. Humanist Luis Vives worked in Spain during the Renaissance, as did Francisco de Vitoria (creator of the School of Salamanca and scholar on international law) and Bartolomé de las Casas.[citation needed] The Enlightenment in Spain arrived later and was less strong than in other European countries, but during the XIX century liberal ideas arrived in Spanish society. At the end of the century, socialist and libertarian ideas also flourished, with thinkers such as Francisco Pi y Margall, Ricardo Mella and Francisco Ferrer Guardia.[citation needed] In the first half of the 20th century among the most prominent philosophers were Maria Zambrano and José Ortega y Gasset.[citation needed] Contemporary philosophers include Fernando Savater and Adela Cortina, creator of the term aporophobia.[citation needed] Art Main article: Spanish art Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and American artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish and influences in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, Spanish Baroque and Neoclassical periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the Pre-Romanesque art and architecture, Herrerian architecture or the Isabelline Gothic.[citation needed] During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco, José de Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán. Also in the Baroque period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as Las Meninas and Las Hilanderas.[268] Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.[citation needed] Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.[citation needed] Sculpture The Comb of the Wind of Eduardo Chillida in San Sebastián The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni and Damián Forment.[citation needed] There were two Schools of special flair and talent: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.[citation needed] Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano. Cinema Main article: Cinema of Spain Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope Cruz in Oviedo (Princess of Asturias Awards) Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver.[269] In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s (La Movida Madrileña). Mario Camus and Pilar Miró worked together in Curro Jiménez.[citation needed] Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.[citation needed] Actresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz or actor Antonio Banderas are among those who have become Hollywood stars. International Film Festivals of Valladolid and San Sebastian are the oldest and more relevant in Spain.[citation needed] Architecture Main article: Spanish architecture The Hemispheric at the Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències in Valencia and Hanging houses of Cuenca Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty.[270] Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.[citation needed] Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.[citation needed] The arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.[citation needed] Music and dance Main article: Music of Spain Flamenco is an Andalusian artistic form that evolved from the Seguidilla. Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular. In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía. Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.[271] Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.[citation needed] Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones on its genre. The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain.[272] Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia. Cuisine Main article: Spanish cuisine Paella, a traditional Valencian dish[273] Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified: Mediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia[273] and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.[274] Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantial stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, such as Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, such as Manchego cheese. Atlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes. Sport Main article: Sport in Spain Football is the most popular sport in the country. Spain won the FIFA World Cup 2010. While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments.[citation needed] Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In their respective regions, the traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian pilota both are popular.[citation needed] Public holidays and festivals Main articles: National Day of Spain, Public holidays in Spain, Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain, and Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain San Fermín festival, Pamplona Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[275] Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.[citation needed] There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and millions of tourits from all over the world go to Spain annually to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 July to 14 July, the seven days-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. The events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As the result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year. Other festivals include: La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia, the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León. See also Spain portal Europe portal Geography portal Outline of Spain List of World Heritage Sites in Spain Notes ^ a b The Spanish Constitution does not establish any official name for Spain, even though the terms España (Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document. Nonetheless, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established in an ordinance published in 1984 that the denominations España (Spain) and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the official name by many international organisations.[1] ^ a b In Spain, other languages are officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous (regional) languages under the Spanish Constitution. In each of these, Spain's official name (Spanish: Reino de España, pronounced: [ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa]) is as follows: Catalan: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə] Basque: Espainiako Erresuma, IPA: [es̺paɲiako eres̺uma] Galician: Reino de España, IPA: [ˈrejnʊ ð(ɪ) esˈpaɲɐ] Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha, IPA: [reˈjawme ðesˈpaɲa] ^ The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 to be Castilian.[3] In some autonomous communities, Catalan, Galician and Basque are co-official languages. Aragonese, Asturian, and Occitan (locally known as Aranese) have some degree of official recognition. ^ European Union (EU) since 1993. ^ As of 1 January 2020, the Spanish population increased in 392,921 in 2019, reaching a number of 47,330 million inhabitants. In the same period of time, the number of citizens with Spanish citizenship reached 42,094,606. The number of foreigners (i.e. immigrants, ex-pats and refugees, without including foreign born nationals with Spanish citizenship) permanently living in Spain was estimated to be at 5,235,375 (11.06%) in 2020.[7] ^ The Peseta before 2002. ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Also, the .cat domain is used in Catalonia, .gal in Galicia and .eus in the Basque-Country autonomous regions. ^ See list of transcontinental countries. ^ The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system. ^ The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania. ^ The Berbers soon gave up attempting to settle the harsh lands in the north of the Meseta Central (Inner Plateau) handed to them by the Arab rulers. ^ For the related expulsions that followed see Morisco. ^ The term "nationality" was chosen carefully in order to avoid the more politically charged term "nation", however in recent years it has been proposed to use this term in the Constitution and officially recognise Spain as a plurinational state ("nation of nations"). 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en-wikipedia-org-5042	----	The New International Encyclopedia - Wikipedia The New International Encyclopedia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from New International Encyclopedia) Jump to navigation Jump to search American encyclopedia first published in 1902 The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia (1884) and was updated in 1906, 1914 and 1926. Contents 1 History 2 References 2.1 Citations 2.2 Sources 3 External links 4 Volumes History[edit] First edition, volume eight The New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia (1884). Initially, The International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Alden's Library of Universal Knowledge, which was a reprint of the British Chambers's Encyclopaedia. The title was changed to The New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, and Frank Moore Colby.[1] The encyclopedia was popular and reprints were made in 1904, 1905, 1907 (corrected and expanded to 20 volumes), 1909 and 1911. The 2nd edition appeared from 1914 to 1917 in 24 volumes. With Peck and Gilman deceased, Colby was joined by a new editor, Talcott Williams.[1] This edition was set up from new type and thoroughly revised. It was very strong in biography.[2] A third edition was published in 1923, however this was mostly a reprint with the addition of a history of the First World War in volume 24, which had previously been a reading and study guide. A two-volume supplement was published in 1925 and was incorporated into the 1927 reprint, which had 25 volumes. A further two volumes supplement in 1930 along with another reprint.[3] The final edition was published in 1935, now under the Funk & Wagnalls label. This edition included another updating supplement, authored by Herbert Treadwell Wade. Some material from The New International would be incorporated into future books published by Funk and Wagnall's books such as Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopaedia.[3] The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by Yale University Press. Boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing 23 volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23. Each book contains about 1600 pages.[4] Like other encyclopedias of the time, The New International had a yearly supplement, The New International Yearbook, beginning in 1908. Like the encyclopedia itself, this publication was sold to Funk and Wagnalls in 1931. It was edited by Frank Moore Colby until his death in 1925, and then by Wade. In 1937 Frank Horace Vizetelly became editor.[3] The yearbook outlasted the parent encyclopedia, running to 1966.[5][incomplete short citation] More than 500 men and women submitted and composed the information contained in The New International Encyclopedia. References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Walsh 1968, p. 120. ^ "Encyclopedias". The Encyclopedia Americana. 10. 1988. p. 333. ^ a b c Walsh 1968, p. 121. ^ Graham, B. (1928). Bookman's Manual. p. 28. ^ The New International Yearbook: a compendium of the world's progress for the year Sources[edit] Walsh, S. P. (1968). Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703–1967. New York, NY: Bowker. OCLC 577541.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links[edit] Works related to The New International Encyclopedia at Wikisource Volumes[edit] Gilman, Daniel Coit; Peck, Harry Thurston; Colby, Frank Moore, eds. (1905). The New International Encyclopædia. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. vol Edition Internet Archive Wikisource (incomplete) Year From  –  To Notes 1 1st IA 1 WS 1 1905 A  –  Aristogoras 2 1st IA 2 WS 2 1905 Aristarchus  –  Bessières 3 1st IA 3 WS 3 1905 Bessus  –  Cairns 4 1st IA 4 WS 4 1905 Cairo  –  Classification of Ships 5 1st IA 5 WS 5 1905 Classis  –  Da Vinci 6 1st IA 6 WS 6 1905 Davioud  –  Ellery 7 1st IA 7 WS 7 1905 Ellesmere  –  Fontanel 8 1st Not available WS 8 1903 Fontanes  –  Goethe Alternatives Google Books: GB 8 (this volume is not universally accessible). 1903 edition, from the Ontario Council of University Libraries digitized in 2009, in the Internet Archive: IA 7 (1903) Ethics – Fuller, Maitland IA 8 (1903) Fullers Earth – Halithrum 9 1st IA 9 WS 9 1905 Goethite  –  Heritable Jurisdictions 10 1st IA 10 WS 10 1905 Herjulfson  –  Ishpeming 11 1st IA 11 WS 11 1905 Ishtar  –  Latitudinarians 12 1st IA 12 WS 12 1905 Latium  –  Manna 13 1st IA 13 WS 13 1905 Manna-Croup  –  Morganitic Marriage 14 1st IA 14 WS 14 1905 Morgan City  –  Omul 15 1st IA 15 WS 15 1905 Ona  –  Pickering The Internet Archive edition is missing pp. 6-7, but see the 1906 volume for the first edition at Google Books, which appears to be about the same thing, and does have these pages. 16 1st IA 16 WS 16 1905 Pickersgill  –  Reid 17 1st IA 17 WS 17 1905 Reifferscheid  –  Servian Wall 18 1st IA 18 WS 18 1905 Service-berry  –  Tagus 19 1st IA 19 WS 19 1905 Taharka  –  Vampire 20 1st IA 20 WS 20 1905 Van  –  Zyrians 2nd ed. at Princeton (1914-16; complete) on the HathiTrust website New International Encyclopedia (incomplete) Volume Edition Year copyright last From  –  To Volume 3 2nd 1928 [1924] Bazaine  –  Brock Volume 4 2nd 1928 [1924] Brockelmann  –  Chaeremon Volume 5 2nd 1914 Chæronia  –  Consuelo Volume 6 2nd 1928 Consul  –  Didymograptus Volume 8 2nd [1922] Enteritis  –  Foraker Volume 10 2nd 1928 [1922] Glacial  –  Havre de Grace Volume 12 2nd 1915 Imaginary  –  Jouy Volume 13 2nd 1915 [1915] Jovanovich  –  Leprohon Volume 17 2nd 1916 Newfoundland  –  Panjab Volume 18 2nd 1916 Panjabi  –  Poliziano Volume 19 2nd 1916 [1916] Polk  –  Rigging Volume 20 2nd 1916 [1916] Riggs  –  Shilluck Volume 21 2nd 1916 Shiloh  –  Tarsus Volume 22 2nd 1916 Tartaglia  –  Valiant Volume 24 Sup 1930 1930 Abbe  –  Lyons Volume 25 Sup 1930 [1930] Municipal  –  Zweig Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_New_International_Encyclopedia&oldid=987151382" Categories: 20th-century encyclopedias 1902 non-fiction books 1906 non-fiction books 1914 non-fiction books 1926 non-fiction books American encyclopedias Dodd, Mead & Co. books English-language encyclopedias Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with incomplete citations Articles with incomplete citations from April 2019 CS1 maint: ref=harv AC with 0 elements Reference works in the public domain Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Azərbaycanca Català Español Esperanto Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 November 2020, at 06:59 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5058	----	Proto-Indo-European mythology - Wikipedia Proto-Indo-European mythology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Proto-Indo-European religion) Jump to navigation Jump to search Body of myths and stories attributed to the Proto-Indo-Europeans Trundholm sun chariot, Nordic Bronze Age, c. 1600 BC Part of a series on Indo-European topics Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Daco-Thracian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian) Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians Persians Medes Parthians Scythians Saka Sarmatians Massagetae Alans East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Medieval Europe Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary v t e This article contains characters used to write reconstructed Proto-Indo-European words. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode combining characters and Latin characters. Proto-Indo-European mythology is the body of myths and deities associated with the Proto-Indo-Europeans, the hypothetical speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language. Although the mythological motifs are not directly attested – since Proto-Indo-European speakers lived in prehistoric societies – scholars of comparative mythology have reconstructed details from inherited similarities found among Indo-European languages, based on the assumption that parts of the Proto-Indo-Europeans' original belief systems survived in the daughter traditions.[note 1] The Proto-Indo-European pantheon includes a number of securely reconstructed deities such as *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, the daylight-sky god; his consort *Dʰéǵʰōm, the earth mother; his daughter *H₂éwsōs, the dawn goddess; his sons the Divine Twins; and *Seh₂ul, a solar goddess. Some deities, like the weather god *Perkʷunos or the herding-god *Péh₂usōn,[note 2] are only attested in a limited number of traditions – Western (European) and Graeco-Aryan, respectively – and could therefore represent late additions that did not spread throughout the various Indo-European dialects. Some myths are also securely dated to Proto-Indo-European times, since they feature both linguistic and thematic evidence of an inherited motif: a story portraying a mythical figure associated with thunder and slaying a multi-headed serpent to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up; a creation myth involving two brothers, one of whom sacrifices the other in order to create the world; and probably the belief that the Otherworld was guarded by a watchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river. Various schools of thought exist regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction are Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Roman, and Norse, often supported with evidence from the Celtic, Greek, Slavic, Hittite, Armenian, and Albanian traditions as well. Contents 1 Methods of reconstruction 1.1 Schools of thought 1.2 Source mythologies 2 Cosmology 2.1 Cosmogony 2.1.1 Reconstruction 2.1.2 Creation myth 2.1.3 Interpretations 2.1.4 Legacy 2.2 Cosmic order 2.3 Otherworld 2.3.1 The canine guardian 2.4 Eschatology 2.5 Other propositions 3 Gods and goddesses 3.1 Epithets and names 4 Pantheon 4.1 Genealogy 4.2 Heavenly deities 4.2.1 Sky Father 4.2.2 Dawn Goddess 4.2.3 Sun and Moon 4.2.4 Divine Twins 4.2.5 Other propositions 4.3 Nature deities 4.3.1 Earth Mother 4.3.2 Weather deity 4.3.3 Fire deities 4.3.4 Water deities 4.3.5 Wind deities 4.3.6 Guardian deity 4.3.7 Other propositions 4.4 Societal deities 4.4.1 Fate goddesses 4.4.2 Welfare god 4.4.3 Smith god 4.4.4 Other propositions 5 Myths 5.1 Serpent-slaying myth 5.2 Fire in water 5.3 King and virgin 5.4 War of the foundation 5.5 Binding of evil 5.6 Other propositions 6 Rituals 6.1 Priesthood 6.2 Sacrifices 6.3 Cults 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Methods of reconstruction[edit] Schools of thought[edit] The mythology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is not directly attested and it is difficult to match their language to archaeological findings related to any specific culture from the Chalcolithic.[2] Nonetheless, scholars of comparative mythology have attempted to reconstruct aspects of Proto-Indo-European mythology based on the existence of similarities among the deities, religious practices, and myths of various Indo-European peoples. This method is known as the comparative method. Different schools of thought have approached the subject of Proto-Indo-European mythology from different angles.[3] Portrait of Friedrich Max Müller, a prominent early scholar on the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European religion and a proponent of the Meteorological School.[4] The Meteorological or Naturist School holds that Proto-Indo-European myths initially emerged as explanations for natural phenomena, such as the Sky, the Sun, the Moon, and the Dawn.[5] Rituals were therefore centered around the worship of those elemental deities.[6] This interpretation was popular among early scholars, such as Friedrich Max Müller, who saw all myths as fundamentally solar allegories.[4] Although recently revived by some scholars like Jean Haudry and Martin L. West,[7][8] this school lost most of its scholarly support in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[9][6] The Ritual School, which first became prominent in the late nineteenth century, holds that Proto-Indo-European myths are best understood as stories invented to explain various rituals and religious practices.[10][9] Scholars of the Ritual School argue that those rituals should be interpreted as attempts to manipulate the universe in order to obtain its favours.[5] This interpretation reached the height of its popularity during the early twentieth century,[11] and many of its most prominent early proponents, such as James George Frazer and Jane Ellen Harrison, were classical scholars.[12] Bruce Lincoln, a contemporary member of the Ritual School, argues for instance that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that every sacrifice was a reenactment of the original sacrifice performed by the founder of the human race on his twin brother.[10] The Functionalist School, by contrast, holds that myths served as stories reinforcing social behaviours through the meta-narrative justification of a traditional order.[5] Scholars of the Functionalist School were greatly influenced by the trifunctional system proposed by Georges Dumézil,[5] which postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between a clerical class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), a warrior class (connected with the concepts of violence and braveness), and a class of farmers or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on the basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division.[13][14][15] The Structuralist School argues that Proto-Indo-European mythology was largely centered around the concept of dualistic opposition.[16] They generally hold that the mental structure of all human beings is designed to set up opposing patterns in order to resolve conflicting elements.[17] This approach tends to focus on cultural universals within the realm of mythology rather than the genetic origins of those myths,[16] such as the fundamental and binary opposition rooted in the nature of marriage proposed by Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov.[17] It also offers refinements of the trifunctional system by highlighting the oppositional elements present within each function, such as the creative and destructive elements both found within the role of the warrior.[16] Source mythologies[edit] Scheme of Indo-European migrations from c. 4000 to 1000 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis. One of the earliest attested and thus one of the most important of all Indo-European mythologies is Vedic mythology,[18] especially the mythology of the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas. Early scholars of comparative mythology such as Friedrich Max Müller stressed the importance of Vedic mythology to such an extent that they practically equated it with Proto-Indo-European myths.[19] Modern researchers have been much more cautious, recognizing that, although Vedic mythology is still central, other mythologies must also be taken into account.[19] Another of the most important source mythologies for comparative research is Roman mythology.[18][20] Contrary to the frequent erroneous statement made by some authors that "Rome has no myth", the Romans possessed a very complex mythological system, parts of which have been preserved through the characteristic Roman tendency to rationalize their myths into historical accounts.[21] Despite its relatively late attestation, Norse mythology is still considered one of the three most important of the Indo-European mythologies for comparative research,[18] due to the vast bulk of surviving Icelandic material.[20] Baltic mythology has also received a great deal of scholarly attention, as it is linguistically the most conservative and archaic of all surviving branches, but has so far remained frustrating to researchers because the sources are so comparatively late.[22] Nonetheless, Latvian folk songs are seen as a major source of information in the process of reconstructing Proto-Indo-European myth.[23] Despite the popularity of Greek mythology in western culture,[24] Greek mythology is generally seen as having little importance in comparative mythology due to the heavy influence of Pre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, which overwhelms what little Indo-European material can be extracted from it.[25] Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention until the first decade of the 21st century.[18] Although Scythians are considered relatively conservative in regards to Proto-Indo-European cultures, retaining a similar lifestyle and culture,[26] their mythology has very rarely been examined in an Indo-European context and infrequently discussed in regards to the nature of the ancestral Indo-European mythology. At least three deities, Tabiti, Papaios and Api, are generally interpreted as having Indo-European origins,[27][28] while the remaining have seen more disparate interpretations. Influence from Siberian, Turkic and even Near Eastern beliefs, on the other hand, are more widely discussed in literature.[29][30][31] Cosmology[edit] There was a fundamental opposition between the never-aging gods dwelling above in the skies, and the mortal humans living beneath on earth.[32] The earth *dʰéǵʰōm was perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ("the Ocean").[33] Although they may sometimes be identified with mythical figures or stories, the stars (*h₂stḗr) were not bound to any particular cosmic significance and were perceived as ornamental more than anything else.[34] According to Martin L. West, the idea of the world-tree (axis mundi) is probably a later import from north Asiatic cosmologies: "The Greek myth might be derived from the Near East, and the Indic and Germanic ideas of a pillar from the shamanistic cosmologies of the Finno-Ugric and other peoples of central and northern Asia."[35] Cosmogony[edit] Main article: Indo-European cosmogony Reconstruction[edit] There is no scientific consensus which of the variants is the 'true' reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth.[36] Bruce Lincoln's reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth (Twin and Man) is supported by a number of scholars like Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams, David W. Anthony, and in part by Martin L. West.[37] Although some thematic parallels can be made with Ancient Near East (the twin Abel and Cain and their brother Seth), and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of *Manu and *Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin.[38] According to Edgar C. Polomé, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-Europeans", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".[36] David A. Leeming also notes that the concept of the Cosmic Egg, symbolizing the primordial state from which the universe arises, is found in many Indo-European creation myths.[39] Creation myth[edit] Lincoln reconstructs a creation myth involving twin brothers, *Manu- ("Man") and *Yemo- ("Twin"), as the progenitors of the world and mankind, and a hero named *Trito ("Third") who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.[40][41][42] Regarding that primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Germanic and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formula insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it..." (Rigveda), "...there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above; Ginnunga Gap there was, but grass nowhere..." (Völuspá), "...there was Chasm and Night and dark Erebos at first, and broad Tartarus, but earth nor air nor heaven there was..." (The Birds).[43][44] The first man Manu and his giant twin Yemo are crossing the cosmos, accompanied by the primordial cow. To create the world, Manu sacrifices his brother and, with the help of heavenly deities (the Sky-Father, the Storm-God and the Divine Twins),[41][45] forges both the natural elements and human beings from his remains. Manu thus becomes the first priest after initiating sacrifice as the primordial condition for the world order, and his deceased brother Yemo the first king as social classes emerge from his anatomy (priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his breast and arms, and the commoners from his sexual organs and legs).[46][42] Although the European and Indo-Iranian versions differ on this matter, Lincoln argues that the primeval cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to the other animals and vegetables, since the pastoral way of life of Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers was closer to that of Proto-Indo-European speakers according to the Kurgan hypothesis.[47] Yama, an Indic reflex of *Yemo, sitting on a water buffalo. To the third man Trito, the celestial gods then offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headed serpent named *Ngʷhi ("serpent"; and the Indo-European root for negation). Trito first suffers at his hands, but the hero eventually manages to overcome the monster, fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by the Sky-Father. He eventually gives the recovered cattle back to a priest for it to be properly sacrificed.[48][41] Trito is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic actions the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals.[49][41] Interpretations[edit] According to Lincoln, Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of Trito should be interpreted as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".[49] The myth indeed recalls the Dumézilian tripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).[41] The story of Trito served as a model for later cattle raiding epic myths and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods.[49][50] The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper.[51] Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being Yemo was depicted as a two-folded hermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of Manu, both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together.[52][53] The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were understood as twin, bisexual or hermaphrodite, and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, also called Twin and with whom incest is discussed.[54][55] In this interpretation, the primordial being may have self-sacrificed,[53] or have been divided in two, a male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes.[52] Legacy[edit] Ancient Roman relief from the Cathedral of Maria Saal showing the infant twins Romulus and Remus being suckled by a she-wolf. Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest *Manu ("Man", "ancestor of mankind") include the Indic Manu, legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the Germanic Mannus (from Germ. *Mannaz), mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes; and the Persian Manūščihr (from Av. Manūš.čiθra), a Zoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD.[56][57] From the name of the sacrificed First King *Yemo ("Twin") derive the Indic Yama, god of death and the underworld; the Avestan Yima, king of the golden age and guardian of hell; the Norse Ymir (from Germ. *Jumijaz), ancestor of the giants (jötnar); and most likely Remus (from Proto-Latin *Yemos or *Yemonos), killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus.[58][41][59] Cognates stemming from the First Warrior *Trito ("Third") include the Vedic Trita, the Avestan Thrita, and the Norse þriði.[60][61] Many Indo-European beliefs explain aspects of human anatomy from the results of the original dismemberment of Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.[42] The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.[42] The motif of Manu and Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following the Indo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.[62] The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.[63] Cosmic order[edit] Linguistic evidence has led scholars to reconstruct the concept of *h₂értus, denoting 'what is fitting, rightly ordered', and ultimately deriving from the verbal root *h₂er-, 'to fit': Hittite āra ('right, proper');[64] Sanskrit ṛta ('divine/cosmic law, force of truth, or order');[65][66] Avestan arəta- ('order'); Greek artús ('arrangement'), possibly arete ('excellence') via the root *h₂erh₁ ('please, satisfy');[67] Latin artus ('joint'); Tocharian A ārtt- ('to praise, be pleased with'); Armenian ard ('ornament, shape'); Middle High German art ('innate feature, nature, fashion').[68] Interwoven with the root *h₂er- ('to fit') is the verbal root *dʰeh₁-, which means 'to put, lay down, establish', but also 'speak, say; bring back'.[69][34][68] The Greek thémis and the Sanskrit dhāman both derive from the PIE root for the 'Law', *dʰeh₁-men-, literally 'that which is established'.[68] This notion of 'Law' includes an active principle, denoting an activity in obedience to the cosmic order *h₂értus, which in a social context is interpreted as a lawful conduct: in the Greek daughter culture, the titaness Themis personifies the cosmic order and the rules of lawful conduct which derived from it,[70] and the Vedic code of lawful conduct, the Dharma, can also be traced back to the PIE root *dʰeh₁-.[71] According to Martin L. West, the root *dʰeh₁- also denotes a divine or cosmic creation, as attested by the Hittite expression nēbis dēgan dāir ("...established heaven (and) earth"), the Young Avestan formula kə huvāpå raocåscā dāt təmåscā? ("What skilful artificer made the regions of light and dark?"), the name of the Vedic creator god Dhātr, and possibly by the Greek nymph Thetis, presented as a demiurgical goddess in Alcman's poetry.[34] Another root *yew(e)s- appears to be connected with ritualistic laws, as suggested by the Latin iūs ('law, right, justice, duty'), Avestan yaož-dā- ('make ritually pure'), and Sanskrit śáṃca yóśca ('health and happiness'), with a derived adjective *yusi(iy)os seen in Old Irish uissse ('just right, fitting') and possibly Old Church Slavonic istǔ ('actual, true').[68] Otherworld[edit] Main article: Otherworld The realm of death was generally depicted as the Lower Darkness and the land of no return.[72] Many Indo-European myths relate a journey across a river, guided by an old man (*ǵerh₂ont-), in order to reach the Otherworld.[73] The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried across the river Styx by Charon is probably a reflex of this belief, and the idea of crossing a river to reach the Underworld is also present throughout Celtic mythologies.[73] Several Vedic texts contain references to crossing a river in order to reach the land of the dead, and the Latin word tarentum ("tomb") originally meant "crossing point".[74] In Norse mythology, Hermóðr must cross a bridge over the river Giöll in order to reach Hel and, in Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a marsh rather than a river.[75] Traditions of placing coins on the bodies of the deceased in order to pay the ferryman are attested in both ancient Greek and early modern Slavic funerary practices.[76] Attic red-figure lekythos attributed to the Tymbos painter showing Charon welcoming a soul into his boat, c. 500–450 BC. In Slovene folk belief, "the world of the dead was situated beyond the waters".[77] The canine guardian[edit] In a recurrent motif, the Otherworld contains a gate, generally guarded by a multi-headed (sometimes multi-eyed) dog who could also serve as a guide and ensured that the ones who entered could not get out.[78][79] The Greek Cerberus and the Hindu Śárvara most likely derive from the common root *Ḱérberos ("spotted").[73][79] Bruce Lincoln has proposed a third cognate in the Norse Garmr,[80] although this has been debated as linguistically untenable.[81] The motif of a canine guardian of the entrance to the Otherworld is also attested in Persian mythology, where two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge, a bridge that marks the threshold between the world of the living and the world of the dead.[82][83] The Videvdat (Vendidad) 13,9 describes them as 'spâna pəšu.pâna' ("two bridge-guarding dogs").[84] In Nordic mythology, a dog stands on the road to Hel; it is often assumed to be identical with Garmr, the howling hound bound at the entrance to Gnipahellir. In Albanian folklore, a never-sleeping three-headed dog is also said to live in the world of the dead.[78] Another parallel may be found in the Cŵn Annwn ("Hounds of Annwn"), creatures of Welsh mythology said to live in Annwn, a name for the Welsh Otherworld.[85] They are described as hell hounds or spectral dogs that take part in the Wild Hunt, chasing after the dead and pursuing the souls of men.[86][87][88] Remains of dogs found in grave sites of the Iron Age Wielbark culture,[89] and dog burials of Early Medieval North-Western Slavs (in Pomerania)[90] would suggest the longevity of the belief. Another dog-burial in Góra Chełmska and a Pomeranian legend about a canine figure associated with the otherworld seem to indicate the existence of the motif in Slavic tradition.[91] In a legend from Lokev, a male creature named Vilež ("fairy man"), who dwells in Vilenica cave, is guarded by two wolves and is said to take men into the underworld.[92] The mytheme possibly stems from an older Ancient North Eurasian belief, as evidenced by similar motifs in Native American and Siberian mythology, in which case it might be one of the oldest mythemes recoverable through comparative mythology.[93][94] The King of the Otherworld may have been Yemo, the sacrificed twin of the creation myth, as suggested by the Indo-Iranian and, to a lesser extent, by the Germanic, Greek and Celtic traditions.[95][96][73] Eschatology[edit] Several traditions reveal traces of a Proto-Indo-European eschatological myth that describes the end of the world following a cataclysmic battle.[97] The story begins when an archdemon, usually coming from a different and inimical paternal line, assumes the position of authority among the community of the gods or heroes (Norse Surtr, Roman Tarquin, Irish Bres). The subjects are treated unjustly by the new ruler, forced to erect fortifications while the archdemon favours instead outsiders, on whom his support relies. After a particularly heinous act, the archdemon is exiled by his subjects and takes refuge among his foreign relatives.[98] A new leader (Norse Víðarr, Roman Lucius Brutus, Irish Lug), known as the "silent" one and usually the nephew or grandson (*népōt) of the exiled archdemon, then springs up and the two forces come together to annihilate each other in a cataclysmic battle. The myth ends with the interruption of the cosmic order and the conclusion of a temporal cyclic era.[99] In the Norse and Iranian traditions, a cataclysmic "cosmic winter" precedes the final battle.[100][99] Other propositions[edit] In the cosmological model proposed by Jean Haudry, the Proto-Indo-European sky is composed of three "heavens" (diurnal, nocturnal and liminal) rotating around an axis mundi, each having its own deities, social associations and colors (white, dark and red, respectively). Deities of the diurnal sky could not transgress the domain of the nocturnal sky, inhabited by its own sets of gods and by the spirits of the dead. For instance, Zeus cannot extend his power to the nightly sky in the Iliad. In this vision, the liminal or transitional sky embodies the gate or frontier (dawn and twilight) binding the two other heavens.[101][102] Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the peripheral part of the earth was inhabited by a people exempt from the hardships and pains that affect us. The common motif is suggested by the legends of the Indic Śvetadvīpam ("White Island"), whose inhabitants shine white like the moon and need no food; the Greek Hyperborea ("Beyond the North Wind"), where the sun shines all the time and the men know "neither disease nor bitter old age"; the Irish Tír na nÓg ("Land of the Young"), a mythical region located in the western sea where "happiness lasts forever and there is no satiety";[103] or the Germanic Ódáinsakr ("Glittering Plains"), a land situated beyond the Ocean where "no one is permitted to die".[104] Gods and goddesses[edit] The archaic Proto-Indo-European language (4500–4000)[note 3] had a two-gender system which originally distinguished words between animate and inanimate, a system used to separate a common term from its deified synonym. For instance, fire as an active principle was *h₁n̥gʷnis (Latin ignis; Sanskrit Agní), while the inanimate, physical entity was *péh₂ur (Greek pyr ; English fire).[105] During this period, Indo-European beliefs were still animistic and their language did not yet make formal distinctions between masculine and feminine, although it is likely that each deity was already conceived as either male or female.[106] Most of the goddesses attested in later Indo-European mythologies come from pre-Indo-European deities eventually assimilated into the various pantheons following the migrations, like the Greek Athena, the Roman Juno, the Irish Medb, or the Iranian Anahita. Diversely personified, they were frequently seen as fulfilling multiple functions, while Proto-Indo-European goddesses shared a lack of personification and narrow functionalities as a general characteristic.[107] The most well-attested female Indo-European deities include *H₂éwsōs, the Dawn, *Dʰéǵʰōm, the Earth, and *Seh₂ul, the Sun.[8][108] It is not probable that the Indo-Europeans had a fixed canon of deities or assigned a specific number to them.[109] The term for "a god" was *deywós ("celestial"), derived from the root *dyew, which denoted the bright sky or the light of day. It has numerous reflexes in Latin deus, Old Norse Týr (< Germ. *tīwaz), Sanskrit devá, Avestan daeva, Irish día, or Lithuanian Dievas.[110][111] In contrast, human beings were synonymous of "mortals" and associated with the "earthly" (*dʰéǵʰōm), likewise the source of words for "man, human being" in various languages.[112] Proto-Indo-Europeans believed the gods to be exempt from death and disease because they were nourished by special aliments, usually not available to mortals: in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, "the gods, of course, neither eat nor drink. They become sated by just looking at this nectar", while the Edda tells us that "on wine alone the weapon-lord Odin ever lives ... he needs no food; wine is to him both drink and meat".[113] Sometimes concepts could also be deified, such as the Avestan mazdā ("wisdom"), worshipped as Ahura Mazdā ("Lord Wisdom"); the Greek god of war Ares (connected with ἀρή, "ruin, destruction"); or the Vedic protector of treaties Mitráh (from mitrám, "contract").[114] Epithets and names[edit] Gods had several titles, typically "the celebrated", "the highest", "king", or "shepherd", with the notion that deities had their own idiom and true names which might be kept secret from mortals in some circumstances.[115] In Indo-European traditions, gods were seen as the "dispensers" or the "givers of good things" (*déh₃tōr h₁uesuom).[116] Although certain individual deities were charged with the supervision of justice or contracts, in general the Indo-European gods did not have an ethical character. Their immense power, which they could exercise at their pleasure, necessitated rituals, sacrifices and praise songs from worshipers to ensure they would in return bestow prosperity to the community.[117] The idea that gods were in control of the nature was translated in the suffix *-nos (feminine -nā), which signified "lord of".[118] According to West, it is attested in Greek Ouranos ("lord of rain") and Helena ("mistress of sunlight"), Germanic *Wōðanaz ("lord of frenzy"), Gaulish Epona ("goddess of horses"), Lithuanian Perkūnas ("lord of oaks"), and in Roman Neptunus ("lord of waters"), Volcanus ("lord of fire-glare") and Silvanus ("lord of woods").[118] Pantheon[edit] Linguists have been able to reconstruct the names of some deities in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deity names are more readily accepted among scholars than others. According to philologist Martin L. West, "the clearest cases are the cosmic and elemental deities: the Sky-god, his partner Earth, and his twin sons; the Sun, the Sun Maiden, and the Dawn; gods of storm, wind, water, fire; and terrestrial presences such as the Rivers, spring and forest nymphs, and a god of the wild who guards roads and herds".[8] Genealogy[edit] The most securely reconstructed genealogy of the Proto-Indo-European gods (Götterfamilie) is given as follows:[119][2][120] Dyēws Daylight-Sky Dhéǵhōm Earth The Divine Twins The Sun Maiden Hausōs Dawn An alternative genealogy has been proposed by P. Jackson (2002):[121] Dyēws Daylight-Sky Diuōneh₂ The Divine Twins The Sun Maiden Perkwunos The Oak-God Dhéǵhōm Earth Hausōs Dawn Heavenly deities[edit] Sky Father[edit] Main article: Dyēus Laurel-wreathed head of Zeus on a gold stater from the Greek city of Lampsacus, c 360–340 BC. The head deity of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr,[122] whose name literally means "Sky Father".[122][123][124] Regarded as the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven,[125] Dyēus is, by far, the most well-attested of all the Proto-Indo-European deities.[16][126] As the gateway to the gods and the father of both the Divine Twins and the goddess of the dawn (Hausos), Dyēws was a prominent deity in the pantheon.[127][128] He was however likely not their ruler, or the holder of the supreme power like Zeus and Jupiter.[129][130] Due to his celestial nature, Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing", or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for the Zeus or the Indo-Iranian Mithra–Varuna duo; but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties.[131] The Greek god Zeus, the Roman god Jupiter, and the Illyrian god Dei-Pátrous all appear as the head gods of their respective pantheons.[132][124] *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr is also attested in the Rigveda as Dyáus Pitā, a minor ancestor figure mentioned in only a few hymns.[133] The ritual expressions Debess tēvs in Latvian and attas Isanus in Hittite are not exact descendants of the formula *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, but they do preserve its original structure.[16] Dawn Goddess[edit] Main article: Hausos Eos in her chariot flying over the sea, red-figure krater from South Italy, 430–420 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich. *H₂éusōs has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn.[134][135] In three traditions (Indic, Greek, Baltic), the Dawn is the "daughter of heaven", *Dyḗws. In these three branches plus a fourth (Italic), the reluctant dawn-goddess is chased or beaten from the scene for tarrying.[136][127] An ancient epithet designating the Dawn appears to have been *Dʰuǵh₂tḗr Diwós, "Sky Daughter".[108] Depicted as opening the gates of Heaven when she appears at the beginning of the day,[137] Hausōs is generally seen as never-ageing or born again each morning.[138] Associated with red or golden cloths, she is often portrayed as dancing.[139] Twenty-one hymns in the Rigveda are dedicated to the dawn goddess Uṣás[140] and a single passage from the Avesta honors the dawn goddess Ušå.[140] The dawn goddess Eos appears prominently in early Greek poetry and mythology.[140] The Roman dawn goddess Aurora is a reflection of the Greek Eos,[140] but the original Roman dawn goddess may have continued to be worshipped under the cultic title Mater Matuta.[140] The Anglo-Saxons worshipped the goddess Ēostre, who was associated with a festival in spring which later gave its name to a month, which gave its name to the Christian holiday of Easter in English.[140] The name Ôstarmânôth in Old High German has been taken as an indication that a similar goddess was also worshipped in southern Germany.[141] The Lithuanian dawn goddess Aušra was still acknowledged in the sixteenth century.[142] Sun and Moon[edit] Possible depiction of the Hittite Sun goddess holding a child in her arms from between 1400 and 1200 BC. *Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not are reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the Sun and god of the Moon respectively. *Seh₂ul is reconstructed based on the Greek god Helios, the Greek mythological figure Helen of Troy,[143][144][145] the Roman god Sol, the Celtic goddess Sul/Suil, the North Germanic goddess Sól, the Continental Germanic goddess *Sowilō, the Hittite goddess "UTU-liya",[146] the Zoroastrian Hvare-khshaeta[146] and the Vedic god Surya.[107] *Meh₁not- is reconstructed based on the Norse god Máni, the Slavic god Myesyats,[146] and the Lithuanian god *Meno, or Mėnuo (Mėnulis).[147] Remnants of the lunar deity may exist in Anatolian (Phrygian) deity Men;[148] Mene, another name for Selene, and her daughters, the Menae (Μηναι), and in Zoroastrian lunar deity Mah (Måŋha).[149][150] The daily course of *Seh₂ul across the sky on a horse-driven chariot is a common motif among Indo-European myths. While it is probably inherited, the motif certainly appeared after the introduction of the wheel in the Pontic-Caspian steppe about 3500 BC, and is therefore a late addition to Proto-Indo-European culture.[136] Although the sun was personified as an independent, female deity,[108] the Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēws" or the "eye of Dyēws", as seen in various reflexes: "the god’s lamp" in Medes by Euripides, "heaven’s candle" in Beowulf, or "the land of Hatti’s torch", as the Sun-goddess of Arinna is called in a Hittite prayer;[151] and Helios as the eye of Zeus,[152][153] Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda, and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore.[154] The names of Celtic sun goddesses like Sulis and Grian may also allude to this association: the words for "eye" and "sun" are switched in these languages, hence the name of the goddesses.[155] Divine Twins[edit] Main article: Divine Twins The Horse Twins are a set of twin brothers found throughout nearly every Indo-European pantheon who usually have a name that means 'horse', *h₁éḱwos,[128] although the names are not always cognate, and no Proto-Indo-European name for them can be reconstructed.[128] Pair of Roman statuettes from the third century AD depicting the Dioscuri as horsemen, with their characteristic skullcaps (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). In most traditions, the Horse Twins are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, and the sons of the sky god, *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr.[127][156] The Greek Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) are the "sons of Zeus"; the Vedic Divó nápātā (Aśvins) are the "sons of Dyaús", the sky-god; the Lithuanian Dievo sūneliai (Ašvieniai) are the "sons of the God" (Dievas); and the Latvian Dieva dēli are likewise the "sons of the God" (Dievs).[157][158] Represented as young men and the steeds who pull the sun across the sky, the Divine Twins rode horses (sometimes they were depicted as horses themselves) and rescued men from mortal peril in battle or at sea.[159] The Divine Twins are often differentiated: one is represented as a young warrior while the other is seen as a healer or concerned with domestic duties.[128] In most tales where they appear, the Divine Twins rescue the Dawn from a watery peril, a theme that emerged from their role as the solar steeds.[160][161] At night, the horses of the sun returned to the east in a golden boat, where they traversed the sea[note 4] to bring back the Sun each morning. During the day, they crossed the sky in pursuit of their consort, the morning star.[161] Other reflexes may be found in the Anglo-Saxon Hengist and Horsa (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse"), the Celtic "Dioskouroi" said by Timaeus to be venerated by Atlantic Celts as a set of horse twins, the Germanic Alcis, a pair of young male brothers worshipped by the Naharvali,[163] or the Welsh Brân and Manawydan.[128] The horse twins could have been based on the morning and evening star (the planet Venus) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun.[164] Other propositions[edit] Some scholars have proposed a consort goddess named *Diwōnā or *Diuōneh₂,[165][166] a spouse of Dyēws with a possible descendant in the Greek goddess Dione. A thematic echo may also occur in Vedic India, as both Indra's wife Indrānī and Zeus's consort Dione display a jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. The story leads ultimately to the birth of the Centaurs after the mating of Dia's husband Ixion with the phantom of Hera, the spouse of Zeus. The reconstruction is however only attested in those two traditions and therefore not secured.[167] The Greek Hera, the Roman Juno, the Germanic Frigg and the Indic Shakti are often depicted as the protectress of marriage and fertility, or as the bestowal of the gift of prophecy. James P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."[168] Although the etymological association is often deemed untenable,[169] some scholars (such as Georges Dumézil[170][171] Therefore, this divinity has also the qualities of Mitra, which is the god of the falling rain.[172] and S. K. Sen) have proposed *Worunos or *Werunos (also the eponymous god in the reconstructed dialogue The king and the god) as the nocturnal sky and benevolent counterpart of Dyēws, with possible cognates in Greek Ouranos, the Iranian Ahura Mazda, and Vedic Varuna, from the PIE root *woru- ("to encompass, cover"). Worunos may have personified the firmament, or dwelled in the night sky. In both Greek and Vedic poetry, Uranos and Varuna are portrayed as "wide-looking", bounding or seizing their victims, and having or being a heavenly "seat".[166] In the three-sky cosmological model, the celestial phenomena linking the nightly and daily skies is embodied by a "Binder-god": the Greek Kronos, a transitional deity between Ouranos and Zeus in Hesiod's Theogony, the Indic Savitṛ, associated with the rising and setting of the sun in the Vedas, and the Roman Saturnus, whose feast marked the period immediately preceding the winter solstice.[173][174] Nature deities[edit] The substratum of Proto-Indo-European mythology is animistic.[114][175] This native animism is still reflected in the Indo-European daughter cultures,[176][177][178] In Norse mythology the Vættir are for instance reflexes of the native animistic nature spirits and deities.[179][page needed] Trees have a central position in Indo-European daughter cultures, and are thought to be the abode of tree spirits.[178][180] In Indo-European tradition, the storm is deified as a highly active, assertive, and sometimes aggressive element; the fire and water are deified as cosmic elements that are also necessary for the functioning of the household;[181] the deified earth is associated with fertility and growth on the one hand, and with death and the underworld on the other.[182] Earth Mother[edit] Main article: Dhéǵhōm The earth goddess, *Dʰéǵʰōm, is portrayed as the vast and dark house of mortals, in contrast with Dyēws, the bright sky and seat of the immortal gods.[183] She is associated with fertility and growth, but also with death as the final dwelling of the deceased.[182] She was likely the consort of the sky father, *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr.[184][185] The duality is associated with fertility, as the crop grows from her moist soil, nourished by the rain of Dyēws.[186] The Earth is thus portrayed as the giver of good things: she is exhorted to become pregnant in an Old English prayer; and Slavic peasants described Zemlja-matushka, Mother Earth, as a prophetess that shall offer favourable harvest to the community.[185][187] The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is likewise associated with fertility and growth in Greek mythology.[187] This pairing is further attested in the Vedic pairing of Dyáus Pitā and Prithvi Mater,[184] the Greek pairing of Ouranos and Gaia,[188][185] the Roman pairing of Jupiter and Tellus Mater from Macrobius's Saturnalia,[184] and the Norse pairing of Odin and Jörð. Although Odin is not a reflex of *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, his cult may have subsumed aspects of an earlier chief deity who was.[189] The Earth and Heaven couple is however not at the origin of the other gods, as the Divine Twins and Hausos were probably conceived by Dyēws alone.[162] Cognates include Žemyna, a Lithuanian goddess of earth celebrated as the bringer of flowers; the Avestan Zām, the Zoroastrian concept of 'earth'; Zemes Māte ("Mother Earth"), one of the goddesses of death in Latvian mythology; the Hittite Dagan-zipas ("Genius of the Earth"); the Slavic Mati Syra Zemlya ("Mother Moist Earth"); the Greek Chthôn (Χθών), the partner of Ouranos in Aeschylus' Danaids, and the chthonic deities of the underworld. The possibilities of a Thracian goddess Zemelā (*gʰem-elā) and a Messapic goddess Damatura (*dʰǵʰem-māter), at the origin of the Greek Semele and Demeter respectively, are less secured.[185][190] The commonest epithets attached to the Earth goddess are *Pleth₂-wih₁ (the "Broad One"), attested in the Vedic Pṛthvī, the Greek Plataia and Gaulish Litavis,[33][191] and *Pleth₂-wih₁ Méh₂tēr ("Mother Broad One"), attested in the Vedic and Old English formulas Pṛthvī Mātā and Fīra Mōdor.[191][185] Other frequent epithets include the "All-Bearing One", the one who bears all things or creatures, and the "mush-nourishing" or the "rich-pastured".[192][183] Weather deity[edit] Main article: Perkwunos *Perkʷunos has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. It either meant "the Striker" or "the Lord of Oaks",[193][118] and he was probably represented as holding a hammer or a similar weapon.[136][194] Thunder and lightning had both a destructive and regenerative connotation: a lightning bolt can cleave a stone or a tree, but is often accompanied with fructifying rain. This likely explains the strong association between the thunder-god and oaks in some traditions.[136] He is often portrayed in connection with stone and (wooded) mountains, probably because the mountainous forests were his realm.[195] The striking of devils, demons or evildoers by Perkʷunos is a motif encountered in the myths surrounding the Lithuanian Perkūnas and the Vedic Parjanya, a possible cognate, but also in the Germanic Thor, a thematic echo of Perkʷunos.[196][197] The deities generally agreed to be cognates stemming from *Perkʷunos are confined to the European continent, and he could have been a motif developed later in Western Indo-European traditions. The evidence include the Norse goddess Fjǫrgyn (the mother of Thor), the Lithuanian god Perkūnas, the Slavic god Perúnú, and the Celtic Hercynian (Herkynío) mountains or forests.[198] Perëndi, an Albanian thunder-god (from the root per-en-, "to strike", attached to -di, "sky", from *dyews-) is also a probable cognate.[199][200][197] The evidence could extend to the Vedic tradition if one adds the god of rain, thunder and lightning Parjánya, although Sanskrit sound laws rather predict a **parkūn(y)a form.[201][202] From another root *(s)tenh₂ ("thunder") stems a group of cognates found in the Germanic, Celtic and Roman thunder-gods Thor, Taranis and (Jupiter) Tonans.[203][204] According to Jackson, "they may have arisen as the result of fossilisation of an original epithet or epiclesis", as the Vedic Parjanya is also called stanayitnú- ("Thunderer").[205] The Roman god Mars may be a thematic echo of Perkʷunos, since he originally had thunderer characteristics.[206] Fire deities[edit] A pre-3rd century CE, Kushan Empire statue of Agni, the Vedic god of fire. Although the linguistic evidence is restricted to the Vedic and Balto-Slavic traditions, scholars have proposed that Proto-Indo-Europeans conceived the fire as a divine entity called *h₁n̥gʷnis.[27][207] "Seen from afar" and "untiring", the Indic deity Agni is pictured in the Rigveda as the god of both terrestrial and celestial fires. He embodied the flames of the sun and the lightning, as well as the forest fire, the domestic hearth fire and the sacrificial altar, linking heaven and earth in a ritual dimension.[27] Another group of cognates deriving from the Balto-Slavic *ungnis ("fire") is also attested.[208] Early modern sources report that Lithuanian priests worshipped a "holy Fire" named Ugnis (szwenta), which they tried to maintain in perpetual life, while Uguns (māte) was revered as the "Mother of Fire" by the Latvians. Tenth-century Persian sources give evidence of the veneration of fire among the Slavs, and later sources in Old Church Slavonic attest the worship of fire (ogonĭ), occurring under the divine name Svarožič, who has been interpreted as the son of Svarog.[209][210] The name of an Albanian fire deity, *Enji, has also been reconstructed from the Albanian name of Thursday, enj-të, which is also attested in older texts as egni or a similar variant. This fire deity is thought to have been worshiped by the Illyrians in antiquity, among whom he was the most prominent god of the pantheon during Roman times.[211] In other traditions, as the sacral name of the dangerous fire may have become a word taboo,[27] the root served instead as an ordinary term for fire, as in the Latin ignis.[212] Scholars generally agree that the cult of the hearth dates back to Proto-Indo-European times.[210] The domestic fire had to be tended with care and given offerings, and if one moved house, one carried fire from the old to the new home.[210] The Avestan Ātar was the sacral and hearth fire, often personified and honoured as a god.[27] In Albanian beliefs, Nëna e Vatrës ("the Hearth Mother") is the goddess protector of the domestic hearth (vatër).[213][214] Herodotus reported a Scythian goddess of hearth named Tabiti, a term likely given under a slightly distorted guise, as she might represent a feminine participial form corresponding to an Indo-Iranian god named *Tapatī, "the Burning one". The sacral or domestic hearth can likewise be found in the Greek and Roman hearth goddesses Hestia and Vesta, two names that may derive from the PIE root *h₁w-es- ("burning").[27][207] Both the ritual fires set in the temples of Vesta and the domestic fires of ancient India were circular, rather than the square form reserved for public worship in India and for the other gods in Roman antiquity.[215] Additionally, the custom that the bride circles the hearth three times is common to Indian, Ossetian, Slavic, Baltic, and German traditions.[210] Water deities[edit] Based on the similarity of motifs attested over a wide geographical extent, it is very likely that Proto-Indo-European beliefs featured some sorts of beautiful and sometimes dangerous water goddesses who seduced mortal men, akin to the Greek naiads, the nymphs of fresh waters.[216] The Vedic Apsarás are said to frequent forest lakes, rivers, trees, and mountains. They are of outstanding beauty, and Indra sends them to lure men. In Ossetic mythology, the waters are ruled by Donbettyr ("Water-Peter"), who has daughters of extraordinary beauty and with golden hair. In Armenian folklore, the Parik take the form of beautiful women who dance amid nature. The Slavonic water nymphs víly are also depicted as alluring maidens with long golden or green hair who like young men and can do harm if they feel offended.[217] The Albanian mountain nymphs, Perit and Zana, are portrayed as beautiful but also dangerous creatures. Similar to the Baltic nymph-like Laumes, they have the habit of abducting children. The beautiful and long-haired Laumes also have sexual relations and short-lived marriages with men. The Breton Korrigans are irresistible creatures with golden hair wooing mortal men and causing them to perish for love.[218] The Norse Huldra, Iranian Ahuraīnīs and Lycian Eliyãna can likewise be regarded as reflexes of the water nymphs.[219] A wide range of linguistic and cultural evidence attest the holy status of the terrestrial (potable) waters *āp-, venerated collectively as "the Waters" or divided into "Rivers and Springs".[220] The cults of fountains and rivers, which may have preceded Proto-Indo-European beliefs by tens of thousands of years, was also prevalent in their tradition.[221] Some authors have proposed *Neptonos or *H₂epom Nepōts as the Proto-Indo-European god of the waters. The name literally means "Grandson [or Nephew] of the Waters".[222][223] Philologists reconstruct his name from that of the Vedic god Apám Nápát, the Roman god Neptūnus, and the Old Irish god Nechtain. Although such a god has been solidly reconstructed in Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, Mallory and Adams nonetheless still reject him as a Proto-Indo-European deity on linguistic grounds.[223] Wind deities[edit] We find evidence for the deification of the wind in most Indo-European traditions. The root *h₂weh₁ ("to blow") is at the origin of the two words for the wind: *H₂weh₁-yú- and *H₂w(e)h₁-nt-.[224][225] The deity is indeed often depicted as a couple in the Indo-Iranian tradition. Vayu-Vāta is a dual divinity in the Avesta, Vāta being associated with the stormy winds and described as coming from everywhere ("from below, from above, from in front, from behind"). Similarly, the Vedic Vāyu, the lord of the winds, is connected in the Vedas with Indra—the king of the highest heaven—while the other deity Vāta represents a more violent sort of wind and is instead associated with Parjanya—the god of rain and thunder.[225] Other cognates include Hitt. huwant-, Lith. vėjas, Toch. B yente, Lat. uentus, Ger. *windaz, or Welsh gwynt.[225] Guardian deity[edit] The association between the Greek god Pan and the Vedic god Pūshān was first identified in 1924 by German linguist Hermann Collitz.[226][227] Both were worshipped as pastoral deities, which led scholars to reconstruct *Péh₂usōn ("Protector") as a pastoral god guarding roads and herds.[228][229][230] He may have had an unfortunate appearance, a bushy beard and a keen sight.[231][230] He was also closely affiliated with goats or bucks: Pan has goat's legs while goats are said to pull the car of Pūshān (the animal was also sacrificed to him on occasion).[230][232] The minor discrepancies between the two deities could be explained by the possibility that many of Pan's original attributes were transferred over to his father Hermes.[229][232] According to West, the reflex may be at least of Graeco-Aryan origin: "Pūshān and Pan agree well enough in name and nature—especially when Hermes is seen as a hypostasis of Pan—to make it a reasonable conclusion that they are parallel reflexes of a prototypical god of ways and byways, a guide on the journey, a protector of flocks, a watcher of who and what goes where, one who can scamper up any slope with the ease of a goat."[233] Other propositions[edit] In 1855, Adalbert Kuhn suggested that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed in a set of helper deities, whom he reconstructed based on the Germanic elves and the Hindu ribhus.[234] Although this proposal is often mentioned in academic writings, very few scholars actually accept it since the cognate relationship is linguistically difficult to justify.[235][236] While stories of elves, satyrs, goblins and giants show recurrent traits in Indo-European traditions, West notes that "it is difficult to see so coherent an overall pattern as with the nymphs. It is unlikely that the Indo-Europeans had no concept of such creatures, but we cannot define with any sharpness of outline what their conceptions were."[237] A wild god named *Rudlos has also been proposed, based on the Vedic Rudrá and the Old Russian Rŭglŭ. Problematic is whether the name derives from *rewd- ("rend, tear apart"; akin to Lat. rullus, "rustic"), or rather from *rew- ("howl").[238] Although the name of the divinities are not cognates, a horse goddess portrayed as bearing twins and in connection with fertility and marriage has been proposed based on the Gaulish Epona, Irish Macha and Welsh Rhiannon, with other thematic echos in the Greek and Indic traditions.[239][240] Demeter transformed herself into a mare when she was raped by Poseidon appearing as a stallion, and she gave birth to a daughter and a horse, Areion. Similarly, the Indic tradition tells of Saranyu fleeing from her husband Vivásvat when she assumed the form of a mare. Vivásvat metamorphosed into a stallion and of their intercourse were born the twin horses, the Aśvins. The Irish goddess Macha gave birth to twins, a mare and a boy, and the Welsh figure Rhiannon bore a child who was reared along with a horse.[241] A river goddess *Deh₂nu- has been proposed based on the Vedic goddess Dānu, the Irish goddess Danu, the Welsh goddess Don and the names of the rivers Danube, Don, Dnieper, and Dniester. Mallory and Adams however note that while the lexical correspondence is probable, "there is really no evidence for a specific river goddess" in Proto-Indo-European mythology "other than the deification of the concept of ‘river’ in Indic tradition".[238] Some have also proposed the reconstruction of a sea god named *Trih₂tōn based on the Greek god Triton and the Old Irish word trïath, meaning "sea". Mallory and Adams also reject this reconstruction as having no basis, asserting that the "lexical correspondence is only just possible and with no evidence of a cognate sea god in Irish."[238] Societal deities[edit] Fate goddesses[edit] It is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three fate goddesses who spun the destinies of mankind.[242] Although such fate goddesses are not directly attested in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda does contain an allusion comparing fate to a warp.[243] Furthermore, the three Fates appear in nearly every other Indo-European mythology.[243] The earliest attested set of fate goddesses are the Gulses in Hittite mythology, who were said to preside over the individual destinies of human beings.[243] They often appear in mythical narratives alongside the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya,[243] who, in a ritual text for the foundation of a new temple, are described sitting holding mirrors and spindles, spinning the king's thread of life.[243] In the Greek tradition, the Moirai ("Apportioners") are mentioned dispensing destiny in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, in which they are given the epithet Κλῶθες (Klothes, meaning "Spinners").[244][245] In Hesiod's Theogony, the Moirai are said to "give mortal men both good and ill" and their names are listed as Klotho ("Spinner"), Lachesis ("Apportioner"), and Atropos ("Inflexible").[246][247] In his Republic, Plato records that Klotho sings of the past, Lachesis of the present, and Atropos of the future.[248] In Roman legend, the Parcae were three goddesses who presided over the births of children and whose names were Nona ("Ninth"), Decuma ("Tenth"), and Morta ("Death").[247] They too were said to spin destinies, although this may have been due to influence from Greek literature.[247] Late second-century AD Greek mosaic from the House of Theseus at Paphos Archaeological Park on Cyprus showing the three Moirai: Klotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, standing behind Peleus and Thetis, the parents of Achilles. In the Old Norse Völuspá and Gylfaginning, the Norns are three cosmic goddesses of fate who are described sitting by the well of Urðr at the foot of the world tree Yggdrasil.[249][250][note 5] In Old Norse texts, the Norns are frequently conflated with Valkyries, who are sometimes also described as spinning.[250] Old English texts, such as Rhyme Poem 70, and Guthlac 1350 f., reference Wyrd as a singular power that "weaves" destinies.[251] Later texts mention the Wyrds as a group, with Geoffrey Chaucer referring to them as "the Werdys that we clepyn Destiné" in The Legend of Good Women.[252][248][note 6] A goddess spinning appears in a bracteate from southwest Germany[248] and a relief from Trier shows three mother goddesses, with two of them holding distaffs.[248] Tenth-century German ecclesiastical writings denounce the popular belief in three sisters who determined the course of a man's life at his birth.[248] An Old Irish hymn attests to seven goddesses who were believed to weave the thread of destiny, which demonstrates that these spinster fate-goddesses were present in Celtic mythology as well.[253] A Lithuanian folktale recorded in 1839 recounts that a man's fate is spun at his birth by seven goddesses known as the deivės valdytojos and used to hang a star in the sky;[253] when he dies, his thread snaps and his star falls as a meteor.[253] In Latvian folk songs, a goddess called the Láima is described as weaving a child's fate at its birth.[253] Although she is usually only one goddess, the Láima sometimes appears as three.[253] The three spinning fate goddesses appear in Slavic traditions in the forms of the Russian Rožanicy, the Czech Sudičky, the Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, the Polish Rodzanice, the Croatian Rodjenice, the Serbian Sudjenice, and the Slovene Rojenice.[254] Albanian folk tales speak of the Fatit, three old women who appear three days after a child is born and determine its fate, using language reminiscent of spinning.[255] Welfare god[edit] The god *h₂eryo-men has been reconstructed as a deity in charge of welfare and the community, connected to the building and maintenance of roads or pathways, but also with healing and the institution of marriage.[256][257] It derives from the root *h₂eryos (a "member of one’s own group", "one who belongs to the community", in contrast to an outsider), also at the origin of the Indo-Iranian *árya, "noble, hospitable", and the Celtic *aryo-, "free man" (Old Irish: aire, "noble, chief"; Gaulish: arios, "free man, lord").[258][259][260][261] The Vedic god Aryaman is frequently mentioned in the Vedas, and associated with social and marital ties. In the Gāthās, the Iranian god Airyaman seems to denote the wider tribal network or alliance, and is invoked in a prayer against illness, magic, and evil.[257] In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the hero Érimón became the first king of the Milesians (the mythical name of the Irish) after he helped conquer the island from the Tuatha Dé Danann. He also provided wives to the Cruithnig (the mythical Celtic Britons or Picts), a reflex of the marital functions of *h₂eryo-men.[262] The Gaulish given name Ariomanus, possibly translated as "lord-spirited" and generally borne by Germanic chiefs, is also to be mentioned.[261] Smith god[edit] Although the name of a particular smith god cannot be linguistically reconstructed,[223] it is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a smith deity of some kind, since smith gods occur in nearly every Indo-European culture, with examples including the Hittite Hasammili, the Vedic Tvastr, the Greek Hephaestus, the Germanic Wayland the Smith, the Irish Goibniu, the Lithuanian Telyavelik and the Ossetian Kurdalagon and the Slavic Svarog.[263][209] Mallory notes that "deities specifically concerned with particular craft specializations may be expected in any ideological system whose people have achieved an appropriate level of social complexity".[264] Nonetheless, two motifs recurs frequently in Indo-European traditions: the making of the chief god's distinctive weapon (Indra’s and Zeus’ bolt; Lugh’s spear) by a special artificer, and the craftsman god’s association with the immortals’ drinking.[113] Smith mythical figures share other characteristics in common. Hephaestus, the Greek god of blacksmiths, and Wayland the Smith, a nefarious blacksmith from Germanic mythology, are both described as lame.[265] Additionally, Wayland the Smith and the Greek mythical inventor Daedalus both escape imprisonment on an island by fashioning sets of mechanical wings from feathers and wax and using them to fly away.[266] Other propositions[edit] The Proto-Indo-Europeans may also have had a goddess who presided over the trifunctional organization of society. Various epithets of the Iranian goddess Anahita and the Roman goddess Juno provide sufficient evidence to solidly attest that she was probably worshipped, but no specific name for her can be lexically reconstructed.[267] Vague remnants of this goddess may also be preserved in the Greek goddess Athena.[268] A decay goddess has also been proposed on the basis of the Vedic Nirṛti and the Roman Lūa Mater. Her names derive from the verbal roots "decay, rot", and they are both associated with the decomposition of human bodies.[238] Michael Estell has reconstructed a mythical craftsman named *H₃r̥bʰew based on the Greek Orpheus and the Vedic Ribhus. Both are the son of a cudgel-bearer or an archer, and both are known as "fashioners" (*tetḱ-).[269] A mythical hero named *Promāth₂ew has also been proposed, from the Greek hero Prometheus ("the one who steals"), who took the heavenly fire away from the gods to bring it to mankind, and the Vedic Mātariśvan, the mythical bird who "robbed" (found in the myth as pra math-, "to steal") the hidden fire and gave it to the Bhrigus.[232][270] A medical god has been reconstructed based on a thematic comparison between the Indic god Rudra and the Greek Apollo. Both inflict disease from afar thanks to their bow, both are known as healers, and both are specifically associated with rodents: Rudra's animal is the "rat mole" and Apollo was known as a "rat god".[238] Some scholars have proposed a war god named *Māwort- based on the Roman god Mars and the Vedic Marutás, the companions of the war-god Indra. Mallory and Adams reject this reconstruction on linguistic grounds.[271] Likewise, some researchers have found it more plausible that Mars was originally a storm deity, while the same cannot be said of Ares.[206] Myths[edit] Serpent-slaying myth[edit] Further information: Chaoskampf One common myth found in nearly all Indo-European mythologies is a battle ending with a hero or god slaying a serpent or dragon of some sort.[272][273][274] Although the details of the story often vary widely, several features remain remarkably the same in all iterations. The protagonist of the story is usually a thunder-god, or a hero somehow associated with thunder.[275] His enemy the serpent is generally associated with water and depicted as multi-headed, or else "multiple" in some other way.[274] Indo-European myths often describe the creature as a "blocker of waters", and his many heads get eventually smashed up by the thunder-god in an epic battle, releasing torrents of water that had previously been pent up.[276] The original legend may have symbolized the Chaoskampf, a clash between forces of order and chaos.[277] The dragon or serpent loses in every version of the story, although in some mythologies, such as the Norse Ragnarök myth, the hero or the god dies with his enemy during the confrontation.[278] Historian Bruce Lincoln has proposed that the tale of the dragon-slaying and the creation myth of *Trito killing the serpent *Ngʷhi may actually belong to the same story.[279][280] Greek red-figure vase painting depicting Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra, c. 375–340 BC. Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth appear in most Indo-European poetic traditions, where the myth has left traces of the formulaic sentence *(h₁e) gʷʰent h₁ógʷʰim, meaning "[he] slew the serpent".[281] In Hittite mythology, the storm god Tarhunt slays the giant serpent Illuyanka,[282] as does the Vedic god Indra to the multi-headed serpent Vritra, which had been causing a drought by trapping the waters in his mountain lair.[276][283] Several variations of the story are also found in Greek mythology.[284] The original motif appears inherited in the legend of Zeus slaying the hundred-headed Typhon, as related by Hesiod in the Theogony,[273][285] and possibly in the myth of Heracles slaying the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra and in the legend of Apollo slaying the earth-dragon Python.[273][286] The story of Heracles's theft of the cattle of Geryon is probably also related.[273] Although he is not usually thought of as a storm deity in the conventional sense, Heracles bears many attributes held by other Indo-European storm deities, including physical strength and a knack for violence and gluttony.[273][287] The Hittite god Tarhunt, followed by his son Sarruma, kills the dragon Illuyanka (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey). The original motif is also reflected in Germanic mythology.[288] The Norse god of thunder Thor slays the giant serpent Jörmungandr, which lived in the waters surrounding the realm of Midgard.[289][290] In the Völsunga saga, Sigurd slays the dragon Fafnir and, in Beowulf, the eponymous hero slays a different dragon.[291] The depiction of dragons hoarding a treasure (symbolizing the wealth of the community) in Germanic legends may also be a reflex of the original myth of the serpent holding waters.[281] In Zoroastrianism and in Persian mythology, Fereydun (and later Garshasp) slays the serpent Zahhak. In Albanian mythology, the drangue, semi-human divine figures associated with thunders, slay the kulshedra, huge multi-headed fire-spitting serpents associated with water and storms. The Slavic god of storms Perun slays his enemy the dragon-god Veles, as does the bogatyr hero Dobrynya Nikitich to the three-headed dragon Zmey.[289] A similar execution is performed by the Armenian god of thunders Vahagn to the dragon Vishap,[292] by the Romanian knight hero Făt-Frumos to the fire-spitting monster Zmeu, and by the Celtic god of healing Dian Cecht to the serpent Meichi.[277] In Shinto, where Indo-European influences through Vedic religion can be seen in mythology, the storm god Susanoo slays the eight-headed serpent Yamata no Orochi.[293] The Genesis narrative of Judaism and Christianity can be interpreted as a more allegorical retelling of the serpent-slaying myth. The Deep or Abyss from or on top of which God is said to make the world is translated from the Biblical Hebrew Tehom (Hebrew: תְּהוֹם). Tehom is a cognate of the Akkadian word tamtu and Ugaritic t-h-m which have similar meaning. As such it was equated with the earlier Sumerian serpent Tiamat.[294] Folklorist Andrew Lang suggests that the serpent-slaying myth morphed into a folktale motif of a frog or toad blocking the flow of waters.[295] Fire in water[edit] Another reconstructed myth is the story of the fire in the waters.[296][297] It depicts a fiery divine being named *H₂epom Nepōts who dwells in waters, and whose powers must be ritually controlled or gained by a hero who is the only one able to approach it.[298][299] In the Rigveda, the god Apám Nápát is envisioned as a form of fire residing in the waters.[300][301] In Celtic mythology, a well belonging to the god Nechtain is said to blind all those who gaze into it.[297][302] In an old Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously catches fire and the hero Vahagn springs forth from it with fiery hair and a fiery beard and eyes that blaze as suns.[303] In a ninth-century Norwegian poem by the poet Thiodolf, the name sǣvar niþr, meaning "grandson of the sea", is used as a kenning for fire.[304] Even the Greek tradition contains possible allusions to the myth of a fire-god dwelling deep beneath the sea.[303] The phrase "νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης", meaning "descendants of the beautiful seas", is used in The Odyssey 4.404 as an epithet for the seals of Proteus.[303] King and virgin[edit] The legend of the King and Virgin involves a ruler saved by the offspring of his virgin daughter after seeing his future threatened by rebellious sons or male relatives.[305][280] The virginity likely symbolizes in the myth the woman that has no loyalty to any man but her father, and the child is likewise faithful only to his royal grandfather.[306] The legends of the Indic king Yayāti, saved by his virgin daughter Mādhāvi; the Roman king Numitor, rescued by his chaste daughter Rhea Silvia; the Irish king Eochaid, father of the legendary queen Medb, and threatened by his sons the findemna; as well as the myth of the Norse virgin goddess Gefjun offering lands to Odin, are generally cited as possible reflexes of an inherited Proto-Indo-European motif.[306] The Irish queen Medb could be cognate with the Indic Mādhāvi (whose name designates either a spring flower, rich in honey, or an intoxicating drink), both deriving from the root *medʰ- ("mead, intoxicating drink").[307] War of the foundation[edit] A myth of the War of the Foundation has also been proposed, involving a conflict between the first two functions (the priests and warriors) and the third function (fertility), which eventually make peace in order to form a fully integrated society.[308] The Norse Ynglingasaga tells of a war between the Æsir (led by Oðinn and Thor) and the Vanir (led by Freyr, Freyja and Njörðr) that finally ends with the Vanir coming to live among the Æsir. Shortly after the mythical founding of Rome, Romulus fights his wealthy neighbours the Sabines, the Romans abducting their women to eventually incorporate the Sabines into the founding tribes of Rome.[309] In Vedic mythology, the Aśvins (representing the third function as the Divine Twins) are blocked from accessing the heavenly circle of power by Indra (the second function), who is eventually coerced into letting them in.[310][309] The Trojan War has also been interpreted as a reflex of the myth, with the wealthy Troy as the third function and the conquering Greeks as the first two functions.[309] Binding of evil[edit] Jaan Puhvel notes similarities between the Norse myth in which the god Týr inserts his hand into the wolf Fenrir's mouth while the other gods bind him with Gleipnir, only for Fenrir to bite off Týr's hand when he discovers he cannot break his bindings, and the Iranian myth in which Jamshid rescues his brother's corpse from Ahriman's bowels by reaching his hand up Ahriman's anus and pulling out his brother's corpse, only for his hand to become infected with leprosy.[311] In both accounts, an authority figure forces the evil entity into submission by inserting his hand into the being's orifice (in Fenrir's case the mouth, in Ahriman's the anus) and losing it.[311] Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their own mythological traditions and are unlikely to be remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god"; nonetheless, it is clear that the "binding myth" is of Proto-Indo-European origin.[312] Other propositions[edit] The motif of the "death of a son", killed by his father who is unaware of the relationship, is so common among the attested traditions that some scholars have ascribed it to Proto-Indo-European times.[313] In the Ulster Cycle, Connla, son of the Irish hero Cú Chulainn, who was raised abroad in Scotland, unknowingly confronts his father and is killed in the combat; Ilya Muromets must kill his own son, also raised apart, in Russian epic poems; the Germanic hero Hildebrant inadvertently kills his son Hadubrant in the Hildebrandslied; and the Iranian Rostam unknowingly confronts his son Sohrab in the eponymous epic of the Shāhnāmeh. King Arthur is forced to kill his son Mordred in battle who was raised far away on the Orkney Islands; and in greek mythology an intrigue leads the hero Theseus to kill his son Hippolytus. When the lie is finally exposed, Hippolytus is already dead; According to Mallory and Adams, the legend "places limitations on the achievement of warrior prowess, isolates the hero from time by cutting off his generational extension, and also re-establishes the hero’s typical adolescence by depriving him of a role (as father) in an adult world".[313] Although the concept of elevation through intoxicating drink is a nearly universal motif, a Proto-Indo-European myth of the "cycle of the mead", originally proposed by Georges Dumézil, has been reconstructed by Jarich G. Oosten (1985) based on the comparison of Indic and Norse mythologies.[314] In both traditions, gods and demons must cooperate to find a sacred drink providing immortal life. The magical beverage is prepared from the sea, and a serpent (Vāsuki or Jörmungandr) is involved in the quest. The gods and demons eventually fight over the magical potion and the former, ultimately victorious, deprive their enemy of the elixir of life.[314][315] Rituals[edit] Proto-Indo-European religion was centered on sacrificial rites of cattle and horses, probably administered by a class of priests or shamans. Animals were slaughtered (*gʷʰn̥tós) and dedicated to the gods (*deywṓs) in the hope of winning their favor.[316] The Khvalynsk culture, associated with the archaic Proto-Indo-European language, had already shown archeological evidence for the sacrifice of domesticated animals.[41] Priesthood[edit] The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing favourable relations with the other world.[316] Georges Dumézil suggested that the religious function was represented by a duality, one reflecting the magico-religious nature of priesthood, while the other is involved in religious sanction to human society (especially contracts), a theory supported by common features in Iranian, Roman, Scandinavian and Celtic traditions.[316] Sacrifices[edit] The reconstructed cosmology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans shows that ritual sacrifice of cattle, the cow in particular, was at the root of their beliefs, as the primordial condition of the world order.[50][41] The myth of *Trito, the first warrior, involves the liberation of cattle stolen by a three-headed entity named *Ngʷʰi. After recovering the wealth of the people, Trito eventually offers the cattle to the priest in order to ensure the continuity of the cycle of giving between gods and humans.[317] The word for "oath", *h₁óitos, derives from the verb *h₁ey- ("to go"), after the practice of walking between slaughtered animals as part of taking an oath.[318] The Kernosovskiy idol, featuring a man with a belt, axes, and testicles to symbolize the warrior;[319] dated to the middle of the third millennium BC and associated with the late Yamnaya culture.[320] Proto-Indo-Europeans likely had a sacred tradition of horse sacrifice for the renewal of kinship involving the ritual mating of a queen or king with a horse, which was then sacrificed and cut up for distribution to the other participants in the ritual.[321][280] In both the Roman Equus October and the Indic Aśvamedhá, the horse sacrifice is performed on behalf of the warrior class or to a warrior deity, and the dismembered pieces of the animal eventually goes to different locations or deities. Another reflex may be found in a medieval Irish tradition involving a king-designate from County Donegal copulating with a mare before bathing with the parts of the sacrificed animal.[280][321] The Indic ritual likewise involves the ritual copulation by the queen with the dead stallion, and if Hittite laws prohibited copulation with animals, they made an exception of horses or mules.[321] In both the Celtic and Indic traditions, an intoxicating brewage played a part in the ritual, and the suffix in aśva-medhá could be related to the Old Indic word mad- ("boil, rejoice, get drunk").[307] Jaan Puhvel has also compared the Vedic name of the tradition with the Gaulish god Epomeduos, the "master of horses".[322][323] Cults[edit] Scholars have reconstructed a Proto-Indo-European cult of the weapons, especially the dagger, which holds a central position in various customs and myths.[324][325] In the Ossetic Nart saga, the sword of Batradz is dragged into the sea after his death, and the British King Arthur throws his legendary sword Excalibur back into the lake from which it initially came. The Indic Arjuna is also instructed to throw his bow Gandiva into the sea at the end of his career, and weapons were frequently thrown into lakes, rivers or bogs as a form of prestige offering in Bronze and Iron Age Europe.[324] Reflexes of an ancestral cult of the magical sword have been proposed in the legends of Excalibur and Durandal (the weapon of Roland, said to have been forged by the mythical Wayland the Smith). Among North Iranians, Herodotus described the Scythian practice of worshiping swords as manifestations of "Ares" in the 5th century BC, and Ammianus Marcellinus depicted the Alanic custom of thrusting swords into the earth and worshiping them as "Mars" in the 4th century AD.[325] See also[edit] Mythology portal Interpretatio graeca, the comparison of Greek deities to Germanic, Roman, and Celtic deities Neolithic religion Proto-Indo-European society Notes[edit] ^ West 2007, p. 2: "If there was an Indo-European language, it follows that there was a people who spoke it: not a people in the sense of a nation, for they may never have formed a political unity, and not a people in any racial sense, for they may have been as genetically mixed as any modern population defined by language. If our language is a descendant of theirs, that does not make them ‘our ancestors’, any more than the ancient Romans are the ancestors of the French, the Romanians, and the Brazilians. The Indo-Europeans were a people in the sense of a linguistic community. We should probably think of them as a loose network of clans and tribes, inhabiting a coherent territory of limited size. (...) A language embodies certain concepts and values, and a common language implies some degree of common intellectual heritage." ^ Mallory and Adams saw a possible connection with Paoni, dative form of Pan in the Arcadian Greek dialect, and personal names Puso (Venetic or Gaulish) and Pauso (Messapic).[1] ^ "Classic" is defined by David W. Anthony as the proto-language spoken after the Anatolian split, and "Archaic" as the common ancestor of all Indo-European languages.[26] ^ Probably the northern Black Sea or the Sea of Azov.[162] ^ The names of the individual Norns are given as Urðr ("Happened"), Verðandi ("Happening"), and Skuld ("Due"),[248] but M. L. West notes that these names may be the result of classical influence from Plato.[248] ^ They also, most famously, appear as the Three Witches in William Shakespeare's Macbeth (c. 1606).[248] References[edit] ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 415. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 2006. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 427–431. ^ a b Puhvel 1987, pp. 13–15. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 116. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 428. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 117. ^ a b c West 2007, p. 141. ^ a b Puhvel 1987, pp. 14–15. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 428–429. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 15–18. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 15. ^ Dumézil, Georges (1929). Flamen-Brahman. ^ Dumézil 1986. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 429–430. ^ a b c d e Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 431. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 118. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 440. ^ a b Puhvel 1987, p. 14. ^ a b Puhvel 1987, p. 191. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 146–147. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 223–228. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 228–229. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 126–127. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 138, 143. ^ a b Anthony 2007. ^ a b c d e f West 2007, p. 266. ^ Macaulay, G. C. (1904). The History of Herodotus, Vol. I. London: Macmillan & Co. pp. 313–317. ^ Jacobson, Esther (1993). The Deer Goddess of Ancient Siberia: A Study in the Ecology of Belief. Brill. ISBN 9789004096288. ^ Bessonova, S. S. 1983. Religioznïe predstavleniia skifov. Kiev: Naukova dumka ^ Hasanov, Zaur. "Argimpasa – Scythian goddess, patroness of shamans: a comparison of historical, archaeological, linguistic and ethnographic data". Bibliotheca Shamanistica. ^ West 2007, p. 340. ^ a b Delamarre 2003, p. 204–205. ^ a b c West 2007, p. 354. ^ West 2007, p. 346. ^ a b Polomé 1986. ^ See: Puhvel 1987, pp. 285–287; Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 435–436; Anthony 2007, pp. 134–135. West 2007 agrees with the reconstructed motif of Manu and Yemo, although he notes that interpretations of the myths of Trita and Thraētona are debated. ^ Lincoln 1975, p. 124. ^ Leeming 2009, p. 144: "The cosmic egg found here is also found in many Indo-European mythologies." ^ Lincoln 1976, p. 42–43. ^ a b c d e f g h Anthony 2007, pp. 134–135. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 435–436. ^ Polomé 1986, p. 473. ^ West 2007, pp. 355–356. ^ West 2007, p. 357. ^ Lincoln 1975, p. 139. ^ Lincoln 1975, p. 144. ^ Lincoln 1976, p. 58. ^ a b c Lincoln 1976, p. 63–64. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 138. ^ Lincoln 1976, pp. 58, 62. ^ a b West 2007, p. 358. ^ a b Dandekar, Ramchandra N. (1979). Vedic mythological tracts. Delhi: Ajanta Publications. OCLC 6917651. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 129. ^ West 2007, pp. 356–357. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 367. ^ Lincoln 1975, pp. 134–136. ^ Lincoln 1975, p. 129. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 129–130. ^ Lincoln 1976, p. 47. ^ West 2007, p. 260. ^ Lincoln 1975, p. 125. ^ Lincoln 1976, p. 46. ^ Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Brill. p. 198. ISBN 9789004160927. ^ Johnson, W. J. (2009). "Ṛta". A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191726705. ^ Myers, Michael (2013). Brahman: A Comparative Theology. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-136-83565-0. Ṛta, for example, is impersonal. (...) Pande defines Rta as "the ideal principle in ordering, the paradigmatic principle of ultimate reality". Rta is the great criterion of the Rgveda, the standard of truth both for individual instances of human morality and for cosmic order and truth. The god Varuna is the guardian and preserver of the Rta, although Varuna also must abide its rules. Rta is more passive than the active god of christianity, but nevertheless it encompasses the order of the sacrifice, the physical order of the universe and the moral law. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 128. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 276: "17.4 Law and Order The vocabulary of law [...] is not extensive in Proto-Indo-European and much of the concept 'law' derives from that of 'order' or 'what is fitting'. For example, we have *h₂értus from the root *h₂er- 'fit' which had already shifted to an association with cosmic order by the time of Indo-Iranians (e.g. Lat artus 'joint', MHG art 'innate feature, nature, fashion', dialectal Grk artús 'arranging, arrangement', Arm ard 'ornament, shape', Av arəta- 'order', Skt ṛtu- 'right time, order, rule', Toch B ārtt- 'love, praise'). More closely associated with ritual propriety is the Italic-Indo-Iranian isogloss that yields *yew(e)s- (Lat iūs 'law, right, justice, duty' "), Av yaož -dā- 'make ritually pure', Skt śáṃca yóśca 'health and happiness') with a derived adjective *yusi(iy)os seen certainly in OIr uissse 'just right, fitting' and possibly OCS istǔ 'actual, true'. 'Law' itself, *dhéh₁-men-/i-, is 'that which is established' and derives from *dhéh₁- 'put, establish' but occurs in that meaning only in Grk thémis 'law' and Skt dhāman- 'law' (we also have *dhéh₁tis [e.g. Lat conditiō 'basis', NE 'deed', Grk 'order', Skt -dhiti- 'position']) though the same kind of semantic development is seen in Germanic (e.g. NE law) and Italic (e.g. Lat lex 'law'), both from *legʰ- 'lie', i.e. 'that which is laid out'. and thus the concept is pan-Indo-European. ^ Zoller, Claus Peter (2010). "Aspects of the Early History of Romani". Acta Orientalia. 71: 260. ISSN 1600-0439. This element derives < OIA dádhāti ‘places, lays on, gives, seizes’ (6145), but regarding the exact meaning one needs to consider the meanings given for the precursor PIE *dʰeh₁- , namely ‘to put, lay down, sit down, produce, make, speak, say, bring back. ^ Peels, Saskia (2015). Hosios: A Semantic Study of Greek Piety. Brill. p. 57. ISBN 978-90-04-30427-7. Themis' children clearly show her to be a divine principle of natural and political order, a principle humans and gods alike need to obey. ^ Day, Terence P. (1982). The conception of punishment in early Indian literature. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 42–45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5. OCLC 8900320. ^ West 2007, p. 388. ^ a b c d Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 439. ^ West 2007, pp. 389–390. ^ West 2007, pp. 390–391. ^ West 2007, p. 390. ^ Šmitek, Zmago. 1999. “The Image of the Real World and the World Beyond in the Slovene Folk Tradition". Studia Mythologica Slavica 2 (May). Ljubljana, Slovenija. p. 162. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v2i0.1848. ^ a b West 2007, p. 391–392. ^ a b Anthony & Brown 2019, p. 104. ^ Lincoln 1991, p. 289. ^ Ogden, Daniel (2013). Drakon: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0199557325. ^ Sherman, Josepha (2008). Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore. Sharpe Reference. pp. 118–121. ISBN 978-0-7656-8047-1 ^ Foltz, Richard. "Zoroastrian Attitudes toward Animals". In: Society and Animals 18 (2010). Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill. 2010. p. 371. ^ Dirven, Lucinda. "My Lord with his Dogs. Continuity and Change in the Cult of Nergal in Parthian Mesopotamia". In: Edessa in hellenistisch-römischer Zeit: Religion, Kultur und Politik zwischen Ost und West. Beiträge des internationalen Edessa-Symposiums in Halle an der Saale, 14–17. Juli 2005, eds. Lutz Greisiger, Claudia Rammelt and Jürgen Tubach. Beiruter Texte und Studien 116. Beirut/Würzburg: Ergon Verlag. 2009. pp. 66-67 (also footnote nr. 95). ISBN 978-3-89913-681-4 ^ Sherman, Josepha (2008). Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore. Sharpe Reference. pp. 118–121. ISBN 978-0-7656-8047-1 ^ Briggs, Katharine M. An Encyclopedia of Fairies: Hobglobins, Brownies, Bogies and Other Supernatural Creatures. New York: Pantheon Books. 1976. p. 85. ISBN 0-394-40918-3 ^ The Celts: history, life, and culture. John T. Koch, general editor; Antone Minard, editor. ABC-CLIO. 2012. p. 238. ISBN 978-1-59884-964-6 ^ Abad, Rubén Abad. (2008). "La divinidad celeste/solar en el panteón céltico peninsular". In: Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie II, Historia Antigua, 21: 95. ^ Skóra, Kalina (2019). "Liegt da der Hund begraben? An aspect of post-funerary intrusions from the Wielbark culture cemetery in Czarnówko in Pomerania". In: Sprawozdania Archeologiczne 71. Kraków: Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2019 125-154. ISSN 0081-3834 DOI: 10.23858/SA71.2019.005. ^ Kajkowski, Kamil (2015). "The Dog in Pagan Beliefs of Early Medieval North-Western Slavs". In: Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia Vol. 10. Rzeszów: 2015. pp. 199–240. ^ Kajkowski, Kamil (2015). “Slavic Journeys to the Otherworld. Remarks on the Eschatology of Early Medieval Pomeranians". [Słowiańskie wędrówki W zaświaty. Kilka Uwag Na Temat Eschatologii wczesnośredniowiecznych Pomorzan]. In: Studia Mythologica Slavica 18 (July). Ljubljana, Slovenija: 26. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v18i0.2828. ^ Hrobat, Virloget Katja. 2015. “Caves As Entrances to the World Beyond, from Where Fertility Is Derived. The Case of SW Slovenia". Studia Mythologica Slavica 18 (July). Ljubljana, Slovenija: 157. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v18i0.2837. ^ Anthony & Brown 2019, pp. 104–105. ^ Berezkin, Yuri "'The Black Dog at the River of Tears': Some Amerindian Representations of the Passage to the Land of the Dead and Their Eurasian Roots". Trans. Andy Byford. In: Forum for Anthropology and Culture 2 (2005): 130-170. ^ Lincoln 1991, p. 32. ^ Jackson 2002, p. 81. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 439–440. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 180. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 180–181. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 285. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 131. ^ Haudry 1987. ^ West 2007, p. 349. ^ Lincoln 1991, p. 36. ^ West 2007, p. 135–136. ^ West 2007, p. 138–139. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 232. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 427. ^ West 2007, p. 121–122. ^ West 2007, p. 120. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 408 ^ West 2007, p. 124. ^ a b West 2007, p. 157. ^ a b West 2007, pp. 135–136, 138–139. ^ West 2007, pp. 129, 162. ^ Beekes 2011, p. 41. ^ West 2007, p. 130. ^ a b c West 2007, p. 137. ^ Fortson 2004. ^ West 2007. ^ Jackson 2002, pp. 66–67. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 409, 431–432. ^ West 2007, p. 171. ^ a b Burkert 1985, p. 17. ^ West 2007, p. 168: "But in general we may say that MIE had *dyéus (Dyéus) for ‘heaven (Heaven)’ [...] In Anatolian the picture is a little different [...] The reflex of *dyeus (Hittite sius) does not mean ‘heaven’ but either ‘god’ in general or the Sun-god. [...] The Greek Zeus is king of the gods and the supreme power in the world, his influence extending everywhere and into most spheres of life. There is little reason, however, to think that the Indo-European Dyeus had any such importance." ^ West 2007, p. 166. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 230–231. ^ a b c d e Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 432. ^ West 2007, pp. 166–168. ^ Green, Miranda J. (1990). "Pagan Celtic Religion: Archaeology and Myth". Transactions of the Honourable Society of the Cymmrodorion: 13–28. ^ West 2007, p. 171–175. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 198–200. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 409 and 431. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 410, 432. ^ West 2007, pp. 217–227. ^ a b c d Fortson 2004, p. 23. ^ West 2007, p. 222. ^ West 2007, p. 219. ^ West 2007, p. 221. ^ a b c d e f West 2007, p. 217. ^ West 2007, pp. 217–218. ^ West 2007, p. 218. ^ O'Brien, Steven. "Dioscuric Elements in Celtic and Germanic Mythology". In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 10:1–2 (Spring–Summer, 1982), pp. 117–136. ^ Dexter, Miriam Robbins. "Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon." In: Mankind Quarterly 25:1–2 (Fall/Winter, 1984), pp. 137–144. ^ Meagher, Robert E. (2002). The Meaning of Helen: In Search of an Ancient Icon. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. pp. 46ff. ISBN 978-0-86516-510-6. ^ a b c Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1995, p. 760. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 385. ^ Keneryi, Karl (1951). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. pp. 196–197; Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Second edition. Oxford University Press, 1992. "SELENE" entry. pp. 970–971. ISBN 0-19-869117-3 ^ Beekes, Robert (1982). "GAv. ma, the PIE word for 'moon, month', and the perfect participle". In: Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES) 10: 53-64. ^ York, Michael (1993). "Toward a Proto-Indo-European vocabulary of the sacred". In: WORD, 44:2. p. 247 (footnote nr. 8). DOI: 10.1080/00437956.1993.11435902 ^ West 2007, p. 195. ^ Sick, David (2004). "Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun". Numen. 51 (4): 432–467. doi:10.1163/1568527042500140. ISSN 1568-5276. ^ Bortolani, Ljuba Merlina (2016). Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A Study of Greek and Egyptian Traditions of Divinity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316673270. ^ Ionescu, Doina; Dumitrache, Cristiana (2012). "The Sun Worship with the Romanians". Romanian Astronomical Journal. 22 (2): 155–166. Bibcode:2012RoAJ...22..155I. ^ MacKillop, James. (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-280120-1 pp.10, 16, 128 ^ West 2007, pp. 185–191. ^ West 2007, p. 187, 189. ^ Parpola 2015, p. 109. ^ West 2007, p. 187-191. ^ West 2007, p. 189. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 161. ^ a b West 2007, p. 191. ^ West 2007, p. 190. ^ Michael Shapiro. Journal of Indo-European Studies, 10 (1&2), pp. 137–166; who references D. Ward (1968) "The Divine Twins". Folklore Studies, No. 19. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ^ Dunkel, George E. (1988–1990). "Vater Himmels Gattin". Die Sprache. 34: 1–26. ^ a b Jackson 2002, p. 72–74. ^ West 2007, p. 192–193. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 124. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 1128–1129. ^ Georges Dumézil, Ouranos-Varuna – Essai de mythologie comparée indo-européenne (Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1934). ^ Georges Dumézil, Mitra Varuna: Essai sur deux représentations indo-européenes de la souveraineté (Paris: Gallimard, 1948). English translation: Mitra-Varuna: an Essay on Two Indo-European Representations of Sovereignty, trans. Derek Coltman (New York: Zone Books, 1988). ^ According to Dumézil, Varuna is the god of "masses of water", while falling rain is rather related to Mitra. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 290. ^ Haudry 1987, p. 72. ^ Wolfe, Susan J.; Stanley, Julia Penelope (1980). 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J. (1961). The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera During the Hellenistic Period. Brill. pp. 203–220. ISBN 978-9004004696. ^ Fortson 2004, p. 26–27. ^ West 2007, p. 460. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 448–460. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 460–464. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 374–383. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 414–441. ^ a b West 2007, p. 259. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 429–441. ^ Orchard, Andy (2003). A Critical Companion to Beowulf. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 108. ISBN 9781843840299. ^ Kurkjian 1958. ^ Witzel 2012. ^ Heinrich Zimmern, The Ancient East, No. III: The Babylonian and Hebrew Genesis; translated by J. Hutchison; London: David Nutt, 57–59 Long Acre, 1901. ^ Lang, Andrew. Myth, Ritual and Religion. Vol. I. London: Longmans, Green. 1906. pp. 42-46. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 277. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 438. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 204. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 277–283. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 277–279. ^ West 2007, p. 270. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 279. ^ a b c West 2007, p. 271. ^ West 2007, p. 272. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 256. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 331–332. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 313. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 436. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 631. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 61. ^ a b Puhvel 1987, p. 119. ^ Puhvel 1987, pp. 119–120. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 533. ^ a b Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 494. ^ Oosten, Jarich G. (1985). The War of the Gods: The Social Code in Indo-European Mythology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-55584-1. ^ a b c Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 452–453. ^ Lincoln 1976. ^ Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 277. ^ Anthony 2007, p. 364–365. ^ Telegrin & Mallory 1994, p. 54. ^ a b c Fortson 2004, p. 24–25. ^ Jackson 2002, p. 94. ^ Pinault, Georges-Jean (2007). "Gaulois epomeduos, le maître des chevaux". In Lambert, Pierre-Yves (ed.). Gaulois et celtique continental. Paris: Droz. pp. 291–307. ISBN 978-2-600-01337-6. ^ a b West 2007, p. 464. ^ a b Littleton 1982. Bibliography[edit] Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400831104. Anthony, David W.; Brown, Dorcas R. (2019). "Late Bronze Age midwinter dog sacrifices and warrior initiations at Krasnosamarskoe, Russia". In Olsen, Birgit A.; Olander, Thomas; Kristiansen, Kristian (eds.). Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New evidence from archaeology and historical linguistics. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78925-273-6. Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-02860-7. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-32186-1. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027211859. Benveniste, Emile (1973). Indo-European Language and Society. Translated by Palmer, Elizabeth. Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0-87024-250-2. Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-36281-0. Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental (in French). Errance. ISBN 9782877723695. Derksen, Rick (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon. Brill. ISBN 9789004155046. Dexter, Miriam Robbins (1984). "Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon". Mankind Quarterly. 25 (1 & 2): 137–144. Dumézil, Georges (1966). Archaic Roman Religion: With an Appendix on the Religion of the Etruscans (1996 ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5482-8. Dumézil, Georges (1986). Mythe et épopée: L'idéologie des trois fonctions dans les épopées des peuples indo-européens (in French). Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-026961-7. Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7. Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (1995). Winter, Werner (ed.). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 80. Berlin: M. De Gruyter. Haudry, Jean (1987). La religion cosmique des Indo-Européens (in French). Archè. ISBN 978-2-251-35352-4. Jackson, Peter (2002). "Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage". Numen. 49 (1): 61–102. doi:10.1163/15685270252772777. ISSN 0029-5973. JSTOR 3270472. Jakobson, Roman (1985). "Linguistic Evidence in Comparative Mythology". In Stephen Rudy (ed.). Roman Jakobson: Selected Writings. VII: Contributions to Comparative Mythology: Studies in Linguistics and Philology, 1972–1982. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110855463. Kurkjian, Vahan M. (1958). "History of Armenia: Chapter XXXIV". Penelope. University of Chicago. Retrieved 6 April 2017. Leeming, David A. (2009). Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598841749. Littleton, C. Scott (1982). "From swords in the earth to the sword in the stone: A possible reflection of an Alano-Sarmatian rite of passage in the Arthurian tradition". In Polomé, Edgar C. (ed.). Homage to Georges Dumézil. pp. 53–68. ISBN 9780941694285. Lincoln, Bruce (1975). "The Indo-European Myth of Creation". History of Religions. 15 (2): 121–145. doi:10.1086/462739. ISSN 0018-2710. S2CID 162101898. Lincoln, Bruce (1976). "The Indo-European Cattle-Raiding Myth". History of Religions. 16 (1): 42–65. doi:10.1086/462755. ISSN 0018-2710. JSTOR 1062296. S2CID 162286120. Lincoln, Bruce (1991). Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226482002. Mallory, James P. (1991). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7. Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2. Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. ISBN 9789004173361. Parpola, Asko (2015). The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190226923. Polomé, Edgar C. (1986). "The Background of Germanic Cosmogonic Myths". In Brogyanyi, Bela; Krömmelbein, Thomas (eds.). Germanic Dialects: Linguistic and Philological Investigations. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-7946-0. Puhvel, Jaan (1987). Comparative Mythology. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3938-2. Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-521-35432-5. Telegrin, D. Ya.; Mallory, James P. (1994). The Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Ukraine: The Early Iconography of the Indo-Europeans. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series. 11. Washington D.C., United States: Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0941694452. Tirta, Mark (2004). Petrit Bezhani (ed.). Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë (in Albanian). Tirana: Mësonjëtorja. ISBN 99927-938-9-9. Treimer, Karl (1971). "Zur Rückerschliessung der illyrischen Götterwelt und ihre Bedeutung für die südslawische Philologie". In Henrik Barić (ed.). Arhiv za Arbanasku starinu, jezik i etnologiju. I. R. Trofenik. pp. 27–33. Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514413-0. West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Winter, Werner (2003). Language in Time and Space. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017648-3. Witzel, Michael (2012). The Origins of the World's Mythologies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981285-1. York, Michael (1988). "Romulus and Remus, Mars and Quirinus". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 16 (1–2): 153–172. ISSN 0092-2323. Further reading[edit] Anderson, Earl; Norouzalibeik, Vahid. "Father-Son Combat: An Indo-European Typescene and its Variations". In: Journal of Indo-European Studies (JIES) Vol. 36, Num 3-4 (2008): pp. 269-332. ISSN 0092-2323 Berezkin, Yuri. "The Dog, the Horse and the Creation of Man". In: Folklore 56 (2014). pp. 25–46. doi: 10.7592/FEJF2014.56.berezkin Briquel, Dominique. "Tarquins De Rome Et Idéologie Indo-européenne : (I) Tarquin L'Ancien Et Le Dieu Vulcain." Revue De L'histoire Des Religions 215, no. 3 (1998): 369-95. Accessed June 5, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/43998720. Dandekar, R. N. "VṚTRAHĀ INDRA." In: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 31, no. 1/4 (1950): 1-55. www.jstor.org/stable/44028390. Dumézil, Georges (1925). "Les bylines de Michajlo Potyk et les légendes indo-européennes de l'ambroisie". Revue des Études Slaves. 5 (3): 205–237. doi:10.3406/slave.1925.7342. Janda, Michael (2005), Elysion. Entstehung und Entwicklung der griechischen Religion, Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen, ISBN 9783851247022 Janda, Michael (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos: der Schöpfungsmythos der europäischen Vorzeit, Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen, ISBN 9783851242270 Grimm, Jacob (1966) [1835], Teutonic Mythology, translated by Stallybrass, James Steven, London: Dover, (DM) Frazer, James (1919), The Golden Bough, London: MacMillan "Rock Art and Religion: The Sun Journey in Indo-European Mythology and Bronze Age Rock Art." In Representations and Communications: Creating an Archaeological Matrix of Late Prehistoric Rock Art, edited by Kristiansen Kristian, Fredell Åsa C., and Boado Felipe Criado, 93-115. Oxford; Oakville: Oxbow Books, 2010. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1cd0nrz.10. Huld, Martin E. "Proto- and Post-Indo-European Designations for ‘sun’." Zeitschrift Für Vergleichende Sprachforschung 99, no. 2 (1986): 194-202. www.jstor.org/stable/40848835. Ivanov, Viatcheslav & Toporov, Vladimir. (1970). "LE MYTHE INDO-EUROPÉEN DU DIEU DE L’ORAGE POURSUIVANT LE SERPENT: RECONSTRUCTION DU SCHÉMA". In: Échanges et communications. Décembre, 1970. pp. 1180–1206. 10.1515/9783111698281-028. Leroy, Marie-Madeleine (1982). «À propos de Pieds d’or: la claudication du forgeron indo-européen en Europe occidentale». In: Ethnologie française 12: 291-296. Lincoln, Bruce (January 18, 2020). "Indo-European Religions: An Overview". Encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale. Retrieved February 9, 2019. Matasović, Ranko (2018). "A Reader in Comparative Indo-European Religion" (PDF). University of Zagreb. Miller, Robert D. “Tracking the Dragon across the Ancient Near East.” In: Archiv Orientální 82 (2014): 225-45. Ranero, Anna M. "'That Is What Scáthach Did Not Teach Me:' "Aided Óenfir Aífe" and an Episode from the "Mahābhārata"." Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium 16/17 (1996): 244-55. Accessed June 28, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/20557325. [Paper on the "Death of a Son" myth by comparison between a Celtic and a Hindu tale] Robert D. Miller II (2016). "Iconographic Links between Indic and Ancient West Asian Storm Gods". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 166 (1): 141–151. doi:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141. JSTOR 10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0141. Shulman, David Dean (1980), Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-5692-3 Varenne, Jean. "AGNI'S ROLE IN THE ṚGVEDIC COSMOGONIC MYTH." Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 58/59 (1977): 375-86. www.jstor.org/stable/41691707. Wachter, Rudolf. "Das Indogermanische Wort Für 'Sonne' Und Die Angebliche Gruppe Der 1/n-Heteroklitika." Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics 110, no. 1 (1997): 4-20. www.jstor.org/stable/41288919. Witczak, Krzysztof T. and Kaczor, Idaliana 1995. «Linguistic Evidence for the Indo-European Pantheon», in: J. Rybowska, K. T. Witczak (eds.), Collectanea Philologica II in honorem Annae Mariae Komornicka, Łódź, 1995. pp. 265-278. White, David Gordon. "Variations on the Indo-European “Fire and Water” Mytheme in Three Alchemical Accounts." Journal of the American Oriental Society 137, no. 4 (2017): 679-98. Accessed June 5, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0679. 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en-wikipedia-org-5096	----	Salmoneus - Wikipedia Salmoneus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the shrimp genus, see Salmoneus (genus). Greek underworld Salmonueus Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Salmoneus (/səlˈmoʊniəs/; Ancient Greek: Σαλμωνεύς) was a king of Elis and founded the city of Salmone in Pisatis.[1] Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 3 Inspiration 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Family[edit] Salmoneus was a son of Aeolus and Enarete or Iphis, daughter of Peneus[2] or Laodice[3] and brother of Athamas, Sisyphus, Cretheus, Perieres, Deioneus, Canace, Alcyone, and Perimede.[4] Salmoneus was the father of Tyro by his first wife Alcidice and his second wife was Sidero.[5] Mythology[edit] Emigrating from Aeolis with a number of Aeolians, Salmoneus founded a city in Eleia (Elis) on the banks of the river Alpheius and called it Salmonia after his own name. He then married Alcidice, the daughter of Aleus but when she died, the king took for a second wife Sidero who treated his beautiful daughter Tyro unkindly.[6] Salmoneus and his brother Sisyphus hated each other. Sisyphus found out from an oracle that if he married Tyro, she would bear him children who would kill Salmoneus. At first, Tyro submitted to Sisyphus, married him, and bore him a son. When Tyro found out what the child would do to Salmoneus, she killed the boy. It was soon after this that Tyro lay with Poseidon and bore him Pelias and Neleus. Salmoneus, being an overbearing man and impious, came to be hated by his subjects for he ordered them to worship him under the name of Zeus.[7] He built a bridge of brass, over which he drove at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being heightened by dried skins and cauldrons trailing behind while torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. For this sin of hubris, Zeus eventually struck him down with his thunderbolt and destroyed the town.[8][9][10][11][12][13] And he [i.e. Salmoneus] acted profanely, by casting torches (in the air) as if they were lightnings, And dragging dried hides with kettles at his chariot, Pretending to make thunder, so he was thunderstruck by Zeus.[7] Virgil's Aeneid has Salmoneus placed in Tartarus after Zeus smites him where he is subjected to eternal torment.[14] Inspiration[edit] According to Frazer, the early Greek kings, who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops, were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the character of Zeus.[15][16] At Crannon in Thessaly, there was a bronze chariot which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered for rain.[17] S. Reinach[18] suggests that the story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven. Hence arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of Zeus and that the picture represented his punishment.[13] See also[edit] List of Hercules (1998 TV series) episodes, season 1, episode 2 Notes[edit] ^ Strabo, Geography, 8. 3. 32 ^ Hellanicus in scholia on Plato, Symposium, 208 (p. 376) ^ Scholia on Homer. Odyssey, 11.235 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.8 ^ Diodorus Siculus. The Library, 4.68.1-2. ^ a b Tzetzes, Chiliades Book 7.9 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.7 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 60, 61 ^ Strabo viii. p. 356 ^ Manilius, Astronom. 5, 91 ^ Virgil, Aeneid vi. 585, with Heyne's excursus ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Salmoneus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ^ Virgil Aeneid 6.585-594 ^ Frazer Early History of the Kingship, 1905 ^ see also Golden Bough, i., 1900, p. 82 ^ Antigonus of Carystus, Historiae mirabiles, 15 ^ S. Reinach Revue archéologique, 1903, i. 154 References[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. John Tzetzes, Book of Histories, Book VII-VIII translated by Vasiliki Dogani from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version at theio.com Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salmoneus&oldid=965621462" Categories: Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Kings of Elis Greco-Roman mythology in popular culture Aeolides Condemned souls into Tartarus Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Italiano Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 July 2020, at 12:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5118	----	Heracleidae - Wikipedia Heracleidae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the descendants of Heracles. For the play by Euripides, see Heracleidae (play). For other uses, see Heraclides (disambiguation). "Heraclid" redirects here. For the ruler of Moldavia, see Iacob Heraclid. This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Heracles with his son Telephus, one of the Heracleidae In Greek mythology, the Heracleidae (/hɛrəˈklaɪdiː/; Ancient Greek: Ἡρακλεῖδαι) or Heraclids /ˈhɛrəklɪdz/ were the numerous descendants of Heracles (Hercules), especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira (Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as Heracles' son by Melite). Other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus. These Heraclids were a group of Dorian kings who conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos; according to the literary tradition in Greek mythology, they claimed a right to rule through their ancestor. Since Karl Otfried Müller's Die Dorier (1830, English translation 1839), I. ch. 3, their rise to dominance has been associated with a "Dorian invasion". Though details of genealogy differ from one ancient author to another, the cultural significance of the mythic theme, that the descendants of Heracles, exiled after his death, returned some generations later to reclaim land that their ancestors had held in Mycenaean Greece, was to assert the primal legitimacy of a traditional ruling clan that traced its origin, thus its legitimacy, to Heracles. Contents 1 Origin 2 Dorian invasion 3 List of Heraclid kings 3.1 At Sparta 3.2 At Corinth 4 In Euripides' tragedy 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Origin[edit] Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphylus and Dymas, voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in Herodotus V. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes. Desiring to reconquer his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for "the third fruit", (or "the third crop") and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea". Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus, both unsuccessful. Dorian invasion[edit] Main article: Dorian invasion At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracleidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heracleidae repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. This conquest was traditionally dated eighty years after the Trojan War.[1] The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of Aristodemus; and Messenia to Cresphontes (tradition maintains that Cresphontes cheated in order to obtain Messenia, which had the best land of all.[2]) The fertile district of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heracleidae ruled in Lacedaemon until 221 BCE, but disappeared much earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called the "Dorian invasion" or the "Return of the Heraclidae", is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles. List of Heraclid kings[edit] At Sparta[edit] Main article: List of kings of Sparta At Sparta, the Heraclids formed two dynasties ruling jointly: the Agiads and the Eurypontids. At Corinth[edit] At Corinth the Heraclids ruled as the Bacchiadae dynasty[3] before the aristocratic revolution, which brought a Bacchiad aristocracy into power. The kings were as follows: Aletes 1073 - 1035 BCE Ixion 1035 - 997 BCE Agelas I 997 - 960 BCE Prymnis 960 - 925 BCE Bacchis 925 - 890 BCE Agelas II 890 - 860 BCE Eudemus 860 - 835 BCE Aristomedes 835 - 800 BCE Agemon 800 - 784 BCE Alexander 784 - 759 BCE Telestes 759 - 747 BCE In Euripides' tragedy[edit] Main article: Heracleidae (play) The Greek tragedians amplified the story, probably drawing inspiration from local legends which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus. The Heracleidae feature as the main subjects of Euripides' play, Heracleidae.[4] J. A. Spranger found the political subtext of Heracleidae, never far to seek, so particularly apt in Athens towards the end of the peace of Nicias, in 419 BCE, that he suggested the date as that of the play's first performance.[5] In the tragedy, Iolaus, Heracles' old comrade, and Heracles' children, Macaria and her brothers and sisters have hidden from Eurystheus in Athens, ruled by King Demophon; as the first scene makes clear, they expect that the blood relationship of the kings with Heracles and their father's past indebtedness to Theseus will finally provide them sanctuary. As Eurystheus prepares to attack, an oracle tells Demophon that only the sacrifice of a noble woman to Persephone can guarantee an Athenian victory. Macaria volunteers for the sacrifice and a spring is named the Macarian spring in her honor. References[edit] ^ Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.12 ^ Apollodorus, Library 2.8.4 ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.9 ^ It is the first of two surviving plays by Euripides where the family of Heracles are suppliants (the second being Heracles Mad). ^ J. A. Spranger, "The Political Element in the Heracleidae of Euripides" The Classical Quarterly 19.3/4 (July 1925), pp. 117-128. Sources[edit] Bibliotheca ii. 8 Diodorus Siculus iv. 57, 58 Pausanias i. 32, 41, ii. 13, 18, iii. I, iv. 3, v. 3 Euripides, Heracleidae Pindar, Pythia, ix. 137 Herodotus ix. 27 Connop Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. vii George Grote, History of Greece, pt. i. ch. xviii Georg Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list of modern authorities is given External links[edit] Article by George Hinge Greek Mythology Links Timeless Mythology Article about Dorian Invasion  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Heraclidae". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 308–309. v t e Hercules (Heracles) Hercle Ercole Hercule Alcide Family Zeus (father) Alcmene (mother) Megara, Omphale, Deianira, and Hebe (wives) Heracleidae (children) Events Hercules at the crossroads Labours of Hercules Hercules in ancient Rome Shirt of Nessus Literature Poems Heracles Papyrus Shield of Heracles Catalogue of Women L'Atlàntida Plays Herakles Women of Trachis Hercules Furens Hercules Oetaeus Other The Labours of Hercules Hercules and the Wagoner Art Hercules and the lion of Nemea (5th century BCE) Hercules of the Forum Boarium (2nd century BCE) Lansdowne Heracles (c. 125) Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos (c. 150–256) Farnese Hercules (216) Hercules slaying Antaeus (c. 1460) Hercules and Deianira (c. 1470) Hercules and the Hydra (c. 1475) Hercules and Antaeus (c. 1500–1510) The Choice of Hercules (c. 1520–1525) Hercules and Antaeus (1531) Hercules and Cacus (1534) The Origin of the Milky Way (1575–1580) The Choice of Hercules (1596) Hercules and Omphale (1603) Hercules fighting Nemean lion (1634) Hercules and the Hydra (1634) Hercules separating the mounts Calpe And Abyla (1634) The Death of Hercules (1634) Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye (1636) The Origin of the Milky Way (1637) Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides (1638) Hercules and Omphale (1732–1734) Libertas Americana (1783) The Sanctuary of Hercules (1884) Hercules the Archer (1909) Achelous and Hercules (1947) The Twelve Labors of Hercules (1981) The Labors of Herakles (2006–2008) Hercules and the Erymanthian Boar Hercules and the Nemean Lion Opera Ercole amante (1662) Alcide (1693) Ercole su'l Termodonte (1723) Admeto (1727) Laßt uns sorgen, laßt uns wachen, BWV 213 (1733) Hercules (1744) Le nozze d'Ercole e d'Ebe (1747) The Choice of Hercules (1750) Hercule mourant (1761) Le Rouet d'Omphale (1871) Déjanire (1911) Atlántida (1962) Hercules vs. Vampires (2010) Films Italian series Hercules (1957) Hercules Unchained (1959) Goliath and the Dragon (1960) The Loves of Hercules (1960) Hercules and the Conquest of Atlantis (1961) Hercules in the Haunted World (1961) Hercules in the Valley of Woe (1961) The Fury of Hercules (1962) Hercules, Samson and Ulysses (1963) Hercules vs. Moloch (1963) Hercules the Invincible (1964) Hercules Against Rome (1964) Hercules Against the Sons of the Sun (1964) The Triumph of Hercules (1964) Samson and His Mighty Challenge (1964) Hercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (1964) Hercules and the Princess of Troy (1965) Hercules the Avenger (1965) Other European live-action Herakles (1962) Hercules Against the Moon Men (1964) American films live-action The Warrior's Husband (1933) The Three Stooges Meet Hercules (1962) Jason and the Argonauts (1963) Hercules in New York (1970) Hercules (1983) The Adventures of Hercules (1985) Jason and the Argonauts (2000) Immortals (2011) The Legend of Hercules (2014) Hercules (2014) Animated films Hercules (1995) Hercules (1997) Hercules: Zero to Hero (1998) Hercules and Xena – The Animated Movie: The Battle for Mount Olympus (1998) Television The Mighty Hercules The Sons of Hercules Mole Men Against the Son of Hercules (1961) Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules (1962) Ulysses Against the Son of Hercules (1962) Hercules: The Legendary Journeys (1995) Hercules and the Amazon Women (1994) Hercules and the Lost Kingdom (1994) Hercules and the Circle of Fire (1994) Hercules in the Underworld (1994) Hercules in the Maze of the Minotaur (1994) Hercules: The Animated Series (1998) "Hercules and the Arabian Night" (1999) Young Hercules (1998) Hercules (2005 miniseries) Atlantis (2013) Comics Hercules (Marvel Comics) Hercules (DC Comics) Hercules (Radical Comics) Games The Return of Heracles (1983) Hercules (1984) Disney's Hercules (1997) Herc's Adventures (1997) Hercules: The Legendary Journeys (2000) Heracles Chariot Racing (2007) Glory of Heracles (2008) Other Hercules in popular culture Hercules (franchise) Hercules (2019 musical) Pillars of Hercules Maczuga Herkulesa Hercules' Club Xena: Warrior Princess Authority control GND: 118959654 SUDOC: 240563778 VIAF: 67265413 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67265413 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heracleidae&oldid=986876176" Categories: Heracleidae Dorians Iron Age Greece Mycenaean Greece Patronymics from Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2011 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Български Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Latina Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 November 2020, at 14:39 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5119	----	Bounos - Wikipedia Bounos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Bounos or Bunus (Greek: Βοῦνος), son of Hermes and Alcidamia, received the throne of Ephyra (an early name of Corinth) from Aeëtes, when the latter decided to migrate to Colchis, biding him to keep it until he or his children came back. He is said to have built a sanctuary to Hera Bunaea on the road which led up to Acrocorinthus. After the death of Bounus, Epopeus of Sicyon, who had come from Thessaly, extended his own kingdom to include Corinth. References[edit] Pausanias. 2. 4. § 7, 3. § 8.) Theopompus FgH 1.332 Tzetzes on Lycophron 174 Sources[edit] Pierre Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. English translation by Blackwell Publishers, Ltd. 1996, p. 77 v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bounos&oldid=966817837" Categories: Corinthian mythology Children of Hermes Epithets of Hera Kings of Corinth Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Français Italiano Русский Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 9 July 2020, at 10:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5154	----	Porphyrion (mythology) - Wikipedia Porphyrion (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Porphyrion (Ancient Greek: Πορφυρίων) may refer to the following characters: Porphyrion, one of the Giants, offspring of Gaea, born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by their son Cronus. [1] Porphyrion, prince of Ephyra as son of Sisyphus, possibly by the Pleiad Merope.[2] Thus, he is the brother of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus and Sinon. Porphyrion, son of Celeus and one of the Athenian sacrificial victims for the Minotaur.[3] He may be the brother of Hesione, another sacrificial victim granting that their father is only one and the same. Notes[edit] ^ Hesiod, Theogony 185 ^ Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ Servius on Aeneid, 6. 21 References[edit] Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Porphyrion_(mythology)&oldid=999775096" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 11 January 2021, at 22:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5203	----	Book sources - Wikipedia Book sources Jump to navigation Jump to search This page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the 10- or 13-digit ISBN number. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN number do not matter. Search for book sourcesISBN: Search Wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources For assistance, see Help:ISBN. This page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its International Standard Book Number (ISBN). If you arrived at this page by clicking an ISBN link in a Wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. To search for a different book, type that book's individual ISBN into this ISBN search box. Spaces and dashes in the ISBN do not matter. Also, the number starts after the colon for "ISBN-10:" and "ISBN-13:" numbers.  An ISBN identifies a specific edition of a book. Any given title may therefore have a number of different ISBNs. See xISBN below for finding other editions. An ISBN registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. A title may have been cancelled or postponed after the ISBN was assigned. Check to see if the book exists or not. The master copy of this page is located at Wikipedia:Book sources. Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). Google Books and Amazon.com may be particularly helpful if you want to verify citations in Wikipedia articles, because they often enable you to search an online version of the book for specific words or phrases, or you can browse through the book (although for copyright reasons the entire book is usually not available). Online databases Find this book at Karlsruhe Virtual Catalog, a metasearch engine addressing many of the databases linked here and also some major commercial booksellers. Find this book at WorldCat free online catalog of the world's libraries Find this book at OttoBib.com citation metasearch Find this book at Copyright Clearance Center online rights database Find this book at Goodreads personal library catalog Find this book at LibraryThing personal library catalog Find this book at aNobii personal library catalog Find this book at iDreamBooks book review aggregator Find this book at the Grand Comics Database Find this book at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Subscription eBook databases Find this book at Alexander Street Press by ProQuest Find this book at eBookCentral by ProQuest Find this book at EBSCO Industries eBooks Find this book at Gale by Cengage Find this book at HathiTrust Find this book at Overdrive by Rakuten Find this book at Project MUSE Find this book at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open Find this book at Safari Books Online by O'Reilly Media Find this book at ScienceDirect Libraries Select your region from the map above Worldwide Find this book at your local library through WorldCat Africa Nigeria Find this book on the Ahmadu Bello University Library catalogue Find this book on the University of Ilorin Library catalogue South Africa Find this book on the National Library of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the SEALS Consortium catalogue Find this book on the University of South Africa catalogue Find this book on the University of the Witwatersrand Library catalogue Zimbabwe Find this book on the University of Zimbabwe Library catalogue Central America and the Caribbean Barbados Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Cave Hill campus) Library catalogue Guatemala Find this book in the University of San Carlos of Guatemala Central Library catalogue Jamaica Find this book in the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) Library catalogue Mexico Find this book in the National Autonomous University of Mexico Library System Trinidad and Tobago Find this book in the University of 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en-wikipedia-org-5243	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == Family == Sisyphus was the son of King [[Aeolus (son of Hellen)|Aeolus]] [[Thessaly|of Thessaly]] and [[Enarete]]<ref>[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]]. ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.7.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=7&highlight=Sisyphus Bibliotheca, 1.7.3]''</ref> and the brother of [[Salmoneus]]. He married the [[Pleiades (Greek mythology)|Pleiad]] [[Merope (Pleiades)|Merope]] by whom he became the father of [[Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)|Glaucus]], [[Ornytion]], [[Thersander]], [[Almus (son of Sisyphus)|Almus]], [[Sinon]] and [[Porphyrion (mythology)|Porphyrion]].<ref name=":1">Scholia, on ''[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Argonautica]]'' 3.1553</ref> Sisyphus was the grandfather of [[Bellerophon]] through Glaucus,<ref name=":0">Pseudo-Apollodorus. ''Bibliotheca, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.9.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=9&highlight=Sisyphus 1.9.3]''</ref><ref name="Homer Iliad VI 152ff">[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' VI 152ff</ref> and [[Minyas (mythology)|Minyas]], founder of [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], through Almus.<ref name=":1" /> Return to Sisyphus. 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en-wikipedia-org-5273	----	Xenia (Greek) - Wikipedia Xenia (Greek) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek word for hospitality This article is about the ancient Greek concept of hospitality. For other uses, see Xenia (disambiguation). "Theoxenia" redirects here. The moth genus Theoxenia is considered a junior synonym of Ethmia. Jupiter and Mercurius in the House of Philemon and Baucis (1630–33) by the workshop of Rubens: Zeus and Hermes, testing a village's practice of hospitality, were received only by Baucis and Philemon, who were rewarded while their neighbors were punished. Part of a series on Love Types of love Affection Bonding Broken heart Compassionate love Conjugal love Courtly love courtship troubadours Falling in love Friendship cross-sex romantic zone Interpersonal relationship Intimacy Limerence Love addiction Love at first sight Love triangle Lovesickness Lovestruck Obsessive love Passion Platonic love Puppy love Relationship Romance Self-love Amour de soi Unconditional love Unrequited love Social views Anarchist Free love Chinese Ren Yuanfen French Amour-propre Greek words for love Agape Eros Ludus Mania Philautia Philia Philos Pragma Storge Xenia Indian Kama Bhakti Maitrī Islamic Ishq Jewish Chesed Latin Amore Charity Portuguese Saudade Yaghan Mamihlapinatapai Concepts Color wheel theory of love Biological basis Love letter Love magic Valentine's Day Philosophy Religious views love deities Mere-exposure effect Similarity Physical attractiveness Triangular theory of love v t e Xenia (Greek: ξενία) is the ancient Greek sacred rule of hospitality (corresponding to the Latin concept of hospitium), the generosity and courtesy shown to those who are far from home or associates of the host. The rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host expressed in both material benefits (e.g. gifts, protection, shelter) as well as non-material ones (e.g. favors, certain normative rights). The term is often translated 'guest-friendship' (or 'ritualized friendship'), because the rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host. The word is derived from xenos 'guest-friend'. The Greek god Zeus is sometimes called Zeus Xenios in his role as a protector of xenia. He thus embodied the religious obligation to be hospitable to travelers. Theoxeny or theoxenia is a theme in Greek mythology in which human beings demonstrate their virtue or piety by extending hospitality to a humble stranger (xenos), who turns out to be a disguised deity (theos) with the capacity to bestow rewards. These stories caution mortals that any guest should be treated as if potentially a disguised divinity and help establish the idea of xenia as a fundamental Greek custom.[1][2] The term theoxenia also covered entertaining among the gods themselves, a popular subject in classical art, which was revived at the Renaissance in works depicting a Feast of the Gods. Contents 1 Overview 2 In the Iliad 3 In the Odyssey 4 In the Argonautica 5 Political alliances 6 In architecture 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Overview[edit] Xenia consists of two basic rules: The respect from hosts to guests. Hosts must be hospitable to guests and provide them with a bath, food, drink, gifts, and safe escort to their next destination. It is considered rude to ask guests questions, or even to ask who they are, before they have finished the meal provided to them. The respect from guests to hosts. Guests must be courteous to their hosts and not be a threat or burden. Guests are expected to provide stories and news from the outside world. Most importantly, guests are expected to reciprocate if their hosts ever call upon them in their homes.[3] Xenia was considered to be particularly important in ancient times when people thought that gods mingled among them. If one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. It is thought that the Greek practice of theoxenia may have been the antecedent of the Roman rite of Lectisternium, or the draping of couches. While these practices of guest-friendship are centered on the divine, they would become common among the Greeks in incorporating xenia into their customs and manners. Indeed, while originating from mythical traditions, xenia would become a standard practice throughout all of Greece as a historical custom in the affairs of humans interacting with humans as well as humans interacting with the gods. In the Iliad[edit] The Trojan war described in the Iliad of Homer resulted from a violation of xenia. Paris, from the house of Priam of Troy, was a guest of Menelaus, king of Mycenaean Sparta, but seriously transgressed the bounds of xenia by abducting his host's wife, Helen. Therefore, the Achaeans were required by duty to Zeus to avenge this transgression, which, as a violation of xenia, was an insult to Zeus' authority. Diomedes and Glaucus meet in no man's land. However, Diomedes does not want to fight another man descendant from the Gods, so he asks Glaucus about his lineage. Upon revealing it, Diomedes realizes that their fathers had practiced xenia with each other, and they are guest-friends. Therefore, they decide not to fight, but to continue their hereditary guest-friendship by trading armor.[4] Hector speaks to Ajax about exchanging presents so that people will remember them for dropping their hatred and becoming friends.[5] While this is not a traditional example of xenia, it does demonstrate the power of friendship in the Greek culture. Book 9: Achilles invites Odysseus into his home and asks Patroclus to make the strongest wine for them to drink. Patroclus also brings meat with the wine. The men eat and have light chatter before Odysseus delivers Agamemnon's offer to Achilles.[6] Book 18: Hephaestus hosts Thetis in his home. Concerned with making Thetis comfortable, Hephaestus lays out entertainment and puts away his tools.[7] Book 24: In the last book of the Iliad, Priam supplicates Achilles in an attempt to get his son Hector back. Instead of turning him out as the enemy, Achilles abides by the rules of xenia and allows him to stay. In the Odyssey[edit] Xenia is an important theme in Homer's Odyssey. Every household in the epic is seen alongside xenia: Odysseus' house is inhabited by suitors with demands beyond the bounds of xenia. Menelaus and Nestor's houses are seen when Telemachus visits. There are many other households observed in the epic, including those of Circe, Calypso, and the Phaeacians. The Phaeacians, particularly Nausicaä, were famed for their immaculate application of xenia, as the princess and her maids offered to bathe Odysseus and then led him to the palace to be fed and entertained. After sharing his story with the Phaeacians they agree to take Odysseus to his home land. In a new rule, he states that you should not beat your host in a competition because it would be rude and could damage the relationship.[8] Because Odysseus was indirectly responsible for Poseidon's sinking one of their ships, the Phaeacians resolved to be less trusting of subsequent travelers. However, Polyphemus showed lack of xenia, despite Odysseus' reminders, and refused to honor the travelers' requests, instead eating some of Odysseus' men. The suitor Ctesippus mocks xenia by hurling a hoof, disguised as a "gift", at Odysseus. When Ctesippus is speared by Philoetius, the cowherd claims this avenges his disrespect. Telemachus shows xenia, in Book One, to the disguised Athena by graciously welcoming her into his own home and offering her food. He even moves her chair away from the suitors who are rude. Eumaeus the Swineherd shows xenia to the disguised Odysseus, claiming guests come under the protection of Zeus. When one of the suitors Ctesippus mocks the disguised Odysseus and hurls an ox's hoof at him as a "gift", mocking xenia, though Odysseus dodges this, Telemachus says if he had hit the guest, he would have run Ctesippus through with his spear.[9] The other suitors are worried, saying Ctesippus is "doomed" if the stranger is a disguised god. As well as this, whenever Homer describes the details of "xenia", he uses the same formula every time: for example, the maid pouring wine into the gold cups, etc. An example of bad xenia occurs when Homer describes the suitors. They continue to eat Penelope and Telemachus out of house and home. They are rude to not only to each other but to Telemachus and the guests, such as disguised Athena and Odysseus. Another excellent example of bad xenia is the cyclops Polyphemus. The cyclops breaks custom by asking Odysseus where he is from and what his name is the moment he meets him (it is proper for a host to first feed their guest before asking them questions). Then, not only does the cyclops not offer Odysseus's crew any food, he eats them and then refuses to let them leave. Calypso, a fair goddess, had wanted to keep Odysseus in her cavern as her husband, but he refused. Circe had also failed to keep Odysseus in her halls as her mate. Although both of these women had fine homes and fine things to offer him, their hospitality was too much for Odysseus. He instead left each with the goal of returning to Ithaca and reclaiming his family and his home. Sometimes Hospitality was unwanted[10] or was given unwillingly. In the Argonautica[edit] The Argonautica, written by Apollonius of Rhodes, takes place before the Iliad and the Odyssey. Since the story takes place during Greek times, the theme of xenia is shown throughout the story. When the Argonauts are warmly received by King Kyzicus of the Doliones who provides safe harbour and sacrificial materials to help the Argonauts consecrate a new altar to Apollo.[11] In the opposite harbour xenia is violated by the monstrous earth-born who attack the Argonauts.[12] The King of Bebrykians, Amykos, makes the Argonauts fight to be able to leave. Polydeukes volunteers himself to participate in the boxing match.[13] This is a clear violation of xenia, and the Argonauts become worried when they reach their next destination later on in Book 2, when the Argonauts are on an island after a storm caused by Zeus. The Argonauts call out, asking for the strangers to be kind to them and treat them fairly. They realize that Jason and the men on the island are related by Jason's father's side of the family. The men provide clothing, sacrifice with them, and share a meal before the Argonauts leave the island in the morning.[14] When Jason talks about going to Aietes' palace, he says that they will receive a warm welcome and surely he will follow the rules of xenia.[15] The first time the Argonauts reach Aietes' palace, also the first time Medeia is depicted in love with Jason due to Eros, Aietes has a feast prepared. The Argos are served, and after their meal Aietes begins to ask questions about the Argonauts' purpose and voyage to his kingdom.[16] Political alliances[edit] Historian Gabriel Herman lays out the use of xenia in political alliances in the Near East. Solemn pronouncements were often used to establish a ritualised personal relationship, such as when "Xerxes, having been offered lavish hospitality and most valuable gifts by Pythios the Lydian, declared "...in return for this I give you these privileges (gera): I make you my Xenos." The same set of words could be applied in non-face-to-face situations, when a ruler wished to contract an alliance through the intermediary of messengers.[17] Herman points out that this is correspondent to pacts made by African tribal societies studied by Harry Tegnaeus (in his 1952 ethno-sociological book Blood Brothers) where "the partners proclaim themselves in the course of the blood ceremony each other's 'brothers', 'foster-brothers', 'cousins'. The surviving treaties of 'fraternity' 'paternity' and 'love and friendship' between the petty rulers of the ancient Near East in the second half of the second millennium B.C. incorporate what are probably written versions of such declarations."[17] (Herman also sees an echo of this in the medieval ceremony of homage, in the exchange between a would-be-vassal and the lord.)[17] Herman goes on to point out that "no less important an element in forging the alliance was the exchange of highly specialized category of gifts, designated in our sources as xénia (as distinct from xenía, the term of the relationship itself) or dora. It was as important to give such gifts as to receive, and refusal to reciprocate as tantamount to a declaration of hostility. Mutual acceptance of the gifts, on the other hand, was a clear mark of the beginning of friendship."[17] Herman points to the account of Odysseus giving Iphitos a sword and spear after having been given a formidable bow while saying they were "the first token of loving guest-friendship".[17] Herman also shows that Herodotus holds "the conclusion of an alliance and the exchange of gifts appeared as two inseparable acts: Polykrates, having seized the government in Samos, "concluded a pact of xenia with Amasis king of Egypt, sending and receiving from him gifts (dora)".[17] Within the ritual it was important that the return gift be offered immediately after receiving a gift with each commensurate rather than attempting to surpass each other in value. The initial gifts in such an exchange would fall somewhere between being symbolic but useless, and of high use-value but without any special symbolic significance.[17] The initial gifts would serve as both object and symbol. Herman points out that these goods were not viewed as trade or barter, "for the exchange was not an end in itself, but a means to another end." While trade ends with the exchange, the ritual exchange "was meant to symbolize the establishment of obligations which, ideally, would last for ever."[17] Plato makes mention of Zeus Xenios while discussing his journey to meet Dion of Syracuse in The Seventh Letter.[18] In architecture[edit] Vitruvius uses the word "xenia" once, near the end of Book 6 of De Architectura, in a note about the decorative paintings, typically of food, located in guest apartments: "when the Greeks became more luxurious, and their circumstances more opulent, they began to provide dining rooms, chambers, and storerooms of provisions for their guests from abroad, and on the first day they would invite them to dinner, sending them on the next chickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and other country produce. This is why artists called pictures representing the things which were sent to guests ‘xenia.’"[19] Architectural theorist Simon Weir explained how Vitruvius refers to xenia at the beginning of Book 6 of De Architectura, in the anecdote of Aristippus shipwrecked and receiving hospitality from the Rhodians.[20] Also how xenia was pervasive in the work of the earliest ancient Greek architects, whose work was always concerned with public buildings and the hosting of guests rather than the design of private residences.[21] Architectural Historian, Lisa Landrum has also revealed the presence of Xenia in Greek theatre onstage and offstage.[22][23] See also[edit] Bellerophon, protected by xenia, even though falsely accused of raping his host wife Hospitium Ixion, described in Greek mythology as a flagrant violator of xenia Xenos (Greek) References[edit] ^ Louden, Bruce. 2011. Homer's Odyssey and the Near East Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–2. ^ Weaver, John B. 2004. Plots of Epiphany: Prison-Escape in Acts of the Apostles. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 34. ^ Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. [catalogues the various expectations of hosts and guests in early Greek society.] ^ Homer, Iliad VI:137-282, (Fagles 1990). ^ Homer, Iliad VII: 299–302 (Lattimore 2011) ^ Homer, Iliad IX: 197–265, (Lattimore 2011) ^ Homer, Iliad XVIII: 406–409, (Lattimore 2011) ^ Homer, Odyssey VIII: 204–211. ^ Homer, Odyssey I, 20.287-319, (Murray 1919). ^ Biggs, Cory; Joseph, Melissa; Bennet, Mollie; Manning, Dustin; Schrodt, Jonas (2002). "The Value of Hospitality". A Guide to Ancient Greek Culture (Student project). Schenectady, NY: Union College. Retrieved 12 July 2014. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica I: 961–988, (University of California 2007). ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica I: 989–1011, (University of California 2007). ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica II: 55–98, (University of California 2007). ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica II: 1122–1230, (University of California 2007). ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica II: 1195–1200, (University of California 2007). ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica III: 275–330, (University of California 2007). ^ a b c d e f g h Herman, Gabriel (1987). Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City. New York: Cambridge University Press. ^ http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/seventh_letter.html ^ "Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture, BOOK VI, CHAPTER VII: THE GREEK HOUSE, section 4". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-16. ^ Weir, Simon (2015). "Xenia in Vitruvius' Greek house: andron, ξείνία and xenia from Homer to Augustus". The Journal of Architecture. 20 (5): 868–83. doi:10.1080/13602365.2015.1098717. ISSN 1360-2365. S2CID 145783068. ^ Weir, Simon (2016). "On the origin of the architect: Architects and xenía in the ancient Greek theatre". Interstices. doi:10.24135/ijara.v0i0.498. ISSN 2537-9194. ^ Weir, Simon (2016-12-25). "On the origin of the architect: Architects and xenía in the ancient Greek theatre". Interstices: Journal of Architecture and Related Arts. doi:10.24135/ijara.v0i0.498. ISSN 2537-9194. ^ Landrum, Lisa (2013). "Ensemble performances: Architects and justice in Athenian drama". In Simon, Jonathan (ed.). Architecture and justice: Judicial meanings in the public realm. New York: Routledge. pp. 245–256. ISBN 978-1409431732. Bibliography[edit] Fagles, Robert, trans. 1990. Iliad. New York: Penguin. Lattimore, Richmond (2011). The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226470498. Murray, A. T., trans. 1919. The Odyssey, by Homer. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and London: William Heinemann. [two volumes]. The Argonautika. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press (2007). ISBN 9780520253933. Some of this material comes from lectures by Dr. Elizabeth Vandiver, recorded and distributed by The Teaching Company. Vandiver, Elizabeth, lecturer. (1999). The Iliad of Homer. [Audio CD] — (1999). The Odyssey of Homer. [Audio CD] — . (2000). Greek Tragedy Part I. [Audio CD] External links[edit] Xenia A comic-strip explanation of the formula of Xenia or hospitality in Greek Epic by Greek Myth Comix Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenia_(Greek)&oldid=1003098210" Categories: Ancient Greek culture Greek words and phrases Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Italiano עברית Magyar Română Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2021, at 11:44 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5289	----	Wikipedia:Contents - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia's contents Contents Overviews Outlines Lists Portals A–Z index Glossaries Categories Indices Reference Culture Geography Health History Human activities Mathematics Nature People Philosophy Religion Society Technology Explore Wikipedia's contents For Wikipedia’s internal directory, see Wikipedia:Directories and indexes. 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en-wikipedia-org-5290	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ===Literary interpretations=== [[File:Punishment sisyph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Painting of Sisyphus by Titian |''Sisyphus'' (1548–49) by [[Titian]], [[Prado Museum]], [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]]] [[Homer]] describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the ''[[Iliad]]'' and Book XI of the ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref name="Homer Iliad VI 152ff"/><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593"/> [[Ovid]], the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of [[Orpheus]] and [[Eurydice]]. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being ''inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo'' ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").<ref>Ovid. ''Metamorphoses'', 10.44.</ref> In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"<ref>Apology, 41a</ref> [[Albert Camus]], the [[French Algeria|French]] [[absurdism|absurdist]], wrote an essay entitled ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. [[Franz Kafka]] repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; [[Kafkaesque]] for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."<ref>[[Frederick R. Karl|Karl, Frederick]]. ''Franz Kafka: Representative Man.'' New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2</ref> The philosopher [[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.<ref>Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." ''Review of Metaphysics'' 40 (June 1987): 675–686.</ref> [[Wolfgang Mieder]] has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them [[editorial cartoons]].<ref>Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens.</ref> Return to Sisyphus. 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en-wikipedia-org-5300	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with NKC identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P691. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. 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en-wikipedia-org-5321	----	Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition - Wikipedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1910 Encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition First page of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition Country United States Language British English Release number 11 Subject General Publisher Horace Everett Hooper Publication date 1910–11 Media type Print and Digital Preceded by Encyclopædia Britannica Tenth Edition  Followed by Encyclepædia Britannica Twelfth Edition  Text Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition at Wikisource The Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1910–11), is a 29-volume reference work, an edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. It was developed during the encyclopaedia's transition from a British to an American publication. Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. This edition of the encyclopaedia, containing 40,000 entries, is now in the public domain, and many of its articles have been used as a basis for articles in Wikipedia.[1] However, the outdated nature of some of its content makes its use as a source for modern scholarship problematic. Some articles have special value and interest to modern scholars as cultural artifacts of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Contents 1 Background 2 Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition 3 1911 Britannica in the 21st century 4 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links 8.1 Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text 8.2 Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text Background[edit] Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled with the management of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper. Hugh Chisholm, who had edited the previous edition, was appointed editor in chief, with Walter Alison Phillips as his principal assistant editor.[2] Originally, Hooper bought the rights to the 25-volume 9th edition and persuaded the British newspaper The Times to issue its reprint, with eleven additional volumes (35 volumes total) as the tenth edition, which was published in 1902. Hooper's association with The Times ceased in 1909, and he negotiated with the Cambridge University Press to publish the 29-volume eleventh edition. Though it is generally perceived as a quintessentially British work, the eleventh edition had substantial American influences, in not only the increased amount of American and Canadian content, but also the efforts made to make it more popular.[3] American marketing methods also assisted sales. Some 14% of the contributors (214 of 1507) were from North America, and a New York office was established to coordinate their work.[4] The initials of the encyclopaedia's contributors appear at the end of selected articles or at the end of a section in the case of longer articles, such as that on China, and a key is given in each volume to these initials. Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, James Hopwood Jeans and William Michael Rossetti. Among the then lesser-known contributors were some who would later become distinguished, such as Ernest Rutherford and Bertrand Russell. Many articles were carried over from the 9th edition, some with minimal updating. Some of the book-length articles were divided into smaller parts for easier reference, yet others much abridged. The best-known authors generally contributed only a single article or part of an article. Most of the work was done by journalists, British Museum scholars and other scholars. The 1911 edition was the first edition of the encyclopædia to include more than just a handful of female contributors, with 34 women contributing articles to the edition.[5] The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes of the format of the Britannica. It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The print type was kept in galley proofs and subject to continual updating until publication. It was the first edition of Britannica to be issued with a comprehensive index volume in which was added a categorical index, where like topics were listed. It was the first not to include long treatise-length articles. Even though the overall length of the work was about the same as that of its predecessor, the number of articles had increased from 17,000 to 40,000. It was also the first edition of Britannica to include biographies of living people. Sixteen maps of the famous 9th edition of Stielers Handatlas were exclusively translated to English, converted to Imperial units, printed in Gotha, Germany, by Justus Perthes and became part this edition. Later editions only included Perthes' maps as low quality reproductions.[6] According to Coleman and Simmons,[7] the content of the encyclopaedia was distributed as follows: Subject Content Geography 29% Pure and applied science 17% History 17% Literature 11% Fine art 9% Social science 7% Psychology 1.7% Philosophy 0.8% Hooper sold the rights to Sears, Roebuck and Company of Chicago in 1920, completing the Britannica's transition to becoming a substantially American publication.[8] In 1922, an additional three volumes (also edited by Hugh Chisholm) were published, covering the events of the intervening years, including World War I. These, together with a reprint of the eleventh edition, formed the twelfth edition of the work. A similar thirteenth edition, consisting of three volumes plus a reprint of the twelfth edition, was published in 1926, so the twelfth and thirteenth editions were closely related to the eleventh edition and shared much of the same content. However, it became increasingly apparent that a more thorough update of the work was required. The fourteenth edition, published in 1929, was considerably revised, with much text eliminated or abridged to make room for new topics. Nevertheless, the eleventh edition was the basis of every later version of the Encyclopædia Britannica until the completely new fifteenth edition was published in 1974, using modern information presentation. The eleventh edition's articles are still of value and interest to modern readers and scholars, especially as a cultural artifact: the British Empire was at its maximum, imperialism was largely unchallenged, much of the world was still ruled by monarchs, and the tumultuous world wars were still in the future. They are an invaluable resource for topics omitted from modern encyclopaedias, particularly for biography and the history of science and technology. As a literary text, the encyclopaedia has value as an example of early 20th-century prose. For example, it employs literary devices, such as pathetic fallacy (attribution of human-like traits to impersonal forces or inanimate objects), which are not as common in modern reference texts.[7] Notable commentary on the Eleventh Edition[edit] 1913 advertisement for the eleventh edition Wikisource has original text related to this article: Misinforming a Nation In 1917, using the pseudonym of S. S. Van Dine, the US art critic and author Willard Huntington Wright published Misinforming a Nation, a 200+ page criticism of inaccuracies and biases of the Encyclopædia Britannica eleventh edition. Wright claimed that Britannica was "characterized by misstatement, inexcusable omissions, rabid and patriotic prejudices, personal animosities, blatant errors of fact, scholastic ignorance, gross neglect of non-British culture, an astounding egotism, and an undisguised contempt for American progress".[9] Amos Urban Shirk, known for having read the eleventh and fourteenth editions in their entirety, said he found the fourteenth edition to be a "big improvement" over the eleventh, stating that "most of the material had been completely rewritten". Robert Collison, in Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout The Ages (1966), wrote of the eleventh edition that it "was probably the finest edition of the Britannica ever issued, and it ranks with the Enciclopedia Italiana and the Espasa as one of the three greatest encyclopaedias. It was the last edition to be produced almost in its entirety in Britain, and its position in time as a summary of the world's knowledge just before the outbreak of World War I is particularly valuable". Sir Kenneth Clark, in Another Part of the Wood (1974), wrote of the eleventh edition, "One leaps from one subject to another, fascinated as much by the play of mind and the idiosyncrasies of their authors as by the facts and dates. It must be the last encyclopaedia in the tradition of Diderot which assumes that information can be made memorable only when it is slightly coloured by prejudice. When T. S. Eliot wrote 'Soul curled up on the window seat reading the Encyclopædia Britannica,' he was certainly thinking of the eleventh edition." (Clark refers to Eliot's 1929 poem "Animula".) It was one of Jorge Luis Borges's favorite works, and was a source of information and enjoyment for his entire working life.[10] In 1912, mathematician L. C. Karpinski criticised the eleventh edition for inaccuracies in articles on the history of mathematics, none of which had been written by specialists.[11] English writer and former priest Joseph McCabe claimed in Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1947) that Britannica was censored under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church after the 11th edition.[12] Authorities ranging from Virginia Woolf to professors criticised the 11th edition for having bourgeois and old-fashioned opinions on art, literature, and social sciences.[5] A contemporary Cornell professor, Edward B. Titchener, wrote in 1912, "the new Britannica does not reproduce the psychological atmosphere of its day and generation... Despite the halo of authority, and despite the scrutiny of the staff, the great bulk of the secondary articles in general psychology ... are not adapted to the requirements of the intelligent reader".[13] Critics have charged several editions with racism[14][15] and sexism.[5] The eleventh edition characterises the Ku Klux Klan as protecting the white race and restoring order to the American South after the American Civil War, citing the need to "control the negro", and "the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men upon white women".[16][17] Similarly, the "Civilization" article argues for eugenics, stating that it is irrational to "propagate low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals ... which to-day constitute so threatening an obstacle to racial progress".[18] The eleventh edition has no biography of Marie Curie, despite her winning of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, although she is mentioned briefly under the biography of her husband Pierre Curie.[19] The Britannica employed a large female editorial staff that wrote hundreds of articles for which they were not given credit.[5] 1911 Britannica in the 21st century[edit] The 1911 edition is no longer restricted by copyright, and it is therefore available in several more modern forms. While it may once have been a reliable description of the consensus of its time,[according to whom?] many modern readers find fault with the Encyclopedia for several major errors, ethnocentric and racist remarks, and other issues: Contemporary opinions of race and ethnicity are included in the Encyclopædia's articles. For example, the entry for "Negro" states, "Mentally the negro is inferior to the white... the arrest or even deterioration of mental development [after adolescence] is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts."[20] The article about the American War of Independence attributes the success of the United States in part to "a population mainly of good English blood and instincts".[21] Many articles are now outdated factually, in particular those concerning science, technology, international and municipal law, and medicine. For example, the article on the vitamin deficiency disease beriberi speculates that it is caused by a fungus, vitamins not having been discovered at the time. Articles about geographic places mention rail connections and ferry stops in towns that no longer employ such transport (though this in itself can be useful for those looking for historical information). Even where the facts might still be accurate, new information, theories and perspectives developed since 1911 have substantially changed the way the same facts might be interpreted. For example, the modern interpretation of the history of the Visigoths is now very different from that of 1911; readers of the eleventh edition who want to know about the social customs and political life of the tribe and its warriors are told to look up the entry for their king, Alaric I. The eleventh edition of Encyclopædia Britannica has become a commonly quoted source, both because of the reputation of the Britannica and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. It has been used as a source by many modern projects, including Wikipedia and the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia. Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia[edit] The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia is the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns. Project Gutenberg's offerings are summarized below in the External links section and include text and graphics. As of 2018[update], Distributed Proofreaders are working on producing a complete electronic edition of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. See also[edit] New American Cyclopedia References[edit] ^ Boyles, Denis (2016). Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911. Knopf. pp. xi–x. ISBN 9780307269171. ^ S. Padraig Walsh, Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography (1968), p. 49 ^ "AuctionZip". AuctionZip. AuctionZip. Retrieved 4 April 2020. ^ Boyles (2016), p. 242. ^ a b c d Thomas, Gillian (1992). A Position to Command Respect: Women and the Eleventh Britannica. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2567-8. ^ Wolfgang Lierz: Karten aus Stielers Hand-Atlas in der „Encyclopaedia Britannica“. In: Cartographica Helvetica. Heft 29, 2004, ISSN 1015-8480, S. 27–34 online Archived 2016-07-29 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b All There is to Know (1994), edited by Alexander Coleman and Charles Simmons. Subtitled: "Readings from the Illustrious Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". p. 32. ISBN 0-671-76747-X ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica - Eleventh edition and its supplements | English language reference work". Retrieved 2016-08-29. ^ Misinforming a Nation. 1917. Chapter 1. ^ Woodall, James (1996). Borges: A Life. New York: BasicBooks. p. 76. ISBN 0-465-04361-5. ^ Karpinski, L. C. (1912). "History of Mathematics in the Recent Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica". Science. 35 (888): 29–31. Bibcode:1912Sci....35...29K. doi:10.1126/science.35.888.29. PMID 17752897. ^ McCabe, J (1947). Lies and Fallacies of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Haldeman-Julius. ASIN B0007FFJF4. Retrieved 2011-06-30. ^ Titchener, EB (1912). "The Psychology of the new 'Britannica'". American Journal of Psychology. University of Illinois Press. 23 (1): 37–58. doi:10.2307/1413113. JSTOR 1413113. ^ Chalmers, F. Graeme (1992). "The Origins of Racism in the Public School Art Curriculum". Studies in Art Education. 33 (3): 134–143. doi:10.2307/1320895. JSTOR 1320895. ^ Citing from the article on "Negro" and discussing the consequences of views such as those stated there: Brooks, Roy L., editor. “Redress for Racism?” When Sorry Isn't Enough: The Controversy Over Apologies and Reparations for Human Injustice, NYU Press, 1999, pp. 395–398. JSTOR j.ctt9qg0xt.75. Accessed 17 Aug. 2020. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Lynch Law" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Fleming, Walter Lynwood (1911). "Ku Klux Klan" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Williams, Henry Smith (1911). "Civilization" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Curie, Pierre" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 644. ^ Joyce, Thomas Athol (1911). "Negro" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 344. ^ Hannay, David (1911). "American War of Independence" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 845. Further reading[edit] Boyles, Denis. Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910-1911 (2016), ISBN 0307269175, online review External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Free, public-domain sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] via HathiTrust Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed. 1911, separate volumes in several formats, on the Internet Archive: Internet Archive – Text Archives Individual Volumes Volume From To Volume 1 A Androphagi Volume 2 Andros, Sir Edmund Austria Volume 3 Austria, Lower Bisectrix Volume 4 Bisharin Calgary Volume 5 Calhoun, John Caldwell Chatelaine Volume 6 Châtelet Constantine Volume 7 Constantine Pavlovich Demidov Volume 8 Demijohn Edward the Black Prince Volume 9 Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin Evangelical Association Volume 10 Evangelical Church Conference Francis Joseph I Volume 11 Franciscans Gibson, William Hamilton Volume 12 Gichtel, Johann Georg Harmonium Volume 13 Harmony Hurstmonceaux Volume 14 Husband Italic Volume 15 Italy Kyshtym Volume 16 L Lord Advocate Volume 17 Lord Chamberlain Mecklenburg Volume 18 Medal Mumps Volume 19 Mun, Adrien Albert Marie de Oddfellows, Order of Volume 20 Ode Payment of members Volume 21 Payn, James Polka Volume 22 Poll Reeves, John Sims Volume 23 Refectory Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin Volume 24 Sainte-Claire Deville, Étienne Henri Shuttle Volume 25 Shuválov, Peter Andreivich Subliminal self Volume 26 Submarine mines Tom-Tom Volume 27 Tonalite Vesuvius Volume 28 Vetch Zymotic diseases Volume 29 Index List of contributors Volume 1 of 1922 supp Abbe English History Volume 2 of 1922 supp English Literature Oyama, Iwao Volume 3 of 1922 supp Pacific Ocean Islands Zuloaga Reader's Guide – 1913 Year-Book – 1913 Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia: Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia As of 16 December 2014[update] Section From To Volume 1:   A  –   Androphagi Volume 2.1:   Andros, Sir Edmund  –   Anise Volume 2.2:   Anjar  –   Apollo Volume 2.3:   Apollodorus  –   Aral Volume 2.4:   Aram, Eugene  –   Arcueil Volume 2.5:   Arculf  –   Armour, Philip Volume 2.6:   Armour Plates  –   Arundel, Earls of Volume 2.7:   Arundel, Thomas  –   Athens Volume 2.8:   Atherstone  –   Austria Volume 3.1:   Austria, Lower  –   Bacon Volume 3.2:   Baconthorpe  –   Bankruptcy Volume 3.3:   Banks  –   Bassoon Volume 3.4:   Basso-relievo  –   Bedfordshire Volume 3.5:   Bedlam  –   Benson, George Volume 3.6:   Bent, James  –   Bibirine Volume 3.7:   Bible  –   Bisectrix Volume 4.1:   Bisharin  –   Bohea Volume 4.2:   Bohemia  –   Borgia, Francis Volume 4.3:   Borgia, Lucrezia  –   Bradford, John Volume 4.4:   Bradford, William  –   Brequigny, Louis Volume 4.5:   Bréquigny  –   Bulgaria Volume 4.6:   Bulgaria  –   Calgary Volume 5.1:   Calhoun  –   Camoens Volume 5.2:   Camorra  –   Cape Colony Volume 5.3:   Capefigue  –   Carneades Volume 5.4:   Carnegie, Andrew  –   Casus Belli Volume 5.5:   Cat  –   Celt Volume 5.6:   Celtes, Konrad  –   Ceramics Volume 5.7:   Cerargyrite  –   Charing Cross Volume 5.8:   Chariot  –   Chatelaine Volume 6.1:   Châtelet  –   Chicago Volume 6.2:   Chicago, University of  –   Chiton Volume 6.3:   Chitral  –   Cincinnati Volume 6.4:   Cincinnatus  –   Cleruchy Volume 6.5:   Clervaux  –   Cockade Volume 6.6:   Cockaigne  –   Columbus, Christopher Volume 6.7:   Columbus  –   Condottiere Volume 6.8:   Conduction, Electric  –   Volume 7.1:   Prependix  –   Volume 7.2:   Constantine Pavlovich  –   Convention Volume 7.3:   Convention  –   Copyright Volume 7.4:   Coquelin  –   Costume Volume 7.5:   Cosway  –   Coucy Volume 7.6:   Coucy-le-Château  –   Crocodile Volume 7.7:   Crocoite  –   Cuba Volume 7.8:   Cube  –   Daguerre, Louis Volume 7.9:   Dagupan  –   David Volume 7.10:   David, St  –   Demidov Volume 8.2:   Demijohn  –   Destructor Volume 8.3:   Destructors  –   Diameter Volume 8.4:   Diameter  –   Dinarchus Volume 8.5:   Dinard  –   Dodsworth Volume 8.6:   Dodwell  –   Drama Volume 8.7:   Drama  –   Dublin Volume 8.8:   Dubner  –   Dyeing Volume 8.9:   Dyer  –   Echidna Volume 8.10:   Echinoderma  –   Edward Volume 9.1:   Edwardes  –   Ehrenbreitstein Volume 9.2:   Ehud  –   Electroscope Volume 9.3:   Electrostatics  –   Engis Volume 9.4:   England  –   English Finance Volume 9.5:   English History  –   Volume 9.6:   English Language  –   Epsom Salts Volume 9.7:   Equation  –   Ethics Volume 9.8:   Ethiopia  –   Evangelical Association Volume 10.1:   Evangelical Church Conference  –   Fairbairn, Sir William Volume 10.2:   Fairbanks, Erastus  –   Fens Volume 10.3:   Fenton, Edward  –   Finistère Volume 10.4:   Finland  –   Fleury, Andre Volume 10.5:   Fleury, Claude  –   Foraker, Joseph Henson Volume 10.6:   Foraminifera  –   Fox, Edward Volume 10.7:   Fox, George  –   France[p.775-p.894] Volume 10.8:   France[p.895-p.929]  –   Francis Joseph I. Volume 11.1:   Franciscians  –   French Language Volume 11.2:   French Literature  –   Frost, William Volume 11.3:   Frost  –   Fyzabad Volume 11.4:   G  –   Gaskell, Elizabeth Volume 11.5:   Gassendi, Pierre  –   Geocentric Volume 11.6:   Geodesy  –   Geometry Volume 11.7:   Geoponici  –   Germany[p.804-p.840] Volume 11.8:   Germany[p.841-p.901]  –   Gibson, William Volume 12.1:   Gichtel, Johann  –   Glory Volume 12.2:   Gloss  –   Gordon, Charles George Volume 12.3:   Gordon, Lord George  –   Grasses Volume 12.4:   Grasshopper  –   Greek Language Volume 12.5:   Greek Law  –   Ground-Squirrel Volume 12.6:   Groups, Theory of  –   Gwyniad Volume 12.7:   Gyantse  –   Hallel Volume 12.8:   Haller, Albrecht  –   Harmonium Volume 13.1:   Harmony  –   Heanor Volume 13.2:   Hearing  –   Helmond Volume 13.3:   Helmont, Jean  –   Hernosand Volume 13.4:   Hero  –   Hindu Chronology Volume 13.5:   Hinduism  –   Home, Earls of Volume 13.6:   Home, Daniel  –   Hortensius, Quintus Volume 13.7:   Horticulture  –   Hudson Bay Volume 13.8:   Hudson River  –   Hurstmonceaux Volume 14.1:   Husband  –   Hydrolysis Volume 14.2:   Hydromechanics  –   Ichnography Volume 14.3:   Ichthyology  –   Independence Volume 14.4:   Independence, Declaration of  –   Indo-European Languages Volume 14.5:   Indole  –   Insanity Volume 14.6:   Inscriptions  –   Ireland, William Henry Volume 14.7:   Ireland  –   Isabey, Jean Baptiste Volume 14.8:   Isabnormal Lines  –   Italic Volume 15.1:   Italy  –   Jacobite Church Volume 15.2:   Jacobites  –   Japan (part) Volume 15.3:   Japan (part)  –   Jeveros Volume 15.4:   Jevons, Stanley  –   Joint Volume 15.5:   Joints  –   Justinian I. Volume 15.6:   Justinian II.  –   Kells Volume 15.7:   Kelly, Edward  –   Kite Volume 15.8:   Kite-flying  –   Kyshtym Volume 16.1:   L  –   Lamellibranchia Volume 16.2:   Lamennais, Robert de  –   Latini, Brunetto Volume 16.3:   Latin Language  –   Lefebvre, Pierre François Joseph Volume 16.4:   Lefebvre, Tanneguy  –   Letronne, Jean Antoine Volume 16.5:   Letter  –   Lightfoot, John Volume 16.6:   Lightfoot, Joseph Barber  –   Liquidation Volume 16.7:   Liquid Gases  –   Logar Volume 16.8:   Logarithm  –   Lord Advocate Volume 17.1:   Lord Chamberlain  –   Luqmān Volume 17.2:   Luray Cavern  –   Mackinac Island Volume 17.3:   McKinley, William  –   Magnetism, Terrestrial Volume 17.4:   Magnetite  –   Malt Volume 17.5:   Malta  –   Map, Walter Volume 17.6:   Map  –   Mars Volume 17.7:   Mars  –   Matteawan Volume 17.8:   Matter  –   Mecklenburg Flash reader (Empanel) with full-page scans Other sources for 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica text[edit] Encyclopedia Britannica 1911, www.theodora.com – unedited, html version, from scan/ocr of the original text, with interactive alphabetical index, and Google translation into Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Russian, Hindi, Arabic and Portuguese. 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, StudyLight.org – "Containing 35,820 entries cross-referenced and cross-linked to other resources on StudyLight.org". "Copyright Statement[:] these [EB 1911] files are public domain". The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information (11th edition) at the Online Books Page of the University of Pennsylvania. The Encyclopaedia Britannica in Numerical Recipes bookreader format. The preceding links adopt the spellings used in the target. 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Contents 1 Online text 2 Online databases 3 Subscription eBook databases 4 Libraries 4.1 Worldwide 4.2 Africa 4.2.1 Nigeria 4.2.2 South Africa 4.2.3 Zimbabwe 4.3 Central America and the Caribbean 4.3.1 Barbados 4.3.2 Guatemala 4.3.3 Jamaica 4.3.4 Mexico 4.3.5 Trinidad and Tobago 4.4 Canada 4.4.1 Public libraries 4.4.2 Universities and colleges 4.5 United States 4.5.1 Public libraries by state 4.5.2 Universities and colleges 4.6 South America 4.6.1 Argentina 4.6.2 Brazil 4.6.3 Colombia 4.6.4 Ecuador 4.7 Asia 4.7.1 Bangladesh 4.7.2 China, People's Republic 4.7.3 Hong Kong, S.A.R. of China 4.7.4 India 4.7.5 Indonesia 4.7.6 Iran 4.7.7 Israel 4.7.8 Japan 4.7.9 Korea 4.7.10 Malaysia 4.7.11 Philippines 4.7.11.1 Universities and colleges 4.7.11.2 Other libraries 4.7.12 Singapore 4.7.13 Taiwan, Republic of China 4.7.14 Thailand 4.8 Australasia and Oceania 4.8.1 Australia 4.8.1.1 Public libraries 4.8.1.2 Academic libraries 4.8.2 New Zealand 4.8.2.1 Public libraries 4.8.2.2 Academic libraries 4.9 Europe 4.9.1 Austria 4.9.2 Belgium 4.9.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.9.4 Croatia 4.9.5 Czech Republic 4.9.6 Denmark 4.9.7 Estonia 4.9.8 Finland 4.9.9 France 4.9.10 Germany 4.9.11 Greece 4.9.12 Hungary 4.9.13 Iceland 4.9.14 Ireland 4.9.15 Italy 4.9.16 Luxembourg 4.9.17 Montenegro 4.9.18 Netherlands 4.9.19 Norway 4.9.20 Poland 4.9.21 Portugal 4.9.22 Russia 4.9.23 Serbia 4.9.24 Slovenia 4.9.25 Spain 4.9.26 Sweden 4.9.27 Switzerland 4.9.28 Turkey 4.9.29 United Kingdom 4.9.29.1 Public libraries 4.9.29.2 Universities 5 Bookselling and swapping 5.1 Price comparison sites 5.2 Search many booksellers 5.3 Individual booksellers 5.4 Book-swapping websites 6 Non-English book sources 7 Bibliographical information 8 Find other editions 9 Find on Wikipedia 10 See also Online text Find this book on Google Books Find this book at the Open Library Find this book on Amazon.com (or .ae, .au, .br, .ca, .cn, .de, .es, .fr, .in, .it, .jp, .mx, .nl, .sa, .se, .sg, .tr, .uk). 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en-wikipedia-org-5343	----	Ceuthonymus - Wikipedia Ceuthonymus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Daimon in Ancient Greek mythology Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Ceuthonymus or Keuthonymos[1] (Ancient Greek: Κευθώνυμος) is a spirit in Greek mythology who is the father of Menoites (or Menoetes, Menoetius).[2][3]:322[1] Ceuthonymus is a mysterious daimon or spirit of the underworld, who lives in the realm of Hades.[3]:353 References[edit] ^ a b Apollodorus (of Athens). The Llibrary. 2.5.12. ^ Vermeule, Emily (1981). Aspects of Death in early Greek Art and Poetry. University of California Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-520-04404-3. ^ a b Thomas Keightley (1896). The Mythology of ancient Greece and Italy. George Bell and Sons. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ceuthonymus&oldid=992073743" Categories: Greek underworld Greek legendary creatures Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Español Italiano Српски / srpski Edit links This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 10:06 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5396	----	User talk:40.76.139.33 - Wikipedia User talk:40.76.139.33 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This user is currently blocked. The latest block log entry is provided below for reference: 16:25, 2 June 2019 SQL talk contribs blocked 40.76.0.0/16 talk with an expiration time of 4 years, 43 minutes and 12 seconds (account creation blocked) ({{Colocationwebhost}} <!-- Microsoft Azure-->) View full log No messages have been posted for this user yet. Post a message to 40.76.139.33. Other reasons this message may be displayed: If a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function. Titles on Wikipedia are case sensitive except for the first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. If the page has been deleted, check the deletion log, and see Why was the page I created deleted?. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:40.76.139.33" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces User page Talk Variants Views Create New section More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here User contributions User logs Upload file Special pages Printable version Page information Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5472	----	Category:Articles with short description - Wikipedia Help Category:Articles with short description From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a hidden category. It is not shown on its member pages, unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. See also: Wikipedia:WikiProject Short descriptions This category is for articles with short descriptions defined on Wikipedia by {{short description}} (either within the page itself or via another template). 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en-wikipedia-org-5478	----	Talk:Sisyphus - Wikipedia Talk:Sisyphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search           This article is of interest to the following WikiProjects: WikiProject Greece (Rated Start-class, Mid-importance) Greece portal v t e This article is within the scope of WikiProject Greece, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of Greece on Wikipedia. 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Contents 1 Comments 2 Irish example 3 Thanatos or Hades 4 Introduction 5 Myth 6 Dark Tower 7 Biog of Sisyphus removed - why? 8 Sisyphus Legend - a Summary 9 References 10 Solar theory 11 Name 12 Heracles punished? 13 no POV 14 Bad continuity 15 Triangle (2009 film) in Popular Culture 16 Error 17 Pronunciation 18 File:Sisyphus Modern Interpretation.jpg Nominated for Deletion 19 Pointless archaic pedantry? 20 Why does this article contain an info box about the Greek Underworld? 21 "He was the father of Glaucus" 22 External links modified 23 Kierkegaard does not comment on Sisyphus 24 External links modified 25 Location of Sisyphus' Kingdom Comments[edit] Shouldn't this be the page first linked to, instead of the Pink Floyd song of the same name??? EunuchOmerta 03:28, 9 April 2007 (UTC) Irish example[edit] There is an Irish example of this myth, 'Salisbury Sisyphus', 1887. Type this into google and you will find an old newspaper article in which the Sisyphus punishment is compared to the the punishment like trouble of fixing the problems of Ireland. It is an interesting and historic reference to the myth and should be included. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.44.79.15 (talk) 22:18, 23 June 2010 (UTC) Thanatos or Hades[edit] Right now it says: "When Hades came to fetch him, Sisyphus put him into fetters, so that no one died till Ares came, freed Hades, and delivered Sisyphus into his custody." But I had understood it was not Hades but Thanatos who came for Sisyphus http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanatos That would also make more sense. (The Dutch and German versions of this page both mention Thanatos as well in this context) (I've changed it, the above now only is what it said before) Right now it says: "Zeus then ordered Hades to chain Sisyphus in Tartarus. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to try the chains to show how they worked. When Thanatos did so..." -- This is starting to make no sense. Did Thanatos just show up after Zeus asked Hades to do it? I don't care if it was Thanotos or Hades but this is hard to read. I am going to change the first "Hades" to "Thanatos" so that it reads consistently. If anyone sees fit to change it back, make sure it still makes sense. -- abfackeln (talk) 21:52, 3 July 2009 (UTC) Introduction[edit] Currently there is a piece of the intro that says "Today, Sisyphean can be used as an adjective meaning that an activity is unending and/or repetitive. It could also be used to refer to tasks that are pointless and unrewarding." The second sentence seems repetive and seems to overlook the meaning that Albert Camus lent the tale in his essay The Myth of Sisyphus. Unless there is an objection, I'd like to remove the second sentence and replace it, so that the paragraph reads: "Today, Sisyphean can be used as an adjective meaning that an activity is unending and/or repetitive. To those familiar with Albert Camus, the term may also refer to a sense of contentment following such an activity." Alphachimera (talk) 14:17, 14 April 2009 (UTC) Myth[edit] Currently there is a piece of the intro that says "Today he is seen as fictional though the Ancient Greeks believed in him." I would think that is obvious the Greeks believed the myth. Also, "Today he is seen as fictional" is a pretty big assumption with no proof that no Zeus worshippers exist today. I'm going to delete it. Lesssthan (talk) 20:56, 15 February 2008 (UTC) I just opened my copy of the American Heritage Dictionary 4th Ed. and the word Sisyphean does not appear. Dark Tower[edit] Maybe Wikipedia needs a second spoiler template that says ENORMOUS UNNECESSARY SERIES-RUINING SPOILER WARNING instead? Seriously, isn't that a seriously big spoiler for an article that isn't actually about Dark Tower or Stephen King? My eyes completely skipped past the spoiler template. I was planning on reading that series, too.. --Kalthare 06:32, 17 July 2006 (UTC) If there's no objection, I'm going to remove the Dark Tower spoiler. --Kalthare 22:12, 25 July 2006 (UTC) Biog of Sisyphus removed - why?[edit] Anyone any idea why the 'biog' section was removed (11th September), wholesale? Without it, the whole Sisyphus business loses its sense and the current very brief allusion neither does the story justice nor supplies the punter with the reasons for the punishment of Sisyphus. Furthermore, the article is supposed to be about Sisyphus, after all. - Ballista 05:07, 21 September 2006 (UTC) Do we revert it, so that it is re-instated? - Ballista 04:21, 25 September 2006 (UTC) Since there's been no objection to your suggestion and it seems like useful information, I've gone ahead and restored the Biography section. - Krinsky 16:02, 16 October 2006 (UTC) There has got to be some better word that can be used than "Biography", which rather makes it seem like Sisyphus was a living person. Robert K S 06:00, 7 February 2007 (UTC) Sisyphus Legend - a Summary[edit] I've always found this dynamic gif a nice succinct summary of the Sisyphus legend. --Dunstan talk 10:36, 1 December 2006 (UTC) References[edit] I like the animated gif. Anyway, the references in the article are not listed at the end of the article. Does anyone have the information to add them?--Kenneth M Burke 02:16, 23 February 2007 (UTC) Solar theory[edit] Can anyone define the "solar theory" which is referenced by this article? It links to solar deity which does not explain it. -- Beland 17:29, 17 June 2007 (UTC) It looks like the "solar theory" bit is a direct-quoted remnant of of the EB1911 text. Lacking proper citation, that text should probably be obviated away with a more cogent, attributable analysis. Robert K S 19:52, 17 June 2007 (UTC) Name[edit] Sisyphus is the Latinised form of the Greek name Sisyphos. The article should be renamed to that and Sisyphus should redirect to this page. All references of Sisyphus in the text should be changed to Sisyphos. Although this guy is well known by his Latinized name the article should use the real one. Gerd Eichler —Preceding undated comment was added at 07:54, 11 September 2008 (UTC). No. — Chameleon 01:51, 12 April 2010 (UTC) Heracles punished?[edit] Heracles is listed in the section "Other figures in Greek mythology punished by the gods include:". Is this accurate? How was he punished? Did I miss something? -- abfackeln (talk) 22:13, 3 July 2009 (UTC) I think someone though Heracles' 12 Tasks was a punishment by the gods? 89.241.226.253 (talk) 13:47, 14 November 2010 (UTC) no POV[edit] This article seems heavily concerned with how cool Zeus is in comparison with Sisyphus. Can someone please remove this bizarre bias? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.41.76.193 (talk) 20:42, 4 March 2009 (UTC) Bad continuity[edit] The actual recited myth mentions no boulders at all. --193.166.137.75 (talk) 06:09, 22 July 2009 (UTC) Triangle (2009 film) in Popular Culture[edit] Triangle is given as an example of Sisyphus in popular culture without any details regarding this being given. The article for the film makes no mention of anything of this sort, either. Can anyone knowledgable of the movie provide some indication of why it should be mentioned here? Ravenicus451 (talk) 15:46, 3 April 2010 (UTC) I removed a mention of Triangle being a "retelling" of the story. It is not. The myth is mentioned in the film. I don't think this is the location to have a list of any film, story, book, etc that references a particular mythos.AbramTerger (talk) 20:13, 15 November 2011 (UTC) Error[edit] There is a homophonic error in the article where it refers to the tv episodes featuring Sisyphus. It says that he slept with another man's wife in order for her to 'bare' a child to be his heir, where 'bear' is in fact what she would do. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 165.83.133.250 (talk) 18:43, 10 June 2011 (UTC) Pronunciation[edit] I changed the pronunciation from /ˈsɪsəfəs/ to /sɪsɪˈfʌs/. The main difference being in how to pronounce the "y". This letter is pronounced in all sorts of different ways in English: as /eɪ/ ( like the pronoun, I, e.g. dynamic), as /ɪ/ (like i in in, eg. amethyst) or as /ʌ/ (like a u in us, e.g. bathycolpian — can't think of a better example, sorry—). The OED gives the "y" as the "i" from "is", while here it was as "u" from "bus". I have only heard it as the former and not like the latter, so must concur with the OED. Minor differences are regional, as some parts of the US will read "us" as /əs/ not /ʌs/; the same goes for the "y" which may be read /ɨ/ — there is little difference between /ɪ/ and /ɨ/. --Squidonius (talk) 23:23, 13 January 2012 (UTC) File:Sisyphus Modern Interpretation.jpg Nominated for Deletion[edit] An image used in this article, File:Sisyphus Modern Interpretation.jpg, has been nominated for deletion at Wikimedia Commons in the following category: Deletion requests February 2012 What should I do? Don't panic; a discussion will now take place over on Commons about whether to remove the file. This gives you an opportunity to contest the deletion, although please review Commons guidelines before doing so. If the image is non-free then you may need to upload it to Wikipedia (Commons does not allow fair use) If the image isn't freely licensed and there is no fair use rationale then it cannot be uploaded or used. To take part in any discussion, or to review a more detailed deletion rationale please visit the relevant image page (File:Sisyphus Modern Interpretation.jpg) This is Bot placed notification, another user has nominated/tagged the image --CommonsNotificationBot (talk) 20:09, 15 February 2012 (UTC) Pointless archaic pedantry?[edit] "Ephyra (elder name of Corinth)" While the word 'elder' is technically correct the usage is archaic. Why not just use the word 'older'? It's clearer and clarity is always preferred in expository texts. This sort of pedantry stops the reader in his tracks while he questions the author's motive: did he wish to demonstrate his erudition or to add a certain tone to the article, maybe the author is not a native speaker of the language, maybe he's a D&D aficianado. Who knows? But the point is it interrupts the flow and induces the reader to add a new section to the talk page. If in doubt consult a style manual, there are many to choose from and they all agree: never use an archaic term when a perfectly good modern equivalent exists.75.157.135.57 (talk) 05:39, 10 December 2012 (UTC) You realize that you don't need to make a whole new talk section for a non-controversial, one-letter change to the article, right? You can just edit it yourself. This page isn't protected. It almost seems as though you're talking about yourself with the whole "This sort of pedantry stops the reader in his tracks while he questions the author's motive: did he wish to demonstrate his erudition or..." -- Fyrefly (talk) 16:57, 10 December 2012 (UTC) Ha ha. You got it in one Fyrefly. It's my sport, it's my hobby, it's my curse. The hand of God came down and smote me and He said, "Be critical, be very, very critical." To which I replied, "Redundant intensifiers are bad style. One 'very' will do."75.157.135.57 (talk) 09:49, 11 December 2012 (UTC) Why does this article contain an info box about the Greek Underworld?[edit] The entire content of the box is incidental, at best, to this article about Sisyphus. Does anyone object if I remove it? 81.135.67.84 (talk) 17:25, 26 February 2013 (UTC) "He was the father of Glaucus"[edit] Well, where is the misunderstanding about someone being a parent and someone being a child and not to exclude any one else someone being a relative. It would be interesting to how is it to undo something that is so fundamental--relastions. How can you undo something such as who is and who is not your relative? Oh, he gave his sperm but he is no longer my father since yesterday.66.74.176.59 (talk) 07:02, 21 February 2015 (UTC) It is very difficult to understand what you are saying because your sentences are ungrammatical. When a father and son are dead, that is in the past, so we say "X (father) was the father of Y (son)". Please listen to others when point out issues with your edits since there appears to be issues with the use of English. --I am One of Many (talk) 07:42, 21 February 2015 (UTC) I am certain you understand much more than what you want to convey with your insult and attitude. "Genealogy" and the Latter-day Saints have one up on you with that "logic". As far as I understand ones relatives that have come before them are still relative as are those that follow. Just because you may apply a rule to something is not a reason to justify that the statement should ever be used. It happens all the time in language.66.74.176.59 (talk) 07:53, 21 February 2015 (UTC) Funny thing about rules. When I was putting away my review material today had a chance to look over the pull out chart on writing rules that was included in the first ed. of the encyclo. britan. Interesting how what once was acceptable is now just a stack of nothings that probably could have helped along a few less books that should have survived. But what is at issue is does the relationship between two change? No. If there is no change then it is current. You cannot undo what has been done. If "so-n-so" is the father of "so-n-so today" then it is tomorrow and so forth. There is never a need to change an "is" to "was". It is pure mathematics; It all adds up but this attempt at mental agility to impose a former on what never changes is just plain illogical. I asked the six year old and his nanny from the local university. And before the housekeeper went off duty I asked her about the situation and she said that they may think what they have said is correct but then it is like twins that when they decide on something it does not matter what others think because they believe they will carry the day. I am focusing on the relationship father/son and it seems that what is being championed on the other side is there has been a change where there has been none. So if no change has occurred then no change should occur in the expression. It can be long ago. People can be dead. But a parent is a parent and a child is a child.66.74.176.59 (talk) 10:50, 21 February 2015 (UTC) Hi. I came here from Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style#Is or was. You may wish to join that discussion, since it’s explicitly about your edits. Anyway, while I agree with the logic behind your edits (death doesn’t end blood relations), Wikipedia’s style is to use past tense for the dead. (I don’t believe that applies in the case of this article, since mythological beings like Sisyphus never actually lived, but that’s beside the point.) But rules can change; maybe we should use present tense for blood relations. That MOS talk page would be a great place to get people talking about it and considering it. —174.141.182.82 (talk) 15:14, 21 February 2015 (UTC) External links modified[edit] Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on Sisyphus. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes: Corrected formatting/usage for http://religionandscience.sites.yale.edu/about-us When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at {{Sourcecheck}}). As of February 2018, "External links modified" talk page sections are no longer generated or monitored by InternetArchiveBot. No special action is required regarding these talk page notices, other than regular verification using the archive tool instructions below. Editors have permission to delete these "External links modified" talk page sections if they want to de-clutter talk pages, but see the RfC before doing mass systematic removals. This message is updated dynamically through the template {{sourcecheck}} (last update: 15 July 2018). If you have discovered URLs which were erroneously considered dead by the bot, you can report them with this tool. If you found an error with any archives or the URLs themselves, you can fix them with this tool. Cheers.—cyberbot IITalk to my owner:Online 03:27, 2 April 2016 (UTC) Kierkegaard does not comment on Sisyphus[edit] As far as I can tell, Sisyphus does not mention Sisyphus in any of his writings. The quote in the article does not mention him, the context of the quote does not mention him, nor does any other work of his that I can find. Therefore I am removing the reference to Kierkegaard from the article. OneGyT (talk) 20:00, 8 February 2017 (UTC) External links modified[edit] Hello fellow Wikipedians, I have just modified one external link on Sisyphus. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes: Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110629173245/http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/0195153448/studentresources/chapters/ch25/?view=usa to http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/0195153448/studentresources/chapters/ch25/?view=usa When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs. As of February 2018, "External links modified" talk page sections are no longer generated or monitored by InternetArchiveBot. No special action is required regarding these talk page notices, other than regular verification using the archive tool instructions below. Editors have permission to delete these "External links modified" talk page sections if they want to de-clutter talk pages, but see the RfC before doing mass systematic removals. This message is updated dynamically through the template {{sourcecheck}} (last update: 15 July 2018). If you have discovered URLs which were erroneously considered dead by the bot, you can report them with this tool. If you found an error with any archives or the URLs themselves, you can fix them with this tool. Cheers.—InternetArchiveBot (Report bug) 22:40, 5 December 2017 (UTC) Location of Sisyphus' Kingdom[edit] The article describes Sisyphus as a king of Ephyra, today known as Corinth. This association between Ephyra and Corinth is debatable, and it seems to come exclusively from the research of Sir James George Frazer, as footnoted and retrieved. Following the link to Wiki's own article on Ephyra, you arrive at the page for Cichyrus, for which Ephyra was an earlier name. This article makes no mention of Corinth (or Sisyphus, though it does detail a number of other myths associated with the city). Likewise, the Corinth article describes no association with Ephyra or the Sisyphus myth. Based on excavated ruins, the present-day location of Cichyrus/Ephyra seems to be in the area of Ioannina, which is quite a ways away from Corinth. So, something is not right here. Aside from this particular issue, perhaps this demonstrates that the Sisyphus article should be reviewed and updated generally, as I worry it relies too much on the work of a 19th century mythology scholar not privy to 20th century archaeology or any other more recent and relevant work. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.156.136.229 (talk) 14:04, 2 November 2018 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Sisyphus&oldid=866930162" Categories: Start-Class Greek articles Mid-importance Greek articles WikiProject Greece general articles Start-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles Mid-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles Start-Class Mythology articles Mid-importance Mythology articles Wikipedia pages referenced by the press Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 2 November 2018, at 14:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5543	----	Rhadamanthus - Wikipedia Rhadamanthus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Rhadamanthys" redirects here. For the antagonist character of Saint Seiya, see Wyvern Rhadamanthys. For other uses, see Rhadamanthus (disambiguation). Depiction of Rhadamanthys in the Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia, c.300-250 BC In Greek mythology, Rhadamanthus (/ˌrædəˈmænθəs/) or Rhadamanthys (Ancient Greek: Ῥαδάμανθυς) was a wise king of Crete. He was considered a demigod due to his father being Zeus and his name means showing stern and inflexible judgement. He would later become one of the judges of the dead and an important figure in Greek mythology. Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 2.1 Legislation 2.2 Exile from Crete 2.3 Afterlife 3 Argive Genealogy 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Family[edit] Rhadamanthus was the son of Zeus and Europa and brother to Sarpedon and Minos (also a king and later a judge of the dead).[1] Together with his brother, Rhadamanthus was raised by Asterion, their stepfather. He had two sons, Gortys (associated with Gortyn, Crete) and Erythrus (founder of Erythrae). Other sources (e.g. Plutarch, Theseus 20) credit Rhadamanthys rather than Dionysus as the husband of Ariadne, and the father of Oenopion, Staphylus and Thoas. In this account, Ariadne was the daughter of Minos, Rhadamanthys' brother; another Ariadne was the daughter of Minos' grandson and namesake, who features in the Theseus legend, and was rescued by Dionysus. Mythology[edit] Legislation[edit] Although he was frequently considered one of the judges of the dead in the underworld, he was also known for few legislative activities. There is a reference to a law of Rhadamanthus ordering the Cretans to swear oaths by animals[2] and to another law of Rhadamanthus saying if people defend themselves against others who initiated violence then they should suffer no penalty.[3] Exile from Crete[edit] King Asterius died childless, Minos would be given the throne. When Minos became the king of Crete, he would drive out his two brothers from Crete. He had been jealous of Rhadamanthus popularity, so Rhadamanthus fled to Boeotia, where he wedded Alcmene, widow of Amphitryon and mother of Heracles. Also, according to some traditions, he was a tutor to Heracles. This is also mentioned by Tzetzes, a medieval historian. In general, the particular sphere of activity of Rhadamanthus tends to be the Aegean islands, apart from Crete itself, where Minos was active. He is also often connected by ancient authors with central Greece.[4] Afterlife[edit] According to later legends (c. 400 BC), on account of his inflexible integrity he was made one of the judges of the dead in the lower world, together with Aeacus and Minos. He was supposed to judge the souls of easterners, Aeacus those of westerners, while Minos had the casting vote (Plato, Gorgias 524A). He is portrayed in Books 4 and 7 of Homer's Odyssey. Virgil (69–18 BC) makes Rhadamanthus one of the judges and punishers of the unworthy in the Underworld (Tartarus) section of the Aeneid. Homer represents him as dwelling in the Elysian Fields (Odyssey iv. 564), the paradise for the immortal sons of Zeus. Pindar says that he is the right-hand man of Cronus (now ruling Elysium) and was the sole judge of the dead. Lucian depicts Rhadamanthus as presiding over the company of heroes on the Isles of the Blest in True History. Argive Genealogy[edit] Argive genealogy in Greek mythology v t e Inachus Melia Zeus Io Phoroneus Epaphus Memphis Libya Poseidon Belus Achiroë Agenor Telephassa Danaus Pieria Aegyptus Cadmus Cilix Europa Phoenix Mantineus Hypermnestra Lynceus Harmonia Zeus Polydorus Sparta Lacedaemon Ocalea Abas Agave Sarpedon Rhadamanthus Autonoë Eurydice Acrisius Ino Minos Zeus Danaë Semele Zeus Perseus Dionysus Colour key:   Male   Female   Deity See also[edit] Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition References[edit] ^ Bulfinch, Thomas; Scott, J. Loughran (John Loughran) (24 January 1898). "The age of fable; or, Beauties of mythology". Philadelphia, D. McKay – via Internet Archive. ^ Porphyry, De Abstinentia III.16.6, on which see Jean Bouffartigue, Porphyre, De l'abstinence, (Paris) 1979, p. 171 n. 2. ^ Apollodorus Library of Greek Mythology, II.4 ^ John Davidson, Rhadamanthys and the Family of Herakles. L'antiquité classique, 1999, Vol 68, pp. 247-252 External links[edit] Media related to Rhadamanthus at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of Ῥαδάμανθυς at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of Rhadamanthus at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of rhadamanthine at Wiktionary v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra Authority control GND: 1050273036 SUDOC: 240570081 VIAF: 308197224 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 308197224 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhadamanthus&oldid=1002836593" Categories: Princes in Greek mythology Kings of Crete Greek judges of the dead Chthonic beings Children of Zeus Agenorides Underworld gods Characters in Greek mythology Demigods Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In 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en-wikipedia-org-5559	----	Cichyrus - Wikipedia Cichyrus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Coordinates: 39°14′33″N 20°31′53″E / 39.242391°N 20.53143°E / 39.242391; 20.53143 Epirus in antiquity Cichyrus (Ancient Greek: Κίχυρος, Kichyros), earlier called Ephyra (Ἐφύρα or Ἐφύρη),[1] was the capital of ancient Thesprotia, according to the myth built by the Arcadian leader Thesprotos. Thucydides describes it as situated in the district Elaeatis in Thesprotia, away from the sea.[2] At its site is the famous Necromanteion (Νεκρομαντεῖον, "Oracle of the Dead"). First settled during the Bronze Age and resettled in the 14th century BC by colonists most probably from Chaonia and the west Peloponnese region. The city is about 800 m north of the junction of the Kokytos River with the Acheron, and about 4.5 km east of the bay of Ammoudia. Near it was the outlet into the sea of the Acherusian Lake. Strabo (7.7.5) gives the same information and adds that in his time Ephyra was called Kichyros. The name had been changed from Ephyra back to the more ancient name about 200 years earlier.[3] Contents 1 Mythology 2 History 3 Information on the location 4 Archaeology 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Citations 6.2 Sources 7 External links Mythology[edit] In Greek mythology, Neoptolemos was said to have landed at Kichyros (Ephyra) on his return from Troy (Pind. Nem. 7.37-39) and Odysseus went there earlier, before leaving for Troy (Od. 1 .210-211) to get poison for his arrows (Od. 1 .259f).[4] Theseus and Perithoos came to snatch away Persephone, wife of Aidoneus, King of Ephyra. These were none other than Persephone and Hades, the gods of the underworld, who had a shrine and an oracle at Ephyra.[5] Heracles subjugated Ephyra and fathered a child by Princess Astyoche, Tlepolemus, who became king of Rhodes.[6] Thyestes came there looking for his brother, Atreus. Atreus was not there, but the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia, was there, and Thyestes, not recognizing her, took her as a wife. Their union produced Aegisthus.[7] History[edit] The Thesprotian Kichyros/Ephyra appears to be the town mentioned in two passages of the Odyssey (i. 259, ii. 328). The Ephyri, mentioned in a passage of the Iliad (xiii. 301), were supposed by Pausanias to be the Thesprotians inhabitants of the town.[8] but Strabo maintained that the poet referred to the Thessalian Ephyra (Strab. ix. p. 442). Some commentators even supposed the Ephyra on the Selleeis[9] to be the Thesprotian town, but Strabo expressly maintains that Homer alludes in these passages to the Eleian town.[10] Pausanias represents Cichyrus as the capital of the ancient kings of Thesprotia, where Theseus and Peirithous were thrown into chains by Aidoneus; and its celebrity in the most ancient times may also be inferred from a passage of Pindar.[11] Information on the location[edit] The site of Ephyra is confirmed by the excavation of the ancient oracle of the dead, Necromanteion, on the hill of Agios Ioannis near the village of Mesopotamo, 150 m north of the junction of the Kokytos with the Acheron. The remains of three ancient wall circuits are preserved on the limestone nearby hill of Xylokastro. The finds within the acropolis, chiefly sherds of local pottery of the Bronze Age and Mycenaean sherds, together with the worship of the chthonic goddess Persephone. After the surrender of the Elean colonies in Kassopaia to Philip II of Macedon in 343-342 BC, (Dem. 7.32) and their subjection to the Thesprotians, Ephyra appears to have reverted to its original name, Kichyros, which had been kept alive in some neighboring Thesprotian settlement.[12] Some finds, chiefly pottery of the 1st century BC, confirm the statement of Pausanias (1.17.5) that Kichyros was in existence in his time. Archaeology[edit] Part of the remains of Necromanteion, with the church of the monastery Agios Ioannis in the background on the right. The remains of the ancient Ephira are near the present Ioannina. In the period between 1958 and 1987, several excavations were conducted by a team from the University of Ioannina that were later expanded between 2006 and 2008. In them, archaeologists found remains of the only Mycenaean acropolis whose existence has been confirmed within the region of Epirus. Two of the three walls of the fortification that were found in the southern part of the acropolis, were built in stone with Cyclopean style in the fourteenth or early thirteenth century BC, while the third is much later, of the Hellenistic period. On the other hand, on a plateau on the western side of the acropolis, three large funerary burial mounds of the 12th century BC have been found.[13] See also[edit] List of ancient Greek cities List of cities in ancient Epirus References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ Strabo. Geographica. vii, p. 324. Page numbers refer to those of Isaac Casaubon's edition. ^ For a map of this region in northwestern Greece, see map 20 in Pedro Olalla's Mythological Atlas of Greece (Athens: Road Editions, 2002). ^ Olalla, op.cit. p. 39. ^ Strabo considered that the Ephyra meant here by the poet, was Ephyra (Thessaly), not the Thesprotian town. Strabo. Geographica. ix, p. 442. Page numbers refer to those of Isaac Casaubon's edition. ^ Pausanias 1.17.4-5, 9.36.3; Plut. Theseus 31.35. ^ Olalla, op.cit., p. 161. ^ Olalla, op.cit. p. 89. ^ Pausanias ix. 36.3. ^ Homer. Iliad, ii.659, xv.531. ^ Strabo vii. p. 328,; comp. viii. p. 338. ^ Pausanias i.17.4; Pind. Nem. vii.55.; William Martin Leake, Northern Greece, vol. iii. p. 7, vol. iv. pp. 53, 175. ^ Kichyros, the former Ephyra: Strabo 7.7.5, 8.3.5. ^ = 19870 Page of the Ministry of Culture and Sports of Greece: Ephyra (in Greek) Sources[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). "Ephyra". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray. External links[edit] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cichyrus&oldid=965773677" Categories: Cities in ancient Epirus Former populated places in Greece Locations in Greek mythology Populated places in ancient Epirus Archaeological sites in Epirus (region) Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRG without Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRG Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 3 July 2020, at 09:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5582	----	Ixion - Wikipedia Ixion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search King of the Lapiths in Greek mythology For the possible dwarf planet, see 28978 Ixion. For other uses, see Ixion (disambiguation). Ixion King of the Lapiths The Fall of Ixion by Cornelis van Haarlem Abode in the valley of the Peneus and on the mountain Pelion in Thessaly Personal information Parents Ares, or Leonteus, or Antion and Perimele, or Phlegyas Siblings Coronis Consort Dia and Nephele Children Peirithoös by Dia, Centaurs or Centaurus (Greek mythology) by Nephele In Greek mythology, Ixion (/ɪkˈsaɪ.ən/ ik-SY-ən;[1] Greek: Ἰξίων, gen.: Ἰξίωνος means "strong native"[2]) was king of the Lapiths, the most ancient tribe of Thessaly.[3] Contents 1 Family 2 Background 3 Analysis 4 In literature 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Family[edit] Ixion was the son of Ares, or Leonteus,[4] or Antion and Perimele,[5] or the notorious evildoer Phlegyas, whose name connotes "fiery".[6] Peirithoös[7] was his son[8][9][10][11] (or stepson, if Zeus were his father, as Zeus claims to Hera in Iliad 14).[12] Background[edit] Punishment of Ixion: in the center is Mercury holding the caduceus and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her Iris stands and gestures. On the left is Vulcan (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. Nephele sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60–79 AD). Ixion married Dia,[13] a daughter of Deioneus[14] (or Eioneus), and promised his father-in-law a valuable present. However, he did not pay the bride price, so Deioneus stole some of Ixion's horses in retaliation. Ixion concealed his resentment and invited his father-in-law to a feast at Larissa. When Deioneus arrived, Ixion pushed him into a bed of burning coals and wood. These circumstances are secondary to the fact of Ixion's primordial act of murder; it could be accounted for quite differently: in the Greek Anthology (iii.12), among a collection of inscriptions from a temple in Cyzicus, is an epigrammatic description of Ixion slaying Phorbas and Polymelos, who had slain his mother, Megara, the "great one".[15] Ixion went mad, defiled by his act; the neighboring princes were so offended by this act of treachery and violation of xenia that they refused to perform the rituals that would cleanse Ixion of his guilt (see catharsis). Thereafter, Ixion lived as an outlaw and was shunned. By killing his father-in-law, Ixion was reckoned the first man guilty of kin-slaying in Greek mythology. This act alone would warrant Ixion a terrible punishment, but Zeus had pity on Ixion and brought him to Olympus and introduced him at the table of the gods. Instead of being grateful, Ixion grew lustful for Hera,[16][17] Zeus's wife, a further violation of guest–host relations. Zeus found out about his intentions and made a cloud in the shape of Hera, which became known as Nephele (from nephos "cloud") and tricked Ixion into coupling with it. From the union of Ixion and the false-Hera cloud came Imbros[18] or Centauros,[19] who mated with the Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion, Pindar told,[20] engendering the race of Centaurs, who are called the Ixionidae from their descent. Ixion was expelled from Olympus and blasted with a thunderbolt. Zeus ordered Hermes to bind Ixion to a winged fiery wheel that was always spinning. Therefore, Ixion was bound to a burning solar wheel for all eternity, at first spinning across the heavens,[21] but in later myth transferred to Tartarus.[22][23][24] Only when Orpheus played his lyre during his trip to the Underworld to rescue Eurydice did it stop for a while. Ixion by Jules-Elie Delaunay Analysis[edit] "The details are very odd, the narrative motivation creaks at every juncture," observes Robert L. Fowler;[25] "the myth smacks of aetiology." He notes that Martin Nilsson suggested[26] an origin in rain-making magic, with which he concurs: "In Ixion's case the necessary warning about the conduct of magic has taken the form of blasphemous and dangerous conduct on the part of the first officiant." In the fifth century, Pindar's Second Pythian Ode (c. 476–68 BC) expands on the example of Ixion, applicable to Hiero I of Syracuse, the tyrant of whom the poet sings. Aeschylus, Euripides and Timasitheos each wrote a tragedy of Ixion though none of these accounts have survived. Ixion was a figure also known to the Etruscans, for he is depicted bound to the spoked wheel, engraved on the back of a bronze mirror, ca 460-450 BC, in the British Museum.[27] Whether the Etruscans shared the Ixion figure with Hellenes from early times or whether Ixion figured among those Greek myths that were adapted at later dates to fit the Etruscan world-view is unknown. The figure on the mirror-back is shown as winged, a characteristic shared with Etruscan daimones and Underworld figures rather than human heroes. José Ribera's grittily realistic Ixion, 1632 (Museo del Prado). In literature[edit] In Chapter 22 of Charles Dickens' David Copperfield, Steerforth declares: "As to fitfulness, I have never learnt the art of binding myself to any of the wheels on which the Ixions of these days are turning round and round."[28] In Chapter 39 of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, Richard Carstone laments: "Yes, with Ixion on it." This in response to Mr. Vholes telling him, "We have put our shoulders to the wheel, Mr. Carstone, and the wheel is going round." in regards to Jarndyce v Jarndyce.[29] In the Epilogue to Moby-Dick, Ishmael, the only surviving crewmember at the sinking of the Pequod, likens himself to "another Ixion."[30] In Guillaume Apollinaire's poem Vendémiaire, "...open-air chimneys impregnate the clouds/As once did the mechanical Ixion" (“... cheminées à ciel ouvert engrossent les nuées/Comme fit autrefois l’Ixion mécanique”). [31] In Lord Byron's satiric poem Don Juan: Dedication, "Not even a sprightly blunder's spark can blaze / From that Ixion grindstone's ceaseless toil, / That turns and turns to give the world a notion / Of endless torments and perpetual motion."[32] In John Keats's epic poem Hyperion, the Goddess Thea's power is such that it can "sta[y] Ixion's wheel" (Book 1, 30). In Alexander Pope's satiric poem The Rape of the Lock Canto II, Sylphs that neglected their posts were threatened to be "as Ixion fix'd" and feel "the giddy motion of the whirling mill." Shakespeare King Lear, Act IV, Scene VII: “But I am bound upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears do scald like moulten lead.” In Chapter 20 of Thomas Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd : "The peculiar motion involved in turning a wheel has a wonderful tendency to benumb the mind. It is a sort of attenuated variety of Ixion’s punishment, and contributes a dismal chapter to the history of heavy, and the body’s centre of gravity seems to settle by degrees in a leaden lump somewhere between the eyebrows and the crown." See also[edit] Wanyūdō Sisyphus Notes[edit] ^ The Latin transcription, Ixīōn, shows that the stress should be on the second syllable. ^ Robert Graves. The Greek Myths, section 50 s.v. Asclepius ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.601 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 62 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.69.3 ^ Strabo, Geographica 9. p. 442 ^ Peirithoös, too slew a kinsman, which occasioned his own wandering in search of catharsis. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.63.1 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.8.2 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 14.2, 79 & 257 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.210 ^ "come, let us turn to lovemaking. For never did such desire for goddess or woman ever flood over me, taming the heart in my breast, not even when I loved Ixion's wife, who bore Peirithoös, the gods' equal in counsel..." Tactless, Zeus lists several more of his conquests to Hera. ^ Dia "is only another name for Hebe, the daughter of Hera, and indeed was probably the name for Hera herself, as 'she who belongs to Zeus' or 'the Heavenly one'" (Kerenyi 1951:159). ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.69.3 ^ The more familiar Megara of myth is not the same figure. ^ He was already wedded to her double, Dia. ^ Lucian, Dialogi Deorum 9 ^ Tzetzes, Chiliades 9.20 line 464, 469 & 477 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Epitome of Book 4.1.20 ^ Pindar, Second Pythian Ode. ^ The meticulous Pindar mentions the feathers. ^ Virgil, Georgics 3.39 & 4.486 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.461–465 & 10.42 ^ Kerenyi 1951:160 ^ Fowler, "The myth of Kephalos as aition of rain-magic (Pherekydes FrGHist 3F34)", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 97 (1993:29–42). ^ Nilsson, The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology (1931) p. 135 note 19. ^ BM GR 1900.6-11.3, illustrated in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Myths (series The Legendary Past, British Museum/University of Texas), 2006, p. 29 fig. 15; "On an Etruscan mirror, Ixion is shown spread-eagled to a firewheel, with mushroom tinder at his feet" (Graves 1960, §63.2) The wheel has been recognized as the solar wheel at least since Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, 1914, pp. 197–98, and pl. XVII, the bronze Etruscan mirror engraved with Ixion on his wheel. ^ "David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2017-05-01. ^ Bleak House by Charles Dickens via Project Gutenberg| ^ Herman Melville (1851) [U.S. edition November 14, 1851]. "Epilogue". Moby-Dick. New York: Harper & Brothers. Retrieved June 5, 2014. Round and round, then, and ever contracting towards the button-like black bubble at the axis of that slowly wheeling circle, like another Ixion I did revolve.... ^ Apollinaire, Guillaume (1913). "Vendémiaire". Alcools. ^ "Don Juan: Dedication by Lord Byron (George Gordon)". Poetry Foundation. 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-05-01. References[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1–2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. John Tzetzes, Book of Histories, Book IX–X translated by Jonathan Alexander from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version at theio.com Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Lucian of Samosata, Dialogues of the Gods translated by Fowler, H W and F G. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1905. Online version at theoi.com Luciani Samosatensis, Opera. Vol I. Karl Jacobitz. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1896. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Further reading[edit] Graves, Robert, (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths, Section 63 passim. Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. London: Thames & Hudson, 1951 (pp. 158–160). External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ixion. Gaelle Ginestet, "Ixion" in A Dictionary of Shakespeare's Classical Mythology (2009–), ed. Yves Peyré. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ixion&oldid=1004413412" Categories: Centaurs Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Kings of the Lapiths Children of Ares Condemned souls into Tartarus Metamorphoses characters Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages বাংলা Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 13:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-5593	----	National Library of the Czech Republic - Wikipedia National Library of the Czech Republic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from NKC (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Central library of the Czech Republic National Library of the Czech Republic Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic Country Czech Republic Type National library Established 1777 (244 years ago) (1777) Location Clementinum, Prague Coordinates 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833Coordinates: 50°5′14.62″N 14°25′2.58″E / 50.0873944°N 14.4173833°E / 50.0873944; 14.4173833 Collection Size 7,358,308 total items[1] 21,271 manuscripts[1] c. 4,200 incunabula[2] Other information Director Martin Kocanda Website www.nkp.cz Map The National Library of the Czech Republic (Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky) is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture. The library's main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in the centre of Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař.[3] The National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, housing around 6 million documents. The library currently has around 20,000 registered readers.[1] Although comprising mostly Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India.[4] The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague.[5] Contents 1 History 2 Collections 3 Digitisation 4 Proposed new building 5 Incidents 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History[edit] In the 13th century, the Studium generale school was founded in the Dominican monastery in Prague's Old Town. This school, including its library, merged with the university in the 14th century. In 1556, monks of the Jesuit Order erected a boarding school, named Clementinum, on the remains of the Dominican monastery. From 1622 on, the Jesuits also administrated the Charles University, and all their libraries were accommodated in the Clementinum. East entrance of the Clementinum After the suppression of the Jesuits, the university became a state institution in 1773, and in 1777 its library was declared "Imperial-Royal Public and University Library" by Maria Theresa. Even after the splitting of the university into a Czech and a German university in 1882, the library remained as a joint institution. In 1918, the Public and University Library was taken over by the government of the newly founded Czechoslovakia. In 1924, the Slavonic Library (Slovanská knihovna) was founded, and moved to the Clementinum in 1929; it is still an autonomous part of the National Library. In 1935, the library was renamed "National and University Library" (Národní a univerzitní knihovna). In the same year, a law on the legal deposit copy duty was introduced – a practice dating back to 1781, when Prague printers had to hand in legal deposit copies of their prints to the library. Although Czech universities and colleges were closed after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, the library remained open under the name of "Municipal and University Library" (Zemská a univerzitní knihovna). In 1958, all large Prague libraries were merged into the single centralized State Library of the Czechoslovak Republic (Státní knihovna CSR). In 1990, the hitherto last renaming of the library resulted in its current name: National Library of the Czech Republic. A new storage building, the Central Depository in Hostivař, was inaugurated in 1996.[6] Collections[edit] The most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. Digitisation[edit] The National Library of the Czech Republic began with their digitisation efforts in 1992 in collaboration with the Czech company AiP Beroun. In these efforts, the National Library conducted pioneer work on a global scale in the creation of digitization standards. Later, it got involved in a number of European projects, in which it came to additional developments particularly standards regarding manuscripts and old prints. It also supported several pilot projects at the time of their creation and the first years of the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme (with the programme's first pilot project being from the National Library of the Czech Republic in 1993). The library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts.[7][8] In its first 13 years since 1992, the project accomplished the digitisation of 1,700 documents and made them publicly available.[4] The National Library makes its digital content available in the digital libraries Manuscriptorium (http://www.manuscriptorium.com/en) and Kramerius (http://kramerius5.nkp.cz). Manuscriptorium comprises more than 111,000 manuscripts and old prints, with almost 84,000 of them contributed by the National Library and the remainder from 138 partners from 24 countries.[citation needed] Since 2008, when Europeana, the European Union's digital platform for cultural heritage, came into existence, Manuscriptorium contributes manuscripts and old prints digitised by libraries all over the Czech Republic and by other partners to the Europeana platform and several other specialised portals, including professional academic Resource Discovery services, e.g. of EBSCO, ProQuest and ExLibris. In a collaborative project with Google, additional old prints and early 19th century books from the Slavonic Library have been digitised, with altogether more than 177,000 books digitised by Google (as of October 2018).[citation needed] These books are accessible through the Google Books digital library as well as through the National Library's Catalogue of Old Prints and the Catalogue of the Slavonic Library, and the old prints gradually also through Manuscriptorium. The Kramerius digital library contains digitised documents published after the year 1800. So far, more than 2,000 periodical series have been digitised. The number of digitized books continues to grow, especially after mass digitization of modern prints in context of the National Digital Library project.[citation needed] Proposed new building[edit] General reading room (former refectory of the Jesuit residence in Clementinum) In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new library building on Letna plain, between Hradčanská metro station and Sparta Prague's football ground, Letná stadium.[9][10] In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, with a projected completion date of 2011.[11] Later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus.[10][12] Plans for the building had still not been decided in February 2008, with the matter being referred to the Office for the Protection of Competition in order to determine if the tender had been won fairly.[13] Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, following a ruling from the European Commission that the tender process had not been carried out legally.[14] Incidents[edit] The library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water.[15] Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building.[16] There was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event.[17] See also[edit] List of national and state libraries References[edit] ^ a b c Výroční zpráva Národní knihovny České republiky 2018 (PDF). Výroční Zpráva (in Czech). 2019. ISBN 978-80-7050-711-7. ISSN 1804-8625. Retrieved 30 October 2019. ^ "Incunabula". www.nlp.cz. National Library of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 29 June 2014. ^ "Need for new library intensifies". The Prague Post. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "National Library's rare prints and manuscripts at the click of a mouse". Radio Prague. 2005-11-24. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ Tucker, Aviezer (18–24 February 2009). "Opinion" (PDF). The Prague Post. Prague. p. A4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "From Klementinum's History". National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. 2012. Retrieved 2019-09-16. ^ "National Library wins UNESCO award for pioneering digitisation work". Radio Prague. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "2005 - The National Library of the Czech Republic". UNESCO. Retrieved 2019-12-18. ^ "National Library to get major new building while Clementinum will undergo extensive renovations". Radio Prague. 30 March 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ a b "Plans to build modern "blob" building on Letna Plain meet resistance from Prague politicians". Radio Prague. 12 October 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Changes ahead for the Czech National Library". Radio Prague. 11 March 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "'Octopus' library stirs up Czechs". BBC News. 14 May 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Still no final decision on National Library building". Radio Prague. 27 February 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Head of National Library sacked over 'Blob' dispute". Radio Prague. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Art saved from European floods". BBC News. 15 August 2002. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "Water accident in National Library". Radio Prague. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2014. ^ "No injuries in Czech National Library fire". Radio Prague. 4 December 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2014. 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en-wikipedia-org-5648	----	Salomon Reinach - Wikipedia Salomon Reinach From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Salomon Reinach Salomon Reinach (29 August 1858 – 4 November 1932) was a French archaeologist and religious historian. Contents 1 Biography 2 Publications 3 Mythicist theories 4 Death 5 Published works 6 References 7 External links Biography[edit] The brother of Joseph Reinach and Théodore Reinach, he was born at St Germain-en-Laye and educated at the École normale supérieure before joining the French school at Athens in 1879. He made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883–84), at Odessa (1893) and elsewhere. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe. In 1887 he obtained an appointment at the National Museum of Antiquities at Saint-Germain-en-Laye; in 1893 he became assistant curator, and in 1902 curator of the national museums. In 1903 he became joint editor of the "Revue archéologique", and in the same year officer of the Legion of Honour. The lectures he delivered on art at the École du Louvre in 1902-3 were published by him under the title of "Apollo : histoire générale des arts plastiques professée en 1902-1903 à l'École du Louvre". These were translated into most European languages, and became a standard handbook on the subject. Publications[edit] Reinach's first published work was a translation of Arthur Schopenhauer's "Essay on Free Will" ("Essai sur le libre arbitre", 1877), which passed through many editions. His "Manuel de philologie classique" (1880-1884) was crowned by the French association for the study of Greek; his "Grammaire latine" (1886) received a prize from the Society of Secondary Education; "La Nécropole de Myrina" (1887), written with Edmond Pottier, and "Antiquités nationales" were crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. He compiled an important "Répertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine" (3 volumes, 1897–98); also "Répertoire de peintures du Moyen âge et de la Renaissance 1280-1580" (1905, etc.); "Répertoire des vases peints grecs et étrusques" (1900). In 1905 he began his "Cultes, mythes et religions"; and in 1909 he published a general sketch of the history of religions under the title of "Orpheus; histoire générale des religions" (translated into English and published as "Orpheus, a general history of religions"). He also translated from the English HC Lea's "History of the Inquisition" as "Histoire de l'Inquisition au Moyen-âge". In 1936 his updated bibliography was published — "Bibliographie de Salomon Reinach".[1] It has been said his bibliography runs to 262 pages and includes more than ninety lengthy works and at least seven thousand articles. (Curtis, 2003) [2] Mythicist theories[edit] Reinach has been cited as a proponent of the Christ myth theory. However, he did not deny the possibility of an historical Jesus. Reinach is quoted as saying "It is impossible to establish the historical Jesus, which is not to say that he did not exist, but only that we cannot positively affirm anything about him."[3] Reinach was critical of the Passion of Jesus which he considered was a myth based on pre-existing pagan legends.[4][5] Reinach was supportive of the mythicist research of William Benjamin Smith. In regard to Smith's Ecce Deus, he wrote that "I have read this great book from cover to cover. It is a possession for ever. The author may not live to see it, but it will be read by myriads and shed light on millions."[6] Rationalist writer Joseph McCabe wrote that Reinach was "one of the leading French authorities on the science of religion, from which he removes all supernatural elements."[7] Death[edit] Salomon Reinach died in 1932 and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in the Montmartre Quarter of Paris. Published works[edit] Manuel de philologie classique (1880-1884). Grammaire latine (1886). La Nécropole de Myrina (1887). Répertoire de la Statuaire Grecque et Romaine (3 volumes, 1897–98). Répertoire des Vases Peints Grecs et Étrusques (1900). The Story of Art Throughout the Ages, 1904; English translation of Apollo: histoire générale des arts.[8] Répertoire de Peintures du Moyen Âge et de la Renaissance 1280-1580 (1905...). Apollo: an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art Throughout the Ages Charles Scribner's and Sons, (1907). The so-called Asiatic Terracotta Groups, Charles Scribner's sons, (1907). Orpheus: A General History of Religions, W. Heinemann, (1909). Cults, Myths and Religions, (1912); English translation of Cultes, mythes et religions (1908).[9] "The Growth of Mythological Study". The Quarterly Review. 215: 423–441. October 1911. A Short History of Christianity, G.P. Putnam's Sons, (1922). References[edit] ^ Bibliographie de Salomon Reinach OCLC WorldCat ^ Curtis, Gregory. (2003). Disarmed: The Story of the Venus de Milo, Alfred A. Knopf. p. 132 ^ Cary, Phillip; Phelizon, Jean-Francois. (2015). Does God Have a Strategy?: A Dialogue. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-4982-2395-9 ^ Pareto, Vilfredo. (1935 edition). The Mind and Society. Volume 1. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. p. 451 ^ Fawcett, Thomas. (1973). Hebrew myth and Christian Gospel. S.C.M. Press. p. 233 ^ Watts, Charles Albert. (1913). The R.P.A. Annual and Ethical Review. C. A. Watts. p. 92 ^ McCabe, Joseph. (1920). Salomon Reinach. In A Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists. Watts & Co. ^ Reinach, Salomon Dictionary of Art Historians. ^ HathiTrust Digital Library published works  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Reinach, Joseph". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Works by Salomon Reinach at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Salomon Reinach at Internet Archive "Salomon Reinach". Biography. Dictionary of Art Historians. Cultes, Mythes, et Religions [Cultures, Myths, and Religions] (in French). Psychanalyse Paris. Authority control BIBSYS: 90378251 BNE: XX922272 BNF: cb11921429b (data) CANTIC: a10459066 CiNii: DA04062382 GND: 119227169 ISNI: 0000 0001 1064 5759 LCCN: n86852426 LNB: 000214479 Léonore: 19800035/237/31499 NDL: 00532832 NKC: js2008439150 NLA: 35789746 NLG: 137227 NLI: 000110479 NTA: 069221065 PLWABN: 9810694661605606 SNAC: w6s18368 SUDOC: 088927547 Trove: 1088834 VcBA: 495/71038 VIAF: 59088392 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n86852426 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salomon_Reinach&oldid=954051824" Categories: 1858 births 1932 deaths Christ myth theory proponents People from Saint-Germain-en-Laye Lycée Condorcet alumni French historians of religion French people of German-Jewish descent École Normale Supérieure alumni French archaeologists Jewish archaeologists Historians of antiquity Historians of Christianity Burials at Montmartre Cemetery Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres Members of the French School at Athens Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with Léonore identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית مصرى Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Svenska Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 30 April 2020, at 12:23 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5681	----	Corinth - Wikipedia Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the modern city of Corinth. For the ancient city, see Ancient Corinth. For other uses, see Corinth (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Corinth" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Modern city in Greece Place in Greece Corinth Κόρινθος View of the city Seal Corinth Location within the regional unit Coordinates: 37°56′N 22°56′E / 37.933°N 22.933°E / 37.933; 22.933Coordinates: 37°56′N 22°56′E / 37.933°N 22.933°E / 37.933; 22.933 Country Greece Administrative region Peloponnese Regional unit Corinthia Municipality Corinth  • Municipal unit 102.19 km2 (39.46 sq mi) Highest elevation 10 m (30 ft) Lowest elevation 0 m (0 ft) Population (2011)[1]  • Municipal unit 38,132  • Municipal unit density 370/km2 (970/sq mi) Demonym(s) Corinthian Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 20100 Area code(s) (+30) 27410 Vehicle registration KP Website www.korinthos.gr Corinth (/ˈkɒrɪnθ/ KORR-inth; Greek: Κόρινθος, romanized: Kórinthos, Modern Greek pronunciation: [ˈkorinθos] (listen)) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit.[2] It is the capital of Corinthia. It was founded as Nea Korinthos (Νέα Κόρινθος), or New Corinth, in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of Corinth, which had developed in and around the site of ancient Corinth. Contents 1 Geography 2 History 3 Demographics 4 Economy 4.1 Industry 5 Transport 5.1 Roads 5.2 Bus 5.3 Railways 5.4 Port 5.4.1 Ferries 5.5 Canal 6 Sport 7 Twin towns/sister cities 8 Notable people 9 Other locations named after Corinth 10 Gallery 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Geography[edit] View of the Gulf of Corinth and modern Corinth from the Castle of Acrocorinth Located about 78 kilometres (48 mi) west of Athens, Corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient Corinth. Natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, the Corinthian Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth cut by its canal, the Saronic Gulf, the Oneia Mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built. History[edit] Further information: Ancient Corinth Corinth derives its name from Ancient Corinth, a city-state of antiquity. The site was occupied from before 3000 BC. Historical references begin with the early 8th century BC, when Corinth began to develop as a commercial center. Between the 8th and 7th centuries, the Bacchiad family ruled Corinth. Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiad family, and between 657 and 550 BC, he and his son Periander ruled Corinth as the Tyrants. In about 550 BC, an oligarchical government seized power. This government allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League, and Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta. After Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian war, the two allies fell out with one another, and Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BC. After the Macedonian conquest of Greece, the Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison until 243 BC, when the city was liberated and joined the Achaean League. Nearly a century later, in 146 BC, Corinth was captured and was completely destroyed by the Roman army. The Roman sack of Corinth in 146 BC (Thomas Allom, 1870) As a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BC, Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea.[3] In 1858, the old city, now known as Ancient Corinth (Αρχαία Κόρινθος, Archaia Korinthos), located 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) south-west of the modern city, was totally destroyed by a magnitude 6.5 earthquake. New Corinth (Nea Korinthos) was then built to the north-east of it, on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. In 1928, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake devastated the new city, which was then rebuilt on the same site.[4] In 1933, there was a great fire, and the new city was rebuilt again. Demographics[edit] Corinth census figures Year Pop. ±% 1991 28,071 —     2001 30,434 +8.4% 2011 30,176 −0.8% [5] The Municipality of Corinth (Δήμος Κορινθίων) had a population of 58,192 according to the 2011 census, the second most populous municipality in the Peloponnese Region after Kalamata.[1] The municipal unit of Corinth had 38,132 inhabitants, of which Corinth itself had 30,176 inhabitants, placing it in third place behind Kalamata and Tripoli among the cities of the Peloponnese Region.[1] Corinth in 1882 The municipal unit of Corinth (Δημοτική ενότητα Κορινθίων) includes apart from Corinth proper the town of Archaia Korinthos (2,198 inhabitants in 2011), the town of Examilia (2,905 inhabitants), and the smaller settlements of Xylokeriza (1,316 inhabitants) and Solomos (817 inhabitants).[1] The municipal unit has an area of 102.187 km2.[6] Economy[edit] Industry[edit] Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. The Corinth Refinery is one of the largest oil refining industrial complexes in Europe. Ceramic tiles, copper cables, gums, gypsum, leather, marble, meat products, medical equipment, mineral water and beverages, petroleum products, and salt are produced nearby. As of 2005[update], a period of deindustrialization commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility diminished their operations. Transport[edit] The rail road bridge over the Isthmus of Corinth Roads[edit] Corinth is a major road hub. The A7 toll motorway for Tripoli and Kalamata, (and Sparta via A71 toll), branches off the A8/European route E94 toll motorway from Athens at Corinth. Corinth is the main entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece. Bus[edit] KTEL Korinthias provides intercity bus service in the peninsula and to Athens via the Isthmos station southeast of the city center.[7] Local bus service is also available. Railways[edit] The metre gauge railway from Athens and Pireaeus reached Corinth in 1884. This station closed to regular public transport in 2007. In 2005, two years prior, the city was connected to the Proastiakos, the Athens suburban rail network, following the completion of the new Corinth railway station. The journey from Athens to Corinth is estimated to approx. 55 minutes so it is really convenient to choose a hotel in Corinth and commute to Athens for sightseeing. Train station is 5 minutes by car from the city center and parking is available for free. Port[edit] The port of Corinth, located north of the city centre and close to the northwest entrance of the Corinth Canal, at 37 56.0’ N / 22 56.0’ E, serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility. It is an artificial harbour (depth approximately 9 metres (30 ft), protected by a concrete mole (length approximately 930 metres, width 100 metres, mole surface 93,000 m2). A new pier finished in the late 1980s doubled the capacity of the port. The reinforced mole protects anchored vessels from strong northern winds. Within the port operates a customs office facility and a Hellenic Coast Guard post. Sea traffic is limited to trade in the export of local produce, mainly citrus fruits, grapes, marble, aggregates and some domestic imports. The port operates as a contingency facility for general cargo ships, bulk carriers and ROROs, in case of strikes at Piraeus port. Ferries[edit] There was formerly a ferry link to Catania, Sicily and Genoa in Italy. Canal[edit] Main article: Corinth Canal View of the Corinth Canal The Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, is about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth that connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland, thus effectively making the former an island. The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed. It is 6.4 kilometres (4.0 mi) in length and only 21.3 metres (70 ft) wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships. It now has little economic importance. The canal was mooted in classical times and an abortive effort was made to build it in the 1st century AD. Julius Caesar and Caligula both considered digging the canal but died before starting the construction.[8] The emperor Nero was the first to attempt to construct the canal. The Roman workforce responsible for the initial digging consisted of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war. Modern construction started in 1882, after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was completed in 1893, but due to the canal's narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslips from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic anticipated by its operators. It is now used mainly for tourist traffic. Sport[edit] The city's association football team is Korinthos F.C. (Π.Α.E. Κόρινθος), established in 1999 after the merger of Pankorinthian Football Club (Παγκορινθιακός) and Corinth Football Club (Κόρινθος). During the 2006–2007 season, the team played in the Greek Fourth Division's Regional Group 7. The team went undefeated that season and it earned the top spot.[9] This granted the team a promotion to the Gamma Ethnikí (Third Division) for the 2007–2008 season. For the 2008–2009 season, Korinthos F.C. competed in the Gamma Ethniki (Third Division) southern grouping. Twin towns/sister cities[edit] See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece Corinth is twinned with: Syracuse, Sicily[10] Notable people[edit] Costas Soukoulis (1951–), Professor of Physics at Iowa State University George Kollias (1977–), drummer for US technical death metal band Nile. Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766–1826), revolutionary leader during the Greek War of Independence. Georgios Leonardopoulos, army officer Irene Papas, Greek actress Macarius (1731–1805), Metropolitan bishop of Corinth Anastasios Bakasetas (1993–), Greek footballer Evangelos Ikonomou (1987–), Greek footballer Panagiotis Tzanavaras (1964–), Greek footballer and football manager Nikolaos Zafeiriou (1871–1947), Greek artillery officer Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos (1993–) Greek footballer Panagis Tsaldaris (1868–1936), Greek politician and prime minister of Greece Other locations named after Corinth[edit] Further information: List of locations named after Corinth, Greece Due to its ancient history and the presence of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth some locations all over the world have been named Corinth. Gallery[edit] The central pedestrian road in Corinth The city's courthouse A statue of Damaskinos Pegasus Square in New Corinth Statue of Pegasus, emblem of the city View of the Central Square of the city Aerial photograph of the Isthmus of Corinth See also[edit] Corinth Canal Corinth Excavations List of traditional Greek place names References[edit] ^ a b c d e "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (in Greek) ^ https://www.britannica.com/place/Corinth-Greece ^ Tsapanos, Theodoros M.; et al. (March 2011). "Deterministic seismic hazard analysis for the city of Corinth, central Greece" (PDF). Journal of the Balkan Geophysical Society. 14 (1): 1–14. Retrieved 21 July 2015. ^ EL STAT ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2015. ^ "Corinth – Map and travel Information". Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016. ^ https://theculturetrip.com/europe/greece/articles/a-brief-history-of-the-corinth-canal/ ^ [1] Archived 23 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Gemellaggio tra Siracusa e Corinto". Liberta Sicilia. 8 January 2008. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 19 March 2008. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Corinth. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Corinth. City of Corinth official website (in Greek) Kórinthos FC official website (in Greek) Places adjacent to Corinth Gulf of Corinth Loutraki-Perachora Assos-Lechaio Corinth (municipal unit) Saronic Gulf Tenea Saronikos v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Corinth Municipal unit of Assos-Lechaio Assos Kato Assos Lechaio Perigiali Municipal unit of Corinth Ancient Corinth Corinth Examilia Solomos Xylokeriza Municipal unit of Saronikos Agios Ioannis Athikia Galataki Katakali Municipal unit of Solygeia Angelokastro Korfos Sofiko Municipal unit of Tenea Agionori Agios Vasileios Chiliomodi Klenia Koutalas Stefani Authority control BNF: cb11981475r (data) GND: 4032477-1 LCCN: n82093760 NKC: ge192278 SELIBR: 238658 VIAF: 246513497 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n82093760 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corinth&oldid=995338184" Categories: Corinth Mediterranean port cities and towns in Greece Populated places in Corinthia Ports and harbours of Greece Populated coastal places in Greece 1858 establishments in Europe New Testament cities Hidden categories: CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles with Greek-language sources (el) Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from July 2012 Articles needing additional references from May 2010 All articles needing additional references Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Instances of Lang-el using second unnamed parameter Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2005 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bislama Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 14:08 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5798	----	Bibliothèque nationale de France - Wikipedia Bibliothèque nationale de France From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from BNF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search "BnF" and "Gallica" redirect here. For the compound abbreviated as "BnF", see Benzyl fluoride. For other uses, see Gallica (disambiguation). National Library of France Coordinates: 48°50′01″N 2°22′33″E / 48.83361°N 2.37583°E / 48.83361; 2.37583 National Library of France Bibliothèque nationale de France Established 1461; 560 years ago (1461)[1] Location Paris, France Collection Items collected books, journals, newspapers, magazines, sound and music recordings, patents, databases, maps, stamps, prints, drawings and manuscripts Size 40M items 14M books and publications[2] Access and use Access requirements Open to anyone with a need to use the collections and services Other information Budget €254 million[2] Director Laurence Engel Staff 2,300 Website www.bnf.fr Map The Bibliothèque nationale de France (French: [biblijɔtɛk nɑsjɔnal də fʁɑ̃s], "National Library of France"; BnF) is the national library of France, located in Paris. It is the national repository of all that is published in France and also holds extensive historical collections. Contents 1 History 2 New buildings 3 Mission 4 Manuscript collection 5 Digital library 6 List of directors 6.1 1369–1792 6.2 1792–present 7 Films about the library 8 Famous patrons 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History[edit] The National Library of France traces its origin to the royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. Charles had received a collection of manuscripts from his predecessor, John II, and transferred them to the Louvre from the Palais de la Cité. The first librarian of record was Claude Mallet, the king's valet de chambre, who made a sort of catalogue, Inventoire des Livres du Roy nostre Seigneur estans au Chastel du Louvre. Jean Blanchet made another list in 1380 and Jean de Bégue one in 1411 and another in 1424. Charles V was a patron of learning and encouraged the making and collection of books. It is known that he employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle and others to transcribe ancient texts. At the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435.[3][4] Charles VII did little to repair the loss of these books, but the invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461. Charles VIII seized a part of the collection of the kings of Aragon.[5] Louis XII, who had inherited the library at Blois, incorporated the latter into the Bibliothèque du Roi and further enriched it with the Gruthuyse collection and with plunder from Milan. Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library. During his reign, fine bindings became the craze and many of the books added by him and Henry II are masterpieces of the binder's art.[4] Under librarianship of Amyot, the collection was transferred to Paris during which process many treasures were lost. Henry IV again moved it to the Collège de Clermont and in 1604 it was housed in the Rue de la Harpe. The appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world. He was succeeded by his son who was replaced, when executed for treason, by Jérôme Bignon, the first of a line of librarians of the same name. Under de Thou, the library was enriched by the collections of Queen Catherine de Medici. The library grew rapidly during the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, due in great part to the interest of the Minister of Finance, Colbert, an indefatigable collectors of books.[4] The quarters in the Rue de la Harpe becoming inadequate, the library was again moved, in 1666, to a more spacious house in Rue Vivienne. The minister Louvois took quite as much interest in the library as Colbert and during his administration a magnificent building to be erected in the Place Vendôme was planned. The death of Louvois, however, prevented the realization of this plan. Louvois employed Mabillon, Thévenot and others to procure books from every source. In 1688, a catalogue in eight volumes was compiled.[4] The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Minister Louvois's son. Abbé Louvois was succeeded by Jean-Paul Bignon, who instituted a complete reform of the library's system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739 to 1753 in 11 volumes. The collections increased steadily by purchase and gift to the outbreak of the French Revolution, at which time it was in grave danger of partial or total destruction, but owing to the activities of Antoine-Augustin Renouard and Joseph Van Praet it suffered no injury.[4] The library's collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized. After the establishment of the French First Republic in September 1792, "the Assembly declared the Bibliotheque du Roi to be national property and the institution was renamed the Bibliothèque Nationale. After four centuries of control by the Crown, this great library now became the property of the French people."[3] Reading room, Richelieu site A new administrative organization was established. Napoleon took great interest in the library and among other things issued an order that all books in provincial libraries not possessed by the Bibliothèque Nationale should be forwarded to it, subject to replacement by exchanges of equal value from the duplicate collections, making it possible, as Napoleon said, to find a copy of any book in France in the National Library. Napoleon furthermore increased the collections by spoil from his conquests. A considerable number of these books were restored after his downfall. During the period from 1800 to 1836, the library was virtually under the control of Joseph Van Praet. At his death it contained more than 650,000 printed books and some 80,000 manuscripts.[4] Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 was moved to newly constructed buildings on the Rue de Richelieu designed by Henri Labrouste. Upon Labrouste's death in 1875 the library was further expanded, including the grand staircase and the Oval Room, by academic architect Jean-Louis Pascal. In 1896, the library was still the largest repository of books in the world, although it has since been surpassed by other libraries for that title.[6] By 1920, the library's collection had grown to 4,050,000 volumes and 11,000 manuscripts.[4] M. Henri Lemaître, a vice-president of the French Library Association and formerly librarian of the Bibliothèque Nationale ... outlined the story of French libraries and librarians during the German occupation, a record of destruction and racial discrimination. During 1940–1945, more than two million books were lost through the ravages of war, many of them forming the irreplaceable local collections in which France abounded. Many thousands of books, including complete libraries, were seized by the Germans. Yet French librarians stood firm against all threats, and continued to serve their readers to the best of their abilities. In their private lives and in their professional occupations they were in the van of the struggle against the Nazis, and many suffered imprisonment and death for their devotion. Despite Nazi opposition they maintained a supply of books to French prisoners of war. They continued to supply books on various proscribed lists to trustworthy readers; and when liberation came, they were ready with their plans for rehabilitation with the creation of new book centres for the French people on lines of the English county library system.[7] New buildings[edit] View of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, François-Mitterrand site On 14 July 1988, President François Mitterrand announced "the construction and the expansion of one of the largest and most modern libraries in the world, intended to cover all fields of knowledge, and designed to be accessible to all, using the most modern data transfer technologies, which could be consulted from a distance, and which would collaborate with other European libraries". Book and media logistics inside the whole library was planned with an automated 6.6 km (4.1 mi) Telelift system. Only with this high level of automation, the library can comply with all demands fully in time. Due to initial trade union opposition, a wireless network was fully installed only in August 2016. In July 1989, the services of the architectural firm of Dominique Perrault were retained. The design was recognized with the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture in 1996. The construction was carried out by Bouygues.[8] Construction of the library ran into huge cost overruns and technical difficulties related to its high-rise design, so much so that it was referred to as the "TGB" or "Très Grande Bibliothèque" (i.e. "Very Large Library", a sarcastic allusion to France's successful high-speed rail system, the TGV).[9] After the move of the major collections from the Rue de Richelieu, the National Library of France was inaugurated on 15 December 1996.[10] As of 2016[update], the BnF contained roughly 14 million books at its four Parisian sites (Tolbiac, i.e. Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand, and Richelieu, Arsenal and Opéra) as well as printed documents, manuscripts, prints, photographs, maps and plans, scores, coins, medals, sound documents, video and multimedia documents, scenery elements..."[11] The library retains the use of the Rue de Richelieu complex for some of its collections. Plan of the Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand ___ Located near the Métro station: Bibliothèque François Mitterrand. Mission[edit] The National Library of France is a public establishment under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture. Its mission is to constitute collections, especially the copies of works published in France that must, by law, be deposited there, conserve them, and make them available to the public. It produces a reference catalogue, cooperates with other national and international establishments, and participates in research programs. Manuscript collection[edit] The Manuscripts department houses the largest collection of medieval and modern manuscripts worldwide. The collection includes medieval chansons de geste and chivalric romances, eastern literature, eastern and western religions, ancient history, scientific history, and literary manuscripts by Pascal, Diderot, Apollinaire, Proust, Colette, Sartre, etc. The collection is organised: according to language (Ancient Greek, Latin, French and other European languages, Arabic, Coptic, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Persian, Turkish, Near- and Middle-Eastern languages, Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, Sanskrit,Tamil,Indian languages, Vietnamese, etc.) The library holds about 5,000 Ancient Greek manuscripts, which are divided into three fonds: Ancien fonds grec, fonds Coislin, and Fonds du Supplément grec. according to content: learned and bibliophilic, collections of learned materials, Library Archives, genealogical collections, French provinces, Masonic collection, etc. Digital library[edit] Gallica is the digital library for online users of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and its partners. It was established in October 1997. Today it has more than 6 million digitized materials of various types: books, magazines, newspapers, photographs, cartoons, drawings, prints, posters, maps, manuscripts, antique coins, scores, theater costumes and sets, audio and video materials. All library materials are freely available. On February 10, 2010, a digitized copy of Scenes of Bohemian Life by Henri Murger (1913) became Gallica's millionth document. And in February 2019, the five millionth document was a copy of the manuscript "Record of an Unsuccessful Trip to the West Indies" stored in the Bibliothèque Inguimbertine. As of 1 January 2020[update], Gallica had made available on the Web about: 6 million documents 690,311 books 176,341 maps 144,859 manuscripts 1,468,952 images 3,968,841 newspapers and magazines 51,055 sheets of music 51,170 audio recordings 510,807 objects 1,705 video recordings Most of Gallica's collections have been converted into text format using optical character recognition (OCR-processing), which allows full-text search in the library materials. Each document has a digital identifier, the so-called ARK (Archival Resource Key) of the National Library of France and is accompanied by a bibliographic description. List of directors[edit] 1369–1792[edit] 1369–1411: Gilles Mallet [fr] (fr) 1522–1540: Guillaume Budé 1540–1552: Pierre Duchâtel [fr] 1552–1567: Pierre de Montdoré [fr] 1567–1593: Jacques Amyot 1593–1617: Jacques-Auguste de Thou 1617–1642: François Auguste de Thou 1642–1656: Jérôme Bignon 1656–1684: Jérôme II Bignon [fr] 1560–1604: Jean Gosselin [fr] 1604–1614: Isaac Casaubon 1614–1645: Nicolas Rigault 1645–1651: Pierre Dupuy 1651–1656: Jacques Dupuy [fr] 1656–1676: Nicolas Colbert [fr]; Pierre de Carcavi (1663-1683) 1676–1684: Louis Colbert [fr]; Melchisédech Thévenot (1684-1691) 1684–1718: Camille Le Tellier de Louvois; Nicolas Clément [fr] (1691-1712) 1719–1741: Jean-Paul Bignon 1741–1743: Jérôme Bignon de Blanzy [fr] 1743–1772: Armand-Jérôme Bignon 1770–1784: Jérôme-Frédéric Bignon [fr]; Grégoire Desaunays [fr] (from 1775 to 1793) 1784–1789: Jean-Charles-Pierre Le Noir (démission) 1789–1792: Louis Le Fèvre d'Ormesson de Noyseau [fr] 1792–present[edit] 1792–1793: Jean-Louis Carra [fr] and Sébastien-Roch Nicolas de Chamfort (fr) 1793: Jean-Baptiste Cœuilhe [fr] (interim) 1793–1795: Jean Baptiste Lefebvre de Villebrune 1795–1796: André Barthélemy de Courcay [fr] 1796–1798: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier [fr] 1798–1799: Adrien-Jacques Joly [fr] 1799–1800: Aubin-Louis Millin de Grandmaison 1800–1803: Jean-Augustin Capperonnier 1803–1806: Pascal-François-Joseph Gossellin [fr] 1806–1829: Bon-Joseph Dacier 1830–1831: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Joseph Van Praet 1832: Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat 1832–1837: Jean-Antoine Letronne 1838–1839: Edmé François Jomard 1839: Charles Dunoyer 1839–1840: Antoine Jean Letronne 1840–1858: Joseph Naudet 1858–1874: Jules-Antoine Taschereau [fr]; the Paris Commune appointed Élie Reclus (29 April to 24 May 1871) 1874–1905: Léopold Delisle 1905–1913: Henry Marcel 1913–1923: Théophile Homolle 1923–1930: Pierre-René Roland-Marcel [fr] 1930–1940: Julien Cain 1940–1944: Bernard Faÿ 1944–1945: Jean Laran [fr] (interim) 1945–1964: Julien Cain 1964–1975: Étienne Dennery 1975–1981: Georges Le Rider 1981–1984: Alain Gourdon [fr] 1984–1987: André Miquel 1987–1993: Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie 1989–1994: Dominique Jamet [fr] 1994–1997: Jean Favier 1997–2002: Jean-Pierre Angremy 2002–2007: Jean-Noël Jeanneney 2007–2016: Bruno Racine 2016–present: Laurence Engel [fr] Films about the library[edit] Alain Resnais directed Toute la mémoire du monde, a 1956 short film about the library and its collections. Famous patrons[edit] Raoul Rigault, leader during the Paris Commune, was known for habitually occupying the library and reading endless copies of the newspaper Le Père Duchesne.[12] See also[edit] Arcade (blinkenlights) Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal Bibliothèque-Musée de l'Opéra National de Paris Books in France Cabinet des Médailles Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau Les Enfers, a department within the Bibliothèque nationale Legal deposit National electronic library References[edit] ^ Jack A. Clarke. "French Libraries in Transition, 1789–95." The Library Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Oct., 1967) ^ a b "La BnF en chiffres". Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. ^ a b Priebe, Paul M. (1982). "From Bibliothèque du Roi to Bibliothèque Nationale: The Creation of a State Library, 1789–1793". The Journal of Library History. 17 (4): 389–408. JSTOR 25541320. ^ a b c d e f g This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "National Library of France" . Encyclopedia Americana. ^ Konstantinos Staikos (2012), History of the Library in Western Civilization: From Petrarch to Michelangelo, New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, ISBN 978-1-58456-182-8 ^ Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 38. ^ "University and Research Libraries". Nature. 156 (3962): 417. 6 October 1945. doi:10.1038/156417a0. ^ Bouygues website: Bibliothèque nationale de France Archived November 27, 2006, at the Wayback Machine ^ Fitchett, Joseph (30 March 1995). "New Paris Library: Visionary or Outdated?". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ^ Ramsay, Raylene L. (2003). French women in politics: writing power, paternal legitimization, and maternal legacies. Berghahn Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-57181-082-3. Retrieved 21 May 2011. ^ "Welcome to the BnF". BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France). Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016. ^ Horne, Alistair (1965). The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune 1870-1. St. Martin's Press, New York. pp. 29–30. Further reading[edit] Bibliothèque nationale (France), Département de la Phonothèque nationale et de l'Audiovisuel. The National [Sound] Record[ings] and Audiovisual Department of the National Library [of France]. [Paris]: Bibliothèque nationale, [1986]. 9 p. David H. Stam, ed. (2001). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-57958-244-3. Riding, Alan. "France Detects a Cultural Threat in Google," The New York Times. April 11, 2005. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bibliothèque nationale de France. 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en-wikipedia-org-5956	----	Cyclops (play) - Wikipedia Cyclops (play) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek satyr play by Euripides Cyclops Late Classical terracotta figure depicting Polyphemos reclining while drinking a bowl of wine. Written by Euripides Chorus Satyrs Characters Silenus Odysseus The Cyclops Mute Companions of Odysseus Place premiered Athens Original language Ancient Greek Genre Satyr play Cyclops (Ancient Greek: Κύκλωψ, Kyklōps) is an ancient Greek satyr play by Euripides, based closely on an episode from the Odyssey.[1] It would have been the fourth part of a tetralogy presented by Euripides in a dramatic festival in 5th Century BC Athens. The date of its composition is unknown, but it was probably written late in Euripides' career.[2][3] It is the only complete and extant satyr play. Contents 1 Story 2 Analysis 3 Translations 4 See also 5 References Story[edit] Actor as Papposilenus, around 100 AD, after 4th-century BC original The play is set in Sicily at Mount Aetna. Silenus explains that he and his sons, the chorus, are slaves to a Cyclops, Polyphemus. The chorus enter with singing and sheep. Silenus tells them to stop singing and send the sheep into the cave because he can see a Greek ship by the coast and men coming to the cave. Odysseus enters with his men and asks where they can find water and if anyone will sell them food. Silenus questions Odysseus and Odysseus questions Silenus. On learning that he will probably be eaten if found, Odysseus is keen to leave. Silenus is keen to swap the Cyclops' food for Odysseus' wine. Silenus exits into the cave while the chorus talk to Odysseus. Silenus reenters with much food. The Cyclops enters and wants to know what is going on. Silenus explains that Odysseus and his men have beaten him and are taking the Cyclops' things and have threatened the Cyclops with violence. The Cyclops decides to eat them. Odysseus says that Silenus is lying, but the Cyclops believes Silenus. Odysseus tries to persuade the Cyclops not to eat them. The Cyclops is not persuaded. All but the chorus exit into the cave. The chorus sing until Odysseus enters from the cave and tells the chorus that the Cyclops has eaten some of his men and that he has been giving the Cyclops wine and that he intends to blind the Cyclops and save everyone, including the satyrs. The chorus are keen to help. The Cyclops exits from the cave singing and drunk and wanting more wine from Odysseus. The Cyclops wants to go and share with his brothers but is persuaded to stay. Silenus and the Cyclops drink wine until the Cyclops decides to take the now very appealing Silenus to bed, and the pair exit into the cave. The chorus affirm that they are ready to help Odysseus, but urge him to go in and help Silenus. Odysseus calls on Hephaestus and Hypnos then exits into the cave. The chorus sing. Odysseus enters from the cave and tells them to be quiet and come and help burn the eye out. The chorus excuse themselves. Odysseus suggests that they can at least offer encouragement. They agree to provide this and do provide this while Odysseus exits into the cave. The Cyclops enters from the cave with noise and blindness. The chorus mock him and direct him away from Odysseus and the others while they escape from the cave. Odysseus addresses the Cyclops before exiting toward his ship. The Cyclops says that he is going to smash the ship then exits into the cave, which is "pierced through" (ἀμφιτρῆτος). The chorus say that they will go with Odysseus and be slaves to Dionysus. Odysseus offering wine to Polyphemus Analysis[edit] Euripides is not the only ancient dramatist who wrote a Cyclops satyr play. Aristias of the early fifth century did also.[4] But Cyclops is apparently the only thing which Euripides wrote with a particular Homeric foundation.[5] Euripides' play combines the myth of Dionysus's capture by pirates with the episode in Homer's Odyssey of Odysseus' time with the cyclops Polyphemus.[6][7][8] Into this scenario Euripides thrust Silenus and the satyrs, comic characters.[9][10] Theatre of Dionysus The satyr play as a medium was generally understood as a "tragedy at play".[11] It relied extensively on the multifarious connotations which surrounded the concepts of "playfulness (paidia), education (paideia), child (pais), slave (pais), playful (paidikos), and childishness (paidia)".[12] In Cyclops Euripides employed "metapoetically loaded terms" like second and double and new to highlight interactions with his sources, familiar and foundational texts in Athenian education.[13][14] The characters in Cyclops are not ignorant of Euripides' sources.[15] "Silenus 'knows his Odyssey rather well'".[16] Euripides' Cyclops knows about the Trojan War and gives Odysseus his opinion of it.[17] By playing with metapoetic images throughout the play Euripides fostered "a collective consciousness" in his democratic audience and facilitated their recognition that cooperation was necessary throughout Athens if they were to overcome their enemies.[18][19][20] Both the Homeric episode and Euripides' Cyclops are based on the blinding of the Cyclops.[21] It was almost certainly known by Euripides' audience that a particular Alcander had stuck a stick into the eye of Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver.[22] On one level of Euripides' play Alcibiades thrusts a stake into the eye of "a gross caricature of a Spartan",[23] expressing "a shift of political alliances ostensibly achieved by Alcibiades".[24] Like Sophocles' Philoctetes, Euripides' Cyclops made an appeal on behalf of Alcibiades that he be allowed to return from exile.[25] Euripides also encouraged his audience to consider the recent Athenian enterprise against Sicily, which was undertaken for greed against an intractable and difficult enemy when Athens could barely provide money or men and which did not go well.[26] The Homeric Polyphemus is brutish and alien to Odysseus and his crew.[27] Euripides' Polyphemus is sophisticated and intellectually analogous to sophists of the fifth century.[28] The influence of the Sophists is manifest throughout Euripides' plays "not only in his rhetorical style but also in his skeptical, down‐to‐earth approach".[29] In Cyclops both Odysseus and the Cyclops employ deft and appropriative rhetorical manipulation, "aggressive sophistry that reduces men to meat, and fine talk to deceptive barter".[30] Gluttonous ingestion is a theme and "[t]he imagery of grotesque ingestion surfaces almost immediately in the play".[31] Euripides' Cyclops has been described as "a figure of proto-Rabelaisian excess" and linked to ideas contained in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin.[32] Polyphemus "likes to talk, he likes to eat, [...] to talk about eating, or to try to eat those who talk to him".[33] The Cyclops and the satyrs continually refer to the Cyclops' belly and the satisfaction thereof.[34] Interaction between Odysseus and the Cyclops is based on food and exchange.[35] In the play the Cyclops suggests that people are the source of morality and not the gods.[36] He says that he sacrifices only to his belly, the greatest of divinities. Such impiety was of substantial interest to Athenians in the fifth century.[37] Euripides often dealt with "the consequences of impiety".[38] One facet of Greek religion was "to honor and placate the gods because they are powerful".[39] The Athenians judicially punished philosophers and sophists.[40] Euripides himself may have left Athens in "self-imposed exile".[41] But in his play his Cyclops is punished for impiety by having his eye burned out.[42] In Euripides' plays, "Characters might refuse to worship certain gods, blaspheme them, or even at times question the morality of the gods, but there is little evidence of what we would call atheism, a complete lack of belief in any god, in Greek thought".[43] The location of the cyclopes in the Odyssey is not specified, but Euripides' Cyclops is set in Sicily, possibly following Epicharmus,[44] portrayed as barbarous and desolate and hostile.[45] This was not an accurate representation of Sicily.[46] But the point is that the place is "completely non-Bacchic" and "non-Dionysiac".[47] This is mentioned by every character in the play.[48] Detail of a krater, dating to c. 560–550 BC, showing a satyr masturbating. Athenian satyr plays were characterized as "a genre of 'hard-ons.'"[49] In Cyclops Polyphemus has captured and enslaved Silenus and a group of satyrs. The satyrs play an important role in driving the plot without any of them actually being the lead role, which, in the satyr play generally, was always reserved for a god or tragic hero (in this case Odysseus).[50][51] According to Carl A. Shaw, the chorus of satyrs in a satyr play were "always trying to get a laugh with their animalistic, playfully rowdy, and, above all, sexual behavior."[52] Satyrs were widely seen as mischief-makers who routinely played tricks on people and interfered with their personal property.[53] They had insatiable sexual appetites and often sought to seduce or ravish both nymphs and mortal women alike (though not always successfully).[51][54][55][56][51] A single elderly satyr named Silenus was believed to have been the tutor of Dionysus on Mount Nysa.[51][57][54] After Dionysus grew to maturity, Silenus became one of his most devout followers and was perpetually drunk.[58] The identity of satyrs is plastic and somewhat elusive, but a salient aspect in Cyclops is the "comic inversion of societal norms".[59] They were overall "creatures that were funny and joyful, pleasing and delightful, feminine and masculine, but also cowardly and disgusting, pitiful and lamentable, terrifying and horrific".[60] Satyrs were revered as semi-divine beings and companions of the god Dionysus.[61] They were thought to possess their own kind of wisdom that was useful to humans if they could be convinced to share it.[53][61] In Cyclops the chorus "claim to know an incantation of Orpheus that will bring down a form of fiery destruction upon their enemy".[62] When the satyrs identify the Cyclops as a "son of Earth" and present their firebrand as igniting the Cyclops' skull rather than his eye they mimic a traditional Orphic incantation and Zeus's punishment of the Titans, the "sons of Earth" and primordial enemies of the Orphic Dionysus.[63] The central focus of Orphism is the suffering and death of the god Dionysus at the hands of the Titans, which forms the basis of Orphism's central myth. In the play the satyrs are devotees of Dionysus and on the island of Sicily, known to be "a center of Orphic cult".[64] Cyclops has been both lauded and scorned, with hostile commentators criticising its simplicity of plot and characterisation.[65][66] There is little agreement. According to critics the play is derived entirely from the Homeric episode or mostly from the Homeric episode,[67][68] is an interrogator of Homeric and tragic portrayals,[69] or "a rival version of a Homeric episode with new contemporary implications."[70] Translations[edit] Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1819 (published 1824) – verse full text Edward P. Coleridge, 1891 – prose: full text Arthur S. Way, 1912 – verse J. T. Sheppard, 1923 – verse William Arrowsmith, 1956 - verse Roger Lancelyn Green, 1957 – verse David Kovacs, 1994 – prose: full text Heather McHugh and David Konstan, 2001 – verse George Theodoridis, 2008 – prose: full text Patrick O'Sullivan and Christopher Collard, 2013: full text See also[edit] Ancient Greek literature Ancient Greek religion Classical Greece Dionysia Dionysian Mysteries Music of ancient Greece Theatre of ancient Greece References[edit] ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Euripides (2001). "Cyclops", in Euripides I. David Kovacs (ed. & tr.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Storey, Ian C., and Allan, Arlene. A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014. p. 171. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Dougherty, Carol. "The Double Vision of Euripides' Cyclops: An Ethnographic Odyssey on the Satyr Stage". Comparative Drama. Vol. 33, No. 3 (Fall 1999), pp. 313-338 ^ Homer, Odyssey 9.331-333. ^ Storey, Ian C., and Allan, Arlene. A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014. p. 170. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ O'Sullivan, P. (2016) ‘Cyclops’, in A Companion to Euripides. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp. 313–333. doi: 10.1002/9781119257530.ch22. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 248. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 249. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A. ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.85 ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. pp.84-85 ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.85 ^ Vickers, Michael. Sophocles and Alcibiades : Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen, 2008. p.84 ^ Vickers, Michael (2014). Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. New York, US: Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 9781844651238. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 9780199657834. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Raeburn, D. (2016), Greek Tragedies As Plays for Performance, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. p.138 ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 8 Sept. 2020. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 5 Sept. 2020. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 4 Sept. 2020. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A. ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22 ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22 ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22 ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22 ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. pp. 521-22 ^ McClure, LK (ed.) 2017, A Companion to Euripides, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Somerset. p. 522 ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 314. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 315. ^ O'Sullivan, Patrick. "Cyclops". McClure, Laura. A Companion to Euripides. John Wiley & Sons, 2017. ISBN 9781119257509. page 315. ^ Olson, S. Douglas. "Dionysus and the Pirates in Euripides' 'Cyclops'." Hermes 116, no. 4 (1988): 502-04. Accessed September 7, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4476660. ^ Olson, S. Douglas. "Dionysus and the Pirates in Euripides' 'Cyclops'." Hermes 116, no. 4 (1988): 502-04. Accessed September 7, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4476660. ^ Shaw 2014, p. 5. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShaw2014 (help) ^ Slenders 2015, p. 159. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSlenders2015 (help) ^ a b c d Riggs 2014, p. 233. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRiggs2014 (help) ^ Shaw, Carl A. (2014), Satyric Play: The Evolution of Greek Comedy and Satyr Drama, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-995094-2. p.5 ^ a b West 2007, p. 293. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWest2007 (help) ^ a b Kerényi 1951, p. 179. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKerényi1951 (help) ^ Roman & Roman 2010, p. 432. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRomanRoman2010 (help) ^ Room 1983, pp. 270–271. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoom1983 (help) ^ Fracer 2014, p. 326. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFracer2014 (help) ^ Riggs 2014, pp. 233–234. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRiggs2014 (help) ^ O'Sullivan, P. (2016) ‘Cyclops’, in A Companion to Euripides. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp. 313–333. doi: 10.1002/9781119257530.ch22. ^ Tarnopolsky, Christina. "The Event of Genre: Reading Plato's Republic through the Lens of Satyr-Play." Theory & Event 17, no. 1 (2014): N_A. ^ a b Shaw 2014, p. 18. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShaw2014 (help) ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.127 ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.140 ^ Faraone, Christopher A. "Mystery Cults and Incantations: Evidence for Orphic Charms in Euripides' Cyclops 646-48?" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie 151, no. 2 (2008): p.142 ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Arnott, Peter D. "The Overworked Playwright A Study in Euripides' Cyclops." Greece and Rome 8, no. 2 (1961): 164-69. ^ David Kovacs (ed. & tr.) (2001). Introduction, in "Cyclops", in Euripides I. Euripides. Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Worman, Nancy. "Odysseus, ingestive rhetoric, and Euripides' Cyclops." Helios, vol. 29, no. 2, 2002, p. 101+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A95966820/AONE?u=tou&sid=AONE&xid=5ad4a560. Accessed 8 Sept. 2020. ^ Torrance, Isabelle (2013). Metapoetry in Euripides. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780199657834. v t e Plays by Euripides Extant plays Cyclops Alcestis Medea Children of Heracles Hippolytus Andromache Hecuba The Suppliants Electra Herakles The Trojan Women Iphigenia in Tauris Ion Helen The Phoenician Women Orestes Bacchae Iphigenia in Aulis Rhesus Lost and fragmentary plays Alcmaeon in Corinth Alcmaeon in Psophis Andromeda Antigone Archelaus Bellerophon Cresphontes Hypsipyle Oedipus Peliades Phaethon Philoctetes Theristai Thyestes v t e Homer's Odyssey (8th century BC) Characters House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea (1911 Italian) Ulysses (1954 Italian) The Return of Ringo (1965 Italian) Nostos: The Return (1989 Italian) Ulysses' Gaze (1995 Greek) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) Keyhole (2012) TV The Odyssey (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature A True Story (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Poems "Ulysses" (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" (song) "The Odyssey" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer "Odysseus' scar" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Authority control BNF: cb122048092 (data) GND: 4119843-8 LCCN: n86132889 SUDOC: 092602703 VIAF: 215123941 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 215123941 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclops_(play)&oldid=1001769043" Categories: Plays by Euripides Odysseus Sicilian characters in Greek mythology Satyr plays Plays set in ancient Greece Plays set in Sicily Works based on the Odyssey Plays based on works by Homer Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Languages Български Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 06:50 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-5976	----	Aletes (Heraclid) - Wikipedia Aletes (Heraclid) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Aletidae) Jump to navigation Jump to search Ancient Greek mythological figure Aletes (Ancient Greek: Ἀλήτης) was a son of Hippotes, of Dorian ancestry, and a fifth-generation descendant of Heracles.[1] He is said to have defeated in battle the Corinthians, taken possession of Corinth, and to have expelled the Sisyphids[2] thirty years after the first invasion of the Peloponnesus by the Heraclids. His family, sometimes called the Aletidae, maintained themselves at Corinth down to the time of Bacchis (that is, late 10th century BC).[3][4][5][6] Velleius Paterculus calls him a descendant of Heracles, but of the sixth generation.[7] He received an oracle, promising him the sovereignty of Athens if during the war, which was then going on, its king should remain uninjured. This oracle became known at Athens, and the Athenian king Codrus sacrificed himself to preserve the city.[8] Notes[edit] ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Aletes". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 109. Archived from the original on 2007-04-05. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.4 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece ii. 4. § 3, v. 18. § 2 ^ Strabo, viii. p. 389 ^ Callimachus, Fragments 103 ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes xiii. 17 ^ Velleius Paterculus, i. 3 ^ Conon, Narrations 26 References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Aletes". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aletes_(Heraclid)&oldid=915116392" Categories: Heracleidae Kings of Corinth Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM without a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2019, at 09:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6060	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==External links== {{wiktionary|Sisyphean}} {{commons category}} {{wikiquote}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} {{Rulers of Corinth}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aeolides]] [[Category:Corinthian mythology]] [[Category:Condemned souls into Tartarus]] [[Category:Kings of Corinth]] [[Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades]] [[Category:Mythological tricksters]] [[Category:Mythological city founders]] Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6068	----	Heracles - Wikipedia Heracles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Divine hero in Greek mythology This article is about the Greek divine hero. For the similar figure in Roman mythology, see Hercules. For other uses, see Heracles (disambiguation). Heracles Divine protector of mankind, patron of gymnasium One of the most famous depictions of Heracles, Farnese Hercules, Roman marble statue on the basis of an original by Lysippos, 216 CE. National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy Abode Mount Olympus Symbol Club, lion skin Personal information Born Thebes, Boeotia, Greece Died Mount Oeta, Phocis, Greece Parents Zeus and Alcmene Siblings Aeacus, Angelos, Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Eileithyia, Enyo, Eris, Ersa, Hebe, Helen of Troy, Hephaestus, Hermes, Minos, Pandia, Persephone, Perseus, Rhadamanthus, the Graces, the Horae, the Litae, the Muses, the Moirai Consort Megara, Omphale, Deianira, Hebe Children Alexiares and Anicetus, Telephus, Hyllus, Tlepolemus Roman equivalent Hercules Etruscan equivalent Hercle Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Heracles (/ˈhɛrəkliːz/ HERR-ə-kleez; Greek: Ἡρακλῆς, Hēraklês, Glory/Pride of Hēra, "Hera"), born Alcaeus[1] (Ἀλκαῖος, Alkaios) (/ælˈsiːəs/) or Alcides[2] (Ἀλκείδης, Alkeidēs) (/ælˈsaɪdiːz/), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon.[3] He was a great-grandson and half-brother (as they are both sired by the god Zeus) of Perseus. He was the greatest of the Greek heroes, a paragon of masculinity, the ancestor of royal clans who claimed to be Heracleidae (Ἡρακλεῖδαι), and a champion of the Olympian order against chthonic monsters. In Rome and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the later Roman emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified themselves. The Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Central Mediterranean. Details of his cult were adapted to Rome as well. Contents 1 Origin 1.1 Hero or god 1.2 Christian chronology 1.3 Cult 2 Character 3 Mythology 3.1 Birth and childhood 3.2 Youth 3.3 Labours of Heracles 3.4 Further adventures 3.5 Omphale 3.6 Hylas 3.7 Rescue of Prometheus 3.8 Heracles' constellation 3.9 Heracles' sack of Troy 3.10 Colony at Sardinia 3.11 Other adventures 3.12 Death 4 Lovers 4.1 Women 4.1.1 Marriages 4.1.2 Affairs 4.2 Men 5 Children 5.1 Consorts and children 6 Heracles around the world 6.1 Rome 6.2 Egypt 6.3 Other cultures 7 Uses of Heracles as a name 8 Ancestry 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Primary sources 13 External links Origin Many popular stories were told of his life, the most famous being The Twelve Labours of Heracles; Alexandrian poets of the Hellenistic age drew his mythology into a high poetic and tragic atmosphere.[4] His figure, which initially drew on Near Eastern motifs such as the lion-fight, was widely known. Heracles was the greatest of Hellenic chthonic heroes, but unlike other Greek heroes, no tomb was identified as his. Heracles was both hero and god, as Pindar says heros theos; at the same festival sacrifice was made to him, first as a hero, with a chthonic libation, and then as a god, upon an altar: thus he embodies the closest Greek approach to a "demi-god".[4] The core of the story of Heracles has been identified by Walter Burkert as originating in Neolithic hunter culture and traditions of shamanistic crossings into the netherworld.[5] It is possible that the myths surrounding Heracles were based on the life of a real person or several people whose accomplishments became exaggerated with time.[6] Based on commonalities in the legends of Heracles and Odysseus, author Steven Sora suggested that they were both based on the same historical person, who made his mark prior to recorded history.[7] Hero or god Heracles' role as a culture hero, whose death could be a subject of mythic telling (see below), was accepted into the Olympian Pantheon during Classical times. This created an awkwardness in the encounter with Odysseus in the episode of Odyssey XI, called the Nekuia, where Odysseus encounters Heracles in Hades: And next I caught a glimpse of powerful Heracles— His ghost I mean: the man himself delights in the grand feasts of the deathless gods on high ... Around him cries of the dead rang out like cries of birds scattering left and right in horror as on he came like night ...[8] Ancient critics were aware of the problem of the aside that interrupts the vivid and complete description, in which Heracles recognizes Odysseus and hails him, and modern critics find very good reasons for denying that the verse's beginning, in Fagles' translation His ghost I mean ... were part of the original composition: "once people knew of Heracles' admission to Olympus, they would not tolerate his presence in the underworld", remarks Friedrich Solmsen,[9] noting that the interpolated verses represent a compromise between conflicting representations of Heracles. Christian chronology In Christian circles, a Euhemerist reading of the widespread Heracles cult was attributed to a historical figure who had been offered cult status after his death. Thus Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel (10.12), reported that Clement could offer historical dates for Hercules as a king in Argos: "from the reign of Hercules in Argos to the deification of Hercules himself and of Asclepius there are comprised thirty-eight years, according to [[Bibliotheca|Apollodorus]] the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of Castor and Pollux fifty-three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of Troy." Temple to Heracles in Agrigento, Sicily, Italy Readers with a literalist bent, following Clement's reasoning, have asserted from this remark that, since Heracles ruled over Tiryns in Argos at the same time that Eurystheus ruled over Mycenae, and since at about this time Linus was Heracles' teacher, one can conclude, based on Jerome's date—in his universal history, his Chronicon—given to Linus' notoriety in teaching Heracles in 1264 BCE, that Heracles' death and deification occurred 38 years later, in approximately 1226 BCE. Cult The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the Heracleia, which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August). What is believed to be an Egyptian Temple of Heracles in the Bahariya Oasis dates to 21 BCE. A reassessment of Ptolemy's descriptions of the island of Malta attempted to link the site at Ras ir-Raħeb with a temple to Heracles,[10] but the arguments are not conclusive.[11] Several ancient cities were named Heraclea in his honor. Although the Athenians were among the first to worship Heracles as a god, there were Greek cities that refused to recognize the hero's divine status. There are also several poleis that merely provided two separate sanctuaries for Heracles, one recognizing him as a god, the other only as a hero.[12] This ambiguity helped create the Heracles cult especially when historians (e.g. Herodotus) and artists encouraged worship such as the painters during the time of the Peisistratos, who often presented Heracles entering Olympus in their works.[12] Some sources explained that the cult of Heracles persisted because of the hero's ascent to heaven and his suffering, which became the basis for festivals, ritual, rites, and the organization of mysteries.[13] There is the observation, for example, that sufferings (pathea) gave rise to the rituals of grief and mourning, which came before the joy in the mysteries in the sequence of cult rituals.[13] Also, like the case of Apollo, the cult of Hercules has been sustained through the years by absorbing local cult figures such as those who share the same nature.[14] He was also constantly invoked as a patron for men, especially the young ones. For example, he was considered the ideal in warfare so he presided over gymnasiums and the ephebes or those men undergoing military training.[14] There were ancient towns and cities that also adopted Heracles as a patron deity, contributing to the spread of his cult. There was the case of the royal house of Macedonia, which claimed lineal descent from the hero[15] primarily for purposes of divine protection and legitimator of actions. The earliest evidence that show the worship of Heracles in popular cult was in 6th century BCE (121–122 and 160–165) via an ancient inscription from Phaleron.[14] Character Greek mythology influenced the Etruscans. This vase at Caere shows King Eurytus of Oechalia and Heracles in a symposium. Krater of corinthian columns called 'Krater of Eurytion', c. 600 BCE Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and sexual prowess with both males and females were among the characteristics commonly attributed to him. Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice, such as when laboring for the king Augeas of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky back onto his shoulders. Together with Hermes he was the patron and protector of gymnasia and palaestrae.[16] His iconographic attributes are the lion skin and the club. These qualities did not prevent him from being regarded as a playful figure who used games to relax from his labors and played a great deal with children.[17] By conquering dangerous archaic forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind" and to be its benefactor.[18] Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince Admetus, who had regaled Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed him, as Augeas, Neleus, and Laomedon all found out to their cost. There was also a coldness to his character, which was demonstrated by Sophocles' depiction of the hero in The Trachiniae. Heracles threatened his marriage with his desire to bring two women under the same roof; one of them was his wife Deianeira.[19] In the works of Euripides involving Heracles, his actions were partly driven by forces outside rational human control. By highlighting the divine causation of his madness, Euripides problematized Heracles' character and status within the civilized context.[20] This aspect is also highlighted in Hercules Furens where Seneca linked the hero's madness to an illusion and a consequence of Herakles' refusal to live a simple life, as offered by Amphitryon. It was indicated that he preferred the extravagant violence of the heroic life and that its ghosts eventually manifested in his madness and that the hallucinatory visions defined Herakles' character.[21] Mythology Birth and childhood Heracles strangling snakes (detail from an Attic red-figured stamnos, c. 480–470 BCE) A major factor in the well-known tragedies surrounding Heracles is the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him. A full account of Heracles must render it clear why Heracles was so tormented by Hera, when there were many illegitimate offspring sired by Zeus. Heracles was the son of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene. Zeus made love to her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war (Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with his son at the same time, a case of heteropaternal superfecundation, where a woman carries twins sired by different fathers).[22] Thus, Heracles' very existence proved at least one of Zeus' many illicit affairs, and Hera often conspired against Zeus' mortal offspring as revenge for her husband's infidelities. His twin mortal brother, son of Amphitryon, was Iphicles, father of Heracles' charioteer Iolaus. The Origin of the Milky Way by Jacopo Tintoretto On the night the twins Heracles and Iphicles were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus' adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would become High King. Hera did this knowing that while Heracles was to be born a descendant of Perseus, so too was Eurystheus. Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene's dwelling and slowed the birth of the twins Heracles and Iphicles by forcing Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth, to sit cross-legged with her clothing tied in knots, thereby causing the twins to be trapped in the womb. Meanwhile, Hera caused Eurystheus to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles. She would have permanently delayed Heracles' birth had she not been fooled by Galanthis, Alcmene's servant, who lied to Ilithyia, saying that Alcmene had already delivered the baby. Upon hearing this, she jumped in surprise, loosing the knots and inadvertently allowing Alcmene to give birth to Heracles and Iphicles. Heracles as a boy strangling a snake (marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century CE). Capitoline Museums in Rome, Italy Fear of Hera's revenge led Alcmene to expose the infant Heracles, but he was taken up and brought to Hera by his half-sister Athena, who played an important role as protectress of heroes. Hera did not recognize Heracles and nursed him out of pity. Heracles suckled so strongly that he caused Hera pain, and she pushed him away. Her milk sprayed across the heavens and there formed the Milky Way. But with divine milk, Heracles had acquired supernatural powers. Athena brought the infant back to his mother, and he was subsequently raised by his parents.[23] The child was originally given the name Alcides by his parents; it was only later that he became known as Heracles.[3] He was renamed Heracles in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera. He and his twin were just eight months old when Hera sent two giant snakes into the children's chamber. Iphicles cried from fear, but his brother grabbed a snake in each hand and strangled them. He was found by his nurse playing with them on his cot as if they were toys. Astonished, Amphitryon sent for the seer Tiresias, who prophesied an unusual future for the boy, saying he would vanquish numerous monsters. Youth The choice of Hercules by Annibale Carracci After killing his music tutor Linus with a lyre, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by his foster father Amphitryon. Here, according to an allegorical parable, "The Choice of Heracles", invented by the sophist Prodicus (c. 400 BCE) and reported in Xenophon's Memorabilia 2.1.21–34, he was visited by two allegorical figures—Vice and Virtue—who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life: he chose the latter. This was part of a pattern of "ethicizing" Heracles over the 5th century BCE.[24] Later in Thebes, Heracles married King Creon's daughter, Megara. In a fit of madness, induced by Hera, Heracles killed his children and Megara. After his madness had been cured with hellebore by Antikyreus, the founder of Antikyra,[25] he realized what he had done and fled to the Oracle of Delphi. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for ten years and perform any task Eurystheus required of him. Eurystheus decided to give Heracles ten labours, but after completing them, Heracles was cheated by Eurystheus when he added two more, resulting in the Twelve Labors of Heracles. Labours of Heracles The fight of Heracles and the Nemean lion is one of his most famous feats. (Side B from a black-figure Attic amphora, c. 540 BCE) His eleventh feat was to capture the apple of Hesperides (Gilded bronze, Roman artwork, 2nd century CE) Main article: Labours of Hercules Driven mad by Hera, Heracles slew his own children. To expiate the crime, Heracles was required to carry out ten labours set by his archenemy, Eurystheus, who had become king in Heracles' place. If he succeeded, he would be purified of his sin and, as myth says, he would become a god, and be granted immortality. Other traditions place Heracles' madness at a later time, and relate the circumstances differently.[26] In some traditions there was only a divine reason for Heracles twelve labours: Zeus, in his desire not to leave Heracles the victim of Hera's jealousy, made her promise that, if Heracles executed twelve great works in the service of Eurystheus, he should become immortal.[26] In the play Herakles by Euripides, Heracles is driven to madness by Hera and kills his children after his twelve labours. Despite the difficulty, Heracles accomplished these tasks, but Eurystheus in the end did not accept the success the hero had with two of the labours: the cleansing of the Augean stables, because Heracles was going to accept pay for the labour; and the killing of the Lernaean Hydra, as Heracles' nephew, Iolaus, had helped him burn the stumps of the multiplying heads. Eurystheus set two more tasks, fetching the Golden Apples of Hesperides and capturing Cerberus. In the end, with ease, the hero successfully performed each added task, bringing the total number of labours up to the magic number twelve. Not all versions and writers give the labours in the same order. The Bibliotheca (2.5.1–2.5.12) gives the following order: 1. Slay the Nemean Lion Heracles defeated a lion that was attacking the city of Nemea with his bare hands. After he succeeded he wore the skin as a cloak to demonstrate his power over the opponent he had defeated. 2. Slay the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra a fire-breathing monster with multiple serpent heads that when one head was cut off, two would grow in its place. It lived in a swamp near Lerna. Hera had sent it in hope it would destroy Heracles' home city because she thought it was invincible. With help from his nephew Iolaus, he defeated the monster and dipped his arrows in its poisoned blood, thus envenomizing them. 3. Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis not to kill, but to catch, this monster. A different, but still difficult, task for a hero. It cost time but, having chased it for a year, Heracles wore out the Hind and presented it alive to Eurystheus. 4. Capture the Erymanthian Boar a fearsome marauding boar on the loose. Eurystheus set Heracles the Labour of catching it, and bringing it to Mycenae. Again, a time-consuming task, but the tireless hero found the beast, captured it, and brought it to its final spot. Patience is the heroic quality in the third and fourth Labours. 5. Clean the Augean stables in a single day the Augean stables were the home of 3,000 cattle with poisoned faeces which Augeas had been given by his father Helios. Heracles was given the near impossible task of cleaning the stables of the diseased faeces. He accomplished it by digging ditches on both sides of the stables, moving them into the ditches, and then diverting the rivers Alpheios and Peneios to wash the ditches clean. 6. Slay the Stymphalian Birds these aggressive man-eating birds were terrorizing a forest near Lake Stymphalia in northern Arcadia. Heracles scared them with a rattle given to him by Athena, to frighten them into flight away from the forest, allowing him to shoot many of them with his bow and arrow and bring back this proof of his success to Eurystheus. 7. Capture the Cretan Bull the harmful bull, father of the Minotaur, was laying waste to the lands round Knossos on Crete. It embodied the rage of Poseidon at having his gift (the Bull) to Minos diverted from the intention to sacrifice it to himself. Heracles captured it, and carried it on his shoulders to Eurystheus in Tiryns. Eurystheus released it, when it wandered to Marathon which it then terrorized, until killed by Theseus. 8. Steal the Mares of Diomedes stealing the horses from Diomedes' stables that had been trained by their owner to feed on human flesh was his next challenge. Heracles' task was to capture them and hand them over to Eurystheus. He accomplished this task by feeding King Diomedes to the animals before binding their mouths shut. 9. Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons Hippolyta was an Amazon queen and she had a girdle given to her by her father. Heracles had to retrieve the girdle and return it to Eurystheus. He and his band of companions received a rough welcome because, ordered by Hera, the Amazons were supposed to attack them; however, against all odds, Heracles completed the task and secured the girdle for Eurystheus. 10. Obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon the next challenge was to capture the herd guarded by a two-headed dog called Orthrus, the herdsman Erytion and the owner, Geryon; a giant with three heads and six arms. He killed the first two with his club and the third with a poisoned arrow. Heracles then herded the cattle and, with difficulty, took them to Eurytheus. 11. Steal the golden apples of the Hesperides these sacred fruits were protected by Hera who had set Ladon, a fearsome hundred-headed dragon as the guardian. Heracles had to first find where the garden was; he asked Nereus for help. He came across Prometheus on his journey. Heracles shot the eagle eating at his liver, and in return he helped Heracles with knowledge that his brother would know where the garden was. His brother Atlas offered him help with the apples if he would hold up the heavens while he was gone. Atlas tricked him and did not return. Heracles returned the trickery and managed to get Atlas taking the burden of the heavens once again, and returned the apples to Mycenae. 12. Capture and bring back Cerberus his last labour and undoubtedly the riskiest. Eurystheus was so frustrated that Heracles was completing all the tasks that he had given him that he imposed one he believed to be impossible: Heracles had to go down into the underworld of Hades and capture the ferocious three-headed dog Cerberus who guarded the gates. He used the souls to help convince Hades to hand over the dog. He agreed to give him the dog if he used no weapons to obtain him. Heracles succeeded and took the creature back to Mycenae, causing Eurystheus to be fearful of the power and strength of this hero. Further adventures After completing these tasks, Heracles fell in love with Princess Iole of Oechalia. King Eurytus of Oechalia promised his daughter, Iole, to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest. Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise. Heracles' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one: Iole's brother Iphitus. Heracles killed the king and his sons—excluding Iphitus—and abducted Iole. Iphitus became Heracles' best friend. However, once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death. Once again, Heracles purified himself through three years of servitude—this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia. Omphale Main article: Omphale Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 CE), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy Omphale was a queen or princess of Lydia. As penalty for a murder, imposed by Xenoclea, the Delphic Oracle, Heracles was to serve as her slave for a year. He was forced to do women's work and to wear women's clothes, while she wore the skin of the Nemean Lion and carried his olive-wood club. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him. Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named. It was at that time that the cercopes, mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles' weapons. He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward. Hylas While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the Dryopes. In Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica it is recalled that Heracles had mercilessly slain their king, Theiodamas, over one of the latter's bulls, and made war upon the Dryopes "because they gave no heed to justice in their lives".[27] After the death of their king, the Dryopes gave in and offered him Prince Hylas. He took the youth on as his weapons bearer and beloved. Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the Argo. As Argonauts, they only participated in part of the journey. In Mysia, Hylas was kidnapped by the nymphs of a local spring. Heracles, heartbroken, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again. In other versions, he simply drowned. Either way, the Argo set sail without them. Rescue of Prometheus Hesiod's Theogony and Aeschylus' Prometheus Unbound both tell that Heracles shot and killed the eagle that tortured Prometheus (which was his punishment by Zeus for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mortals). Heracles freed the Titan from his chains and his torments. Prometheus then made predictions regarding further deeds of Heracles. Heracles' constellation On his way back to Mycenae from Iberia, having obtained the Cattle of Geryon as his tenth labour, Heracles came to Liguria in North-Western Italy where he engaged in battle with two giants, Albion and Bergion or Dercynus, sons of Poseidon. The opponents were strong; Hercules was in a difficult position so he prayed to his father Zeus for help. Under the aegis of Zeus, Heracles won the battle. It was this kneeling position of Heracles when he prayed to his father Zeus that gave the name Engonasin ("Εγγόνασιν", derived from "εν γόνασιν"), meaning "on his knees" or "the Kneeler", to the constellation known as Heracles' constellation. The story, among others, is described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.[28] Heracles' sack of Troy A fresco from Herculaneum depicting Heracles and Achelous from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century CE Before Homer's Trojan War, Heracles had made an expedition to Troy and sacked it. Previously, Poseidon had sent a sea monster (Greek: kētŏs, Latin: cetus) to attack Troy. The story is related in several digressions in the Iliad (7.451–53; 20.145–48; 21.442–57) and is found in pseudo-Apollodorus' Bibliotheke (2.5.9). This expedition became the theme of the Eastern pediment of the Temple of Aphaea. Laomedon planned on sacrificing his daughter Hesione to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him. Heracles happened to arrive (along with Telamon and Oicles) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus' kidnapping Ganymede. Laomedon agreed. Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word. Accordingly, in a later expedition, Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it. Then they slew all Laomedon's sons present there save Podarces, who was renamed Priam, who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made. Telamon took Hesione as a war prize and they had a son, Teucer. Colony at Sardinia After Heracles had performed his Labours, gods told him that before he passed into the company of the gods, he should create a colony at Sardinia and make his sons, whom he had with the daughters of Thespius, the leaders of the settlement. When his sons became adults, he sent them together with Iolaus to the island.[29][30] Other adventures Heracles fighting the servants of the Egyptian King Busiris, Attic Pelike, c. 470 BCE Heracles defeated the Bebryces (ruled by King Mygdon) and gave their land to Prince Lycus of Mysia, son of Dascylus. He killed the robber Termerus. Heracles visited Evander with Antor, who then stayed in Italy. Heracles killed King Amyntor of Ormenium for not allowing him into his kingdom. He also killed King Emathion of Arabia. Heracles kills the Egyptian King Busiris and his followers after they attempt to sacrifice him to the gods. Heracles killed Lityerses after beating him in a contest of harvesting. Heracles killed Periclymenus at Pylos. Heracles killed Syleus for forcing strangers to hoe a vineyard. Heracles rivaled with Lepreus and eventually killed him. Heracles founded the city Tarentum (modern Taranto in Italy). Heracles learned music from Linus (and Eumolpus), but killed him after Linus corrected his mistakes. He learned how to wrestle from Autolycus. He killed the famous boxer Eryx of Sicily in a match. Heracles was an Argonaut. He killed Alastor and his brothers. Heracles killing the giant, Antaeus When Hippocoon overthrew his brother, Tyndareus, as King of Sparta, Heracles reinstated the rightful ruler and killed Hippocoon and his sons. Heracles killed Cycnus, the son of Ares. The expedition against Cycnus, in which Iolaus accompanied Heracles, is the ostensible theme of a short epic attributed to Hesiod, Shield of Heracles. Heracles killed the Giants Alcyoneus and Porphyrion. Heracles killed Antaeus the giant who was immortal while touching the earth, by picking him up and holding him in the air while strangling him. Pygmies tried to kill Heracles because they were brothers of Antaeus and wanted to avenge Antaeus's death.[31][32] Heracles went to war with Augeias after he denied him a promised reward for clearing his stables. Augeias remained undefeated due to the skill of his two generals, the Molionides, and after Heracles fell ill, his army was badly beaten. Later, however, he was able to ambush and kill the Molionides, and thus march into Elis, sack it, and kill Augeias and his sons. Heracles visited the house of Admetus on the day Admetus' wife, Alcestis, had agreed to die in his place. Admetus, not wanting to turn Heracles away, nor wanting to burden him with his sadness, welcomes him and instructs the servants not to inform Heracles of what has occurred. Heracles, thus unaware of Alcestis's fate, enjoys the hospitality of Admetus's house, drinking and revelling, which angers the servants, who wish to mourn as is their right. One scolds the guest and Heracles is ashamed of his actions. By hiding beside the grave of Alcestis, Heracles was able to surprise Death when he came to collect her, and by squeezing him tight until he relented, was able to persuade Death to return Alcestis to her husband. Heracles challenged wine god Dionysus to a drinking contest and lost, resulting in his joining the Thiasus for a period. Heracles also appears in Aristophanes' The Frogs, in which Dionysus seeks out the hero to find a way to the underworld. Heracles is greatly amused by Dionysus' appearance and jokingly offers several ways to commit suicide before finally offering his knowledge of how to get to there. Heracles appears as the ancestral hero of Scythia in Herodotus' text. While Heracles is sleeping out in the wilderness, a half-woman, half-snake creature steals his horses. Heracles eventually finds the creature, but she refuses to return the horses until he has sex with her. After doing so, he takes back his horses, but before leaving, he hands over his belt and bow, and gives instructions as to which of their children should found a new nation in Scythia. In the fifth book of the New History, ascribed by Photius to Ptolemy Hephaestion, mention that Heracles did not wear the skin of the Nemean lion, but that of a certain Lion giant killed by Heracles whom he had challenged to single combat.[33] Herakles fought and killed Cacus.[34][35] Herakles fought with the Sicani people, killing many including the famous Leucaspis.[36] Death Death of Hercules (painting by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1634, Museo del Prado) This is described in Sophocles's Trachiniae and in Ovid's Metamorphoses Book IX. Having wrestled and defeated Achelous, god of the Acheloos river, Heracles takes Deianira as his wife. Travelling to Tiryns, a centaur, Nessus, offers to help Deianira across a fast flowing river while Heracles swims it. However, Nessus is true to the archetype of the mischievous centaur and tries to steal Deianira away while Heracles is still in the water. Angry, Heracles shoots him with his arrows dipped in the poisonous blood of the Lernaean Hydra. Thinking of revenge, Nessus gives Deianira his blood-soaked tunic before he dies, telling her it will "excite the love of her husband".[37] Several years later, rumor tells Deianira that she has a rival for the love of Heracles. Deianira, remembering Nessus' words, gives Heracles the bloodstained shirt. Lichas, the herald, delivers the shirt to Heracles. However, it is still covered in the Hydra's blood from Heracles' arrows, and this poisons him, tearing his skin and exposing his bones. Before he dies, Heracles throws Lichas into the sea, thinking he was the one who poisoned him (according to several versions, Lichas turns to stone, becoming a rock standing in the sea, named for him). Heracles then uproots several trees and builds a funeral pyre on Mount Oeta, which Poeas, father of Philoctetes, lights. As his body burns, only his immortal side is left. Through Zeus' apotheosis, Heracles rises to Olympus as he dies. No one but Heracles' friend Philoctetes (Poeas in some versions) would light his funeral pyre (in an alternative version, it is Iolaus who lights the pyre). For this action, Philoctetes or Poeas received Heracles' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War. Philoctetes confronted Paris and shot a poisoned arrow at him. The Hydra poison subsequently led to the death of Paris. The Trojan War, however, continued until the Trojan Horse was used to defeat Troy. According to Herodotus, Heracles lived 900 years before Herodotus' own time (c. 1300 BCE).[38] Lovers Women Marriages During the course of his life, Heracles married four times. Heracles waged a victorious war against the kingdom of Orchomenus in Boeotia and married his first wife Megara, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes. But he killed their children in a fit of madness sent by Hera and, consequently, was obliged to become the servant of Eurystheus. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 2.4.12) Megara was unharmed. According to Hyginus (Fabulae, 32), Heracles also killed Megara. His second wife was Omphale, the Lydian queen to whom he was delivered as a slave (Hyginus, Fabulae, 32). His third marriage was to Deianira, for whom he had to fight the river god Achelous (upon Achelous' death, Heracles removed one of his horns and gave it to some nymphs who turned it into the cornucopia). Soon after they wed, Heracles and Deianira had to cross a river, and a centaur named Nessus offered to help Deianira across but then attempted to rape her. Enraged, Heracles shot the centaur from the opposite shore with a poisoned arrow (tipped with the Lernaean Hydra's blood) and killed him. As he lay dying, Nessus plotted revenge, told Deianira to gather up his blood and spilled semen and, if she ever wanted to prevent Heracles from having affairs with other women, she should apply them to his vestments. Nessus knew that his blood had become tainted by the poisonous blood of the Hydra, and would burn through the skin of anyone it touched. Later, when Deianira suspected that Heracles was fond of Iole, she soaked a shirt of his in the mixture, creating the poisoned shirt of Nessus. Heracles' servant, Lichas, brought him the shirt and he put it on. Instantly he was in agony, the cloth burning into him. As he tried to remove it, the flesh ripped from his bones. Heracles chose a voluntary death, asking that a pyre be built for him to end his suffering. After death, the gods transformed him into an immortal, or alternatively, the fire burned away the mortal part of the demigod, so that only the god remained. After his mortal parts had been incinerated, he could become a full god and join his father and the other Olympians on Mount Olympus. His fourth marriage was to Hebe, his last wife. Affairs An episode of his female affairs that stands out was his stay at the palace of Thespius, king of Thespiae, who wished him to kill the Lion of Cithaeron. As a reward, the king offered him the chance to perform sexual intercourse with all fifty of his daughters in one night. Heracles complied and they all became pregnant and all bore sons. This is sometimes referred to as his Thirteenth Labour. Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of Sparta and Macedon. Yet another episode of his female affairs that stands out was when he carried away the oxen of Geryon, he also visited the country of the Scythians. Once there, while asleep, his horses suddenly disappeared. When he woke and wandered about in search of them, he came into the country of Hylaea. He then found the dracaena of Scythia (sometimes identified as Echidna) in a cave. When he asked whether she knew anything about his horses, she answered, that they were in her own possession, but that she would not give them up, unless he would consent to stay with her for a time. Heracles accepted the request, and became by her the father of Agathyrsus, Gelonus, and Scythes. The last of them became king of the Scythians, according to his father's arrangement, because he was the only one among the three brothers that was able to manage the bow which Heracles had left behind and to use his father's girdle.[39] Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes that Heracles and Lavinia, daughter of Evander, had a son named Pallas.[40] Men This section relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Heracles and Iolaus (Fountain mosaic from the Anzio Nymphaeum) As a symbol of masculinity and warriorship, Heracles also had a number of male lovers. Plutarch, in his Eroticos, maintains that Heracles' male lovers were beyond counting. Of these, the one most closely linked to Heracles is the Theban Iolaus. According to a myth thought to be of ancient origins, Iolaus was Heracles' charioteer and squire. Heracles in the end helped Iolaus find a wife. Plutarch reports that down to his own time, male couples would go to Iolaus's tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to the hero and to each other.[41][42] He also mentions Admetus, known in myth for assisting in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, as one of Heracles's male lovers.[43] One of Heracles' male lovers, and one represented in ancient as well as modern art, is Hylas.[44] Another reputed male lover of Heracles is Elacatas, who was honored in Sparta with a sanctuary and yearly games, Elacatea. The myth of their love is an ancient one.[45] Abdera's eponymous hero, Abderus, was another of Heracles' lovers. He was said to have been entrusted with—and slain by—the carnivorous mares of Thracian Diomedes. Heracles founded the city of Abdera in Thrace in his memory, where he was honored with athletic games.[46] Another myth is that of Iphitus.[47] Another story is the one of his love for Nireus, who was "the most beautiful man who came beneath Ilion" (Iliad, 673). But Ptolemy adds that certain authors made Nireus out to be a son of Heracles.[48] Pausanias makes mention of Sostratus, a youth of Dyme, Achaea, as a lover of Heracles. Sostratus was said to have died young and to have been buried by Heracles outside the city. The tomb was still there in historical times, and the inhabitants of Dyme honored Sostratus as a hero.[49] The youth seems to have also been referred to as Polystratus. A series of lovers are only known in later literature. Among these are Eurystheus,[50] Adonis,[51] Corythus,[51] and Nestor who was said to have been loved for his wisdom. In the account of Ptolemaeus Chennus, Nestor's role as lover explains why he was the only son of Neleus to be spared by the hero.[52] A scholiast commenting on Apollonius' Argonautica lists the following male lovers of Heracles: "Hylas, Philoctetes, Diomus, Perithoas, and Phrix, after whom a city in Libya was named".[53] Diomus is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium as the eponym of the deme Diomeia of the Attic phyle Aegeis: Heracles is said to have fallen in love with Diomus when he was received as guest by Diomus' father Collytus.[54] Perithoas and Phrix are otherwise unknown, and so is the version that suggests a sexual relationship between Heracles and Philoctetes.[citation needed] Children Main article: Heracleidae Heracles and his child Telephus. (Marble, Roman copy of the 1st or 2nd century CE) All of Heracles' marriages and almost all of his heterosexual affairs resulted in births of a number of sons and at least four daughters. One of the most prominent is Hyllus, the son of Heracles and Deianeira or Melite. The term Heracleidae, although it could refer to all of Heracles' children and further descendants, is most commonly used to indicate the descendants of Hyllus, in the context of their lasting struggle for return to Peloponnesus, out of where Hyllus and his brothers—the children of Heracles by Deianeira—were thought to have been expelled by Eurystheus. The children of Heracles by Megara are collectively well known because of their ill fate, but there is some disagreement among sources as to their number and individual names. Apollodorus lists three, Therimachus, Creontiades and Deicoon;[55] to these Hyginus[56] adds Ophitus and, probably by mistake, Archelaus, who is otherwise known to have belonged to the Heracleidae, but to have lived several generations later. A scholiast on Pindar' s odes provides a list of seven completely different names: Anicetus, Chersibius, Mecistophonus, Menebrontes, Patrocles, Polydorus, Toxocleitus.[57] Other well-known children of Heracles include Telephus, king of Mysia (by Auge), and Tlepolemus, one of the Greek commanders in the Trojan War (by Astyoche). According to Herodotus, a line of 22 Kings of Lydia descended from Hercules and Omphale. The line was called Tylonids after his Lydian name. The divine sons of Heracles and Hebe are Alexiares and Anicetus. Consorts and children Megara Therimachus Creontiades Ophitus Deicoon Omphale Agelaus Tyrsenus Deianira Hyllus Ctesippus Glenus Oneites Macaria Hebe Alexiares Anicetus Astydameia, daughter of Ormenus or Amyntor Ctesippus Astyoche, daughter of Phylas Tlepolemus Auge Telephus Autonoë, daughter of Piraeus / Iphinoe, daughter of Antaeus Palaemon Baletia, daughter of Baletus Brettus[58] Barge Bargasus[59] Bolbe Olynthus Celtine Celtus Chalciope Thessalus Chania, nymph Gelon[60] The Scythian dracaena or Echidna Agathyrsus Gelonus Scythes Epicaste Thestalus Lavinia, daughter of Evander[61] Pallas Malis, a slave of Omphale Acelus[62] Meda Antiochus Melite (heroine) Melite (naiad) Hyllus (possibly) Myrto Eucleia Palantho of Hyperborea[63] Latinus[61] Parthenope, daughter of Stymphalus (son of Elatus) Everes (mythology) Phialo Aechmagoras Psophis Echephron Promachus Pyrene none known Rhea, Italian priestess Aventinus[64] Thebe (daughter of Adramys) Tinge, wife of Antaeus Sophax[65] 50 daughters of Thespius 50 sons, see Thespius#Daughters and grandchildren Unnamed Celtic woman Galates[66] Unnamed female slave of Iardanus Alcaeus / Cleodaeus Unnamed daughter of Syleus (Xenodoce?)[67] Unknown consorts Agylleus[68] Amathous[69] Azon[70] Chromis[71] Cyrnus[72] Dexamenus[73] Leucites[74] Manto Pandaie Phaestus or Rhopalus[75] Heracles around the world Rome Main article: Hercules in ancient Rome A Roman gilded silver bowl depicting the boy Hercules strangling two serpents, from the Hildesheim Treasure, 1st century CE, Altes Museum In Rome, Heracles was honored as Hercules, and had a number of distinctively Roman myths and practices associated with him under that name. Egypt Herodotus connected Heracles to the Egyptian god Shu. Also he was associated with Khonsu, another Egyptian god who was in some ways similar to Shu. As Khonsu, Heracles was worshipped at the now sunken city of Heracleion, where a large temple was constructed. Most often the Egyptians identified Heracles with Heryshaf, transcribed in Greek as Arsaphes or Harsaphes (Ἁρσαφής). He was an ancient ram-god whose cult was centered in Herakleopolis Magna. Other cultures See also: Hercules in popular culture Hellenistic-era depiction of the Zoroastrian divinity Bahram as Hercules carved in 153 BCE at Kermanshah, Iran. The protector Vajrapani of the Buddha is another incarnation of Heracles (Gandhara, 1st century CE). Heracles as protector of Buddha, Vajrapani, 2nd-century Gandhara. The Mathura Herakles, strangling the Nemean lion (Kolkata Indian Museum).[76] Herakles under his lion skin and holding thunder (vajra), with Buddhist monks, art of Gandhara, British Museum Via the Greco-Buddhist culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the Far East. An example remains to this day in the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples. Herodotus also connected Heracles to Phoenician god Melqart. Sallust mentions in his work on the Jugurthine War that the Africans believe Heracles to have died in Spain where, his multicultural army being left without a leader, the Medes, Persians, and Armenians who were once under his command split off and populated the Mediterranean coast of Africa.[77] Temples dedicated to Heracles abounded all along the Mediterranean coastal countries. For example, the temple of Heracles Monoikos (i.e. the lone dweller), built far from any nearby town upon a promontory in what is now the Côte d'Azur, gave its name to the area's more recent name, Monaco. The gateway to the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean, where the southernmost tip of Spain and the northernmost of Morocco face each other is, classically speaking, referred to as the Pillars of Hercules/Heracles, owing to the story that he set up two massive spires of stone to stabilise the area and ensure the safety of ships sailing between the two landmasses. Uses of Heracles as a name In various languages, variants of Hercules' name are used as a male given name, such as Hercule in French, Hércules in Spanish, Iraklis (Greek: Ηρακλής) in Modern Greek and Irakli (Georgian: ირაკლი, romanized: irak'li) in Georgian. There are many teams around the world that have this name or have Heracles as their symbol. The most popular in Greece is G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki. Heracleum is a genus of flowering plants in the carrot family Apiaceae. Some of the species in this genus are quite large. In particular, the giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) is exceptionally large, growing up to 5 m tall. Ancestry Source:[78] Zeus Danaë Perseus Andromeda Perses Alcaeus Hipponome Electryon Anaxo Sthenelus Menippe Mestor Anaxo Amphitryon Alcmene Zeus Licymnius Eurystheus Iphicles Megara Heracles Deianira Hebe Iolaus Three Children Hyllus Macaria Others See also Ancient Greece portal Religion portal Other figures in Greek mythology punished by the gods include Atlas Ixion Medusa Prometheus Sisyphus Tantalus The Danaides Figures resembling Heracles in other mythological traditions Agilaz Beowulf Gilgamesh Lugalbanda Samson Notes ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Alceides". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 98. Archived from the original on 2008-05-27. ^ Bibliotheca ii. 4. § 12 ^ a b By his adoptive descent through Amphitryon, Heracles receives the epithet Alcides, as "of the line of Alcaeus", father of Amphitryon. Amphitryon's own, mortal son was Iphicles. ^ a b Burkert 1985, pp. 208–09 ^ Burkert 1985, pp. 208–12. ^ Loewen, Nancy: Hercules, p. 15 ^ Kenyon, Douglas J. (January–February 2018). "[no title cited]". Atlantis Rising Magazine. Vol. 127. ^ Robert Fagles' translation, 1996:269. ^ Solmsen, Friedrich (1981). "The Sacrifice of Agamemnon's Daughter in Hesiod's' Ehoeae". The American Journal of Philology. 102 (4): 353–58 [355]. JSTOR 294322. ^ Ptol. iv. 3. § 37 ^ Ventura, F. (1988). "Ptolemy's Maltese Co-ordinates". Hyphen. V (6): 253–69. ^ a b Winiarczyk, Marek (2013). The "Sacred History" of Euhemerus of Messene. Walter de Gruyter. p. 30. ISBN 978-3110278880. ^ a b Burkert, Walter (1987). Ancient Mystery Cults. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0674033870. ^ a b c Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0198706779. ^ Carney, Elizabeth (2015). King and Court in Ancient Macedonia: Rivalry, Treason and Conspiracy. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales. p. 66. ISBN 978-1910589083. ^ Pausanias, Guide to Greece, 4.32.1 ^ Aelian, Varia Historia, 12.15 ^ Aelian, Varia Historia, 5.3 ^ Thorburn, John (2005). The Facts on File Companion to Classical Drama. New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 555. ISBN 978-0816052028. ^ Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. p. 81. ISBN 9780521851268. ^ Littlewood, Cedric (2004). Self-representation and Illusion in Senecan Tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0199267613. ^ Compare the two pairs of twins born to Leda and the "double" parentage of Theseus. ^ Diodorus Siculus' Bibliotheca Historica (Book IV, Ch. 9) ^ Andrew Ford, Aristotle as Poet, Oxford, 2011, p. 208 n. 5, citing, in addition to Prodicus/Xenophon, Antisthenes, Herodorus (esp. FGrHist 31 F 14), and (in the 4th century) Plato's use of "Heracles as a figure for Socrates' life (and death?): Apology 22a, cf. Theaetetus 175a, Lysis 205c." ^ Pausanias Χ 3.1, 36.5. Ptolemaeus, Geogr. Hyph. ΙΙ 184. 12. Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. "Ἀντίκυρα" ^ a b Smith, W., ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography And Mythology. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 393–394. ark:/13960/t9f47mp93. ^ Richard Hunter, translator, Jason and the Golden Fleece (Oxford:Clarendon Press), 1993, pp. 31f. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, i. 41 ^ "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Books I–V, book 4, chapter 29". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Books I–V, book 4, chapter 29, section 3". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Philostratus, Imagines, translated by Arthur Fairbanks (1864-1944) edition of 1931 ^ Philostratus, Imagines, Greek ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 5 "Heracles did not wear the skin of the Nemean lion, but that of a certain Lion, one of the giants killed by Heracles whom he had challenged to single combat." ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.39.2 ^ Plutarch, Of Love, Moralia, 18 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 4.23.5 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, IX l.132–33 ^ Herodotus, Histories II.145 ^ Herodotus, Histories IV. 8–10. ^ "Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiquitates Romanae, Books I–XX, book 1, chapter 32, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Plutarch, Erotikos, 761d.The tomb of Iolaus is also mentioned by Pindar. ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes, 9.98–99. ^ Plutarch, Erotikos, 761e. ^ Theocritus, Idyll 13; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, 1.1177–1357. ^ Sosibius, in Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon ^ Bibliotheca 2.5.8; Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147b, in Photius' Bibliotheca ^ Ptolemaeus Chennus, in Photius' Bibliotheca ^ Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147b. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 7. 17. 8 ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, 603d. ^ a b Ptolemaeus Chennus, New History, as summarized in Bibliotheca (Photius) ^ Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147e; Philostratus, Heroicus 696, per Sergent, 1986, p. 163. ^ Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 1207 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Diomeia ^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, 2. 4. 11 = 2. 7. 8 ^ Fabulae 162 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Ode 3 (4), 104 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Brettos ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Bargasa ^ Servius on Virgil's Georgics 2. 115 ^ a b Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1. 43. 1 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Akelēs ^ Solinus, De mirabilia mundi, 1. 15 ^ Virgil, Aeneid, 7. 655 ff ^ Plutarch, Life of Sertorius, 9. 4 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 5. 24. 2 ^ So Conon, Narrationes, 17. In Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 6. 3 a daughter of Syleus, Xenodoce, is killed by Heracles ^ Statius, Thebaid, 6. 837, 10. 249 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Amathous ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Gaza ^ Statius, Thebaid, 6. 346 ^ Servius on Virgil's Eclogue 9. 30 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1. 50. 4 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 162 ^ In Stephanus of Byzantium s. v. Phaistos, Rhopalus is the son of Heracles and Phaestus his own son; in Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 6. 7, vice versa (Phaestus son, Rhopalus grandson) ^ The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, James C. Harle, Yale University Press, 1994 p. 67 ^ Sallust (1963). The Jugurthine War/The Conspiracy of Catiline. Translated by S.A. Handford. Penguin Books. p. 54. ^ Morford, M. P. O.; Lenardon R. J. (2007). Classical Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 865. References Heracles at Theoi.com Classical literature and art Timeless Myths – Heracles The life and adventure of Heracles, including his twelve labours. Heracles, Greek Mythology Link Heracles (in French) Vollmer: Herkules (1836, in German) Burkert, Walter, (1977) 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press). Kerenyi, Karl (1959). The Heroes of the Greeks. New York/London: Thames and Hudson. Further reading Brockliss, William. 2017. "The Hesiodic Shield of Heracles: The Text as Nightmarish Vision." Illinois Classical Studies 42.1: 1–19. doi:10.5406/illiclasstud.42.1.0001. JSTOR 10.5406/illiclasstud.42.1.0001. Burkert, Walter. 1982. "Heracles and the Master of Animals." In Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual, 78–98. Sather Classical Lectures 47. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Haubold, Johannes. 2005. "Heracles in the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women." In The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women: Constructions and Reconstructions. Edited by Richard Hunter, 85–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Karanika, Andromache. 2011. "The End of the Nekyia: Odysseus, Heracles, and the Gorgon in the Underworld." Arethusa 44.1: 1–27. Padilla, Mark W. 1998. "Herakles and Animals in the Origins of Comedy and Satyr Drama". In Le Bestiaire d'Héraclès: IIIe Rencontre héracléenne, edited by Corinne Bonnet, Colette Jourdain-Annequin, and Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, 217–30. Kernos Suppl. 7. Liège: Centre International d'Etude de la Religion Grecque Antique. Padilla, Mark W. 1998. "The Myths of Herakles in Ancient Greece: Survey and Profile". Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. Papadimitropoulos, Loukas. 2008. "Heracles as Tragic Hero." Classical World 101.2: 131–38. doi:10.1353/clw.2008.0015 Papadopoulou, Thalia. 2005. Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge Classical Studies. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Segal, Charles Paul. 1961. "The Character and Cults of Dionysus and the Unity of the Frogs." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 65:207–42. doi:10.2307/310837. JSTOR 310837. Stafford, Emma. 2012. Herakles. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. New York: Routledge. Strid, Ove. 2013. "The Homeric Prefiguration of Sophocles' Heracles." Hermes 141.4: 381–400. JSTOR 43652880. Woodford, Susan. 1971. "Cults of Herakles in Attica." In Studies Presented to George M. A. Hanfmann. Edited by David Gordon Mitten, John Griffiths Pedley, and Jane Ayer Scott, 211–25. Monographs in Art and Archaeology 2. Mainz, Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. Euripides. The Children of Herakles. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Euripides. Heracles. England: Shirley A. Barlow, 1996. Greek Version: Oxford University Press, 1981. Primary sources Homer, Odyssey, 12.072 (7th century BCE) Sophocles, Women of Trachis (c. 450 BCE) Euripides, Herakles (416 BCE) Theocritus, Idylls, 13 (350–310 BCE) Callimachus, Aetia (Causes), 24. Thiodamas the Dryopian, Fragments, 160. Hymn to Artemis (310–250? BCE) Apollonios Rhodios, Argonautika, I. 1175–1280 (c. 250 BCE) Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.19, 2.7.7 (140 BCE) Sextus Propertius, Elegies, i.20.17ff (50–15 BCE) Ovid, Metamorphoses (8 CE) Ovid, Ibis, 488 (8–18 CE) Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, I.110, III.535, 560, IV.1–57 (1st century) Hyginus, Fables, 14. Argonauts Assembled (1st century) Philostratus the Elder, Images, ii.24 Thiodamas (170–245) First Vatican Mythographer, 49. Hercules et Hylas External links Library resources about Heracles Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heracles. Heracles at the Encyclopædia Britannica v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra v t e The Twelve Labours of Heracles Nemean lion Lernaean Hydra Ceryneian Hind Erymanthian Boar Augean Stables Stymphalian birds Cretan Bull Mares of Diomedes Girdle of Hippolyte Cattle of Geryon Apples of the Hesperides Cerberus v t e Hercules (Heracles) Hercle Ercole Hercule Alcide Family Zeus (father) Alcmene (mother) Megara, Omphale, Deianira, and Hebe (wives) Heracleidae (children) Events Hercules at the crossroads Labours of Hercules Hercules in ancient Rome Shirt of Nessus Literature Poems Heracles Papyrus Shield of Heracles Catalogue of Women L'Atlàntida Plays Herakles Women of Trachis Hercules Furens Hercules Oetaeus Other The Labours of Hercules Hercules and the Wagoner Art Hercules and the lion of Nemea (5th century BCE) Hercules of the Forum Boarium (2nd century BCE) Lansdowne Heracles (c. 125) Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos (c. 150–256) Farnese Hercules (216) Hercules slaying Antaeus (c. 1460) Hercules and Deianira (c. 1470) Hercules and the Hydra (c. 1475) Hercules and Antaeus (c. 1500–1510) The Choice of Hercules (c. 1520–1525) Hercules and Antaeus (1531) Hercules and Cacus (1534) The Origin of the Milky Way (1575–1580) The Choice of Hercules (1596) Hercules and Omphale (1603) Hercules fighting Nemean lion (1634) Hercules and the Hydra (1634) Hercules separating the mounts Calpe And Abyla (1634) The Death of Hercules (1634) Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye (1636) The Origin of the Milky Way (1637) Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides (1638) Hercules and Omphale (1732–1734) Libertas Americana (1783) The Sanctuary of Hercules (1884) Hercules the Archer (1909) Achelous and Hercules (1947) The Twelve Labors of Hercules (1981) The Labors of Herakles (2006–2008) Hercules and the Erymanthian Boar Hercules and the Nemean Lion Opera Ercole amante (1662) Alcide (1693) Ercole su'l Termodonte (1723) Admeto (1727) Laßt uns sorgen, laßt uns wachen, BWV 213 (1733) Hercules (1744) Le nozze d'Ercole e d'Ebe (1747) The Choice of Hercules (1750) Hercule mourant (1761) Le Rouet d'Omphale (1871) Déjanire (1911) Atlántida (1962) Hercules vs. Vampires (2010) Films Italian series Hercules (1957) Hercules Unchained (1959) Goliath and the Dragon (1960) The Loves of Hercules (1960) Hercules and the Conquest of Atlantis (1961) Hercules in the Haunted World (1961) Hercules in the Valley of Woe (1961) The Fury of Hercules (1962) Hercules, Samson and Ulysses (1963) Hercules vs. Moloch (1963) Hercules the Invincible (1964) Hercules Against Rome (1964) Hercules Against the Sons of the Sun (1964) The Triumph of Hercules (1964) Samson and His Mighty Challenge (1964) Hercules and the Tyrants of Babylon (1964) Hercules and the Princess of Troy (1965) Hercules the Avenger (1965) Other European live-action Herakles (1962) Hercules Against the Moon Men (1964) American films live-action The Warrior's Husband (1933) The Three Stooges Meet Hercules (1962) Jason and the Argonauts (1963) Hercules in New York (1970) Hercules (1983) The Adventures of Hercules (1985) Jason and the Argonauts (2000) Immortals (2011) The Legend of Hercules (2014) Hercules (2014) Animated films Hercules (1995) Hercules (1997) Hercules: Zero to Hero (1998) Hercules and Xena – The Animated Movie: The Battle for Mount Olympus (1998) Television The Mighty Hercules The Sons of Hercules Mole Men Against the Son of Hercules (1961) Fire Monsters Against the Son of Hercules (1962) Ulysses Against the Son of Hercules (1962) Hercules: The Legendary Journeys (1995) Hercules and the Amazon Women (1994) Hercules and the Lost Kingdom (1994) Hercules and the Circle of Fire (1994) Hercules in the Underworld (1994) Hercules in the Maze of the Minotaur (1994) Hercules: The Animated Series (1998) "Hercules and the Arabian Night" (1999) Young Hercules (1998) Hercules (2005 miniseries) Atlantis (2013) Comics Hercules (Marvel Comics) Hercules (DC Comics) Hercules (Radical Comics) Games The Return of Heracles (1983) Hercules (1984) Disney's Hercules (1997) Herc's Adventures (1997) Hercules: The Legendary Journeys (2000) Heracles Chariot Racing (2007) Glory of Heracles (2008) Other Hercules in popular culture Hercules (franchise) Hercules (2019 musical) Pillars of Hercules Maczuga Herkulesa Hercules' Club Xena: Warrior Princess Authority control CANTIC: a19409904 GND: 118639552 ISNI: 0000 0001 2334 6176 LCCN: no2014084680 LNB: 000059897 NKC: jo2016908773 NLA: 65960327 PLWABN: 9810663557605606 RERO: 02-A009996505 SELIBR: 167845 SUDOC: 027575055 VIAF: 68982877 WorldCat Identities: viaf-68982877 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heracles&oldid=1003730385" Categories: Heracles Argonauts Greek mythological heroes Heroes who ventured to Hades Sports deities Education deities Mythology of Argos Mythology of Heracles Children of Zeus Oracular gods Perseid dynasty Demigods Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles having different image on Wikidata and Wikipedia Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles lacking reliable references from December 2019 All articles lacking reliable references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020 Articles containing Greek-language text Articles containing Georgian-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം მარგალური Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Nouormand Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Тыва дыл Українська Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 11:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6081	----	Corinthus - Wikipedia Corinthus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Corinthus (Greek: Κόρινθος, Korinthos) was the eponymous founder of the city of Corinth and the adjacent land. According to the local Corinthian tradition, he was a son of Zeus, but this tradition was not followed elsewhere.[1][2] He may or may not be the same figure as: Corinthus, son of Marathon and ruler over Corinth. When he died without issue, the Corinthians bestowed the kingdom upon Medea, because her father Aeetes had once ruled over the land before his departure to Colchis.[3] Corinthus, father of Sylaea (herself mother of Sinis with Polypemon).[4] References[edit] ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 1. 1 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Nemean Ode 7. 155 ^ Eumelus of Corinth in Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 3. 10 ^ Bibliotheca 3. 16. 2 v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corinthus&oldid=969270005" Categories: Children of Zeus Set indices on Greek mythology Kings of Corinth Corinthian mythology Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Italiano Русский Slovenčina Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 24 July 2020, at 12:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6119	----	Template:Greek myth (Hades) - Wikipedia Template:Greek myth (Hades) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Template documentation Editors can experiment in this template's sandbox (create | mirror) and testcases (create) pages. Subpages of this template. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Greek_myth_(Hades)&oldid=954424700" Categories: Greek mythology templates Hidden categories: Sidebars with styles needing conversion Wikipedia semi-protected templates Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2020, at 09:56 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-611	----	Staatliche Antikensammlungen - Wikipedia Staatliche Antikensammlungen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Art museum in Munich, Germany Staatliche Antikensammlungen Bavarian State Collection of Antiques Established 1848 Location Munich, Germany Type Art museum Website Official website The Staatliche Antikensammlungen (German: [ˈʃtaːtlɪçə anˈtiːkənˌzamlʊŋən], State Collections of Antiquities) is a museum in Munich's Kunstareal holding Bavaria's collections of antiquities from Greece, Etruria and Rome, though the sculpture collection is located in the opposite Glyptothek and works created in Bavaria are on display in a separate museum.[1] Ancient Egypt also has its own museum. Contents 1 History of the building 2 Collections 3 Permanent exhibition 3.1 Antique pottery 3.2 Terracotta and bronzes 3.3 Jewellery and glass 3.4 Portraits and gems 4 References 5 External links History of the building[edit] The neo-classical building at Königsplatz with Corinthian columns was established in 1848 as counterpart to the opposite Glyptothek and commissioned by the Bavarian King Ludwig I. The architect was Georg Friedrich Ziebland. Already from 1869 to 1872 the building housed the royal antiquarium before the Munich Secession resided here from 1898 to 1912. From 1919 the building contained the New State Gallery. The museum building was severely damaged by bombing in World War II but was reconstructed and reopened to the public in the late 1960s to display the State Collection of Antiques. Collections[edit] Dionysus cup by Exekias (circa 530 BC) Golden garland of Armento The State Collection of Antiquities is based on the Wittelsbach antique collections, especially the collection of attic vases of King Ludwig I. In 1831 his agent Martin von Wagner acquired pottery from the archeological excavation in Vulci, his agent Friedrich von Thiersch purchased by auction the antiques from the estate of Lucien Bonaparte. The king acquired also antique gold jewellery from the collection of Caroline Murat, Etruscan bronzes excavated in Perugia and Greek terra-cottas from South Italy. After the king's death in 1868 his collection was united with the Wittelsbach antique collection which was founded already by Albert V, Duke of Bavaria. Later the museum got extended by purchase and donations. Among these private collections are the donations of Paul Arndt (1908), of James Loeb (1933), and of Hans von Schoen (1964). These comprehensive collections specialised in smaller antique objects, glassware, bronzes, terra-cottas, jewelry, gold and silver. During World War II the museum lost especially Etruscan pottery, which was stored in the bombed Neue Pinakothek. Permanent exhibition[edit] Antique pottery[edit] The internationally renowned collection of antique pottery is outstanding, comparable only with the collections of the Louvre and the British Museum. On display is already Cycladic art. The Mycenaean pottery is represented as well as the pottery from the geometric, the archaic, the classical and the Hellenistic period in Greece. The museum exhibits artworks of the most famous Greek potters and painters like the Amasis Painter, Exekias, Archikles, Glaukytes, the Penthesilea Painter, the Andokides Painter, Oltos, Kleophon, Phintias, Euphronios, Euthymides, Epiktetos, the Pan Painter, the Berlin Painter, Hieron, Makron, Douris, the Brygos Painter, the Acheloos Painter and Lydos. The collection contains numerous masterpieces such as the Belly Amphora by the Andokides Painter ( between 520 and 510 BC) and the Dionysus cup by Exekias (circa 530 BC). One of the masterpieces of Etruscan art is a head vessel depicting the Etruscan demon Charun (400-350 BC). Terracotta and bronzes[edit] The Standing Woman is a notable statuette of terracotta (Boeotia from the crossing of 5. by the 4th century B.C.). The Beauty is one of the best preserved ancient terracotta figures in the world. It was made in the early 3rd century BC and was found in the vicinity of Athens. The Goddess of Beauty and Love is a masterpiece of Hellenstic bronze art and dates back to around 100 BC. Jewellery and glass[edit] Roman cage cup from Cologne (circa 400 AD) An outstanding example for antique jewellery is the gold Funerary Garland from Armento (4th century BC). A Golden Diadem from the Black Sea, an elaborately decorated headdress from the Crimean Peninsula was produced in around 150 BC. A famous Roman Goblet from Cologne made of reticella (or network) glass (4th century AD) still shows its Latin inscription BIBE MULTIS ANNIS (Drink many years yet!). It was a present of the City of Cologne in return for King Ludwig's support for the completion of Cologne Cathedral. Portraits and gems[edit] An antique mummy portrait which originates from around 140 AD depicts a young upper-class man of imperial Egypt belongs to the most beautiful and best-quality antique mummy portraits that exist. Part of the Staatliche Antikensammlungen is also a comprehensive collection of ca 800 engraved gems donated by Helmut Hansmann (1924-1996). References[edit] ^ "Staatliche Antikensammlungen". Britannica.com. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Staatliche Antikensammlungen. Staatliche Antikensammlungen (English) Staatliche Antikensammlungen (German) v t e Kunstareal district in Munich Königsplatz Glyptothek & Staatliche Antikensammlung Lenbachhaus Alte Pinakothek Neue Pinakothek Pinakothek der Moderne Museum Brandhorst Staatliche Graphische Sammlung München Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst v t e Tourism in Munich Old Town Marienplatz Karlsplatz (Stachus) Karlstor St. Mary's Column Rathaus-Glockenspiel New Town Hall Old Town Hall Munich Frauenkirche St. Peter's Church (Der Alte Peter) St. Michael's Church (Michaelkirche) St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) Viktualienmarkt German Hunting and Fishing Museum Munich Stadtmuseum Jewish Museum Munich Royal Brewery Justizpalast Royal Munich Alter Hof Munich Residenz Court Garden Treasure Chamber Cuvilliés Theatre Odeonsplatz Theatine Church, Munich Field Marshall's Hall Bavarian State Opera Ludwigstrasse Maximilianstrasse Isar Area Isar River Isartor Deutsches Museum Müllersche Volksbad Gasteig North of Munich Olympiapark Olympiaturm (Olympic Tower) SEA LIFE Munich BMW Welt BMW Museum Allianz Arena Rockmuseum Munich Kunstareal (Art district) Alte Pinakothek Neue Pinakothek Pinakothek der Moderne Museum Brandhorst Egyptian Museum Königsplatz Lenbachhaus State Collections of Antiques Glyptothek Munich Documentation Centre for the History of National Socialism Museum Reich der Kristalle Palaeontological Museum South Munich Bavaria Filmstadt Hellabrunn Zoo Lehel and English Garden Area Englischer Garten Kleinhesseloher lake Chinese Tower Haus der Kunst Bavarian National Museum Eisbach surfing Bavarian State Archaeological Collection Schackgalerie Five Continents Museum Alpine Museum Nymphenburg Area Nymphenburg Palace Museum of Man and Nature Botanical Garden Munich-Nymphenburg Shopping Areas Kaufingerstraße Neuhauser Straße Sendlingerstrasse Fünf Höfe Schäfflerhof Hofstatt Maximilianstrasse Brienner Quartier Hugendubel Musical Theater Bavarian State Opera Deutsches Theater Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz Squares Gärtnerplatz Marienplatz Karlsplatz (Stachus) Königsplatz Odeonsplatz Bridges Reichenbachbrücke Architecture of Munich Outline of Munich v t e Pottery of ancient Greece Aegean Minyan ware Minoan Kamares ware Vasiliki ware Mycenaean Sub-Mycenaean Cycladic Frying pans Ancient Greece proper Bilingual Black-figure Black-glazed Ware Bucchero Red-figure South Italian West Slope Ware White ground Potters Amasis Ergotimos Euphronios Euthymides Gryton Hypereides Nikosthenes Pamphaios Sophilos Little Masters Ergoteles Hermogenes Phrynos Tleson Special topics Conservation Corpus vasorum antiquorum Disjecta membra Hellenistic glass LIMC Name vase Slip Symposium Tanagra figurine Terracotta figurines Three-phase firing Vase types Coordinates: 48°08′42″N 11°33′53″E / 48.14500°N 11.56472°E / 48.14500; 11.56472 Authority control GND: 4198941-7 LCCN: n81002996 NLA: 36383826 ULAN: 500267743 VIAF: 255683987 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n81002996 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Staatliche_Antikensammlungen&oldid=965286329" Categories: Staatliche Antikensammlungen Museums in Munich Art museums and galleries in Germany Neoclassical architecture in Munich Archaeological museums in Germany Greek Revival architecture in Germany Maxvorstadt 1848 establishments in Germany Museums of ancient Greece in Germany Museums of ancient Rome in Germany Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Latina مصرى Português Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 June 2020, at 13:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6121	----	Wolfgang Mieder - Wikipedia Wolfgang Mieder From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wolfgang Mieder Born (1944-02-17) 17 February 1944 (age 76) Germany Nationality USA Alma mater Olivet College (B.A.) University of Michigan (M.A.) Michigan State University (PhD) Known for Expert on proverbs Scientific career Fields German and folklore Institutions University of Vermont Wolfgang Mieder (born 17 February 1944) is professor of German and folklore at the University of Vermont, in Burlington, Vermont, USA. He is a graduate of Olivet College (BA), the University of Michigan (MA), and Michigan State University (PhD). He has been a guest speaker at the University of Freiburg in Germany,[1] the country where he was born. Small sampling of books that Mieder has written or edited He is most well known as a scholar of paremiology, the study of proverbs, Alan Dundes labeling him "Magister Proverbium, paremiologist without peer".[2] In addition to being a prolific author and editor on proverbs, he has made a distinct contribution by producing an "astounding number of bibliographies",[3] both articles and volumes, on several topics within paremiology. His annual list of recent proverb scholarship is published in each volume of Proverbium. His most complete work in this area is his 2009 International Bibliography of Paremiology and Phraseology, published in two volumes. Since 1984 he has been the editor of Proverbium: Yearbook of International Proverb Scholarship, an annual journal published by the University of Vermont. He is editor of the Supplement Series to Proverbium, a series of book on various facets of proverb studies. Each volume of Proverbium contains his annual list of recent proverb scholarship. He has published extensively in English and in German. He is the creator of the term anti-proverb, proverbs that are twisted from their original forms.[4] The term became more established with the publication of Twisted Wisdom: Modern Anti-Proverbs by Mieder and Anna T. Litovkina.[5] His work also includes contributions to paremiography, the collecting and writing of proverbs. He has published a number of collections of proverbs, both topical[6] and international.[7] Also, in every year's volume of Proverbium, he publishes a list of proverb collections that have recently been published. Mieder was honored by the American Folklore Society with their Lifetime Scholarly Achievement Award in 2012.[8] He was honored by three festschrift publications on his 60th birthday. He was later honored with a festschrift volume to honor his 65th birthday.[9][10] He has also been recognized by biographical publications that focused on his scholarship.[11][12] In 2012, he was awarded a European folklore award, the European Folklore Prize [13] In 2014, he was honored with an honorary doctorate by the University of Athens. In 2015, he was honored with "Doctor Honoris Causa" by the University of Bucharest.[14][15] On the occasion of his seventieth birthday in 2014 friends and colleagues from around the world contributed sixty-six essays to Gegengabe, an international festschrift volume to honor Wolfgang Mieder for his contributions to world scholarship and his outstanding personality.[16] For his 75th birthday, colleagues have honored him with another festschrift: Living by the Golden Rule: Mentor – Scholar – World Citizen: A Festschrift for Wolfgang Mieder’s 75th Birthday.[17] Mieder's work has become the topic of study for other scholars.[18] Though Mieder is originally from Germany, he has lived in Vermont for over 40 years, teaching at the University of Vermont. This long time residence is reflected in his scholarship, as he has published four books on proverbs of New England and Vermont.[19] His perspective and contributions from two countries has been the topic of an article.[20] References[edit] ^ Janet Sobieski. "Wolfgang Mieder, Professor of German and Folklore". Retrieved 17 February 2009. ^ Dundes, Alan. 2007. As the Crow Flies: A Straightforward Study of Lineal Worldview in American Folk Speech. Kimberly J. Lau, Peter Tokofsky, and Stephen D. Winick, eds. What goes around comes around: The circulation of proverbs in contemporary life, 171-187. Utah State University Press. ^ p. 246. Petrova, Roumyana. 2014. Contrastive study of proverbs. Introduction to Paremiology. A Comprehensive Guide to Proverb Studies edited by Hrisztalina Hrisztova-Gotthardt and Melita Aleksa Varga, pp. 243-261. Berlin: De Gruyter Open. Online: Open Access version. ^ p. xi, Charles Clay Doyle, Wolfgang Mieder, & Fred Shapiro. The Dictionary of Modern Proverbs. New Haven: Yale University Press. ^ Supplement volume to Proverbium. University of Vermont. ^ Yankee Wisdom: New England Proverbs, New England Press, 1989. ^ The Prentice-Hall Encyclopedia of World Proverbs. MJF Books, 1986. ^ AFS site ^ http://www.uvm.edu/~cas/?Page=News&storyID=13676 ^ Kevin McKenna, ed. 2009. The Proverbial 'Pied Piper': A Festschrift Volume of Essays in Honor of Wolfgang Mieder on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0489-3 ^ Lauhakangas, Outi. 2012. In honorem Wolfgang Mieder. In Program of the Sixth Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Proverbs, 4th to 11th November 2012, at Tavira, Portugal, Rui B. Soares and Outi Lauhakangas, eds., pp. 81-84. Tavira: Tipograpfia Tavirense. ^ Jones, Amy. 2012. Wolfgang Mieder: Ein Fuβ in beiden Ländern. In Sprache als Heimat, A. Jones, ed. Quasi. Middlebury [College] Zeitschrift 1:52-58. ^ Prize awarded ^ Web link to University of Bucharest announcement. ^ Mieder, Wolfgang. 2016. An American-Romanian Friendship in Paremiology. Revisita de Etnografie şi Folclor 1-2: 165-182. ^ Christian Grandl and Kevin McKenna, ed. 2015. Bis dat, qui cito dat Gegengabe in Paremiology, Folklore, Language and Literature Honoring Wolfgang Mieder on His Seventieth Birthday.Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-64872-8 ^ Nolte, Andreas and Dennis Mahoney. 2019. Living by the Golden Rule: Mentor – Scholar – World Citizen: A Festschrift for Wolfgang Mieder’s 75th Birthday. Bern: Peter Lang. ^ Nolte, Andreas. 2015. "Jedes Sprichwort muss einen Zipfel haben, wo man's anfasst": Ein Sprichwort-Spiel für Wolfgang Mieder. Bis dat, qui cito dat: Gegengabe in Paremiology, Folklore, Language and Literature ed. by Christian Grandl and Kevin McKenna, pp. 287-296. Peter Lang. ^ All published by Shelburne, Vermont: The New England Press. Talk Less and Say More: Vermont Proverbs, 1986. As Sweet as Apple Cider: Vermont Expressions, 1988. Yankee Wisdom: New England Proverbs, 1989. As Strong as a Moose: New England Expressions, 1997. ^ Jones, Amy. 2012. Wolfgang Mieder: Ein Fuss in beiden Laendern. "Sprache als Heimat" Quasi: Middlebury [College] Zeitschrift 54-56, entire article 52-58. Selected books written or edited by Mieder[edit] Books on paremiology 1981. Co-editor with Alan Dundes. The Wisdom of Many: Essays on the Proverb. New York: Garland Publishing. (Paperback edition: Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994.) 1982. Antisprichwörter. (Anti-Proverbs.) Wiesbaden: Verlag für deutsche Sprache. 2nd ed. 1983. 1987. Tradition and Innovation in Folk Literature. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England. 1992. Sprichwort - Wahrwort!? Studien zur Geschichte, Bedeutung und Funktion deutscher Sprichwörter. (Proverb - Truism!? Studies Concerning the History, Meaning, and Function of German Proverbs.) Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 1983. Proverbs Are Never Out of Season: Popular Wisdom in the Modern Age. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999. Co-author with Anna Tóthné Litovkina. Twisted Wisdom: Modern Anti-Proverbs. Burlington, Vermont: The University of Vermont. 2002. "Call a Spade a Spade": From Classical Phrase to Racial Slur. A Case Study. New York: Peter Lang. 2004. Proverbs: A Handbook. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. (Reprint: New York: Peter Lang, 2012.) 2004. "The Netherlandish Proverbs". An International Symposium on the Pieter Brueg(h)els. Burlington, Vermont: The University of Vermont. 2008. "Proverbs Speak Louder Than Words". Folk Wisdom in Art, Culture, Folklore, History, Literature, and Mass Media. New York: Peter Lang. 2014. Behold the Proverbs of a People: Proverbial Wisdom in Culture, Literature, and Politics. Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press. Proverb bibliographies: 1977. International Bibliography of Explanatory Essays on Individual Proverbs and Proverbial Expressions. Bern: Peter Lang. 1978. Proverbs in Literature: An International Bibliography. Bern: Peter Lang. 1984. Investigations of Proverbs, Proverbial Expressions, Quotations and Cliches: A Bibliography of Explanatory Essays which Appeared in "Notes and Queries" (1849–1983). Bern: Peter Lang. 1996. with George B. Bryan. Proverbs in World Literature: A Bibliography. New York: Peter Lang. 1999. with Janet Sobieski. Proverb Iconography: An International Bibliography. New York: Peter Lang. 2003. Proverbs and the Social Sciences: An Annotated International Bibliography. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren. 2009. International Bibliography of Paremiology and Phraseology. 2 vols. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Holocaust and Jewish studies: 1995. The Jewish Experience of European Anti-Semitism. Harry H. Kahn Memorial Lectures (1990–1994). Eds. Hazel Kahn Keimowitz and Wolfgang Mieder. Burlington, Vermont: The Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 1996. The Holocaust: Introductory Essays. Eds. David Scrase and W. Mieder. Burlington, Vermont: The Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 1999. Shifting Paradigms in German-Jewish Relations (1750–2000). Harry H. Kahn Memorial Lectures (1995–1999). Eds. Hazel Kahn Keimowitz and Wolfgang Mieder. Burlington, Vermont: The Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 2001. The Holocaust: Personal Accounts. Eds. David Scrase and Wolfgang Mieder. Burlington, Vermont: The Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 2001. Reflections on the Holocaust. Festschrift for Raul Hilberg on His Seventy-Fifth Birthday. Eds. Wolfgang Mieder and David Scrase. Burlington, Vermont: The Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 2004. Language, Poetry, and Memory. Reflections on National Socialism. Harry H. Kahn Memorial Lectures (2000–2004). Eds. W. Mieder and David Scrase. Burlington, Vermont: Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. 2004. Making a Difference. Rescue and Assistance During the Holocaust. Essays in Honor of Marion Pritchard. Eds. David Scrase, Wolfgang Mieder, and Katherine Quimby Johnson. Burlington, Vermont: Center for Holocaust Studies at the University of Vermont. Studies of European folktales 2007. The Pied Piper. A Handbook. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 2007. Hänsel und Gretel: Das Märchen in Kunst, Musik, Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. (Hänsel and Gretel: The Fairy Tale in Art, Music, Literature, Mass Media, and Caricatures.) Wien: Praesens Verlag. 2008. Co-editor with Sabine Wienker-Piepho. Lutz Röhrich. "And They Are Still Living Happily Ever After": Anthropology, Cultural History, and Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Burlington, Vermont: The University of Vermont. 2009. "Märchen haben kurze Beine": Moderne Märchenreminiszenzen in Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. ("Fairy Tales Have Short Legs [i.e., They Lie]": Modern Fairy Tale Reminiscences in Literature, Media, and Caricatures.) Wien: Praesens. External links[edit] Dr. Mieder speaking about paremiography (collecting proverbs) at a proverb conference in Tavira, Portugal on YouTube. Dr. Mieder's homepage, linking to CV with extensive publication list Dr. Mieder speaking about Martin Luther King's use of proverbs Interview of Wolfgang Mieder by Anna T. Litovkina, 2020 (during the COVID-19 pandemic). The whole interview is 2 hour, 2 min. There are smaller excerpts listed, with themes and topics: The whole interview, 2hr 2min.: Wolfgang Mieder’s Keys to Happiness and Success in Life. When Dreams Became Reality: From Germany to America. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder Gratitude: The Shoulders of Giants We Stand On. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder 3 Favorite English Proverbs of a Proverb Scholar par excellance Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder The Coronavirus Pandemic and The World Turned Upside Down. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder "Magister Proverbium, Paremiologist Without Peer" (Alan Dundes). A. Litovkina Interviews W. Mieder What Do You Consider to Be Your Greatest Failure in Life? Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder Paying Forward: On Good Deeds and Making a Difference. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder A Happy Workaholic and His Formula of Happiness. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder Habits and Personality Traits for Happiness and Success. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder Life Is Not a Spectator’s Sport: A Proverb to Finish the Interview. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder What Makes Me So Happy… Being Thankful. Anna Litovkina Interviews Wolfgang Mieder Authority control BNE: XX894444 BNF: cb120278749 (data) GND: 120417626 ISNI: 0000 0001 2284 0391 LCCN: n50031374 NKC: xx0040995 NLP: A26327570 NTA: 072409657 PLWABN: 9810659938105606 SELIBR: 333393 SUDOC: 028444795 VIAF: 109183006 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50031374 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wolfgang_Mieder&oldid=1001276747" Categories: 1944 births Living people American folklorists University of Michigan alumni Olivet College alumni Proverb scholars University of Vermont faculty Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from March 2020 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Español Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 19 January 2021, at 00:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-618	----	Erebus - Wikipedia Erebus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Erebus (disambiguation). Personification of darkness in Greek mythology Erebus God of Darkness Personal information Parents Chaos Siblings Nyx Tartarus Gaia Eros Consort Nyx Offspring Thanatos, Apate, Aether, Hemera, Hypnos, the Keres, Moros, the Moirai, the Hesperides, Dolos, Nemesis, Oizys, Oneiroi, Momus, Philotes, Eris, Geras Roman equivalent Scotus Genealogy of the offspring of Chaos Greek deities series Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Moirai Nyx Ourea Phanes Pontus Tartarus Thalassa Uranus Chthonic deities Hades Persephone Angelos Demeter Erinyes Gaia Hecate Iacchus Melinoë Triptolemus Trophonius v t e In Greek mythology, Erebus (/ˈɛrɪbəs/),[1] (Ancient Greek: Ἔρεβος, Érebos, "deep darkness, shadow"[2] or "covered"[3]), was often conceived as a primordial deity, representing the personification of darkness; for instance, Hesiod's Theogony identifies him as one of the first five beings in existence, born of Chaos.[4] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Mythology 3 Notes 4 References Etymology[edit] The perceived meaning of Erebus is "darkness"; the first recorded instance of it was "place of darkness between earth and Hades". The name Ἔρεβος itself originates from PIE *h1regʷ-es/os- "darkness"[5][6] (cf. Sanskrit rájas, Gothic riqis, Old Norse røkkr).[2] Mythology[edit] According to the Greek oral poet Hesiod's Theogony, Erebus is the offspring of Chaos, and brother to Nyx: From Chaos came forth Erebus and black Night (Nyx); but of Night were born Aether and Day (Hemera), whom she conceived and bore from union in love with Erebus.[4] Erebus features little in Greek mythological tradition and literature, but is said to have fathered several other deities with Nyx; depending on the source of the mythology, this union includes Aether, Hemera, the Hesperides, Hypnos, the Moirai, Geras, Styx, Charon, Nemesis and Thanatos.[7] In Greek literature, the name Erebus is also used as a region of the Greek underworld where the dead pass immediately after dying, and is sometimes used interchangeably with Tartarus.[8][9][10][11][12] Notes[edit] ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180 ^ a b Ἔρεβος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ Robert Graves. The Greek Myths, section 31 s.v. The Gods Of The Underworld ^ a b Hesiod. Theogony, 116–124. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Online Etymology Dictionary: Erebus". Retrieved 1 July 2011. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 451. ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, 1-49 ^ Elizabeth, Alice (1896). The Sources of Spenser's Classical Mythology. New York: Silver, Burdett and Company. pp. 52, 55. ^ Morford, Mark P. O. (1999). Classical Mythology: Sixth Edition. New York: Oxford University Press US. pp. 36, 84, 253, 263, 271. ISBN 0-19-514338-8., ISBN 9780195143386 ^ Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Volume 1. New York: Harper. p. 620. ^ Rengel, Marian (2009). Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-60413-412-4., ISBN 9781604134124 ^ Turner, Patricia (2001). Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-19-514504-6., ISBN 9780195145045 References[edit] Look up Erebus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "E'rebos" v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple 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en-wikipedia-org-6200	----	Hubris - Wikipedia Hubris From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Extreme pride or overconfidence, often in combination with arrogance For the Richard Beirach album, see Hubris (album). Arrogance redirects here. Illustration for John Milton's Paradise Lost by Gustave Doré (1866). The spiritual descent of Lucifer into Satan - one of the most famous examples of hubris. Hubris (/ˈhjuːbrɪs/, from ancient Greek ὕβρις) describes a personality quality of extreme or foolish pride or dangerous overconfidence,[1] often in combination with (or synonymous with) arrogance.[2] The term "arrogance" comes from the Latin adrogare, meaning to feel that oneself has a right to demand certain attitudes and behaviors from other people. To "arrogate" means "to claim or seize without justification.... to make undue claims to having",[3] or "to claim or seize without right... to ascribe or attribute without reason".[4] The term "pretension" is also associated with the term hubris, but is not synonymous with hubris.[5][need quotation to verify] According to studies, hubris, arrogance and pretension are related to the need for victory (even if it doesn't always mean winning) instead of reconciliation, such as "friendly" groups might promote.[6] Hubris is usually perceived[by whom?] as a characteristic of an individual rather than a group, although the group the offender belongs to may suffer collateral consequences from wrongful acts. Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence, accomplishments or capabilities. The adjectival form of the noun hubris is "hubristic". The term hubris originated in ancient Greek,[7] where it had several different meanings depending on the context: in legal usage it meant assault or sexual crimes and theft of public property,[8] and in religious usage it meant transgression against a god.[9] Contents 1 Ancient Greek origin 1.1 Common use 1.2 Legal usage 2 Modern usage 2.1 Pride 2.2 Arrogance 2.3 Hubris resulting in hypercorrect snobbatives 3 Religious usage 3.1 Ancient Greece 3.2 Christianity 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Ancient Greek origin[edit] Common use[edit] In ancient Greek, hubris referred to “outrage”: actions that violated natural order, or which shamed and humiliated the victim, sometimes for the pleasure or gratification of the abuser. In some contexts, the term had a sexual connotation.[7] Shame was frequently reflected upon the perpetrator, as well.[10] Legal usage[edit] In legal terms, hubristic violations of the law included what might today be termed assault-and-battery, sexual crimes, or the theft of public or sacred property. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first Midias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theatre (Against Midias), and second when (in Against Conon) a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim. Yet another example of hubris appears in Aeschines' Against Timarchus, where the defendant, Timarchus, is accused of breaking the law of hubris by submitting himself to prostitution and anal intercourse. Aeschines brought this suit against Timarchus to bar him from the rights of political office and his case succeeded.[8] In ancient Athens, hubris was defined as the use of violence to shame the victim (this sense of hubris could also characterize rape).[11] Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for that committer's own gratification: to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification. Hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge. As for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.[12][failed verification][13][14] Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honour (τιμή, timē) and shame (αἰδώς, aidōs). The concept of honour included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honour, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honour is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition of hubris to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence".[15] Modern usage[edit] In its modern usage, hubris denotes overconfident pride combined with arrogance.[2] Hubris is often[quantify] associated with a lack of humility. Sometimes a person's hubris is also associated[by whom?] with ignorance. The accusation of hubris often implies that suffering or punishment will follow, similar to the occasional pairing of hubris and nemesis in Greek mythology.[citation needed] The proverb "pride goeth (goes) before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall" (from the biblical Book of Proverbs, 16:18) is thought[by whom?] to sum up the modern use of hubris. Hubris is also referred to as "pride that blinds" because it often causes a committer of hubris to act in foolish ways that belie common sense.[16] In other words, the modern definition may be thought of as, "that pride that goes just before the fall." Examples of hubris often appear in literature, archetypically in Greek tragedy, and arguably most famously in John Milton's Paradise Lost, in which Lucifer attempts to compel the other angels to worship him, is cast into hell by God and the innocent angels, and proclaims: "Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven." Victor in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein manifests hubris in his attempt to become a great scientist; he creates life through technological means, but comes to regret his project. Marlowe's play Doctor Faustus portrays the eponymous character as a scholar whose arrogance and pride compel him to sign a deal with the Devil, and retain his haughtiness until his death and damnation, despite the fact that he could easily have repented had he chosen to do so.[17] General George Armstrong Custer furnished an historical example of hubris in the decisions that culminated in the 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn; he apocryphally exclaimed: "Where did all those damned Indians come from?"[18] Larry Wall famously promotes "the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris".[19] Pride[edit] C. S. Lewis wrote in Mere Christianity that pride is the "anti-God" state, the position in which the ego and the self are directly opposed to God: "Unchastity, anger, greed, drunkenness, and all that, are mere fleabites in comparison: it was through Pride that the devil became the devil: Pride leads to every other vice: it is the complete anti-God state of mind."[20] Arrogance[edit] Look up arrogance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Oxford English Dictionary defines "arrogance" in terms of "high or inflated opinion of one's own abilities, importance, etc., that gives rise to presumption or excessive self-confidence, or to a feeling or attitude of being superior to others [...]."[21] Adrian Davies sees arrogance as more generic and less severe than hubris.[22] Hubris resulting in hypercorrect snobbatives[edit] The combination of self-confidence on the one hand and ignorance on the other, as manifested in hubris, can result in snobbatives that are hypercorrect. Whereas snobbatives (pretentious, highfalutin phrases or lexical variants used by a person in order to sound snobbish) are not necessarily hubristic, hypercorrect snobbatives are. Consider the following hypercorrect pronunciations in Israeli Hebrew:[23]:184 khupím, a hypercorrect snobbative of khofím (חופים‎), which means "beaches"; tsorfát, a hypercorrect snobbative of tsarfát ( צרפת‎), which refers to "France"; amán, a hypercorrect snobbative of omán ( אמן‎), which means "artist".[23]:184 The hubristic utterers of such snobbatives are unaware of their hypercorrection. Not only do they fail to see that their utterance violates the grammar of Hebrew, but they are actually sure that their utterance demonstrates that their command of the Hebrew grammar is better than that of those listening to them.[citation needed] Religious usage[edit] Ancient Greece[edit] The Greek word for sin, hamartia (ἁμαρτία), originally meant "error" in the ancient dialect, and so poets like Hesiod and Aeschylus used the word "hubris" to describe transgressions against the gods.[9] A common way that hubris was committed was when a mortal claimed to be better than a god in a particular skill or attribute. Claims like these were rarely left unpunished, and so Arachne, a talented young weaver, was transformed into a spider when she said that her skills exceeded those of the goddess Athena. Additional examples include Icarus, Phaethon, Salmoneus, Niobe, Cassiopeia, Tantalus, and Tereus. These events were not limited to myth, and certain figures in history were considered to be have been punished for committing hubris through their arrogance. One such person was king Xerxes as portrayed in Aeschylus's play The Persians, and who allegedly threw chains to bind the Hellespont sea as punishment for daring to destroy his fleet. What is common to all these examples is the breaching of limits, as the Greeks believed that the Fates (Μοῖραι) had assigned each being with a particular area of freedom, an area that even the gods could not breach.[24] The goddess Hybris has been described[by whom?] as having "insolent encroachment upon the rights of others".[25] Christianity[edit] In the Old Testament, the "hubris is overweening pride, superciliousness or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution or nemesis". Proverbs 16:18 states: "Pride goes before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall".[26] The word hubris as used in the New Testament parallels the Hebrew word pasha, meaning "transgression". It represents a pride that "makes a man defy God", sometimes to the degree that he considers himself an equal.[27] In contrast to this, the common word for "sin" was hamartia, which refers to an error and reflects the complexity of the human condition. Its result is guilt rather than direct punishment (as in the case of hubris).[citation needed] See also[edit] Dunning–Kruger effect Elitism Grandiose delusions Icarus complex Narcissism Sacrilege Schadenfreude Seven deadly sins References[edit] ^ "Definition of HUBRIS". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2016-04-22. ^ a b Picone, P. M., Dagnino, G. B., & Minà, A. (2014). ". The origin of failure: A multidisciplinary appraisal of the hubris hypothesis and proposed research agenda". The Academy of Management Perspectives. 28 (4): 447–68. doi:10.5465/amp.2012.0177.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 63, G. & C. Merriam Company (8th ed. 1976). ^ Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 77 (2d Coll. ed. 1978). ^ yasmin (2019-06-07). "O que é uma pessoa arrogante? Por que evitar a arrogância?". Definição.net (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-04-16. ^ "What Makes the Arrogant Person So Arrogant?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-04-16. ^ a b David Cohen, "Law, society and homosexuality or hermaphrodity in Classical Athens" in Studies in ancient Greek and Roman society By Robin Osborne; p. 64 ^ a b Aeschines "Against Timarchus" from Thomas K. Hubbard's Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents ^ a b The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Hubris", Encyclopaedia Britannica ^ Cartledge; Paul Millett (2003). Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-521-52209-0. Retrieved 2011-11-14. ^ "Hubris". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 April 2016. ^ Aristotle, Rhetoric 1378b. ^ Cohen, David (1995). Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0521388376. Retrieved March 6, 2016. ^ Ludwig, Paul W. (2002). Eros and Polis: Desire and Community in Greek Political Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 178. ISBN 1139434179. Retrieved March 6, 2016. ^ Rehm, Rush (2014). Radical Theatre: Greek Tragedy in the Modern World. Google Books: A&C Black. p. 75. ISBN 9781472502339. Retrieved 2 October 2018. ^ "The 1920 Farrow's Bank Failure: A Case of Managerial Hubris". Durham University. Retrieved October 1, 2014. ^ "Hubris - Examples of Hubris in Literature". Literary Devices. ^ Morson, Gary Saul (June 28, 2011). The Words of Others: From Quotations to Culture. New Haven. Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780300167474. Retrieved March 5, 2016. “Proving that it is better to be mustered out of the militia than it is to be custered out of the cavalry.” ^ Wall, Larry; Schwartz, Randal L.; Christiansen, Tom; Potter, Stephen (1991). Wall, Larry; Talbot, Steve (eds.). Programming Perl. Unix Programming (2 ed.). O'Reilly & Associates (published 1996). p. xiii. ISBN 9781565921498. Retrieved 22 August 2020. We will encourage you to develop the three great virtues of a programmer: laziness, impatience, and hubris. ^ Lewis, C.S. (2001). Mere Christianity : a revised and amplified edition, with a new introduction, of the three books, Broadcast talks, Christian behaviour, and Beyond personality. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-065292-0. ^ "arrogance". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ Davies, Adrian (2011). "How Can Human Nature and Corporate Governance Be Reconciled?". The Globalisation of Corporate Governance: The Challenge of Clashing Cultures (reprint ed.). London: Routledge (published 2016). p. 68. ISBN 9781317030102. Retrieved 22 August 2020. [...] hubris – a form of overweening pride and arrogance. [...] In modern usage hubris is an extreme form of arrogance, often in the face of facts [...]. ^ a b Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9781403917232 / ISBN 9781403938695 ^ Cornelius Castoriadis. Ce qui fait la Grèce, tome 1: D'Homère à Héraclite, chapitre V. Editeur: Seuil (9 mars 2004). ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Themis" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 758. ^ Andrew Fellows, 2019, Gaia, Psyche and Deep Ecology: Navigating Climate Change in the Anthropocene. ^ Stanley J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God, Pub: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 - "The Greek word hubris, which occurs occasionally in the New Testament (e.g., Acts 27:10, 21; 2 Cor.12:10). parallels the Hebrew pasha. William Barclay offers a helpful definition of the term. Hubris, he writes, 'is mingled pride and cruelty. Hubris is the pride which makes a man defy God, and the arrogant contempt which makes him trample on the hearts of his fellow men.' [...] Hence, it is the forgetting of personal creatureliness and the attempt to be equal with God." Further reading[edit] Nicolas R. E. Fisher, Hybris: A Study in the Values of Honour and Shame in Ancient Greece, Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1992. Cairns, Douglas L. (1996). "Hybris, Dishonour, and Thinking Big" (PDF). Journal of Hellenic Studies. 116: 1–32. doi:10.2307/631953. JSTOR 631953. MacDowell, Douglas (1976). "Hybris in Athens". Greece and Rome. 23 (1): 14–31. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018210. Michael DeWilde, The Psychological and Spiritual Roots of a Universal Affliction Hubris on 2012's Encyclopædia Britannica "How to Use Hubris Correctly". Grammarist. Robert A. Stebbins, From Humility to Hubris among Scholars and Politicians: Exploring Expressions of Self-Esteem and Achievement. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2017. External links[edit] Look up hubris in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Hubris Media related to Hubris at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of hubris at Wiktionary v t e Emotions (list) Emotions Acceptance Adoration Aesthetic emotions Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Boredom Calmness Compassion Confidence Contempt Contentment Courage Cruelty Curiosity Defeat Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Distrust Ecstasy Embarrassment Vicarious Empathy Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Fear Flow (psychology) Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hygge Hysteria Indulgence Infatuation Insecurity Inspiration Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Longing Love Limerence Lust Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity Self-pity Pleasure Pride Grandiosity Hubris Insult Vanity Rage Regret Social connection Rejection Remorse Resentment Sadness Melancholy Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Self-confidence Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Spite Stress Suffering Surprise Sympathy Tenseness Trust Wonder Worry World views Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz Related Affect consciousness in education measures in psychology Affective computing forecasting neuroscience science spectrum Affectivity positive negative Appeal to emotion Emotion and art and memory and music and sex classification evolution expressed functional accounts group homeostatic perception recognition in conversation in animals regulation interpersonal work Emotional aperture bias blackmail competence conflict contagion detachment dysregulation eating exhaustion expression intelligence and bullying intimacy isolation lability labor lateralization literacy prosody reasoning responsivity security selection symbiosis well-being Emotionality bounded Emotions and culture in decision-making in the workplace in virtual communication history moral self-conscious social social sharing sociology Feeling Gender and emotional expression Group affective tone Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems Jealousy in art Meta-emotion Pathognomy Pathos Social emotional development Stoic passions Theory affect appraisal discrete emotion somatic marker constructed emotion v t e Narcissism Types Collective Egomania Flying monkeys Healthy Malignant Narcissistic personality disorder Spiritual Workplace Characteristics Betrayal Boasting Egocentrism Egotism Empathy (lack of) Envy Entitlement (exaggerated sense of) Fantasy Grandiosity Hubris Magical thinking Manipulative Narcissistic abuse Narcissistic elation Narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury Narcissistic mortification Narcissistic supply Narcissistic withdrawal Perfectionism Self-esteem Self-righteousness Shamelessness Superficial charm Superiority complex True self and false self Vanity Defences Denial Idealization and devaluation Distortion Projection Splitting Cultural phenomena Control freak Don Juanism Dorian Gray syndrome My way or the highway Selfie Related articles Codependency Counterdependency Dark triad Ego ideal "Egomania" (film) Egotheism Empire-building God complex History of narcissism Messiah complex Micromanagement Narcissism of small differences Narcissistic leadership Narcissistic parent Narcissistic Personality Inventory Narcissus (mythology) On Narcissism Sam Vaknin Self-love Self-serving bias Spoiled child The Culture of Narcissism Workplace bullying v t e Seven deadly sins Lust Gluttony Greed Sloth Wrath Envy Pride Persons categorizing and describing the sins Evagrius Ponticus John Cassian Pope Gregory I Dante Alighieri Peter Binsfeld In art and culture Divine Comedy Inferno Purgatorio The Seven Deadly Sins (1585 play) The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things (painting) The Seven Deadly Sins (1933 ballet) The Seven Deadly Sins (1952 film) The Seven Deadly Sins (1962 film) The Muppet Show: Sex and Violence (1975) Seven (1995 film) Fullmetal Alchemist (manga series) Fullmetal Alchemist (2003 anime) Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood (2009 anime) The Seven Deadly Sins (manga series) The Seven Deadly Sins of Modern Times (painting) Jack (webcomic) Four Last Things (video game) Shazam! Related Seven Heavenly Virtues Seven Social Sins Sin Christian views on sin Christian views on the Old Covenant Hamartiology  Catholicism portal Authority control BNF: cb13770985x (data) GND: 4331586-0 LCCN: sh95008867 SUDOC: 061614963 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hubris&oldid=999868107" Categories: Narcissism Pride Psychological attitude Religious terminology Seven deadly sins Hidden categories: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from August 2020 Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from August 2020 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from July 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية বাংলা Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Suomi தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2021, at 10:21 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6225	----	File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif - Wikipedia File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search File File history File usage Global file usage Metadata Size of this JPG preview of this TIF file: 420 × 599 pixels. Other resolutions: 168 × 240 pixels | 336 × 480 pixels | 420 × 600 pixels | 538 × 768 pixels | 718 × 1,024 pixels | 3,646 × 5,201 pixels. Original file ‎(3,646 × 5,201 pixels, file size: 54.29 MB, MIME type: image/tiff) This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. Information from its description page there is shown below. Commons is a freely licensed media file repository. You can help. Summary DescriptionJohann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif Deutsch: "XI Quanti res ista pericli est! Sisyphus ut saxum, sic pondera volvere belli / Qui volet, hic vanâ cum ratione sapit.". "Ach wie gefährlich ist die Sach! Wer immer fort und fort die Kriegslast waltzen wil/Hat in dem Kopff nur Dunst"/ von der Vernufft nit vil." Date 1649 Source Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae = Sinnebilder von dem widergebrachten Teutschen Frieden / kürzlich erklärt durch Johann Vogel. Sinnebilder von dem widergebrachten Teutschen Frieden. Meditationes de restaurata pace. Sinnbilder von dem wiedergebrachten Frieden in Teutschlandt. Publisher: [Francofurti] : [apud Joh. Dav. Zunnerum] Peace Palace Library    Native name Bibliotheek van het Vredespaleis Location The Hague Coordinates 52° 05′ 11.76″ N, 4° 17′ 43.8″ E   Established 1913 Web page ppl.nl Authority control : Q3046797 VIAF: 135721970 ISNI: 0000 0004 0395 271X LCCN: n50053119 SUDOC: 029342007 BNF: 120988740 WorldCat institution QS:P195,Q3046797 Author Unknown authorUnknown author Permission (Reusing this file) This is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1926. 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en-wikipedia-org-6228	----	Help:IPA/English - Wikipedia Help:IPA/English From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia < Help:IPA Jump to navigation Jump to search This page is about the pronunciation of words in English. For sounds not found in English, see Help:IPA. For a basic introduction to the IPA, see Help:IPA/Introduction. For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. Wikipedia key to pronunciation of English This is the pronunciation key for IPA transcriptions of English on Wikipedia.It provides a set of symbols to represent the pronunciation of English in Wikipedia articles, and example words that illustrate the sounds that correspond to them. Integrity must be maintained between the key and the transcriptions that link here; do not change any symbol or its value without establishing consensus on the talk page first. Shortcuts H:IPA-EN H:IPAE H:IPAEN ‹See TfM› Throughout Wikipedia, the pronunciation of words is indicated by means of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The following tables list the IPA symbols used for English words and pronunciations. Please note that several of these symbols are used in ways that are specific to Wikipedia and differ from those used by dictionaries. If the IPA symbols are not displayed properly by your browser, see the links below. If you are adding a pronunciation using this key, such pronunciations should generally be formatted using the template {{IPAc-en}}. The template provides tooltips for each symbol in the pronunciation. See the template page for instructions. Contents 1 Key 2 Dialect variation 3 Other transcriptions 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Key If there is an IPA symbol you are looking for that you do not see here, see Help:IPA, which is a more complete list. For a table listing all spellings of the sounds on this page, see English orthography § Sound-to-spelling correspondences. For help converting spelling to pronunciation, see English orthography § Spelling-to-sound correspondences. The words given as examples for two different symbols may sound the same to you. For example, you may pronounce cot and caught the same, do and dew, or marry and merry. This often happens because of dialect variation (see our articles English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects). If this is the case, you will pronounce those symbols the same for other words as well.[1] Whether this is true for all words, or just when the sounds occur in the same context, depends on the merger.[2] The footnotes explain some of these cases. Consonants IPA Examples b buy, cab d dye, cad, ladder[3] dj dew[4] dʒ giant, badge ð thy, breathe, father f fan, leaf ɡ guy, bag h high, ahead hw whine[5] j[6] yes, hallelujah k sky, crack l lie, sly, gal[7] lj lute[4] m my, smile, cam n nigh, snide, can nj new[4] ŋ sang, sink, singer p pie, spy, cap r[8] rye, try, very s sigh, mass sj consume[4] ʃ shy, cash, emotion t tie, sty, cat, latter[3] tj tune[4] tʃ China, catch θ thigh, math θj enthuse[4] v vine, leave w wine, swine z zoo, has zj Zeus[4] ʒ pleasure, beige[9]   Marginal segments IPA Examples x ugh, loch, Chanukah[10] ʔ uh-oh /ˈʔʌʔoʊ/ ɒ̃ bon vivant[11] æ̃ fin de siècle[11] ɜː Möbius (UK only)[12] Vowels Strong vowels ...followed by R[13] IPA Examples IPA Examples ɑː PALM, bra ɑːr START ɒ LOT, blockade[14] ɒr moral[15] æ TRAP, tattoo[16] ær marry[17] aɪ PRICE, pie[18] aɪər hire[19] aʊ MOUTH, how[18] aʊər flour[19] ɛ DRESS, prestige[20] ɛr merry[17] eɪ FACE ɛər SQUARE, Mary[17][21] ɪ KIT, historic[22] ɪr mirror iː FLEECE, pedigree, idea[23] ɪər NEAR, serious[21] oʊ GOAT[24][22] ɔːr FORCE[25] ɔː THOUGHT[26] NORTH[25] ɔɪ CHOICE ɔɪər coir[19] ʊ FOOT ʊr courier uː GOOSE, cruel[23] ʊər tour, CURE (/ˈkjʊər/)[27][21] ʌ STRUT, untidy, trustee[28][29] ɜːr NURSE, blurry, urbane, foreword[30] ʌr hurry[31] Weak vowels IPA Examples IPA Examples ə COMMA, addition, abbot ər LETTER, forward, history[32] ɪ edition, rabbit, Latin, heating[22][33] oʊ motto, retroactive, follower[22][34] i HAPPY, mediocre[35] iə California[36] u fruition[34][35] uə influence[37] Syllabic consonants[32] IPA Examples IPA Examples əl bottle (either [əl] or [l̩]) ən button (either [ən] or [n̩]) əm rhythm (either [əm] or [m̩])   Stress[38] Syllabification IPA Examples IPA Examples ˈ intonation /ˌɪntəˈneɪʃən/ . /ˈhaɪər/ hire, /ˈhaɪ.ər/ higher[39] /ˈtæks.peɪər/ taxpayer ˌ Notes Words in SMALL CAPITALS are the standard lexical sets.[40] The length mark ⟨ː⟩ does not mean that the vowels transcribed with it are always longer than those without it. When unstressed, followed by a voiceless consonant, or in a polysyllabic word, a vowel in the former group is frequently shorter than the latter in other environments (see Clipping (phonetics) § English). Dialect variation Further information: English phonology and International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects This key represents diaphonemes, abstractions of speech sounds that accommodate General American, Received Pronunciation (RP) and to a large extent also Australian, Canadian, Irish (including Ulster), New Zealand, Scottish, South African and Welsh pronunciations. Therefore, not all of the distinctions shown here are relevant to a particular dialect: ⟨i⟩ does not represent a phoneme but a variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed positions. Speakers of dialects with happy tensing (Australian English, General American, modern RP) should read it as an unstressed /iː/, whereas speakers of other dialects (e.g. some Northern England English) should treat it the same as /ɪ/. In Scotland, this vowel can be considered the same as the short allophone of /eɪ/, as in take. Before /ə/ within the same word, another possible pronunciation is /j/ as in yet. Many speakers of American and Canadian English pronounce cot /ˈkɒt/ and caught /ˈkɔːt/ the same.[j] You may simply ignore the difference between the symbols /ɒ/ and /ɔː/, just as you ignore the distinction between the written vowels o and au when pronouncing them. Speakers of rhotic dialects (Irish English, North American English, Scottish English) do not distinguish between the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/, cure /ˈkjʊər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ on the one hand and freerunning /ˈfriːrʌnɪŋ/, Q-rating /ˈkjuːreɪtɪŋ/ and dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/ on the other. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɪər, ʊər, ɛər/ as /iːr, uːr, eɪr/. In Northern Ireland, Scotland and many North American dialects the distinction between /ʊr/ as in courier and the aforementioned /ʊər/ and /uːr/ does not exist. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/. In Northern Ireland and Scotland this merger occurs in all environments, which means that foot /ˈfʊt/ and goose /ˈɡuːs/ also have the same vowel.[k][l] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ʊ/ and /uː/ in all contexts. In North America, the /ʊr/ of courier and the /ʊər/ of cure may instead merge with /ɔːr/ as in north or /ɜːr/ as in nurse. No such merger is possible in the case of the sequence which we transcribe as /uːr/ as there is an implied morpheme boundary after the length mark. In North American dialects that do not distinguish between /ʊr/, /ʊər/ and /uːr/ there is also no distinction between the /ɪr/ of mirror and the aforementioned /ɪər/ and /iːr/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɪr/, /ɪər/ and /iːr/. In many North American dialects there is also no distinction between the vowels in merry /ˈmɛri/, Mary /ˈmɛəri/ and marry /ˈmæri/. If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between /ɛr/, /ɛər/ and /ær/. Some speakers keep marry and/or merry separate from the rest, but in the General American accent all three vowels are the same and may not be distinct from /eɪr/ as in dayroom /ˈdeɪruːm/. In rhotic North American English there is no distinction between the vowels in nurse /ˈnɜːrs/ and letter /ˈlɛtər/. If you speak such a dialect, read /ɜːr/ as /ər/. The /ʌr/ of hurry often joins this neutralization; if you have it in your speech, read /ɜːr/, /ər/ and /ʌr/ as /ər/. Some speakers from Northern England do not distinguish the vowel of square /ˈskwɛər/ and nurse /ˈnɜːrs/.[m] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɛər/ and /ɜːr/. In New Zealand English, the vowels of kit /ˈkɪt/ and focus /ˈfoʊkəs/ have the same schwa-like quality.[n][o] If you are from New Zealand, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪ/ and /ə/. In contemporary New Zealand English and some other dialects, the vowels of near /ˈnɪər/ and square /ˈskwɛər/ are not distinguished.[p] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ɪər/ and /ɛər/. In Northern England English, the vowels of foot /ˈfʊt/ and strut /ˈstrʌt/ are not distinguished.[q] If you are from Northern England, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʊ/ and /ʌ/. In Welsh English and some other dialects, the vowels of unorthodoxy /ʌnˈɔːrθədɒksi/ and an orthodoxy /ən ˈɔːrθədɒksi/ are not distinguished.[r] If you speak such a dialect, ignore the difference between the symbols /ʌ/ and /ə/. Depending on the dialect, vowels can be subject to various mergers before /l/, so that e.g. fill /ˈfɪl/ and feel /ˈfiːl/ or pull /ˈpʊl/ and pool /ˈpuːl/ may not be distinguished. L-vocalization may trigger even more mergers, so that e.g. cord /ˈkɔːrd/ and called /ˈkɔːld/ may be homophonous as /ˈkɔːd/ in non-rhotic dialects of South East England. See English-language vowel changes before historic /l/ for more information. In many dialects, /r/ occurs only before a vowel; if you speak such a dialect, simply ignore /r/ in the pronunciation guides where you would not pronounce it, as in cart /kɑːrt/. In other dialects, /j/ (yes) cannot occur after /t, d, n/, etc., within the same syllable; if you speak such a dialect, then ignore the /j/ in transcriptions such as new /njuː/. For example, New York is transcribed /njuː ˈjɔːrk/. For most people from England and for some New Yorkers, the /r/ in /jɔːrk/ is not pronounced; for most people from the United States, including some New Yorkers, the /j/ in /njuː/ is not pronounced and may be ignored. (See yod-dropping.) On the other hand, there are some distinctions which you might make but which this key does not encode, as they are seldom reflected in the dictionaries used as sources for Wikipedia articles: The vowels of kit and bit, distinguished in South Africa.[s] Both of them are transcribed as /ɪ/ in stressed syllables and as /ɪ/ or /ə/ in unstressed syllables. The difference between the vowels of fir, fur and fern, maintained in some Scottish and Irish English but lost elsewhere.[t] All of them are transcribed as /ɜːr/. The vowels of north and force, distinguished in Scottish English, Irish English and by a minority of American speakers.[t] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔːr/. The vowels of pause and paws, distinguished in Cockney and by some Estuary English speakers.[u] Both of them are transcribed as /ɔː/ when the spelling does not contain ⟨r⟩ and /ɔːr/ or /ʊər/ (depending on the word) when it does. The vowels of manning and Manning, distinguished in some parts of the United States (see /æ/ raising). Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The difference between the vowels of pain and pane found in some English, Welsh, and Newfoundland dialects. Both of them are transcribed as /eɪ/. The difference between the vowels of holy and wholly found in Cockney and many Estuary English speakers.[v] Both of them are transcribed as /oʊ/. Any allophonic distinctions, such as: The vowels of bad and lad, distinguished in many parts of Australia. Both of them are transcribed as /æ/. The vowels of spider and spied her, distinguished in many parts of Scotland,[w] plus many parts of North America. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of rider and writer, distinguished in most parts of Canada and many parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aɪ/. The vowels of powder and pouter distinguished in most parts of Canada and some parts of the United States. Both of them are transcribed as /aʊ/. Allophonic vowel length (including the Scottish vowel length rule), as in knife /ˈnaɪf/ vs. knives /ˈnaɪvz/. Phonemic vowel length, which exists in some dialects and involves pairs such as /ɛ/ vs. /ɛər/ and /ə/ vs. /ɜːr/ is also not marked explicitly. /i/ and /u/ do not represent phonemes; see above. Flapping in words such as better, which we write /ˈbɛtər/, rather than /ˈbɛdər/. Glottalization in words such as jetlag and, in some accents, daughter, which we write /ˈdʒɛtlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːtər/, rather than /ˈdʒɛʔlæɡ/ and /ˈdɔːʔər/. In this system, /ʔ/ is used only for paralanguage or in loanwords where it occurs phonemically in the original language. L-vocalization in words such as bottle and Alps, which we write /ˈbɒtəl/ and /ˈælps/, rather than /ˈbɒtʊ/ and /ˈæwps/. The difference between allophones of /ə/ in balance ([ə]) vs. the ones in about and Russia (and, in non-rhotic dialects, better), both of which may be closer to /ʌ/ in dialects with the foot-strut split (that is, [ɐ]) vs. the one in button (the syllabicity of the following consonant). All are transcribed as /ə/ in our system. The difference between the phonetic realization of English sounds (mostly vowels) in various dialects. Let's pick some grapes for Betty should be transcribed /lɛts ˈpɪk səm ˈɡreɪps fər ˈbɛti/ regardless of the variety of English and everyone should interpret that transcription according to their own dialect. Thus, a person from South East England will read it as something like [lɛʔs ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɹɛɪps fə ˈbɛtˢɪi], a Scot as [ɫɛts ˈpʰɪk səm ˈɡɾeps fɚ ˈbɛte], whereas someone from New Zealand will interpret that transcription as [ɫɪts ˈpʰək səm ˈɡɹæɪps fə ˈbɪɾi]. Because we are transcribing diaphonemes rather than phones (actual sounds), it is irrelevant that, for example, the vowel in let's as pronounced by someone from New Zealand overlaps with how people with England and Scotland typically pronounce the first vowel in pick, or that the Scottish realization of /r/ after /ɡ/ overlaps with the New Zealand realization of /t/ between vowels. In other words, the symbol ⟨ɛ⟩ does not stand specifically for the open-mid front unrounded vowel in our system but any vowel that can be identified as the vowel in let's, depending on the accent. This is also why we use the simple symbol ⟨r⟩ for the second sound in grapes. Other words may have different vowels depending on the speaker. The pronunciation of the /æ/ vowel in most dialects of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Northern England and Wales has always been closer to [a]. Received Pronunciation has moved away from the traditional near-open front realization [æ] towards almost fully open front realization [a], and both the Oxford English Dictionary and the 2014 edition of Gimson's Pronunciation of English transcribe the vowel in lad, bad, cat, trap with /a/.[x] For more extensive information on dialect variations, you may wish to see the IPA chart for English dialects. Note that place names are not generally exempted from being transcribed in this abstracted system, so rules such as the above must be applied in order to recover the local pronunciation. Examples include place names in much of England ending ‑ford, which although locally pronounced [‑fəd] are transcribed /‑fərd/. This is best practice for editors. However, readers should be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if /‑fəd/ is encountered for such a place name, it should not be interpreted as a claim that the /r/ would be absent even in a rhotic dialect. Other transcriptions If you feel it is necessary to add a pronunciation respelling using another convention, then please use the conventions of Wikipedia's pronunciation respelling key. To compare the following IPA symbols with non-IPA American dictionary conventions that may be more familiar, see Pronunciation respelling for English, which lists the pronunciation guides of fourteen English dictionaries published in the United States. To compare the following IPA symbols with other IPA conventions that may be more familiar, see Help:IPA/Conventions for English, which lists the conventions of eight English dictionaries published in Britain, Australia, and the United States. See also If your browser does not display IPA symbols, you probably need to install a font that includes the IPA (for good, free IPA fonts, see the download links in the articles for Gentium and the more complete Charis SIL; for a monospaced font, see the complete Everson Mono) To add IPA pronunciations to Wikipedia articles, see the {{IPA}} template For a guide to adding IPA characters to Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation § Entering IPA characters. Help:IPA/Conventions for English Help:Pronunciation respelling key Pronunciation respelling for English Notes ^ This rule is generally employed in the pronunciation guide of our articles, even for local terms such as place names. However, be aware that not all editors may have followed this consistently, so for example if a pronunciation of an English town ending in ‑ford reads /‑fəd/, it doesn't mean that the /r/ would be absent in a rhotic dialect. ^ For example, if you have the marry–merry merger, you probably only merge /æ/ and /ɛ/ before /r/. You would still distinguish man and men. ^ a b In varieties with flapping, /t/ and sometimes also /d/ between a vowel and a weak or word-initial vowel may be pronounced with a voiced tap [ɾ], making latter sound similar or identical to ladder. Some dictionaries transcribe /t/ subject to this process as ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t̬⟩, but they are not distinguished in this transcription system. In those varieties, the sequence /nt/ in the same environment may also be realized as a nasalized tap [ɾ̃], making winter sound similar or identical to winner. This is also not distinguished in this system. ^ a b c d e f g In dialects with yod dropping, /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ is not pronounced after coronal consonants (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /θ/, and /l/) in the same syllable, so that dew /djuː/ is pronounced the same as do /duː/. In dialects with yod coalescence, /tj/ and /dj/ mostly merge with /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, so that the first syllable in Tuesday is pronounced the same as choose. In some dialects /sj/ and /zj/ are also affected and frequently merge with /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. Where /j/ in /juː/, /ju/, or /jʊər/ following a coronal is still pronounced in yod-dropping accents, place a syllable break before it: menu /ˈmɛn.juː/. ^ The phoneme /hw/ is not distinguished from /w/ in the many dialects with the wine–whine merger, such as RP and most varieties of General American. For more information on this sound, see voiceless labialized velar approximant. ^ The IPA value of the letter ⟨j⟩ may be counterintuitive to English speakers, but the spelling is found even in some common English words like hallelujah and fjord. ^ /l/ in the syllable coda, as in the words all, cold, or bottle, is pronounced as [o], [u], [w] or a similar sound in many dialects through L-vocalization. ^ In most varieties of English, /r/ is pronounced as an approximant [ɹ]. Although the IPA symbol ⟨r⟩ represents the alveolar trill, ⟨r⟩ is widely used instead of ⟨ɹ⟩ in broad transcriptions of English. ^ A number of English words, such as genre and garage, may be pronounced with either /ʒ/ or /dʒ/. ^ In most dialects, /x/ can also be replaced by /k/ in most words, including loch. It is also replaced with /h/ in some words, particularly of Yiddish origin, such as Chanukah. ^ a b /ɒ̃, æ̃/ are only found in French loanwords and often replaced by another vowel and a nasal consonant: bon vivant /ˌbɒn viːˈvɒnt/, ensemble /ɒnˈsɒmbəl/, etc.[a] ^ /ɜː/ is only found in loanwords and represents a situation where such an r-less vowel is used only in British or Southern Hemisphere accents, and therefore a transcription that includes it must always be prefaced with a label indicating the variety of English. It is to be used only when a reliable source shows that General American has a different vowel in the same position. If r-ful NURSE is used even in GA, even if spelled without ⟨r⟩, as in Goethe and hors d'oeuvre, use /ɜːr/. /ɜː/ is also not the same as ⟨œ⟩ seen in some American dictionaries. ⟨œ⟩ in those dictionaries is merely a notational convention and does not correspond to any vowel in any accent of English, so a transcription containing ⟨œ⟩ cannot be converted to one that uses this key. ^ In non-rhotic accents like RP, /r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel. ^ In dialects with the father–bother merger such as General American, /ɒ/ is not distinguished from /ɑː/. ^ In most of the United States, /ɒr/ is merged with /ɔːr/, except for a handful of words such as borrow, tomorrow and sorry, which instead have /ɑːr/. In some parts of the Southern and Northeastern US, it is always merged with /ɑːr/. In Canada, it is always merged with /ɔːr/. ^ In North America, /æ/ is often pronounced like a diphthong [eə~ɛə] before nasal consonants and, in some particular regional dialects, other environments. See /æ/ raising. ^ a b c /ær/, /ɛr/ and /ɛər/ are not distinguished in many North American accents (Mary–marry–merry merger). Some speakers merge only two of the sounds (most typically /ɛər/ with one of the short vowels) and less than a fifth of speakers of American English make a full three-way distinction, like RP and similar accents.[b] ^ a b In much of North America, /aɪ/ or /aʊ/ may have a slightly different quality when it precedes a voiceless consonant, as in price or mouth, from that in ride/pie or loud/how, a phenomenon known as Canadian raising. Since this occurs in a predictable fashion, it is not distinguished in this transcription system. ^ a b c Some speakers pronounce higher, flower and coyer ("more coy") with two syllables, and hire, flour and coir with one. Most pronounce them the same. For the former group of words, make use of syllable breaks, as in /ˈhaɪ.ər/, /ˈflaʊ.ər/, /ˈkɔɪ.ər/, to differentiate from the latter. Also, the distinction between /aɪər, aʊər, ɔɪər/ and /aɪr, aʊr, ɔɪr/ is not always clear; choose the former if the second element may be omitted (as in [ˈdaəri] diary). ^ /ɛ/ is transcribed with ⟨e⟩ in many dictionaries. However, /eɪ/ is also sometimes transcribed with ⟨e⟩, especially in North American literature, so ⟨ɛ⟩ is chosen here. ^ a b c /ɛə/, /ɪə/, or /ʊə/ may be separated from /r/ only when a stress follows it. The IPAc-en template supports /ɛəˈr/, /ɪəˈr/, /ʊəˈr/, /ɛəˌr/, /ɪəˌr/, and /ʊəˌr/ as distinct diaphonemes for such occasions. ^ a b c d /ɪ/ and /oʊ/ may be strong or weak depending on context.[c] Whether an instance of unstressed /ɪ/ is strong or weak may not be clear in some circumstances.[d] ^ a b Words like idea, real, theatre, and cruel may be pronounced with /ɪə/ or /ʊə/ in non-rhotic accents such as Received Pronunciation, and some dictionaries transcribe them with /ɪə, ʊə/,[e] but since they do not stem from historical /r/ and are not pronounced with /r/ in rhotic accents, they should be transcribed with /iːə, uːə/, not with /ɪə, ʊə/, in this transcription system. ^ /oʊ/ is often transcribed with ⟨əʊ⟩, particularly in British literature, based on its modern realization in Received Pronunciation. It is also transcribed with ⟨o⟩, particularly in North American literature. ^ a b Some conservative dialects make a distinction between the vowels in horse and hoarse, but the number of speakers who make this distinction any longer is very small and many dictionaries do not differentiate between them (horse–hoarse merger). The vowel in hoarse was formerly represented as /ɔər/ on Wikipedia, but is now represented as /ɔːr/, identical to horse. ^ /ɔː/ is not distinguished from /ɒ/ in dialects with the cot–caught merger such as Scottish English, Canadian English and many varieties of General American. In North America, the two vowels most often fall together with /ɑː/. ^ /ʊər/ is not distinguished from /ɔːr/ in dialects with the cure–force merger, including many younger speakers. In England, the merger may not be fully consistent and may only apply to more common words. In conservative RP and Northern England English /ʊər/ is much more commonly preserved than in modern RP and Southern England English. In Australia and New Zealand, /ʊər/ does not exist as a separate phoneme and is replaced either by the sequence /uːər/ (/uːr/ before vowels within the same word, save for some compounds) or the monophthong /ɔːr/. ^ Some, particularly North American, dictionaries notate /ʌ/ with the same symbol as /ə/, which is found only in unstressed syllables, and distinguish it from /ə/ by marking the syllable as stressed. Also note that although ⟨ʌ⟩, the IPA symbol for the open-mid back vowel, is used, the typical modern pronunciation is rather close to the near-open central vowel [ɐ] in most dialects, including Received Pronunciation and General American. ^ /ʌ/ is not used in the dialects of the northern half of England, some bordering parts of Wales, and some broad eastern Ireland accents. These words would take the /ʊ/ vowel: there is no foot–strut split. ^ In Received Pronunciation, /ɜːr/ is pronounced as a lengthened schwa, [əː]. In General American, it is phonetically identical to /ər/. Some dictionaries therefore use ⟨əː, ər⟩ instead of the conventional notations ⟨ɜː, ɜr⟩. When ⟨ər⟩ is used for /ɜːr/, it is distinguished from /ər/ by marking the syllable as stressed. ^ /ʌr/ is not distinguished from /ɜːr/ in dialects with the hurry–furry merger such as General American. ^ a b In a number of contexts, /ə/ in /ər/, /əl/, /ən/, or /əm/ is often omitted, resulting in a syllable with no vowel. Some dictionaries show /ə/ in those contexts in parentheses, superscript, or italics to indicate this possibility, or simply omit /ə/. When followed by a weak vowel, the syllable may be lost altogether, with the consonant moving to the next syllable, so that doubling /ˈdʌb.əl.ɪŋ/ may alternatively be pronounced as [ˈdʌb.lɪŋ], and Edinburgh /ˈɛd.ɪn.bər.ə/ as [ˈɛd.ɪn.brə].[i] When not followed by a vowel, /ər/ merges with /ə/ in non-rhotic accents. ^ In accents with the weak vowel merger such as most Australian and American accents, /ɪ/ in unstressed positions is not distinguished from /ə/, making rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon homophonous. Pairs like roses and Rosa's are kept distinct in American accents because of the difference in morphological structure,[f] but may be homophonous in Australian.[g] In these accents, unstressed /ɪl, ɪn, ɪm/ merge with /əl, ən, əm/, so that the second vowel in Latin may be lost and cabinet may be disyllabic (see the previous note). ^ a b /oʊ/ and /u/ in unstressed, prevocalic positions are transcribed as /əw/ by Merriam-Webster, but no other dictionary uniformly follows this practice.[h] Hence a difference between /əw/ in Merriam-Webster and /oʊ/ or /u/ in another source is most likely one in notation, not in pronunciation, so /əw/ in such cases may be better replaced with /oʊ/ or /u/ accordingly, to minimize confusion: /ˌsɪtʃəˈweɪʃən/ → /ˌsɪtʃuˈeɪʃən/, /ˈfɒləwər/ → /ˈfɒloʊər/. ^ a b ⟨i⟩ represents variation between /iː/ and /ɪ/ in unstressed prevocalic or morpheme-final positions. It is realized with a quality closer to /iː/ in accents with happy tensing, such as Australian English, General American, and modern RP, and to /ɪ/ in others. ⟨u⟩ likewise represents variation between /uː/ and /ʊ/ in unstressed prevocalic positions. ^ The sequence ⟨iə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [i.ə] or [ɪ.ə], or as one, [jə] or [ɪə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the NEAR vowel (/ɪər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨iə⟩, not ⟨i.ə⟩, ⟨ɪə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The sequence ⟨uə⟩ may be pronounced as two syllables, [u.ə] or [ʊ.ə], or as one, [wə] or [ʊə̯]. When pronounced as one syllable in a non-rhotic accent, it may be indistinguishable from, and identified as, the CURE vowel (/ʊər/).[e] This transcription system uses ⟨uə⟩, not ⟨u.ə⟩, ⟨ʊə⟩, etc., to cover all these possibilities. ^ The IPA stress mark ⟨ˈ⟩ comes before the syllable that has the stress, in contrast to stress marking in pronunciation keys of some dictionaries published in the United States. ^ Syllable divisions are not usually marked, but the IPA dot ⟨.⟩ may be used when it is wished to make explicit where a division between syllables is (or may be) made. ^ Not all of the sets defined in Wells Standard Lexical Sets for English are used here. In particular, we excluded words in the lexical sets BATH and CLOTH, which may be given two transcriptions, the former either with /ɑː/ or /æ/, the latter with /ɒ/ or /ɔː/. References ^ Jones (2011). ^ Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003). "How do you pronounce Mary/merry/marry?". Harvard Dialect Survey. Harvard University Linguistics Department. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 91–2. ^ Wells, John (25 March 2011). "strong and weak". John Wells's phonetic blog. ^ a b c Wells (1982), p. 240. ^ Flemming & Johnson (2007), pp. 94–5. ^ Wells (1982), p. 601. ^ Windsor Lewis, Jack (10 April 2009). "The Elephant in the Room". PhonetiBlog. ^ Wells (2008), pp. 173, 799. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 473–6, 493, 499. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 58. ^ Corrigan (2010), pp. 33–5. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 361, 372. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 605–7. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98–9. ^ Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 351–3, 363–4. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 380–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 612–3. ^ a b Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 56. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 310–1. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 304, 312–3. ^ Stuart-Smith (2004), p. 57. ^ Cruttenden (2014), pp. 119–20. Bibliography Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007). "New Zealand English". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830. Corrigan, Karen P. (2010). Irish English, volume 1 – Northern Ireland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3429-3. Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4441-8309-2. Flemming, Edward; Johnson, Stephanie (2007). "Rosa's roses: reduced vowels in American English" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002817. Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. Stuart-Smith, Jane (2004). "Scottish English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Volume 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 47–67. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.47. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Volume 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Volume 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Volume 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52129719-2 , 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. 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en-wikipedia-org-6291	----	French Algeria - Wikipedia French Algeria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search French colony in Northern Africa This article is about Algeria. For other uses, see Algeria (disambiguation). "French in Algeria" redirects here. For usage of the French language, see French language in Algeria. French Algeria Algérie française (French) الجزائر المستعمرة (Arabic) 1830–1962 Flag Coat of Arms (1877) Anthem: La Marseillaise Seal of the Government-General Chronological map of French Algeria's evolution Status 1830–1848: Colony 1848–1962: De jure: Départements De facto: Colony Capital and largest city Algiers Official languages Arabic Berber French Government French Department Governor General   • 1830 (first) Louis-Auguste-Victor Bourmont • 1962 (last) Christian Fouchet Legislature Algerian Assembly [fr] (1948 - 1956) History   • Surrender of Algiers 5 July 1830 • Algerian Independence 5 July 1962 Area • Total 2,381,741 km2 (919,595 sq mi) Currency Budju (1830–1848) (Algerian) Franc (1848–1962) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) Date format dd/mm/yyyy Driving side right ISO 3166 code DZ Preceded by Succeeded by Ottoman Algeria Emirate of Abdelkader Kingdom of Ait Abbas Kel Ahaggar People's Democratic Republic of Algeria Today part of  Algeria French Algeria (French: Alger to 1839, then Algérie afterwards;[1] unofficially Algérie française,[2][3] Arabic: الجزائر المستعمرة‎), also known as Colonial Algeria, was the colonial rule of France over Algeria. French rule in the region began in 1830 with the invasion of Algiers and lasted until the Algerian War of Independence concluded in 1962. While the administration of Algeria changed significantly over the 132 years of French rule, the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria, housing the vast majority of its population, was administered as an integral part of France from 1848 until independence. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants known as colons and, later, as pieds-noirs. However, the indigenous Muslim population remained a majority of the territory's population throughout its history. In 1835, indigenous rebels organized the Algerian resistance movement against French settlement; the rebellion was suppressed in 1903 after the "pacification campaign" by the colonial forces, who used chemical weapons, mass executions of prisoners and civilians, concentration camps and other atrocities in order to put them down.[4] Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population with its lack of political and economic status fueled calls for greater political autonomy, and eventually independence from France.[5] Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events began of what was later called the Algerian War, characterized by guerrilla warfare and illegal methods used by the French in order to put down the revolt. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and July 1962 self-determination referendum. During its last years of existence, Algeria was, as an integral part of France, a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community.[6] Contents 1 History 1.1 Initial conflicts 1.2 French conquest of Algeria 1.2.1 Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827) 1.2.2 Invasion of Algiers (June 1830) 1.2.3 Characterization as genocide 2 Popular revolts against the French occupation 2.1 Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848) 2.2 Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer 2.3 Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir 3 French rule 3.1 Demography 3.2 French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population 3.3 Hegemony of the colons 3.3.1 Political organization 3.3.2 Economic organization 3.3.3 Schools 3.3.4 Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France 3.4 Separate personal status 3.4.1 Status before 1865 3.4.2 Status since 1865 3.4.3 Muslim French 3.4.4 Algerian citizens 4 Government and administration 4.1 Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48) 4.2 Colonisation and military control 4.3 Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70) 4.4 Land and colonisers 4.5 Under the Third Republic (1870–1940) 4.5.1 Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic 4.5.2 Kabylie insurrection 4.5.3 Conquest of the southwestern territories 4.5.4 Conquest of the Sahara 4.6 During World War II (1940–45) 4.7 Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58) 4.8 Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62) 5 Post-colonial relations 6 Algérie française 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 In French 10 External links History[edit] Initial conflicts[edit] Purchase of Christian slaves by French monks in Algiers in 1662 See also: Barbary slave trade and European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 Since the 1516 capture of Algiers by the Ottoman admirals, the brothers Ours and Hayreddin Barbarossa, Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates and also ordered a large-scale attack on Algiers between 1682 and 1683 on the pretext of assisting Christian captives.[7] Again, Jean II d'Estrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century.[8] During the Directory regime of the First French Republic (1795–99), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for Napoleon's soldiers who participated in the Italian campaign of 1796. However, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directory's debts. The dey, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 francs, requested from France the rest of the money. Part of a series on the History of Algeria Prehistory Aterian Culture (80,000 BC) Iberomaurusian Culture (20,000 BC) Capsian culture (10,000 BC) Rock art in Oran, Djelfa, Tassili and Ahaggar Roknia Madghacen Jedars Related: Archeology of Algeria Antiquity Phoenicia Ancient Carthage Numidia (202–46 BC) Punic Wars (264–146 BC) Jugurthine War (111–106 BC) Roman Mauretania and Africa (146 BC–590 AD) Vandal Kingdom (435–534 AD) Mauro-Roman Kingdom (477–578 AD) Kingdom of the Aurès (484–703 AD) Kingdom of Altava (578–708 AD) Prefecture of Africa (534–585 AD) Exarchate of Africa (585–698 AD) Early African Church Partenia Fossatum Africae Gemellae Middle Ages Arab conquest (647–709 AD) Umayyads (703–744 AD) Ifranids (742–1066 AD) Muhallabids (771–793 AD) Rustamids (776–909 AD) Idrisids (789–828 AD) Aghlabids (800–909 AD) Fatimids (909–1171 AD) Maghrawas (970–1068 AD) Zirids (973–1152 AD) Hammadids (1014–1152 AD) Almoravids (1040–1147 AD) Almohads (1121–1269 AD) Marinids (1215–1465 AD) Hafsids (1229–1574 AD) Ziyyanids (1235–1556 AD) Modern times Ottoman Algeria (16th - 19th centuries) Regency of Algiers Ottoman governors Emirate of Ait Abbas Emirate of Kuku Barbary pirates Barbary Slave Trade First Barbary War Second Barbary War French Algeria (19th - 20th centuries) French conquest French governors Resistance Pacification Emir Abdelkader Fatma N'Soumer Mokrani Revolt Cheikh Bouamama Nationalism RCUA FLN GPRA Algerian War 1958 putsch 1961 putsch Évian Accords Independence referendum Pied-Noir Harkis Oujda Group Contemporary era 1960s–80s Arab nationalism 1965 putsch Berber Spring 1988 Riots 1990s Algerian Civil War (Timeline) FIS GIA List of massacres High Council of State Civil Concord 2000s to present Peace Charter AQIM Arab Spring Coronavirus pandemic Related topics Outline of Algeria Military history of Algeria (List of wars involving Algeria) Postal history of Algeria (List of people on stamps of Algeria) History of North Africa v t e The Dey of Algiers himself was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States, along with today's Tunisia – which depended on the Ottoman Empire then led by Mahmud II — but enjoyed relative independence. The Barbary Coast was then the stronghold of the Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First (1801–05) and Second (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth, carried out a punitive expedition, the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers. The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties, while the technological advantage of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at naval warfare.[citation needed] Following the conquest under the July monarchy, the Algerian territories, disputed with the Ottoman Empire, were first named "French possessions in North Africa" before being called "Algeria" by Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Duke of Dalmatia, in 1839.[9] French conquest of Algeria[edit] Main article: French conquest of Algeria The French colonial empire in 1920 The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration by Charles X, as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars lived. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey".[10] Fly Whisk Incident (April 1827)[edit] In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to the dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with Pierre Deval, the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions to pay the merchants in 1820. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle, contrary to the terms of prior agreements.[11] After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his fly whisk. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required.[12] Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)[edit] Main article: Invasion of Algiers in 1830 The attack of Admiral Duperré during the take-over of Algiers in 1830 Fighting at the gates of Algiers in 1830 Ornate Ottoman cannon, length: 385cm, cal:178mm, weight: 2910, stone projectile, founded 8 October 1581 in Algiers, seized by France at Algiers in 1830. Musée de l'Armée, Paris Pierre Deval and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the Minister of War, Clermont-Tonnerre, proposed a military expedition. However, the Count of Villèle, an ultra-royalist, President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers. Admiral Duperré commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from Toulon, leading it to Algiers. Using Napoleon's 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, General de Bourmont then landed 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 janissaries, 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran, and about 17,000 Kabyles. The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of Staouéli, and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on a French ship for the Italian peninsula, then under the control of the Austrian Empire. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia,[clarification needed] on 11 July. The dey's departure ended 313 years of Ottoman rule of the territory. The French army then recruited the first zouaves (a title given to certain light infantry regiments) in October, followed by the spahis regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers, known as Beliks. In the western region of Oran, Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco, the Commander of the Faithful, could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for jihad from the marabouts. Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the Two Sicilies in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the Austrian Empire as well as with Spain, then headed by Ferdinand VII, Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency of Abd El-Kader. The latter fought for years against the French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran. Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of Tetuan assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of Tlemcen, near the Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape the invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince Moulay Ali Caliph of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, Pierre François Xavier Boyer. Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe, the "citizen king", was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy. The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it.[citation needed] Characterization as genocide[edit] Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of Algeria a genocide. For example, Ben Kiernan, an Australian expert on Cambodian genocide[13] wrote in Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur on the French conquest of Algeria:[14] By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years late, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration." -Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil When France recognized the Armenian Genocide, Turkey accused France of having committed genocide against 15% of Algeria's population.[15][16] Popular revolts against the French occupation[edit] Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830–1848)[edit] Sylvain Charles Valée On 1 December 1830, King Louis-Philippe named the Duc de Rovigo as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of Bône and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the Bay of Tangier. An ambassador was sent to Sultan Moulay Abderrahmane in February 1832, headed by the Count Charles-Edgar de Mornay and including the painter Eugène Delacroix. However the sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen. In 1834, France annexed as a colony the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. Colonial administration in the occupied areas — the so-called régime du sabre (government of the sword) — was placed under a governor-general, a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who was responsible to the minister of war. Marshal Bugeaud, who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest. Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush. Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the Mitidja Plain and envisioned the large-scale production there of cotton. As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor. Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend: All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where the French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to the Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs.[17] Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that Britain, which was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by Ottoman provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance. The capture of Constantine by French troops, 13 October 1837 by Horace Vernet The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers was led by Ahmad ibn Muhammad, bey of Constantine. He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his beylik by replacing Turkish officials with local leaders, making Arabic the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of Islam. After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the bey's territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by Bertrand Clauzel, had to retreat from Constantine in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However, the French captured Constantine under Sylvain Charles Valée the following year, on 13 October 1837. Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at one and a half million in 1830.[18] Although the Algerian population decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872,[19] the French military was not responsible for the full extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by the locust plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a famine followed by an epidemic of cholera.[20] Resistance of Lalla Fadhma N'Soumer[edit] Main article: Lalla Fatma N'Soumer A print showing Fadhma N'Soumer during combat The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in Algiers. As occupation turned into colonization, Kabylia remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well. In about 1849, a mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the Prophet), but is more commonly known as Sherif Boubaghla. He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir Abdelkader, defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing guerrilla tactics. Bou Baghla was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his thaumaturgic skills. Bou Baghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to the war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as imseblen (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces. Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Bou Baghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than the traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Bou Baghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as tamnafeqt ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family", a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two. Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Bou Baghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where the French general Jacques Louis César Randon was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Bou Baghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from the village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat. Resistance of Emir Abd al Qadir[edit] Abd el-Kader The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din, who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. In the same year, jihad was declared[21] and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old Abd al Qadir. Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and a resourceful warrior. From his capital in Tlemcen, Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity. The French in Algiers viewed with concern the success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General Thomas Bugeaud in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated a favorable peace treaty the next year. The treaty of Tafna gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying Constantine. Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed the French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of the French army. The Battle of Smala, 16 May 1843. Prise de la smalah d Abd-El-Kader à Taguin. 16 mai 1843, by Horace Vernet One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed. French troops disembarking on the island of Mogador, in Essaouira bay in 1844 Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of Morocco, Abd ar Rahman II, and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the French Navy to bombard and briefly occupy Essaouira (Mogador) under the Prince de Joinville on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the Battle of Sidi-Brahim in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of Oran Province, General Louis de Lamoricière, at the end of 1847. Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to Egypt or Palestine if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but the minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the Château d'Amboise. French rule[edit] Demography[edit] Algeria's population under the French → after 1962 Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1830 1,500,000 —     1851 2,554,100 +2.57% 1856 2,496,100 −0.46% 1862 2,999,100 +3.11% 1866 2,921,200 −0.66% 1872 2,894,500 −0.15% 1877 2,867,600 −0.19% 1882 3,310,400 +2.91% 1886 3,867,000 +3.96% 1892 4,174,700 +1.28% 1896 4,479,000 +1.77% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1900 4,675,000 +1.08% 1901 4,739,300 +1.38% 1906 5,231,900 +2.00% 1911 5,563,800 +1.24% 1921 5,804,300 +0.42% 1930e 6,453,000 +1.18% 1940e 7,614,000 +1.67% 1947 8,302,000 +1.24% 1948 8,681,800 +4.57% 1949 8,602,000 −0.92% 1950 8,753,000 +1.76% Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1951 8,927,000 +1.99% 1952 9,126,000 +2.23% 1953 9,370,000 +2.67% 1954 9,529,700 +1.70% 1955 9,678,000 +1.56% 1956 9,903,000 +2.32% 1958 10,127,000 +1.12% 1959 10,575,000 +4.42% 1960 10,853,000 +2.63% 1962 10,920,000 +0.31% e - Indicates that this is an estimated figure. Source: [22][23] French atrocities against the Algerian indigenous population[edit] The siege of Laghouat (1852) during the Pacification of Algeria. Algerian victims of the Sétif and Guelma massacre, 1945 Colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830-1860) of the conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed by the French due to war, massacres, disease and famine.[24][25] Specific crimes committed by the French against Algerians include deliberate bombing, torture and mutilation of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly, rape and disembowelment of women, executions through "death flights" or burial alive, thefts and pillaging.[4][26][27] Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps.[28] During the Pacification of Algeria (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a scorched earth policy against the Algerian population. Colonel Montagnac stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that crawl at our feet like dogs"[29] The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General Bugeaudhas, had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts; the enemy flees across taking his flock."[29] According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, the colonisation of Algeria lead to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated.[30] Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it is for their part that civilization is situated."[31] French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of the El Oufia tribe were killed in one night,[32] while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave.[32] During the Siege of Laghouat, the French army engaged in one of the first instances of recorded use of chemical weapons on civilians and other atrocities, causing Algerians to refer to the period as the year of the "Khalya", Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population.[33][34] It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to the way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches.[35][36] From 8 May to June 26 1945, the French carried out the Sétif and Guelma massacre, in which at least 30,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between the marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule.[37] After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians.[38] The army carried out summary executions of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser Duguay-Trouin, standing off the coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata.[39] Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand.[37] It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak.[40] The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in Héliopolis.[41] During the Algerian War (1954-1962), the French used deliberate illegal methods against the Algerians, including beatings, torture by electroshock, waterboarding, sexual assault and rape.[27][42][43] Many prisoners were locked up without food in small cells, buried alive, and thrown from helicopters to their death or into the sea with concrete on their feet.[27][44][45][46] Claude Bourdet had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine L'Observateur, rhetorically asking, "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria?".[47][48][49] D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.[50] Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with Nazi Germany. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General Paul Aussaresses admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer Ali Boumendjel and the head of the FLN in Algiers, Larbi Ben M'Hidi, which had been disguised as suicides.[51] Bigeard, who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".[52][53] To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.[54] In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in Sidi Ferruch, a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified Louisette Ighilahriz's revelations, published in the Le Monde newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu.[55] However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide. In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine.[56][57][58] Hegemony of the colons[edit] Political organization[edit] A commission of inquiry established by the French Senate in 1892 and headed by former Premier Jules Ferry, an advocate of colonial expansion, recommended that the government abandon a policy that assumed French law, without major modifications, could fit the needs of an area inhabited by close to two million Europeans and four million Muslims. Muslims had no representation in the French National Assembly before 1945 and were grossly under-represented on local councils. Because of the many restrictions imposed by the authorities, by 1915 only 50,000 Muslims were eligible to vote in elections in the civil communes. Attempts to implement even the most modest reforms were blocked or delayed by the local administration in Algeria, dominated by colons, and by the 27 colon representatives in the National Assembly (six deputies and three senators from each department).[citation needed] Once elected to the National Assembly, colons became permanent fixtures. Because of their seniority, they exercised disproportionate influence, and their support was important to any government's survival.[citation needed] The leader of the colon delegation, Auguste Warnier (1810–1875), succeeded during the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue the Algerian state's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Consistent proponents of reform, like Georges Clemenceau and socialist Jean Jaurès, were rare in the National Assembly. Economic organization[edit] Moorish women making Arab carpets, Algiers, 1899 The bulk of Algeria's wealth in manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and trade was controlled by the grands colons. The modern European-owned and -managed sector of the economy centered on small industry and a highly developed export trade, designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation.[59] By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all agricultural exports. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market system that it supplied with wine, citrus, olives, and vegetables. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, subsistence cereal production—supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising—formed the basis of the traditional sector, but the land available for cropping was submarginal even for cereals under prevailing traditional cultivation practices. In 1953, sixty per cent of the Muslim rural population were officially classed as being destitute. The European community, numbering at the time about one million out of a total population of nine million, owned about 66% of farmable land and produced all of the 1.3 million tons of wine that provided the base of the Algerian economy. Exports of Algerian wine and wheat to France were balanced in trading terms by a flow of manufactured goods.[60] The colonial regime imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans.[61] The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes, from which the colons were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. And colons controlled how these revenues would be spent. As a result, colon towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, while Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little if at all from tax revenues. In financial terms Algeria was a drain on the French tax-payer. In the early 1950s the total Algerian budget of seventy-two billion francs included a direct subsidy of twenty-eight billion contributed from the metropolitan federal budget. Described at the time as being a French luxury, continued rule from Paris was justified on a variety of grounds including historic sentiment, strategic value and the political influence of the European settler population.[62] Schools[edit] Arab school of embroidery, Algiers, 1899 The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Algerian Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading and writing and engage in religious studies. Not only did the state appropriate the habus lands (the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, but colon officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated madrasah (school) often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954 only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen was receiving formal schooling.[63] The level of literacy amongst the total Muslim population was estimated at only 2% in urban areas and half of that figure in the rural hinterland.[64] Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "civilizing mission" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims — the évolués (literally, the evolved ones)—had been created. Almost all of the handful of Muslims who accepted French citizenship were évolués; ironically, this privileged group of Muslims, strongly influenced by French culture and political attitudes, developed a new Algerian self-consciousness. Relationships between the colons, Indigènes and France[edit] Reporting to the French Senate in 1894, Governor General Jules Cambon wrote that Algeria had "only a dust of people left her." He referred to the destruction of the traditional ruling class that had left Muslims without leaders and had deprived France of interlocuteurs valables (literally, valid go-betweens), through whom to reach the masses of the people. He lamented that no genuine communication was possible between the two communities.[65] The colons who ran Algeria maintained a dialog only with the beni-oui-ouis. Later they thwarted contact between the évolués and Muslim traditionalists on the one hand and between évolués and official circles in France on the other. They feared and mistrusted the Francophone évolués, who were classified either as assimilationist, insisting on being accepted as Frenchmen but on their own terms, or as integrationists, eager to work as members of a distinct Muslim elite on equal terms with the French. Separate personal status[edit] See also: Indigénat Algerians playing chess, Algiers, 1899 Moorish coffee house, Algiers, 1899 Group of Arabs, Algiers, 1899 Two communities existed: the French national and the people living with their own traditions. Following its conquest of Ottoman-controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century, France maintained what was effectively colonial rule in the territory, though the French Constitution of 1848 made Algeria part of France, and Algeria was usually understood as such by French people, even on the Left.[66] Algeria became the prototype for a pattern of French colonial rule. With nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians "dominated" by one million settlers, Algeria had similarities with South Africa, that has later been described as "quasi-apartheid"[67] while the concept of apartheid was formalized in 1948. This personal status lasted the entire time Algeria was French, from 1830 till 1962, with various changes in the meantime. When French rule began, France had no well-established systems for intensive colonial governance, the main existing legal provision being the 1685 Code Noir which was related to slave-trading and owning and incompatible with the legal context of Algeria. Indeed, France was committed in respecting the local law. Status before 1865[edit] On 5 July 1830, Hussein Dey, regent of Algiers, signed the act of capitulation to the Régence, which committed General de Bourmont and France "not to infringe on the freedom of people of all classes and their religion".[68] Muslims still remain submitted to the Muslim Customary law and Jews to the Law of Moses; all of them remained linked to the Ottoman Empire.[69] That same year and the same month, the July Revolution ended the Bourbon Restoration and began the July Monarchy in which Louis Philippe I was King of the French. The royal "Ordonnance du 22 juillet 1834" organized general government and administration of the French territories in North Africa and is usually considered as an effective annexation of Algeria by France;[70] the annexation made all people legally linked to France and broke the legal link between people and the Ottoman empire,[69] because International law made annexation systematically induce a régnicoles.[70] This made people living in Algeria "French subjects",[71] without providing them any way to become French nationals.[72] However, since it was not positive law, this text did not introduce legal certainty on this topic.[69][71] This was confirmed by the French Constitution of 1848 As French rule in Algeria expanded, particularly under Thomas-Robert Bugeaud (1841–48), discriminatory governance became increasingly formalised. In 1844, Bugeaud formalised a system of European settlements along the coast, under civil government, with Arab/Berber areas in the interior under military governance.[73] An important feature of French rule was cantonnement, whereby tribal land that was supposedly unused was seized by the state, which enabled French colonists to expand their landholdings, and pushed indigenous people onto more marginal land and made them more vulnerable to drought;[74] this was extended under the governance of Bugeaud's successor, Jacques Louis Randon.[73] A case in 1861 questioned the legal status of people in Algeria. On 28 November 1861, the conseil de l'ordre des avocats du barreau d'Alger (Bar association of Algiers) declined to recognise Élie Énos (or Aïnos), a Jew from Algiers, since only French citizens could become lawyers.[69] On 24 February 1862 (appeal) and on 15 February 1864 (cassation), judges reconsidered this, deciding that people could display the qualities of being French (without having access to the full rights of a French citizen).[75] Status since 1865[edit] This section is a rough translation from French. It may have been generated by a computer or by a translator without dual proficiency. Please help to enhance the translation. The original article is under "Français" in the "languages" sidebar. If you have just labeled this article as needing attention, please add {{subst:Needtrans|pg=French Algeria |language=French |comments= }} ~~~~ to the bottom of the WP:PNTCU section on Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English. Napoleon III was the first elected president of the French Second Republic before becoming Emperor of the French by 1852 French Second Empire referendum after the French coup d'état of 1851. In the 1860s, influenced by Ismael Urbain, he introduced what were intended as liberalizing reforms in Algeria, promoting the French colonial model of assimilation, whereby colonised peoples would eventually become French. His reforms were resisted by colonists in Algeria, and his attempts to allow Muslims to be elected to a putative new assembly in Paris failed. However, he oversaw an 1865 decree (sénatus-consulte du 14 juillet 1865 sur l'état des personnes et la naturalisation en Algérie) that "stipulated that all the colonised indigenous were under French jurisdiction, i.e., French nationals subjected to French laws", and allowed Arab, Jewish, and Berber Algerians to request French citizenship—but only if they "renounced their Muslim religion and culture".[76] This was the first time indigènes (natives) were allowed to access French citizenship,[77] but such citizenship was incompatible with the statut personnel,[78] which allowed to live within the Muslim traditions. Flandin argues French citizenship is not compatible with Muslim status which had opposite laws and more on marriage, repudiation, divorce, and children's legal status. Claude Alphonse Delangle, senator, also argued that Muslim and Jewish religions allowed polygamy, repudiation and divorce.[79] Later, Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid".[80] Since few people were willing to abandon their religious values (which was seen as apostasy), rather than promoting assimilation, the legislation had the opposite effect: by 1913, only 1,557 Muslims had been granted French citizenship.[73] Special penalties were managed by the cadis or tribe head but because this system was unfair it was decided by a Circulaire on 12 February 1844 to take control of those specific fines. Those fines were defined by various prefectoral decrees, and were later known as the Code de l'indigénat while lack of codification did not allow to have a full text which summarize all of them[81] On 28 July 1881, a new law (loi qui confère aux Administrateurs des communes mixtes en territoire civil la répression, par voie disciplinaire, des infractions spéciales à l'indigénat) known as the Code de l'indigénat was formally introduced for seven years to help administration.,[82] It enabled district officials to issue summary fines (penalty) to Muslims without due legal process, and to extract special taxes. This temporary law was renewed by other temporary laws: laws of 27 June 1888 for two years, 25 June 1890, 25 June 1897, 21 December 1904, 24 December 1907, 5 July 1914, 4 August 1920, 11 July 1922 and 30 December 1922.[83] Since 1897, fines could be changed into forced labor[84] Periodic attempts of partial reform failed: 1881, Paul Leroy-Beaulieu created the Société française pour la protection des Indigènes des colonies to give indigènes the right of vote[85][86] 1887, Michelin and Gaulier proposed the naturalisation of the indigènes, keeping the personal status from the local law but removing the personal status of common right from the Civil Code[85][87] 1890, Alfred Martineau proposed a progressive French naturalisation of all Muslim indigènes living in Algeria.[85][88] 1911 La revue indigène published several articles signeds by law professors (André Weiss, Arthur Giraud, Charles de Boeck and Eugène Audinet) advocating naturalization of the indigènes with their status;[85] 1912, the Jeunes Algériens movement claims in its Manifeste the naturalization with their status and with conditions of the Algerian indigènes.[85] In 1909, 70% of all direct taxes in Algeria were paid by Muslims, despite their general poverty.[73] Opportunities for Muslims improved slightly from the 1890s, particularly for urban elites, which helped ensure acquiescence to the introduction of military conscription for Muslims in 1911.[74] Napoléon III received a petition signed by more than 10000 local Jews asking for collective access to French citizenship.[89] This was also the desire, between 1865 and 1869, of the Conseils généraux des départements algériens.[89] The Jews were the main part of the population that desired French citizenship.[90] Under the French Third Republic, on 24 October 1870, based on a project from the Second French Empire,[91] Adolphe Crémieux, founder and president of the Alliance israélite universelle and minister of Justice of the Government of National Defense defined with Mac Mahon's agreement a series of seven decrees related to Algeria, the most notable being number 136 known as the Crémieux Decree which granted French citizenship to Algerian indigenous Jews.[89] A different decree, numbered 137, related to Muslims and foreigners and required 21 years of age to ask for French citizenship. In 1870, the French government granted Algerian Jews French citizenship under the Crémieux Decree, but not Muslims.[92] This meant that most Algerians were still 'French subjects', treated as the objects of French law, but were still not citizens, could still not vote, and were effectively without the right to citizenship.[80] In 1919, after the involvement of 172,019 Algerians in the First World War, the Jonnart Law eased access to French citizenship for those who met one of the criteria, such as working for the French army, a son in a war, knowing how to read and write in the French language, being owner, having a public function, being married or born from an indigène became French citizen.[93] Half a million Algerians were exempted from the indigénat status, and this status became void in 1927 in the mixed towns but remained applicable in other towns until its abrogation in 1944.[84] Later, Jewish people's citizenship was revoked by the Vichy government in the early 1940s, but was restored in 1943. Muslim French[edit] Despite periodic attempts at partial reform, the situation of the Code de l'indigénat persisted until the French Fourth Republic, which formally began in 1946. On 7 March 1944 ordonnance ended the Code de l'indigénat and created a second electoral college for 1,210,000 non-citizen Muslims and made 60,000 Muslims French citizen and vote in the first electoral college. The 17 August 1945 ordonnance gaves each of the two colleges 15 MPs and 7 senators. On 7 May 1946, the Loi Lamine Guèye gave French citizenship to every overseas national, including Algerians, giving them a right of vote at 21 years old. The French Constitution of the Fourth Republic conceptualized the dissociation of citizenship and personal status (but no legal text implements this dissociation). Although Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of "French" civil status and of "Muslim" civil status, to keep their hands on power."[94] In the specific context following the second war, in 1947 is introduced the 1947 statute which granted a local status citizenship to the indigènes who became "Muslim French" (Français musulmans), while other French were Français non-musulmans remain civil status citizens[95] · .[96] The rights differences are no longer implied by a status difference, but by the difference between the two territories, Algerian and French.[97] This system is rejected by some European for introducing Muslims into the European college, and rejected by some Algerian nationalists for not giving full sovereignty to the Algerian nation.[citation needed] This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection.[98] Algerian citizens[edit] On 18 March 1962, the Évian Accords guaranteed of protection, non-discrimination and property rights for all Algerian citizens and the right of self-determination to Algeria[99] In France it was approved by the 1962 French Évian Accords referendum. The agreement address various statuses: Algerian civil rights Rights and freedoms of Algerian citizens of ordinary civil status French nationals residing in Algeria as aliens.[99] The Évian Accords offered French nationals Algerian civil rights for three years, but required them to apply for Algerian nationality.[99] During the three years period, the agreement offer: They will receive guarantees appropriate to their cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics. They will retain their personal status, which will be respected and enforced by Algerian courts composed of judges of the same status. They will use the French language within the assemblies and in their relations with the constituted authorities. — Évian Accords.[99] The European French community (the colon population), the pieds-noirs and indigenous Sephardi Jews in Algeria were guaranteed religious freedom and property rights as well as French citizenship with the option to choose between French and Algerian citizenship after three years. Algerians were permitted to continue freely circulating between their country and France for work, although they would not have political rights equal to French citizens. The OAS right-wing movement opposed this agreement. Government and administration[edit] Initial settling of Algeria (1830–48)[edit] In November 1830, French colonial officials attempted to limit the arrivals at Algerian ports by requiring the presentation of passports and residence permits.[100] The regulations created by the French government in May 1831 required permission from the Interior Ministry to enter Algeria and other French controlled territories. This May circular allowed merchants with trading interests easy access to passports because they were not permanent settlers?, and wealthy persons who planned to found agricultural enterprises in Algeria were also freely given access to move. The circular forbade passage to indigents and needy unskilled workers.[100] During the 1840s, the French government assisted certain emigrants to Algeria, who were mostly urban workers from the Paris basin and France's eastern frontier and were not the agricultural workers that the colonial officials wanted to be sent from France. Single men received 68 percent of the free passages and only 14 percent of the emigrants were women because of varying policies about the emigration of families that all favored unaccompanied males who were seen as more flexible and useful for laborious tasks. Initially in November 1840, families were eligible only if they had no small children and two-thirds of the family was able to work. Later, in September 1841, only unaccompanied males could travel to Algeria for free and a complicated system for families was developed that made subsidized travel almost unavailable. These emigrants were offered many different forms of government assistance including free passage (both to the ports of France and by ship to Algeria), wine rations and food, land concessions, and were promised high wages. Between 1841 and 1845, about 20,000 individuals were offered this assisted emigration by the French government, though it is unknown exactly how many actually went to Algeria.[100] These measures were funded and supported by the French government (both local and national) because they saw the move to Algeria as a solution to overpopulation and unemployment; those who applied for assisted emigration emphasized their work ethic, undeserved employment in France, a presumption of government obligation to the less fortunate. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French.[100] Colonisation and military control[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "French Algeria" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algiers in 1857 A royal ordinance in 1845 called for three types of administration in Algeria. In areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population, colons elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes (communes de plein exercice). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the grands chefs (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes (communes indigènes), remote areas not adequately pacified, remained under the régime du sabre (rule of the sword). By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control. Important tools of the colonial administration, from this time until their elimination in the 1870s, were the bureaux arabes (Arab Bureaus), staffed by Arabists whose function was to collect information on the indigenous people and to carry out administrative functions, nominally in cooperation with the army. The bureaux arabes on occasion acted with sympathy to the local population and formed a buffer between Muslims and colons. Under the régime du sabre, the colons had been permitted limited self-government in areas where European settlement was most intense, but there was constant friction between them and the army. The colons charged that the bureaux arabes hindered the progress of colonization. They agitated against military rule, complaining that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony and insisting on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. The army warned that the introduction of civilian government would invite Muslim retaliation and threaten the security of Algeria. The French government vacillated in its policy, yielding small concessions to the colon demands on the one hand while maintaining the régime du sabre to control the Muslim majority on the other. Under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848–70)[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "French Algeria" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Merchant ensign 1848-1910[101] Capture of the Zaatcha (1849) 1877 map of the three French departments of Alger, Oran and Constantine Shortly after Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy was overthrown in the revolution of 1848, the new government of the Second Republic ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared in the 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France. Three civil territories — Alger, Oran, and Constantine — were organized as Departments of France (local administrative units) under a civilian government. This made them a part of France proper as opposed to a colony. For the first time, French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors; Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats, and could not serve as mayors or assistant mayors. The administration of territories outside the zones settled by colons remained under the French Army. Local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of French Army commanders, charged with maintaining order in newly pacified regions, and the bureaux arabes. Theoretically, these areas were closed to European colonization. Land and colonisers[edit] The famine of Algeria in 1869[102] Even before the decision was made to annex Algeria, major changes had taken place. In a bargain-hunting frenzy to take over or buy at low prices all manner of property—homes, shops, farms and factories—Europeans poured into Algiers after it fell. French authorities took possession of the beylik lands, from which Ottoman officials had derived income. Over time, as pressures increased to obtain more land for settlement by Europeans, the state seized more categories of land, particularly that used by tribes, religious foundations, and villages[citation needed]. Called either colons (settlers), Algerians, or later, especially following the 1962 independence of Algeria, pieds noirs (literally, black feet), the European settlers were largely of peasant farmer or working-class origin from the poor southern areas of Italy, Spain,[103] and France. Others were criminal and political deportees from France, transported under sentence in large numbers to Algeria. In the 1840s and 1850s, to encourage settlement in rural areas, official policy was to offer grants of land for a fee and a promise that improvements would be made. A distinction soon developed between the grands colons (great settlers) at one end of the scale, often self-made men who had accumulated large estates or built successful businesses, and smallholders and workers at the other end, whose lot was often not much better than that of their Muslim counterparts. According to historian John Ruedy, although by 1848 only 15,000 of the 109,000 European settlers were in rural areas, "by systematically expropriating both pastoralists and farmers, rural colonization was the most important single factor in the destructuring of traditional society."[104] European migration, encouraged during the Second Republic, stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement against the advice of the army. With the advent of the Second Empire in 1852, Napoleon III returned Algeria to military control. In 1858 a separate Ministry of Algerian Affairs was created to supervise administration of the country through a military governor general assisted by a civil minister. Napoleon III visited Algeria twice in the early 1860s. He was profoundly impressed with the nobility and virtue of the tribal chieftains, who appealed to the emperor's romantic nature, and was shocked by the self-serving attitude of the colon leaders. He decided to halt the expansion of European settlement beyond the coastal zone and to restrict contact between Muslims and the colons, whom he considered to have a corrupting influence on the indigenous population. He envisioned a grand design for preserving most of Algeria for the Muslims by founding a royaume arabe (Arab kingdom) with himself as the roi des Arabes (king of the Arabs). He instituted the so-called politics of the grands chefs to deal with the Muslims directly through their traditional leaders.[105] To further his plans for the royaume arabe, Napoleon III issued two decrees affecting tribal structure, land tenure, and the legal status of Muslims in French Algeria. The first, promulgated in 1863, was intended to renounce the state's claims to tribal lands and eventually provide private plots to individuals in the tribes, thus dismantling "feudal" structures and protecting the lands from the colons. Tribal areas were to be identified, delimited into douars (administrative units), and given over to councils. Arable land was to be divided among members of the douar over a period of one to three generations, after which it could be bought and sold by the individual owners. Unfortunately for the tribes, however, the plans of Napoleon III quickly unraveled. French officials sympathetic to the colons took much of the tribal land they surveyed into the public domain. In addition, some tribal leaders immediately sold communal lands for quick gains. The process of converting arable land to individual ownership was accelerated to only a few years when laws were enacted in the 1870s stipulating that no sale of land by an individual Muslim could be invalidated by the claim that it was collectively owned. The cudah and other tribal officials, appointed by the French on the basis of their loyalty to France rather than the allegiance owed them by the tribe, lost their credibility as they were drawn into the European orbit, becoming known derisively as béni-oui-oui.[106] Napoleon III visualized three distinct Algerias: a French colony, an Arab country, and a military camp, each with a distinct form of local government. The second decree, issued in 1865, was designed to recognize the differences in cultural background of the French and the Muslims. As French nationals, Muslims could serve on equal terms in the French armed forces and civil service and could migrate to France proper. They were also granted the protection of French law while retaining the right to adhere to Islamic law in litigation concerning their personal status. But if Muslims wished to become full citizens, they had to accept the full jurisdiction of the French legal code, including laws affecting marriage and inheritance, and reject the authority of the religious courts. In effect, this meant that a Muslim had to renounce some of the mores of his religion in order to become a French citizen. This condition was bitterly resented by Muslims, for whom the only road to political equality was perceived to be apostasy. Over the next century, fewer than 3,000 Muslims chose to cross the barrier and become French citizens. A similar status applied to the Jewish natives.[107] Under the Third Republic (1870–1940)[edit] Place de la republique, Algiers, 1899 Administrative organisation between 1905 and 1955. Three départements Oran, Alger and Constantine in the north (in pink colour), and four territories Aïn-Sefra, Ghardaïa, Oasis and Touggourt in the south (in yellow). The external boundaries of the land are those between 1934 and 1962. When the Prussians captured Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan (1870), ending the Second Empire, demonstrations in Algiers by the colons led to the departure of the just-arrived new governor general and the replacement of the military administration by settler committees.[108] Meanwhile, in France the government of the Third Republic directed one of its ministers, Adolphe Crémieux, "to destroy the military regime ... [and] to completely assimilate Algeria into France." In October 1870, Crémieux, whose concern with Algerian affairs dated from the time of the Second Republic, issued a series of decrees providing for representation of the Algerian départements in the National Assembly of France and confirming colon control over local administration. A civilian governor general was made responsible to the Ministry of Interior. The Crémieux Decrees also granted full French citizenship to Algerian Jews,[109] who then numbered about 40,000. This act set them apart from Muslims, in whose eyes they were identified thereafter with the colons. The measure had to be enforced, however, over the objections of the colons, who made little distinction between Muslims and Jews. (Automatic citizenship was subsequently extended in 1889 to children of non-French Europeans born in Algeria unless they specifically rejected it.) The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Prussia in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War, led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 Alsatian and Lorrainer refugees who were resettled there. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work. Comte and colonialism in the Third Republic[edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2016) Kabylie insurrection[edit] Main article: Mokrani Revolt The most serious native insurrection since the time of Abd al Qadir broke out in 1871 in Kabylia and spread through much of Algeria. The revolt was triggered by Crémieux's extension of civil (that is, colon) authority to previously self-governing tribal reserves and the abrogation of commitments made by the military government, but it had its basis in more long-standing grievances. Since the Crimean War (1854–56), the demand for grain had pushed the price of Algerian wheat up to European levels. Storage silos were emptied when the world market's impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to speculators. But the community-owned silos were the fundamental adaptation of a subsistence economy to an unpredictable climate, and a good year's surplus was stored away against a bad year's dearth. When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for several years following, Muslim areas faced starvation, and with famine came pestilence. It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period. In 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people. It was against this background that the stricken Kabyles rose in revolt, following immediately on the mutiny in January 1871 of a squadron of Muslim spahis in the French Army who had been ordered to embark for France.[110] The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in Algeria to serve in the Franco-Prussian War had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population. In the aftermath of the 1871 uprising, French authorities imposed stern measures to punish and control the entire Muslim population. France confiscated more than 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) of tribal land and placed Kabylia under a régime d'exception (extraordinary rule), which denied due process guaranteed French nationals. A special indigénat (native code) listed as offenses acts such as insolence and unauthorized assembly not punishable by French law, and the normal jurisdiction of the cudah was sharply restricted. The governor general was empowered to jail suspects for up to five years without trial. The argument was made in defense of these exceptional measures that the French penal code as applied to Frenchmen was too permissive to control Muslims. Some were deported to New Caledonia, see Algerians of the Pacific. Conquest of the southwestern territories[edit] The Maghreb in the second half of the 19th century In the 1890s, the French administration and military called for the annexation of the Touat, the Gourara and the Tidikelt,[111] a complex that during the period prior to 1890, was part of what was known as the Bled es-Siba (land of dissidence)[112]), regions that were nominally Moroccan but which were not submitted to the authority of the central government.[113] An armed conflict opposed French 19th Corps' Oran and Algiers divisions to the Aït Khabbash, a faction of the Aït Ounbgui khams of the Aït Atta confederation. The conflict ended by the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901.[114] In the 1930s, the Saoura valley and the region of Tindouf were in turn annexed to French Algeria at the expense of Morocco, then under French protectorate since 1912. Conquest of the Sahara[edit] See also: Kaocen revolt The French military expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel Paul Flatters, was annihilated by Tuareg attack in 1881. The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between Tuareg and Chaamba Arabs. The newly raised Compagnies Méharistes were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. The Méhariste camel corps provided an effective means of policing the desert. In 1902, Lieutenant Gaston-Ernest Cottenest [fr] penetrated Hoggar Mountains and defeated Ahaggar Tuareg in the battle of Tit. During World War II (1940–45)[edit] See also: Operation Torch Arzew inhabitants meet U.S. Army Rangers in November 1942 during Allied Operation Torch Colonial troops of French Algeria were sent to fight in metropolitan France during the Battle of France in 1940. After the Fall of France, the Third French Republic collapsed and was replaced by the Philippe Pétain's French State, better known as Vichy France. Under the Fourth Republic (1946–58)[edit] [The French] had been for over a hundred years in Algeria and were determined that it was part of France, and they damn well were going to stay there. Of course, there was a very strong school of thought in the rest of Africa that they damn well weren't. US Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Joseph C. Satterthwaite, [115] See also: Algerian War Supporters of General Jacques Massu set barricades in Algiers in January 1960 Many Algerians had fought as French soldiers during the Second World War. Thus Algerian Muslims felt that it was even more unjust that their votes were not equal to those of the other Algerians, especially after 1947 when the Algerian Assembly was created. This assembly was composed of 120 members. Algerian Muslims, representing about 6.85 million people, could designate 50% of the Assembly members, while 1,150,000 non-Muslim Algerians could designate the other half. Moreover, a massacre occurred in Sétif May 8, 1945. It opposed Algerians who were demonstrating for their national claim to the French Army. After skirmishes with police, Algerians killed about 100 French. The French army retaliated harshly, resulting in the deaths of approximately 6,000 Algerians.[116] This triggered a radicalization of Algerian nationalists and could be considered the beginning of the Algerian War. In 1956, about 512,000 French soldiers were in Algeria. No resolution was imaginable in the short term. An overwhelming majority of French politicians were opposed to the idea of independence while independence was gaining ground in Muslim Algerians' minds.[citation needed] France was deadlocked and the Fourth Republic collapsed over this dispute. Under the Fifth Republic (1958–62)[edit] In 1958, Charles de Gaulle's return to power in response to a military coup in Algiers in May was supposed to keep Algeria's status quo as departments of France as hinted by his speeches delivered in Oran and Mostaganem on 6 June 1958, in which he exclaimed "Vive l'Algérie française!" (lit. "Long live French Algeria!").[117] De Gaulle's republican constitution project was approved through the September 1958 referendum and the Fifth Republic was established the following month with de Gaulle as its president. The latter consented to independence in 1962 after a referendum on Algerian self-determination in January 1961 and despite a subsequent aborted military coup in Algiers led by four French generals in April 1961. Post-colonial relations[edit] Main article: Foreign relations of France Relations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close throughout the years, although sometimes difficult. In 1962, the Evian Accords peace treaty provided land in the Sahara for the French Army, which it had used under de Gaulle to carry out its first nuclear tests (Gerboise bleue). Many European settlers (pieds-noirs) living in Algeria and Algerian Jews, who contrary to Algerian Muslims had been granted French citizenship by the Crémieux decrees at the end of the 19th century, were expelled to France where they formed a new community. On the other hand, the issue of the harkis, the Muslims who had fought on the French side during the war, still remained unresolved. Large numbers of harkis were killed in 1962, during the immediate aftermath of the Algerian War, while those who escaped with their families to France have tended to remain an unassimilated refugee community. The present Algerian government continues to refuse to allow harkis and their descendants to return to Algeria. On February 23, 2005, the French law on colonialism was an act passed by the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) conservative majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the "positive values" of colonialism to their students, in particular in North Africa (article 4). The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the left-wing, and was finally repealed by President Jacques Chirac (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of historical revisionism from various teachers and historians. Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task of the French in confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article four of the law decreed among other things that "School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa."[118] Benjamin Stora, a leading specialist on French Algerian history of colonialism and a pied-noir himself, said "France has never taken on its colonial history. It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities. We are phenomenally behind the times."[118] In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public, and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people.[118] In July 2020, the remains of 24 Algerian resistance fighters and leaders, who were decapitated by the French colonial forces in the 19th century and whose skulls were taken to Paris as war trophies and held in the Musee de l'Homme in Paris, were repatriated to Algeria and buried in the Martyrs' Square at El Alia Cemetery.[119][120][121] Algérie française[edit] Algérie française was a slogan used about 1960 by those French people who wanted to keep Algeria ruled by France. Literally "French Algeria," it means that the three départements of Algeria were to be considered integral parts of France. By integral parts, it is meant that they have their deputies (representatives) in the French National Assembly, and so on. Further, the people of Algeria who were to be permitted to vote for the deputies would be those who universally accepted French law, rather than sharia (which was used in personal cases among Algerian Muslims under laws dating back to Napoleon III), and such people were predominantly of French origin or Jewish origin. Many who used this slogan were returnees.[122] In Paris, during the perennial traffic jams, adherence to the slogan was indicated by sounding a car horn in the form of four telegraphic dots followed by a dash, as "al-gé-rie-fran-çaise". Whole choruses of such horn soundings were heard. This was intended to be reminiscent of the Second World War slogan, "V for Victory," which had been three dots followed by a dash. The intention was that the opponents of Algérie française were to be considered as traitorous as the collaborators with Germany during the Occupation of France. See also[edit] Le Chant des Africains List of French possessions and colonies List of massacres in Algeria Nationalism and resistance in Algeria Scramble for Africa References[edit] ^ Scheiner, Virgile (14 October 1839) Le pays occupé par les Français dans le nord de l'Afrique sera, à l'avenir, désigné sous le nom d'Algérie. (in French) ^ Non exhaustive list of ancient and modern books named "Algérie française": (in French) 1848; 1856; 1864; 2007; and so on ^ African Boundaries. Royal Institute for international affairs. 1979. p. 89. ISBN 9780903983877. ^ a b W. Alade Fawole (June 2018). The Illusion of the Post-Colonial State: Governance and Security Challenges in Africa. Lexington Books. p. 158. ISBN 9781498564618. ^ Surkis, Judith. Sex, law, and sovereignty in French Algeria, 1830-1930. Ithaca. ISBN 978-1-5017-3952-1. OCLC 1089839922. ^ Hans Groth; Alfonso Sousa-Poza (26 March 2012). Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries: Assembling the Jigsaw. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 227. ISBN 978-3-642-27881-5. ^ Martin, Henri (1865). Martin's history of France: the age of Louis XIV. Walker, Wise and co. p. 522. Retrieved 9 June 2012. ^ Matar, Nabil I. (2009). Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727. Columbia University Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-0231141949. ^ La Guerre d'Algérie. Collection: Librio-Documents Le Monde. 2003. ISBN 978-2-2903-3569-7. ^ "Algeria, Colonial Rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 39. Retrieved 2007-12-19. ^ Abun-Nasr, Jamil. A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period, p. 249 ^ Abun-Nasr, p. 250 ^ Morris, Stephen J. (30 June 1995). "Disowning Morris". Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 26 September 2019. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780300100983. 374. ^ Chrisafis, Angelique (23 December 2011). "Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria". The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 26 September 2019. ^ "Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria". BBC News Online. BBC News. BBC. 23 December 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2019. ^ Lieutenant-colonel de Montagnac, Lettres d'un soldat, Plon, Paris, 1885, republished by Christian Destremeau, 1998, p. 153; Book accessible on Gallica's website. French: Toutes les populations qui n'acceptent pas nos conditions doivent être rasées. Tout doit être pris, saccagé, sans distinction d'âge ni de sexe : l'herbe ne doit plus pousser où l'armée française a mis le pied. Qui veut la fin veut les moyens, quoiqu'en disent nos philanthropes. Tous les bons militaires que j'ai l'honneur de commander sont prévenus par moi-même que s'il leur arrive de m'amener un Arabe vivant, ils recevront une volée de coups de plat de sabre. ... Voilà, mon brave ami, comment il faut faire la guerre aux Arabes : tuer tous les hommes jusqu'à l'âge de quinze ans, prendre toutes les femmes et les enfants, en charger les bâtiments, les envoyer aux îles Marquises ou ailleurs. En un mot, anéantir tout ce qui ne rampera pas à nos pieds comme des chiens. ^ "ALGERIA: population growth of the whole country". www.populstat.info. Archived from the original on 2012-07-18. Retrieved 2017-07-07. ^ Ricoux, Dr, René (1880). La Démographie figurée de l'Algérie : étude statistique des populations européennes qui habitent l'Algérie. Paris: Librairie de l'Académie de Médecine. p. 260. ^ Daniel Lefeuvre, Pour en finir avec la repentance coloniale, Editions Flammarion (2006), ISBN 2-08-210440-0 ^ Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2013). "Abd al-Qadir". Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern ... ABC-CLIO. p. 1. ^ Lahmeyer, Jan (11 October 2003). "ALgeria [Djazaïria] historical demographic data of the whole country". Population statistics. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012. ^ "Timeline: Algeria". World History at KMLA. 31 May 2005. Retrieved 9 June 2012. ^ Jalata, Asafa (2016). Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 92–3. ISBN 978-1-137-55234-1. Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people. ^ Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press. pp. 364–ff. ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3. In Algeria, colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. From 1830 to 1847, its European settler population quadrupled to 104,000. Of the native Algerian population of approximately 3 million in 1830, about 500,000 to 1 million perished in the first three decades of French conquest. ^ Marnia Lazreg (23 April 2014). The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question. p. 42. ISBN 9781134713301. ^ a b c "Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?". L'Humanité (in French). 24 June 2000. Retrieved 15 February 2007. ^ Bernardot, Marc (2008). Camps d'étrangers (in French). Paris: Terra. p. 127. ISBN 9782914968409. ^ a b Quoted in Marc Ferro, "The conquest of Algeria", in The black book of colonialism , Robert Laffont, p. 657. ^ Colonize Exterminate. On War and the Colonial State, Paris, Fayard, 2005. See also the book by the American historian Benjamin Claude Brower, A Desert named Peace. The Violence of France's Empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844-1902, New York, Columbia University Press. ^ Alexis de Tocqueville, De colony in Algeria. 1847, Complexe Editions, 1988. ^ a b Blood and Soil: Ben Kiernan, page 365, 2008 ^ "La conquête coloniale de l'Algérie par les Français - Rebellyon.info". rebellyon.info (in French). Retrieved 24 November 2017. ^ Pein, Théodore (1871). Lettres familières sur l'Algérie : un petit royaume arabe. Paris: C. Tanera. pp. 363–370. ^ Dzland Mourad (2013-11-30), Documentaire :Le Génocide De Laghouat 1852 Mourad AGGOUNE, retrieved 2017-11-23 ^ Al Jazeera Documentary الجزيرة الوثائقية (2017-11-05), أوجاع الذاكرة - الجزائر, retrieved 2017-11-23 ^ a b Morgan, Ted (2006-01-31). My Battle of Algiers. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-06-085224-5. ^ General R. Hure, page 449 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830-1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977 ^ "Le cas de Sétif-Kherrata-Guelma (Mai 1945) | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche". www.sciencespo.fr (in French). Retrieved 2019-08-03. ^ Horne, p. 27. ^ Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre (2009). "8. La légitimation et l'essor de la subversion 13-19 mai 1945". Guelma, 1945 : une subversion française dans l'Algérie coloniale. Paris: Éditions La Découverte. ISBN 9782707154644. OCLC 436981240. ^ Horne, Alistair (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962. New York Review (published 2006). p. 198-200. ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6. ^ Text published in Vérité Liberté n°9 May 1961. ^ Film testimony by Paul Teitgen, Jacques Duquesne and Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc on the INA archive website[dead link] ^ Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture, El Watan, 1 November 2004. ^ Des guerres d’Indochine et d’Algérie aux dictatures d’Amérique latine, interview with Marie-Monique Robin by the Ligue des droits de l'homme (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Mohamed Harbi, La guerre d'Algérie ^ Benjamin Stora, La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie ^ Raphaëlle Branche, La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962, Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962) Archived 2007-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de Rennes, 18 November 2004 (in English) ^ David Huf, Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962 ^ "L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie". Le Monde. 3 May 2001. ^ "Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture". Le Monde. 4 July 2000. Archived from the original on 19 February 2010. ^ Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop " Archived June 24, 2005, at the Wayback Machine, L'Humanité, May 12, 2000 (in French) ^ La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité Archived 2007-02-09 at the Wayback Machine, AIDH ^ "Le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre", Le Monde, June 22, 2000 (in French) Archived February 19, 2010, at Archive-It ^ "France admits systematic torture during Algeria war for first time". The Guardian. 13 September 2018. ^ Genin, Aaron (2019-04-30). "FRANCE RESETS AFRICAN RELATIONS: A POTENTIAL LESSON FOR PRESIDENT TRUMP". The California Review. Retrieved 2019-05-01. ^ Samuel, Henry (2018-09-15). "France may have apologised for atrocities in Algeria, but the war still casts a long shadow". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2019-05-01. ^ Alistair Horne, page 62 "A Savage War of Peace", ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ John Gunther, pages 122-123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd London 1955 ^ Alistair Horne, page 63 "A Savage War of Peace", ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ John Gunther, page 123 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955 ^ Alistair Horne, pages 60-61 "A Savage War of Peace", ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ John Gunther, page 125 "Inside Africa", published Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London 1955 ^ Alistair Horne, page 36 "A Savage War of Peace", ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ David Scott Bell. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36. ^ "Algeria ... was a society of nine million or so 'Muslim' Algerians who were dominated by the million settlers of diverse origins (but fiercely French) who maintained a quasi-apartheid regime." David Scott Bell. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France, Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 36. ^ (Weil 2005, p. 96). ^ a b c d (Blévis 2012, p. 213). ^ a b (Sahia-Cherchari 2004, pp. 745–746). ^ a b (Sahia-Cherchari 2004, p. 747). ^ (Weil 2005, p. 97). ^ a b c d Murray Steele, 'Algeria: Government and Administration, 1830-1914', Encyclopedia of African History, ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 50-52 (at p. 51). ^ a b Allan Christelow, 'Algeria: Muslim Population, 1871-1954', Encyclopedia of African History, ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 52-53 (p. 52). ^ (Blévis 2012, pp. 213–214). ^ Debra Kelly. Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43. ^ (Weil 2002, p. 227). ^ (Blévis 2003, p. 28). ^ Surkis, Judith (15 December 2010). "Propriété, polygamie et statut personnel en Algérie coloniale, 1830-1873". Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle (in French) (41): 27–48. doi:10.4000/rh19.4041. ^ a b Debra Kelly, Autobiography and Independence: Selfhood and Creativity in North African Postcolonial Writing in French, Liverpool University Press, 2005, p. 43. ^ .https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5657089r/f233.image ^ https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6127976d/f974.item ^ (Collot 1987, p. 291). ^ a b (Thénault 2012, p. 205). ^ a b c d e (Sahia-Cherchari 2004, p. 761). ^ (Weil 2002, p. 230). ^ (Weil 2002, pp. 230–231). ^ (Weil 2002, p. 231) ^ a b c (Weil 2005, p. 98). ^ (Gallissot 2009, p. 7). ^ (Blévis 2012, pp. 215–216). ^ Patrick Weil, How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789, Duke University Press 2008 p.253. ^ Renucci 2004, §. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRenucci2004 (help) ^ Cooper, Frederick (2011). "Alternatives to Nationalism in French West Africa, 1945–60". In Frey, Marc; Dülferr, Jost (eds.). Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 110–37. ISBN 978-0-230-24369-9. ^ (Gallissot 2009, p. 10). ^ (Baussant 2004, p. 109) harv error: no target: CITEREFBaussant2004 (help). ^ (Shepard 2008, pp. 60–61) harv error: no target: CITEREFShepard2008 (help). ^ Wall, Irwin M. (2001). France, the United States, and the Algerian War. University of California Press. p. 262. ISBN 0-520-22534-1. As a settler colony with an internal system of apartheid, administered under the fiction that it was part of metropolitan France, and endowed with a powerful colonial lobby that virtually determined the course of French politics with respect to its internal affairs, it experienced insurrection in 1954 on the part of its Muslim population. ^ a b c d Exchange of letters and declarations adopted on 19 March 1962 at the close of the Evian talks, constituting an agreement. Paris and Rocher Noir, 3 July 1962 known as Évian Accords ^ a b c d Sessions, Jennifer (2011). By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801449758. ^ http://d-o-i-f.blogspot.co.uk/p/afrique.html#EnseigneAlgerie ^ Taithe, Bertrand (2010-12-15). Hélène Blais, Claire Fredj, Saada Emmanuelle. "La famine de 1866-1868 : anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement". Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle (in French) (41): 113–127. doi:10.4000/rh19.4051. ISSN 1265-1354. ^ Between 1882 and 1911, over 100,000 Spaniards moved to Algeria in search of a better life. During 1882 to 1887, it was the country that received a greater number of Spanish migrants [1]. However, a short-term migration also took place during harvesting seasons [2]. By 1915, while the total number of Spaniards in Algeria was still high, other countries in the New World had overtaken Algeria as the preferred destination.[3] ^ John Ruedy, Modern Algeria (2nd ed.), pp. 70-71, ISBN 0-253-21782-2 ^ Alistair Horne, page 31 "A Savage War of Peace, ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ Alistair Horne, page 35, A Savage War of Peace, ISBN 0-670-61964-7 ^ Brett, Michael (1988). "Legislating for Inequality in Algeria". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 51 (3): 440–461, see 456–457. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00116453. ^ Page 164, Vol. 13, encyclopedia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Edition ^ Benjamin, Roger. (2003) Renoir and Algeria. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003, p. 25. ^ R. Hure, page 155, L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962, Charles-Lavauzelle 1977 ^ Frank E. Trout (1970), "Morocco's Boundary in the Guir-Zousfana River Basin", African Historical Studies, Boston University African Studies Center, 3 (1): 37–56, doi:10.2307/216479, JSTOR 216479 ^ Gellner, Ernest; Charles Antoine Micaud (1972). Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa. Lexington Books. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-669-83865-7. ^ Frank E. Trout (1969). Morocco's Saharan Frontiers. Droz. p. 24. ISBN 978-2-6000-4495-0. ^ Claude Lefébure, Ayt Khebbach, impasse sud-est. L'involution d'une tribu marocaine exclue du Sahara, in: Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41-42, 1986. Désert et montagne au Maghreb. pp. 136-157: "les Divisions d'Oran et d'Alger du 19e Corps d'armée n'ont pu conquérir le Touat et le Gourara qu'au prix de durs combats menés contre les semi-nomades d'obédience marocaine qui, depuis plus d'un siècle, imposaient leur protection aux oasiens." ^ Moss, William W. (March 2, 1971). "Joseph C. Satterthwaite, recorded interview" (PDF). www.jfklibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program. Retrieved 2020-06-27. ^ Horne, Alistair, A Savage War of Peace, p. 27 ^ Charles de Gaulle (1958-06-06). "Discours de Mostaganem, 6 juin 1958". Fondation Charles de Gaulle. Archived from the original on 2009-11-14. Retrieved 2010-01-02. ^ a b c Schofield, Hugh (16 May 2005). "Colonial abuses haunt France". BBC News Online. Retrieved 9 June 2012. ^ "Algeria buries repatriated skulls of resistance fighters as it marks independence from France". France 24. 5 July 2020. ^ "Skulls of Algerian resistance fighters to French occupation return to homeland". Algérie Presse Service. 7 Jun 2020. Retrieved 7 Jul 2020. ^ "Algerian fighters' skulls buried in Martyrs' Square at El-Alia Cemetery". Algérie Presse Service. 7 Jun 2020. Retrieved 7 Jul 2020. ^ Mouloud Feraoun (1962) Journal, 1955–1962, Éditions du Seuil, Paris Further reading[edit] Original text: Library of Congress Country Study of Algeria Aussaresses, Paul. The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) ISBN 978-1-929631-30-8. Bennoune, Mahfoud. The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987 (Cambridge University Press, 2002) Gallois, William. A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony (2013), On French violence 1830–47 online review Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962, (Viking Adult, 1978) Roberts, Sophie B. Sophie B. Roberts. Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870-1962. (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2017) ISBN 978-1-107-18815-0. Roberts, Stephen A. History Of French Colonial Policy 1870-1925 (2 vol 1929) vol 2 pp 175–268 online Sessions, Jennifer E. (2015). By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801454462.; Cultural History Stora, Benjamin, Jane Marie Todd, and William B. Quandt. Algeria, 1830–2000: A short history (Cornell University Press, 2004) Vandervort, Bruce. "French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)." in The Encyclopedia of War (2012). In French[edit] (in French) Patrick Weil, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale, Une nationalité française dénaturée, European University Institute, Florence (on the legal statuses of Muslim populations in Algeria) (in French) Olivier LeCour Grandmaison, Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2-213-62316-3 ( Table of contents) (in French) Charles-Robert Ageron, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 1871–1954, 1979 (a ground-breaking work on the historiography of French colonialism) (in French) Nicolas Schaub, Représenter l'Algérie. Images et conquête au XIXe siècle, CTHS-INHA, 2015, "L'Art & l'Essai" (vol. 15) Cointet, Michèle (1995). De Gaulle et l'Algérie française, 1958-1962. Paris: Perrin. ISBN 9782262000776. OCLC 34406158. (in French) Laure Blévis, La citoyenneté française au miroir de la colonisation : étude des demandes de naturalisation des « sujets français » en Algérie coloniale, Genèses, volume=4, numéro=53, year 2003, pages 25–47, http://www.cairn.info/revue-geneses-2003-4-page-25.htm (in French) Laure Blévis, L'invention de l'« indigène », Français non citoyen, auteurs:Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter=200, passage=212-218, ISBN 9782707173263, id=Blévis, 2012a (in French) Patrick Weil, Qu'est-ce qu'un Français, Histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution, Paris, Grasset, year 2002, 403 pages, ISBN 2-246-60571-7, bnf=38818954d (in French) Patrick Weil, La justice en Algérie, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale. Une nationalité française dénaturée, 1830–1962, Histoire de la justice, La Documentation française, year 2005, chapter 95, passage 95-109, ISBN 2-11-005693-2 http://www4.ac-lille.fr/~immigration/ressources/IMG/pdf/Statut_musul_alg.pdf (in French) Mohamed Sahia Cherchari, Indigènes et citoyens ou l'impossible universalisation du suffrage, Revue française de droit constitutionnel, volume=4, numéro=60, year 2004 |pages 741–770, http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2004-4-page-741.htm (in French) René Gallissot, Les effets paradoxaux de la catégorie « d'origine indigène », 25-26 octobre 2009, http://www.univ-skikda.dz/revolution/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27:-les-effets-paradoxaux-de-la-categorie-qdorigine-indigeneq&catid=30, 4e colloque international sur la Révolution algérienne : « Évolution historique de l'Image de l'Algérien dans le discours colonial » — Université du 20 août 1955 de Skikda (in French) Claude Collot, Les institutions de l'Algérie durant la période coloniale (1830-1962), Éditions du CNRS et Office des publications universitaires, year 1987, passage 291, ISBN 2222039576 (in French) Sylvie Thénault, Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, 1830–1962, Le "code de l'indigénat", Abderrahmane Bouchène, Jean-Pierre Peyroulou, Ouanassa Siari Tengour et Sylvie Thénault, Éditions La Découverte et Éditions Barzakh, year 2012, chapter page 200, pages 200–206, ISBN 9782707173263, External links[edit] Media related to French Algeria at Wikimedia Commons 1940~1962 Newsreel archives about French Algeria (from French National Audiovisiual Institute INA) Benjamin Stora on French Colonialism and Algeria Today! 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en-wikipedia-org-6257	----	Madrid - Wikipedia Madrid From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the capital city of Spain. For the autonomous community, see Community of Madrid. For other uses, see Madrid (disambiguation). capital city and municipality in Community of Madrid, Spain Madrid capital city and municipality From upper left: Gran Vía, Plaza Mayor, business districts of AZCA and CTBA, Puerta de Alcalá and the Royal Palace, Almudena Cathedral Flag Coat of arms Motto(s): "Fui sobre agua edificada, mis muros de fuego son. Esta es mi insignia y blasón" ("On water I was built, my walls are made of fire. This is my ensign and escutcheon") Madrid Location within Spain Show map of Spain Madrid Location within Europe Show map of Europe Coordinates: 40°25′N 3°43′W / 40.417°N 3.717°W / 40.417; -3.717Coordinates: 40°25′N 3°43′W / 40.417°N 3.717°W / 40.417; -3.717 Country Spain Autonomous community Community of Madrid Founded 9th century[1] Government  • Type ayuntamiento  • Body Ayuntamiento de Madrid  • Mayor José Luis Martínez-Almeida (PP) Area  • capital city and municipality 604.31 km2 (233.33 sq mi) Elevation 820 m (2,690 ft) Population (2018)[4]  • capital city and municipality 3,223,334  • Rank 1st (2nd in EU)  • Density 5,300/km2 (14,000/sq mi)  • Urban 6,345,000 (2019)[3]  • Metro 6,791,667 (2018)[2] Demonym(s) Madrilenian, Madrilene madrileño, -ña; matritense gato, -a Time zone UTC+1 (CET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Postal code 28001–28080 Area code(s) +34 (ES) + 91 (M) HDI (2018) 0.928[5] – very high Website madrid.es Capital of Spain Madrid (/məˈdrɪd/, Spanish: [maˈðɾið])[n. 1] is the capital and most-populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.3 million[8] inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), surpassed only by Berlin, and its monocentric metropolitan area is the second-largest in the EU, surpassed only by Paris.[9][10][11] The municipality covers 604.3 km2 (233.3 sq mi) geographical area.[12] Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the center of both the country and the Community of Madrid region, of which it is also the capital. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic and cultural centre of the country.[13] The mayor is José Luis Martínez-Almeida from the People's Party. The Madrid urban agglomeration has the third-largest GDP[14] in the European Union and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, environment, media, fashion, science, culture, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities.[15][16] Madrid is home to two world-famous football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético Madrid. Due to its economic output, high standard of living, and market size, Madrid is considered the major financial centre[17] and the leading economic hub of the Iberian Peninsula and of Southern Europe.[18][19] It hosts the head offices of the vast majority of major Spanish companies, such as Telefónica, IAG or Repsol. Madrid is also the 10th most liveable city in the world according to Monocle magazine, in its 2017 index.[20] Madrid houses the headquarters of the UN's World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), and the Public Interest Oversight Board (PIOB). It also hosts major international regulators and promoters of the Spanish language: the Standing Committee of the Association of Spanish Language Academies, headquarters of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), the Instituto Cervantes and the Foundation of Urgent Spanish (Fundéu BBVA). Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR,[21] ARCO,[22] SIMO TCI[23] and the Madrid Fashion Week.[24] While Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Its landmarks include the Plaza Mayor, the Royal Palace of Madrid; the Royal Theatre with its restored 1850 Opera House; the Buen Retiro Park, founded in 1631; the 19th-century National Library building (founded in 1712) containing some of Spain's historical archives; many national museums,[25] and the Golden Triangle of Art, located along the Paseo del Prado and comprising three art museums: Prado Museum, the Reina Sofía Museum, a museum of modern art, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, which complements the holdings of the other two museums.[26] Cibeles Palace and Fountain has become one of the monument symbols of the city.[27][28] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Middle Ages 2.2 Modern Age 2.3 Capital of the Liberal State 2.4 Second Republic and Civil War 2.5 Francoist dictatorship 2.6 Recent history 3 Geography 3.1 Location 3.2 Climate 3.3 Water supply 4 Demographics 5 Government 5.1 Local government and administration 5.2 Administrative subdivisions 5.3 Regional capital 5.4 Capital of Spain 5.5 Law enforcement 6 Cityscape 6.1 Architecture 6.2 Parks and forests 7 Economy 7.1 Economic history 7.2 Present-day economy 7.2.1 Standard of living 7.2.2 Employment 7.2.3 Services 7.2.4 Industry 7.2.5 Construction 7.2.6 Tourism 7.2.7 International rankings 7.3 Media and entertainment 8 Art and culture 8.1 Museums and cultural centres 8.2 Literature 8.3 Cuisine 8.4 Nightlife 8.5 Bohemian culture 8.6 Classical music and opera 8.7 Feasts and festivals 8.7.1 San Isidro 8.7.2 LGBT pride 8.7.3 Other 8.8 Bullfighting 9 Sport 9.1 Events 9.2 Football 9.3 Basketball 10 Education 10.1 Universities 10.2 Business schools 11 Transport 11.1 Road transport 11.2 Public transport 11.3 Long-distance transport 11.4 Airport 12 International relations 12.1 Diplomacy 12.2 International organizations 12.3 Twin towns and sister cities 12.4 Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities 12.5 Other city partnerships 12.6 Partnerships with international organizations 13 Notable people 14 Honours 15 See also 16 References 16.1 Footnotes 16.2 Citations 16.3 Bibliography 17 External links Etymology[edit] There are three established theories regarding the origin of the toponym "Madrid" (all of them with problems when it comes to fully explain the phonetic evolution of the toponym along history), namely:[29] A Celtic origin (Madrid < * Magetoritum;[30] with the root "-ritu" meaning "ford"). From the Arabic maǧrà (meaning "water stream").[30] A Mozarabic variant of the Latin matrix, matricis (also meaning "water stream").[30] History[edit] Main articles: History of Madrid and Timeline of Madrid Middle Ages[edit] A section of the Muslim Walls of Madrid. For a list of all the walls, see: Walls of Madrid. Although the site of modern-day Madrid has been occupied since prehistoric times,[31][32][33] and there are archaeological remains of Carpetani settlement, Roman villas,[34] a Visigoth basilica near the church of Santa María de la Almudena[35] and three Visigoth necropoleis near Casa de Campo, Tetúan and Vicálvaro,[36] the first historical document about the existence of an established settlement in Madrid dates from the Muslim age. At the second half of the 9th century,[37] Cordobese Emir Muhammad I built a fortress on a headland near the river Manzanares,[38] as one of the many fortresses he ordered to be built on the border between Al-Andalus and the kingdoms of León and Castile, with the objective of protecting Toledo from the Christian invasions and also as a starting point for Muslim offensives. After the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the early 11th century, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. In the context of the wider campaign for the conquest of the taifa of Toledo initiated in 1079, Madrid was seized in 1083 by Alfonso VI of León and Castile, who sought to use the town as an offensive outpost against the city of Toledo,[39] in turn conquered in 1085. Following the conquest, Christians occupied the center of the city, while Muslims and Jews were displaced to the suburbs. Madrid, located near Alcalá (under Muslim control until 1118), remained a borderland for a while, suffering a number of razzias during the Almoravid period and its walls were destroyed in 1110.[39] The city was confirmed as villa de realengo [es] (linked to the Crown) in 1123, during the reign of Alfonso VII.[40] The 1123 Charter of Otorgamiento established the first explicit limits between Madrid and Segovia, namely the Puerto de El Berrueco and the Puerto de Lozoya.[41] Since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile.[citation needed] In 1202, Alfonso VIII gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council,[42] which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III. The government system of the town was changed to a regimiento of 12 regidores by Alfonso XI on 6 January 1346.[43] Since the mid-13th century and up to the late 14th century, the concejo of Madrid vied for the control of the Real de Manzanares territory against the concejo of Segovia, a powerful town north of the Sierra de Guadarrama mountain range, characterised by its repopulating prowess and its husbandry-based economy, contrasted by the agricultural and less competent in repopulation town of Madrid.[44] After the decline of Sepúlveda, another concejo north of the mountain range, Segovia had become a major actor south of the Guadarrama mountains, expanding across the Lozoya and Manzanares rivers to the north of Madrid and along the Guadarrama river course to its west.[44] In 1309, the Courts of Castile convened at Madrid for the first time under Ferdinand IV, and later in 1329, 1339, 1391, 1393, 1419 and twice in 1435. Modern Age[edit] During the revolt of the Comuneros, led by Juan de Padilla, Madrid joined the revolt against Charles, Holy Roman Emperor, but after defeat at the Battle of Villalar, Madrid was besieged and occupied by the imperial troops. The city was however granted the titles of Coronada (Crowned) and Imperial. View of Madrid from the west, facing the Puerta de la Vega. Drawing by Anton van den Wyngaerde, 1562 Baths in the Manzanares in the place of Molino Quemado (detail), by Félix Castello (c. 1634–1637) The number of urban inhabitants grew from 4,060 in the year 1530 to 37,500 in the year 1594. The poor population of the court was composed of ex-soldiers, foreigners, rogues and Ruanes, dissatisfied with the lack of food and high prices. In June 1561 Phillip II set his court in Madrid, installing it in the old alcázar.[45] Thanks to this, the city of Madrid became the political centre of the monarchy, being the capital of Spain except for a short period between 1601 and 1606, in which the Court was relocated to Valladolid (and the Madrid population temporarily plummeted accordingly). The capitality was decisive for the evolution of the city and influenced its fate and during the rest of the reign of Philip II, the population boomed, going up from about 18,000 in 1561 to 80,000 in 1598.[46] View of Calle de Alcalá in 1750 by Antonio Joli During the early 17th century, although Madrid recovered from the loss of the capital status, with the return of diplomats, lords and affluent people, as well as an entourage of noted writers and artists together with them, extreme poverty was however rampant.[47] The century also was a time of heyday for theatre, represented in the so-called corrales de comedias.[48] The city changed hands several times during the War of the Spanish succession: from the Bourbon control it passed to the allied "Austracist" army with Portuguese and English presence that entered the city in late June 1706 [es],[49] only to be retaken by the Bourbon army on 4 August 1706.[50] The Habsburg army led by the Archduke Charles entered the city for a second time [es] in September 1710,[51] leaving the city less than three months after. Philip V entered the capital on 3 December 1710.[52] Seeking to take advantage of the Madrid's location at the geographic centre of Spain, the 18th century saw a sustained effort to create a radial system of communications and transports for the country through public investments.[53] Philip V built the Royal Palace, the Royal Tapestry Factory and the main Royal Academies.[54] The reign of Charles III, who came to be known as "the best mayor of Madrid", saw an effort to turn the city into a true capital, with the construction of sewers, street lighting, cemeteries outside the city and a number of monuments and cultural institutions. The reforms enacted by his Sicilian minister were however opposed in 1766 by the populace in the so-called Esquilache Riots, a revolt demanding to repeal a clothing decree banning the use of traditional hats and long cloaks aiming to curb crime in the city.[55] The Second of May 1808 by Francisco de Goya Main article: Dos de Mayo Uprising In the context of the Peninsular War, the situation in French-occupied Madrid after March 1808 was becoming more and more tense. On 2 May, a crowd began to gather near the Royal Palace protesting against the French attempt to evict the remaining members of the Bourbon royal family to Bayonne, prompting up an uprising against the French Imperial troops that lasted hours and spread throughout the city, including a famous last stand at the Monteleón barracks. Subsequent repression was brutal, with many insurgent Spaniards being summarily executed.[56] The uprising led to a declaration of war calling all the Spaniards to fights against the French invaders. Capital of the Liberal State[edit] 1861 map of the Ensanche de Madrid The city was invaded on 24 May 1823 by a French army—the so-called Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis—called to intervene to restore the absolutism of Ferdinand that the latter had been deprived from during the 1820–1823 trienio liberal.[57] Unlike other European capitals, during the first half of the 19th century the only noticeable bourgeois elements in Madrid (that experienced a delay in its industrial development up to that point) were merchants.[58] The University of Alcalá de Henares was relocated to Madrid in 1836, becoming the Central University.[59] The economy of the city further modernized during the second half of the 19th century, consolidating its status as a service and financial centre. New industries were mostly focused in book publishing, construction and low-tech sectors.[60] The introduction of railway transport greatly helped Madrid's economic prowess, and led to changes in consumption patterns (such as the substitution of salted fish for fresh fish from the Spanish coasts) as well as further strengthening the city's role as a logistics node in the country's distribution network.[61] Electric lightning in the streets was introduced in the 1890s.[61] During the first third of the 20th century the population nearly doubled, reaching more than 850,000 inhabitants. New suburbs such as Las Ventas, Tetuán and El Carmen became the homes of the influx of workers, while Ensanche became a middle-class neighbourhood of Madrid.[62] Second Republic and Civil War[edit] The Spanish Constitution of 1931 was the first to legislate the location of the country's capital, setting it explicitly in Madrid. During the 1930s, Madrid enjoyed "great vitality"; it was demographically young, becoming urbanized and the centre of new political movements.[63] During this time, major construction projects were undertaken, including the northern extension of the Paseo de la Castellana, one of Madrid's major thoroughfares.[64] The tertiary sector, including banking, insurance and telephone services, grew greatly.[65] Illiteracy rates were down to below 20%, and the city's cultural life grew notably during the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture; the sales of newspapers also increased.[66] Conversely, the proclamation of the Republic created a severe housing shortage. Slums and squalor grew due to high population growth and the influx of the poor to the city. Construction of affordable housing failed to keep pace and increased political instability discouraged economic investment in housing in the years immediately prior to the Civil War.[67] Anti-clericalism and Catholicism lived side by side in Madrid; the burning of convents initiated after riots in the city in May 1931 worsened the political environment.[68] However, the 1934 insurrection largely failed in the city.[69] People seeking refuge in the metro during the unsuccessful Francoist bombings (1936-1937) over Madrid during the Spanish Civil War Madrid was one of the most heavily affected cities in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). It was a stronghold of the Republican faction from July 1936 and became an international symbol of anti-fascist struggle during the conflict.[70] The city suffered aerial bombing, and in November 1936, its western suburbs were the scene of an all-out battle.[71] The city fell to the Francoists in March 1939. See also: Siege of Madrid Francoist dictatorship[edit] Woman in Moratalaz by 1974 A staple of the Post-war Madrid (Madrid de la posguerra) was the widespread use of ration coupons.[72] Meat and fish consumption was scarce, and starvation and lack of proteins were a cause of high mortality.[73] As the protracted right-wing despise towards the city nurtured during the Second Republic turned up to eleven during the war, the victors toyed with the possibility of moving the capital elsewhere (most notably to Seville), yet such plans did not materialize, and the Francoist regime conducted then an attempt to resignificate the city, stemming from the Spanish Imperial ideal.[74] The intense demographic growth experienced by the city via mass immigration from the rural areas of the country led to the construction of plenty of housing in the peripheral areas of the city to absorb the new population (reinforcing the processes of social polarization of the city),[75] initially comprising substandard housing (with as many as 50,000 shacks scattered around the city by 1956).[76] A transitional planning intended to temporarily replace the shanty towns were the poblados de absorción, introduced since the mid-1950s in locations such as Canillas, San Fermín, Caño Roto, Villaverde, Pan Bendito [es], Zofío and Fuencarral, aiming to work as a sort of "high-end" shacks (with the destinataries participating in the construction of their own housing) but under the aegis of a wider coordinated urban planning.[77] The municipality grew through the annexation of neighbouring municipalities, achieving the present extension of 607 km2 (234.36 sq mi). The south of Madrid became very industrialised, and there were massive migrations from rural areas of Spain into the city. Madrid's newly built north-western districts became the home of the new thriving middle class that appeared as result of the 1960s Spanish economic boom, while the south-eastern periphery became an extensive working-class settlement, which was the base for an active cultural and political reform.[71] Recent history[edit] After the death of Franco and the start of the democratic regime, the 1978 constitution confirmed Madrid as the capital of Spain. The 1979 municipal election brought Madrid's first democratic mayor since the Second Republic. Madrid was the scene of some of the most important events of the time, such as the mass demonstrations of support for democracy after the failed coup, 23-F, on 23 February 1981. The first democratic mayors belonged to the centre-left PSOE (Enrique Tierno Galván, Juan Barranco Gallardo). Since the late 1970s and through the 1980s Madrid became the center of the cultural movement known as la Movida. Conversely, just like in the rest of the country, a heroin crisis took a toll in the poor neighborhoods of Madrid in the 1980s.[78] 2011 Anti-austerity protests in the Puerta del Sol Benefiting from increasing prosperity in the 1980s and 1990s, the capital city of Spain consolidated its position as an important economic, cultural, industrial, educational, and technological centre on the European continent.[71] During the mandate as Mayor of José María Álvarez del Manzano construction of traffic tunnels below the city proliferated.[79] The following administrations, also conservative, led by Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón and Ana Botella launched three unsuccessful bids for the 2012, 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympics.[80] By 2005, Madrid was the leading European destination for migrants from developing countries, as well as the largest employer of non-European workforce in Spain.[81] Madrid was a centre of the anti-austerity protests that erupted in Spain in 2011. As consequence of the spillover of the 2008 financial and mortgage crisis, Madrid has been affected by the increasing number of second-hand homes held by banks and house evictions.[82] The mandate of left-wing Mayor Manuela Carmena (2015–2019) delivered the renaturalization of the course of the Manzanares across the city. Since the late 2010s, the challenges the city faces include the increasingly unaffordable rental prices (often in parallel with the gentrification and the spike of tourist apartments in the city centre) and the profusion of betting shops in working-class areas, leading to an "epidemic" of gambling among young people.[83][84] Geography[edit] Location[edit] Madrid as seen by the Sentinel-2 satellite in October 2020 Madrid lies on the southern Meseta Central, 60 km south of the Guadarrama mountain range and straddling the Jarama and Manzanares river sub-drainage basins, in the wider Tagus River catchment area. There is a considerable difference in altitude within the city proper ranging from the 700 m (2,297 ft) around Plaza de Castilla in the north of city to the 570 m (1,870 ft) around La China wastewater treatment plant on the Manzanares' riverbanks, near the latter's confluence with the Fuente Castellana thalweg in the south of the city.[85] The Monte de El Pardo (a protected forested area covering over a quarter of the municipality) reaches its top altitude (843 m (2,766 ft)) on its perimeter, in the slopes surrounding El Pardo reservoir [es] located at the north-western end of the municipality, in the Fuencarral-El Pardo district.[86] The oldest urban core is located on the hills next to the left bank of the Manzanares River.[87] The city grew to the east, reaching the Fuente Castellana Creek [es] (now the Paseo de la Castellana), and further east reaching the Abroñigal Creek [es] (now the M-30).[87] The city also grew through the annexation of neighbouring urban settlements,[87] including those to the South West on the right bank of the Manzanares. Climate[edit] Main article: Climate of Madrid Madrid has an inland Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa)[88] in the western half of the city transitioning to a semi-arid climate (BSk) in the eastern half.[89] Winters are cool due to its altitude, which is approximately 667 m (2,188 ft) above sea level, including sporadic snowfalls and frequent frosts between December and February. Summers are hot, in the warmest month, July, average temperatures during the day range from 32 to 34 °C (90 to 93 °F) depending on location, with maxima commonly climbing over 35 °C (95 °F) during the frequent heat waves. Due to Madrid's altitude and dry climate, diurnal ranges are often significant during the summer. The highest recorded temperature was on 24 July 1995, at 42.2 °C (108.0 °F), and the lowest recorded temperature was on 16 January 1945 at −15.3 °C (4.5 °F). These records were registered at the airport, in the eastern side of the city.[90] From 7 January to 9 January 2021, Madrid received the most snow in its recorded history; Spain's meteorological agency AEMET reported between 50 and 60 centimetres (20 and 24 in) of accumulated snow in its weather stations within the city.[91][92] Precipitation is typically concentrated in the autumn and spring, and, together with Athens, which has similar annual precipitation, Madrid is the driest capital in Europe. It is particularly sparse during the summer, taking the form of about two showers and/or thunderstorms during the season. Climate data for Madrid (667 m), Buen Retiro Park in the city centre (1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 20.1 (68.2) 22.0 (71.6) 26.7 (80.1) 30.1 (86.2) 35.5 (95.9) 39.3 (102.7) 40.0 (104.0) 40.3 (104.5) 38.9 (102.0) 28.7 (83.7) 22.7 (72.9) 18.6 (65.5) 40.3 (104.5) Average high °C (°F) 9.8 (49.6) 12.0 (53.6) 16.3 (61.3) 18.2 (64.8) 22.2 (72.0) 28.2 (82.8) 32.1 (89.8) 31.3 (88.3) 26.4 (79.5) 19.4 (66.9) 13.5 (56.3) 10.0 (50.0) 19.9 (67.8) Daily mean °C (°F) 6.3 (43.3) 7.9 (46.2) 11.2 (52.2) 12.9 (55.2) 16.7 (62.1) 22.2 (72.0) 25.6 (78.1) 25.1 (77.2) 20.9 (69.6) 15.1 (59.2) 9.9 (49.8) 6.9 (44.4) 15.0 (59.0) Average low °C (°F) 2.7 (36.9) 3.7 (38.7) 6.2 (43.2) 7.7 (45.9) 11.3 (52.3) 16.1 (61.0) 19.0 (66.2) 18.8 (65.8) 15.4 (59.7) 10.7 (51.3) 6.3 (43.3) 3.6 (38.5) 10.1 (50.2) Record low °C (°F) −13 (9) −7.5 (18.5) −4.5 (23.9) −1.5 (29.3) 3.3 (37.9) 7 (45) 9.8 (49.6) 8.6 (47.5) 4.1 (39.4) 0.3 (32.5) −3.8 (25.2) −6.5 (20.3) −13 (9) Average precipitation mm (inches) 33 (1.3) 35 (1.4) 25 (1.0) 45 (1.8) 51 (2.0) 21 (0.8) 12 (0.5) 10 (0.4) 22 (0.9) 60 (2.4) 58 (2.3) 51 (2.0) 423 (16.8) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 6 5 4 7 7 3 2 2 3 7 7 7 59 Mean monthly sunshine hours 149 158 211 230 268 315 355 332 259 199 144 124 2,744 Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología[93][94][95][96] Climate data for Madrid-Barajas Airport (609 m), in north east Madrid (1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 10.7 (51.3) 13.0 (55.4) 17.0 (62.6) 18.7 (65.7) 23.1 (73.6) 29.5 (85.1) 33.5 (92.3) 32.8 (91.0) 27.9 (82.2) 21.0 (69.8) 14.8 (58.6) 10.9 (51.6) 21.1 (70.0) Daily mean °C (°F) 5.5 (41.9) 7.1 (44.8) 10.2 (50.4) 12.2 (54.0) 16.2 (61.2) 21.7 (71.1) 25.2 (77.4) 24.7 (76.5) 20.5 (68.9) 14.8 (58.6) 9.4 (48.9) 6.2 (43.2) 14.5 (58.1) Average low °C (°F) 0.2 (32.4) 1.2 (34.2) 3.5 (38.3) 5.7 (42.3) 9.3 (48.7) 13.9 (57.0) 16.8 (62.2) 16.5 (61.7) 13.1 (55.6) 8.7 (47.7) 4.1 (39.4) 1.4 (34.5) 7.9 (46.2) Average precipitation mm (inches) 29 (1.1) 32 (1.3) 22 (0.9) 38 (1.5) 44 (1.7) 22 (0.9) 9 (0.4) 10 (0.4) 24 (0.9) 51 (2.0) 49 (1.9) 42 (1.7) 371 (14.6) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 5 5 4 6 7 4 2 2 3 7 6 6 55 Mean monthly sunshine hours 144 168 224 226 258 310 354 329 258 199 151 128 2,749 Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología[97] Climate data for Madrid-Cuatro Vientos Airport, 8 km (4.97 mi) from the city centre (altitude: 690 metres (2,260 feet), "satellite view".) (1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C (°F) 10.4 (50.7) 12.5 (54.5) 16.5 (61.7) 18.3 (64.9) 22.6 (72.7) 28.9 (84.0) 32.8 (91.0) 32.2 (90.0) 27.3 (81.1) 20.4 (68.7) 14.3 (57.7) 10.7 (51.3) 20.6 (69.1) Daily mean °C (°F) 6.0 (42.8) 7.6 (45.7) 10.8 (51.4) 12.6 (54.7) 16.5 (61.7) 22.2 (72.0) 25.6 (78.1) 25.1 (77.2) 21.0 (69.8) 15.2 (59.4) 9.8 (49.6) 6.7 (44.1) 14.9 (58.8) Average low °C (°F) 1.6 (34.9) 2.7 (36.9) 5.1 (41.2) 6.8 (44.2) 10.4 (50.7) 15.4 (59.7) 18.3 (64.9) 18.1 (64.6) 14.6 (58.3) 9.9 (49.8) 5.4 (41.7) 2.7 (36.9) 9.3 (48.7) Average precipitation mm (inches) 34 (1.3) 35 (1.4) 25 (1.0) 43 (1.7) 50 (2.0) 25 (1.0) 12 (0.5) 11 (0.4) 24 (0.9) 60 (2.4) 57 (2.2) 53 (2.1) 428 (16.9) Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 6 5 4 7 7 3 2 1 3 7 7 7 59 Mean monthly sunshine hours 158 173 221 238 280 316 364 335 250 203 161 135 2,840 Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología[98] Climate data for Madrid (UV Index) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average ultraviolet index 2 3 5 6 8 9 9 8 6 4 2 2 5 Source: Weather Atlas[99] Water supply[edit] Viaje de Amaniel In the 17th century, the so-called "viajes de agua" (a kind of water channels or qanat) were used to provide water to the city. Some of the most important ones were the Viaje de Amaniel [es] (1610–1621, sponsored by the Crown), the Viaje de Fuente Castellana [es] (1613–1620) and Abroñigal Alto [es]/Abroñigal Bajo [es] (1617–1630), sponsored by the City Council. They were the main infrastructure for the supply of water until the arrival of the Canal de Isabel II in the mid-19th century.[100] Madrid derives almost 73.5 percent of its water supply from dams and reservoirs built on the Lozoya River, such as the El Atazar Dam.[101] This water supply is managed by the Canal de Isabel II, a public entity created in 1851. It is responsible for the supply, depurating waste water and the conservation of all the natural water resources of the Madrid region. Demographics[edit] Main article: Demographics of Madrid The population of Madrid has overall increased since the city became the capital of Spain in the mid-16th century, and has stabilised at approximately 3 million since the 1970s. From 1970 until the mid-1990s, the population dropped. This phenomenon, which also affected other European cities, was caused in part by the growth of satellite suburbs at the expense of the downtown region within the city proper. The demographic boom accelerated in the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century due to immigration in parallel with a surge in Spanish economic growth. The wider Madrid region is the EU region with the highest average life expectancy at birth. The average life expectancy was 82.2 years for males and 87.8 for females in 2016.[102] As the capital city of Spain, the city has attracted many immigrants from around the world, with most of the immigrants coming from Latin American countries.[103] In 2020, around 76 % of the registered population was Spain-born,[104] while, regarding the foreign-born population (24 %),[104] the bulk of it relates to the Americas (around 16 % of the total population), and a lesser fraction of the population is born in other European, Asian and African countries. As of 2019 the highest rising national group of immigrants was Venezuelans.[105] Regarding religious beliefs, according to a 2019 Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS) survey with a sample size of 469 respondents, 20.7% of respondents in Madrid identify themselves as practising Catholics, 45.8% as non-practising Catholics, 3.8% as believers of another religion, 11.1% as agnostics, 3.6% as indifferent towards religion, and 12.8% as atheists. The remaining 2.1% did not state their religious beliefs.[106] The Madrid metropolitan area comprises Madrid and the surrounding municipalities. According to Eurostat, the "metropolitan region" of Madrid has a population of slightly more than 6.271 million people[107] covering an area of 4,609.7 square kilometres (1,780 sq mi). It is the largest in Spain and the third largest in the European Union.[9][10][11] Government[edit] Main article: City Council of Madrid See also: List of mayors of Madrid Local government and administration[edit] Main article: City Council of Madrid Façade of the city hall A plenary session of the city council The City Council (Ayuntamiento de Madrid) is the body responsible for the government and administration of the municipality. It is formed by the Plenary (Pleno), the Mayor (alcalde) and the Government Board (Junta de Gobierno de la Ciudad de Madrid). The Plenary of the Ayuntamiento is the body of political representation of the citizens in the municipal government. Its 57 members are elected for a 4-year mandate. Some of its attributions are: fiscal matters, the election and deposition of the mayor, the approval and modification of decrees and regulations, the approval of budgets, the agreements related to the limits and alteration of the municipal term, the services management, the participation in supramunicipal organisations, etc.[108] The mayor, the supreme representative of the city, presides over the Ayuntamiento. He is charged with giving impetus to the municipal policies, managing the action of the rest of bodies and directing the executive municipal administration.[109] He is responsible to the Pleno. He is also entitled to preside over the meetings of the Pleno, although this responsility can be delegated to another municipal councillor. José Luis Martínez-Almeida, a member of the People's Party, serves as Mayor since 2019. The Government Board consists of the mayor, the deputy mayor(s) and a number of delegates assuming the portfolios for the different government areas. All those positions are held by municipal councillors.[110] Since 2007, the Cybele Palace (or Palace of Communications) serves as City Hall. See also: List of mayors of Madrid Administrative subdivisions[edit] Main articles: Districts of Madrid and List of wards of Madrid Madrid is administratively divided into 21 districts, which are further subdivided into 131 neighbourhoods (barrios): District Population (1 Jan 2020)[111] Area (ha) Centro 140,991 522.82 Arganzuela 156,176 646.22 Retiro 120,873 546.62 Salamanca 148,405 539.24 Chamartín 148,039 917.55 Tetuán 161,991 537.47 Chamberí 141,397 467.92 Fuencarral-El Pardo 250,636 23,783.84 Moncloa-Aravaca 122,164 4,653.11 Latina 242,923 2,542.72 Carabanchel 261,118 1,404.83 Usera 143,365 777.77 Puente de Vallecas 241,666 1,496.86 Moratalaz 95,907 610.32 Ciudad Lineal 220,598 1,142.57 Hortaleza 193,833 2,741.98 Villaverde 154,915 2,018.76 Villa de Vallecas 114,832 5,146.72 Vicálvaro 74,235 3,526.67 San Blas-Canillejas 161,672 2,229.24 Barajas 50,158 4,192.28 Total 3,345,894 60,445.51 Centro Arganzuela Retiro Salamanca Chamartín Tetuán Chamberí Fuencarral-El Pardo Moncloa-Aravaca Latina Carabanchel Usera Puente de Vallecas Moratalaz Ciudad Lineal Hortaleza Villaverde Villa de Vallecas Vicálvaro San Blas-Canillejas Barajas Regional capital[edit] Madrid is the capital of the Community of Madrid. The region has its own legislature and it enjoys a wide range of competencies in areas such as social spending, healthcare, education. The seat of the regional parliament, the Assembly of Madrid is located at the district of Puente de Vallecas. The presidency of the regional government is headquartered at the Royal House of the Post Office, at the very centre of the city, the Puerta del Sol. Capital of Spain[edit] Madrid is the capital of the Kingdom of Spain. The King of Spain, whose functions are mainly ceremonial, has his official residence in the Zarzuela Palace. As the seat of the Government of Spain, Madrid also houses the official residence of the President of the Government (Prime Minister) and regular meeting place of the Council of Ministers, the Moncloa Palace, as well as the headquarters of the ministerial departments. Both the residences of the Head of State and Government are located at the northwest of the city. Additionally, the seats of the Lower and Upper Chambers of the Spanish Parliament, the Cortes Generales (respectively, the Palacio de las Cortes and the Palacio del Senado), also lie on Madrid. Law enforcement[edit] Municipal police agents from the 2018 promotion The Madrid Municipal Police (Policía Municipal de Madrid) is the local law enforcement body, dependent on the Ayuntamiento. As of 2018, it had a workforce of 6,190 civil servants.[112] The headquarters of both the Directorate-General of the Police and the Directorate-General of the Civil Guard are located in Madrid. The headquarters of the Higher Office of Police of Madrid (Jefatura Superior de Policía de Madrid), the peripheral branch of the National Police Corps with jurisdiction over the region also lies on Madrid. Cityscape[edit] Architecture[edit] Main article: Architecture of Madrid This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Little medieval architecture is preserved in Madrid, mostly in the Almendra Central, including the San Nicolás and San Pedro el Viejo church towers, the church of San Jerónimo el Real, and the Bishop's Chapel. Nor has Madrid retained much Renaissance architecture, other than the Bridge of Segovia and the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales. Plaza Mayor, built in the 16th century Philip II moved his court to Madrid in 1561 and transformed the town into a capital city. During the Early Hapsburg period, the import of European influences took place, underpinned by the monicker of Austrian style. The Austrian style featured not only Austrian influences but also Italian and Dutch (as well as Spanish), reflecting on the international preeminence of the Hapsburgs.[113] During the second half of the 16th-century the use of pointy slate spires in order to top structures such as church towers was imported to Spain from Central Europe.[114] Slate spires and roofs consequently became a staple of the Madrilenian architecture at the time.[115] Stand out architecture in the city dating back to the early 17th-century includes several buildings and structures (most of them attributed to Juan Gómez de Mora) such as the Palace of the Duke of Uceda (1610), the Monastery of La Encarnación (1611–1616); the Plaza Mayor (1617–1619) or the Cárcel de Corte (1629–1641), currently known as the Santa Cruz Palace.[116] The century also saw the construction of the former City Hall, the Casa de la Villa.[117] The Imperial College church model dome was imitated in all of Spain. Pedro de Ribera introduced Churrigueresque architecture to Madrid; the Cuartel del Conde-Duque, the church of Montserrat, and the Bridge of Toledo are among the best examples. Royal Palace of Madrid built in the 18th century. The reign of the Bourbons during the eighteenth century marked a new era in the city. Philip V tried to complete King Philip II's vision of urbanisation of Madrid. Philip V built a palace in line with French taste, as well as other buildings such as St. Michael's Basilica and the Church of Santa Bárbara. King Charles III beautified the city and endeavoured to convert Madrid into one of the great European capitals. He pushed forward the construction of the Prado Museum (originally intended as a Natural Science Museum), the Puerta de Alcalá, the Royal Observatory, the Basilica of San Francisco el Grande, the Casa de Correos in Puerta del Sol, the Real Casa de la Aduana, and the General Hospital (which now houses the Reina Sofia Museum and Royal Conservatory of Music). The Paseo del Prado, surrounded by gardens and decorated with neoclassical statues, is an example of urban planning. The Duke of Berwick ordered the construction of the Liria Palace. During the early 19th century, the Peninsular War, the loss of viceroyalties in the Americas, and continuing coups limited the city's architectural development (Royal Theatre, the National Library of Spain, the Palace of the Senate, and the Congress). The Segovia Viaduct linked the Royal Alcázar to the southern part of town. The Círculo de Bellas Artes The list of key figures of madrilenian architecture during the 19th and 20th centuries includes authors such as Narciso Pascual y Colomer, Francisco Jareño y Alarcón [es], Francisco de Cubas, Juan Bautista Lázaro de Diego, Ricardo Velázquez Bosco, Antonio Palacios, Secundino Zuazo, Luis Gutiérrez Soto, Luis Moya Blanco [es] and Alejandro de la Sota.[118] From the mid-19th century until the Civil War, Madrid modernised and built new neighbourhoods and monuments. The expansion of Madrid developed under the Plan Castro, resulting in the neighbourhoods of Salamanca, Argüelles, and Chamberí. Arturo Soria conceived the linear city and built the first few kilometres of the road that bears his name, which embodies the idea. The Gran Vía was built using different styles that evolved over time: French style, eclectic, art deco, and expressionist. Antonio Palacios built a series of buildings inspired by the Viennese Secession, such as the Palace of Communication, the Círculo de Bellas Artes, and the Río de La Plata Bank (now Instituto Cervantes). Other notable buildings include the Bank of Spain, the neo-Gothic Almudena Cathedral, Atocha Station, and the Catalan art-nouveau Palace of Longoria. Las Ventas Bullring was built, as the Market of San Miguel (Cast-Iron style). The Edificio España. Following the Francoist takeover that ensued the end of Spanish Civil war, architecture experienced an involution, discarding rationalism and, eclecticism notwithstanding, going back to an overall rather "outmoded" architectural language, with the purpose of turning Madrid into a capital worthy of the "Immortal Spain".[119] Iconic examples of this period include the Ministry of the Air (a case of herrerian revival) and the Edificio España (presented as the tallest building in Europe when it was inaugurated in 1953).[120][119] Many of these buildings distinctly combine the use of brick and stone in the façades.[119] The Casa Sindical marked a breaking point as it was the first to reassume rationalism, although that relinking to modernity was undertaken through the imitation of the Italian Fascist architecture.[119] With the advent of Spanish economic development, skyscrapers, such as Torre Picasso, Torres Blancas and Torre BBVA, and the Gate of Europe, appeared in the late 20th century in the city. During the decade of the 2000s, the four tallest skyscrapers in Spain were built and together form the Cuatro Torres Business Area.[121] Terminal 4 at Madrid-Barajas Airport was inaugurated in 2006 and won several architectural awards. Terminal 4 is one of the world's largest terminal areas[122] and features glass panes and domes in the roof, which allow natural light to pass through. Parks and forests[edit] Main article: List of Madrid parks Main parks in the municipality Retiro Park The Manzanares flowing through the Monte de El Pardo Madrid is the European city with the highest number of trees and green surface per inhabitant and it has the second highest number of aligned trees in the world, with 248,000 units, only exceeded by Tokyo. Madrid's citizens have access to a green area within a 15-minute walk. Since 1997, green areas have increased by 16%. At present, 8.2% of Madrid's grounds are green areas, meaning that there are 16 m2 (172 sq ft) of green area per inhabitant, far exceeding the 10 m2 (108 sq ft) per inhabitant recommended by the World Health Organization. A great bulk of the most important parks in Madrid are related to areas originally belonging to the royal assets (including El Pardo, Soto de Viñuelas, Casa de Campo, El Buen Retiro, la Florida and the Príncipe Pío hill, and the Queen's Casino).[123] The other main source for the "green" areas are the bienes de propios [es] owned by the municipality (including the Dehesa de la Villa, the Dehesa de Arganzuela or Viveros).[124] El Retiro is the most visited location of the city.[125] Having an area bigger than 1.4 km2 (0.5 sq mi) (350 acres), it is the largest park within the Almendra Central, the inner part of the city enclosed by the M-30. Created during the reign of Philip IV (17th century), it was handed over to the municipality in 1868, after the Glorious Revolution.[126][127] It lies next to the Royal Botanical Garden of Madrid. Located northwest of the city centre, the Parque del Oeste ("Park of the West") comprises part of the area of the former royal possession of the "Real Florida", and it features a slope as the height decreases down to the Manzanares.[128] Its southern extension includes the Temple of Debod, a transported ancient Egyptian temple.[129] Other urban parks are the Parque de El Capricho, the Parque Juan Carlos I (both in northeast Madrid), Madrid Río, the Enrique Tierno Galván Park [es], the San Isidro Park [es] as well as gardens suchs as the Campo del Moro (opened to the public in 1978)[124] and the Sabatini Gardens (opened to the public in 1931)[124] near the Royal Palace. Further west, across the Manzanares, lies the Casa de Campo, a large forested area with more than 1700 hectares (6.6 sq mi) where the Madrid Zoo, and the Parque de Atracciones de Madrid amusement park are located. It was ceded to the municipality following the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931.[130] The Monte de El Pardo is the largest forested area in the municipality. A holm oak forest covering a surface over 16,000 hectares, it is considered the best preserved mediterranean forest in the Community of Madrid and one of the best preserved in Europe.[131] Already mentioned in the Alfonso XI's Libro de la montería [es] from the mid 14th-century, its condition as hunting location linked to the Spanish monarchy help to preserve the environmental value.[131] During the reign of Ferdinand VII the regime of hunting prohibition for the Monte de El Pardo became one of full property and the expropriation of all possessions within its bounds was enforced, with dire consequences for the madrilenians at the time.[132] It is designated as Special Protection Area for bird-life and it is also part of the Regional Park of the High Basin of the Manzanares. Other large forested areas include the Soto de Viñuelas, the Dehesa de Valdelatas [es] and the Dehesa de la Villa [es]. As of 2015, the most recent big park in the municipality is the Valdebebas Park. Covering a total area of 4.7 km2 (1.8 sq mi), it is sub-divided in a 3.4 km2 (1.3 sq mi) forest park (the Parque forestal de Valdebebas-Felipe VI [es]), a 0.8 km2 (0.31 sq mi) periurban park as well as municipal garden centres and compost plants.[133] Economy[edit] Main article: Economy of Madrid The Madrid Stock Exchange After it became the capital of Spain in the 16th century, Madrid was more a centre of consumption than of production or trade. Economic activity was largely devoted to supplying the city's own rapidly growing population, including the royal household and national government, and to such trades as banking and publishing. A large industrial sector did not develop until the 20th century, but thereafter industry greatly expanded and diversified, making Madrid the second industrial city in Spain. However, the economy of the city is now becoming more and more dominated by the service sector. A major European financial center, its stock market is the third largest stock market in Europe featuring both the IBEX 35 index and the attached Latibex [es] stock market (with the second most important index for Latin American companies).[134] It concentrates about the 75 % of banking operations in the country.[134] Madrid is the 5th most important leading Centre of Commerce in Europe (after London, Paris, Frankfurt and Amsterdam) and ranks 11th in the world.[18] It is the leading Spanish-speaking city in terms of webpage creation.[134] Economic history[edit] As the capital city of the Spanish Empire from 1561, Madrid's population grew rapidly. Administration, banking, and small-scale manufacturing centred on the royal court were among the main activities, but the city was more a locus of consumption than production or trade, geographically isolated as it was before the coming of the railways. The Bank of Spain is one of the oldest European central banks. Originally named as the Bank of San Carlos as it was founded in 1782, it was later renamed to Bank of San Fernando in 1829 and ultimately became the Bank of Spain in 1856.[135] Its headquarters are located at the calle de Alcalá. The Madrid Stock Exchange was inaugurated on 20 October 1831.[136] Its benchmark stock market index is the IBEX 35. Industry started to develop on a large scale only in the 20th century,[137] but then grew rapidly, especially during the "Spanish miracle" period around the 1960s. The economy of the city was then centred on manufacturing industries such as those related to motor vehicles, aircraft, chemicals, electronic devices, pharmaceuticals, processed food, printed materials, and leather goods.[138] Since the restoration of democracy in the late 1970s, the city has continued to expand. Its economy is now among the most dynamic and diverse in the European Union.[139] Present-day economy[edit] Cuatro Torres Business Area Madrid concentrates activities directly connected with power (central and regional government, headquarters of Spanish companies, regional HQ of multinationals, financial institutions) and with knowledge and technological innovation (research centres and universities). It is one of Europe's largest financial centres and the largest in Spain.[140] The city has 17 universities and over 30 research centres.[140]:52 It is the second metropolis in the EU by population, and the third by gross internal product.[140]:69 Leading employers include Telefónica, Iberia, Prosegur, BBVA, Urbaser, Dragados, and FCC.[140]:569 The Community of Madrid, the region comprising the city and the rest of municipalities of the province, had a GDP of €220B in 2017, equating to a GDP per capita of €33,800.[141] In 2011 the city itself had a GDP per capita 74% above the national average and 70% above that of the 27 European Union member states, although 11% behind the average of the top 10 cities of the EU.[140]:237–239 Although housing just over 50% of the region's's population, the city generates 65.9% of its GDP.[140]:51 Following the recession commencing 2007/8, recovery was under way by 2014, with forecast growth rates for the city of 1.4% in 2014, 2.7% in 2015 and 2.8% in 2016.[142]:10 The economy of Madrid has become based increasingly on the service sector. In 2011 services accounted for 85.9% of value added, while industry contributed 7.9% and construction 6.1%.[140]:51 Nevertheless, Madrid continues to hold the position of Spain's second industrial centre after Barcelona, specialising particularly in high-technology production. Following the recession, services and industry were forecast to return to growth in 2014, and construction in 2015.[142]:32[needs update] Standard of living[edit] New housing in the Ensanche de Vallecas Mean household income and spending are 12% above the Spanish average.[140]:537, 553 The proportion classified as "at risk of poverty" in 2010 was 15.6%, up from 13.0% in 2006 but less than the average for Spain of 21.8%. The proportion classified as affluent was 43.3%, much higher than Spain overall (28.6%).[140]:540–3 Consumption by Madrid residents has been affected by job losses and by austerity measures, including a rise in sales tax from 8% to 21% in 2012.[143] Although residential property prices have fallen by 39% since 2007, the average price of dwelling space was €2,375.6 per sq. m. in early 2014,[142]:70 and is shown as second only to London in a list of 22 European cities.[144] Employment[edit] Participation in the labour force was 1,638,200 in 2011, or 79.0%. The employed workforce comprised 49% women in 2011 (Spain, 45%).[140]:98 41% of economically active people are university graduates, against 24% for Spain as a whole.[140]:103 In 2011, the unemployment rate was 15.8%, remaining lower than in Spain as a whole. Among those aged 16–24, the unemployment rate was 39.6%.[140]:97, 100 Unemployment reached a peak of 19.1% in 2013,[142]:17 but with the start of an economic recovery in 2014, employment started to increase.[145] Employment continues to shift further towards the service sector, with 86% of all jobs in this sector by 2011, against 74% in all of Spain.[140] In the second quarter of 2018 the unemployment rate was 10.06%.[146] :117 Services[edit] Mercamadrid facilities in South-Eastern Madrid The share of services in the city's economy is 86%. Services to business, transport & communications, property & financial together account for 52% of total value added.[140]:51 The types of services that are now expanding are mainly those that facilitate movement of capital, information, goods and persons, and "advanced business services" such as research and development (R&D), information technology, and technical accountancy.[140]:242–3 Madrid and the wider region's authorities have put a notable effort in the development of logistics infrastructure. Within the city proper, some of the standout centres include Mercamadrid, the Madrid-Abroñigal [es] logistics centre, the Villaverde's Logistics Centre and the Vicálvaro's Logistics Centre to name a few.[147] Banks based in Madrid carry out 72% of the banking activity in Spain.[140]:474 The Spanish central bank, Bank of Spain, has existed in Madrid since 1782. Stocks & shares, bond markets, insurance, and pension funds are other important forms of financial institution in the city. Fitur fair in Ifema Madrid is an important centre for trade fairs, many of them coordinated by IFEMA, the Trade Fair Institution of Madrid.[140]:351–2 The public sector employs 18.1% of all employees.[140]:630 Madrid attracts about 8M tourists annually from other parts of Spain and from all over the world, exceeding even Barcelona.[140]:81[140]:362, 374[142]:44 Spending by tourists in Madrid was estimated (2011) at €9,546.5M, or 7.7% of the city's GDP.[140]:375 The construction of transport infrastructure has been vital to maintain the economic position of Madrid. Travel to work and other local journeys use a high-capacity metropolitan road network and a well-used public transport system.[140]:62–4 In terms of longer-distance transport, Madrid is the central node of the system of autovías and of the high-speed rail network (AVE), which has brought major cities such as Seville and Barcelona within 2.5 hours travel time.[140]:72–75 Also important to the city's economy is Madrid-Barajas Airport, the fourth largest airport in Europe.[140]:76–78 Madrid's central location makes it a major logistical base.[140]:79–80 Industry[edit] As an industrial centre Madrid retains its advantages in infrastructure, as a transport hub, and as the location of headquarters of many companies. Industries based on advanced technology are acquiring much more importance here than in the rest of Spain.[140]:271 Industry contributed 7.5% to Madrid's value-added in 2010.[140]:265 However, industry has slowly declined within the city boundaries as more industry has moved outward to the periphery. Industrial Gross Value Added grew by 4.3% in the period 2003–2005, but decreased by 10% during 2008–2010.[140]:271, 274 The leading industries were: paper, printing & publishing, 28.8%; energy & mining, 19.7%; vehicles & transport equipment, 12.9%; electrical and electronic, 10.3%; foodstuffs, 9.6%; clothing, footwear & textiles, 8.3%; chemical, 7.9%; industrial machinery, 7.3%.[140]:266 The PSA Peugeot Citroën plant is located in Villaverde district. Construction[edit] Building works of Caleido in August 2018 The construction sector, contributing 6.5% to the city's economy in 2010,[140]:265 was a growing sector before the recession, aided by a large transport and infrastructure program. More recently the construction sector has fallen away and earned 8% less in 2009 than it had been in 2000.[140]:242–3 The decrease was particularly marked in the residential sector, where prices dropped by 25%–27% from 2007 to 2012/13[140]:202, 212 and the number of sales fell by 57%.[140]:216 Tourism[edit] Madrid de los Austrias. It is the part of Madrid with the most number of buildings of the Habsburg-period. Madrid is the seat of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the International Tourism Fair [es] (FITUR). In 2018, the city received 10.21 million tourists (53.3% of them international tourists).[148]p. 9 The biggest share of international tourists come from the United States, followed by Italy, France, United Kingdom and Germany.[148]p. 10 As of 2018, the city has 793 hotels, 85,418 hotel places and 43,816 hotel rooms.[148]p. 18 It also had, as of 2018, an estimated 20,217 tourist apartments.[148]p. 20 The most visited museum was the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, with 3.8 million visitors in the sum of its three seats in 2018. Conversely, the Prado Museum had 2.8 million visitors and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum 906,815 visitors.[148]p. 32 By the late 2010s, the gentrification and the spike of tourist apartments in the city centre led to an increase in rental prices, pushing residents out of the city centre.[84] Most of the tourist apartments in Madrid (50–54%) are located in the Centro District.[149] In the Sol neighborhood (part of the latter district), 3 out of 10 homes are dedicated to tourist apartments,[149] and 2 out of 10 are listed in AirBnB.[84] In April 2019 the plenary of the ayuntamiento passed a plan intending to regulate this practice, seeking to greatly limit the number of tourist apartments. The normative would enforce a requirement for independent access to those apartments in and out of the street.[150] However, after the change of government in June 2019, the new municipal administration plans to revert the regulation.[151] International rankings[edit] A recent study placed Madrid 7th among 36 cities as an attractive base for business.[152] It was placed third in terms of availability of office space, and fifth for easy of access to markets, availability of qualified staff, mobility within the city, and quality of life. Its less favourable characteristics were seen as pollution, languages spoken, and political environment. Another ranking of European cities placed Madrid 5th among 25 cities (behind Berlin, London, Paris and Frankfurt), being rated favourably on economic factors and the labour market, and on transport and communication.[153] Media and entertainment[edit] Madrid is an important film and television production hub, whose content is distributed throughout the Spanish-speaking world and abroad. Madrid is often seen as the entry point into the European media market for Latin American media companies, and likewise the entry point into the Latin American markets for European companies.[154] Madrid is the headquarters of media groups such as Radiotelevisión Española, Atresmedia, Mediaset España Comunicación, and Movistar+, which produce numerous films, television shows and series which are distributed globally on various platforms.[155] Since 2018, the region is also home to Netflix's Madrid Production Hub, Mediapro Studio, and numerous others such as Viacom International Studios.[156][157][158][159] As of 2019, the film and television industry in Madrid employs 19,000 people (44% of people in Spain working in this industry).[160] Set of La 1's newscast services. RTVE, the state-owned Spanish Radio and Television Corporation is headquartered in Madrid along with all its TV and radio channels and web services (La 1, La 2, Clan, Teledeporte, 24 Horas, TVE Internacional, Radio Nacional de España), Radio Exterior de España, Radio Clásica. The Atresmedia group (Antena 3, La Sexta, Onda Cero) is headquartered in nearby San Sebastián de los Reyes. The television network and media production company, the largest in Spain, Mediaset España Comunicación (Telecinco, Cuatro) maintains its headquarters in Fuencarral-El Pardo district. Together with RTVE, Atresmedia and Mediaset account for nearly the 80% of share of generalist TV.[161] The Spanish media conglomerate PRISA (Cadena SER, Los 40 Principales, M80 Radio, Cadena Dial) is headquartered in Gran Vía street in central Madrid. Madrid (or the wider region) hosts the main TV and radio producers and broadcasters as well as the most of the major written mass media in Spain.[161] It is home to numerous newspapers, magazines and publications, including ABC, El País, El Mundo, La Razón, Marca, ¡Hola!, Diario AS, El Confidencial and Cinco Días. The Spanish international news agency EFE maintains its headquarters in Madrid since its inception in 1939. The second news agency of Spain is the privately owned Europa Press, founded and headquartered in Madrid since 1953. Art and culture[edit] Museums and cultural centres[edit] See also: List of museums in Madrid The Prado Museum Las Meninas, by Diego de Velázquez, 1656 (Prado Museum) Madrid is considered one of the top European destinations concerning art museums. Best known is the Golden Triangle of Art, located along the Paseo del Prado and comprising three major museums: the Prado Museum, the Reina Sofía Museum, and the Thyssen Bornemisza Museum. The Prado Museum (Museo del Prado) is a museum and art gallery that features one of the world's finest collections of European art, from the 12th century to the early 19th century, based on the former Spanish Royal Collection. It has the best collection of artworks by Goya, Velázquez, El Greco, Rubens, Titian, Hieronymus Bosch, José de Ribera, and Patinir as well as works by Rogier van der Weyden, Raphael Sanzio, Tintoretto, Veronese, Caravaggio, Van Dyck, Albrecht Dürer, Claude Lorrain, Murillo, and Zurbarán, among others. Some of the standout works exhibited at the museum include Las Meninas, La maja vestida, La maja desnuda, The Garden of Earthly Delights, The Immaculate Conception and The Judgement of Paris. The Reina Sofía National Art Museum (Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía; MNCARS) is Madrid's national museum of 20th-century art and houses Pablo Picasso's 1937 anti-war masterpiece, Guernica. Other highlights of the museum, which is mainly dedicated to Spanish art, include excellent collections of Spain's greatest 20th-century masters including Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró, Picasso, Juan Gris, and Julio González. The Reina Sofía also hosts a free-access art library.[162] The Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum (Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza) is an art museum that fills the historical gaps in its counterparts' collections: in the Prado's case, this includes Italian primitives and works from the English, Dutch, and German schools, while in the case of the Reina Sofía, the Thyssen-Bornemisza collection, once the second largest private collection in the world after the British Royal Collection,[163] includes Impressionists, Expressionists, and European and American paintings from the second half of the 20th century, with over 1,600 paintings.[164] The Lady of Elche, an iconic item exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum The National Archaeological Museum of Madrid (Museo Arqueológico Nacional) shows archaeological finds from Prehistory to the 19th century (including Roman mosaics, Greek ceramics, Islamic art and Romanesque art), especially from the Iberian Peninsula, distributed over three floors. An iconic item in the museum is the Lady of Elche, an Iberian bust from the 4th century BC. Other major pieces include the Lady of Baza, the Lady of Cerro de los Santos, the Lady of Ibiza, the Bicha of Balazote, the Treasure of Guarrazar, the Pyxis of Zamora, the Mausoleum of Pozo Moro or a napier's bones. In addition, the museum has a reproduction of the polychromatic paintings in the Altamira Cave. The Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando (Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando) houses a fine art collection of paintings ranging the 15th to 20th centuries. The academy is also the headquarters of the Madrid Academy of Art.[n. 2] CaixaForum Madrid is a post-modern art gallery in the centre of Madrid, next to the Prado Museum.[167] The Royal Palace of Madrid, a massive building characterised by its luxurious rooms, houses rich collections of armours and weapons, as well as the most comprehensive collection of Stradivarius in the world.[168] The Museo de las Colecciones Reales is a future museum intended to host the most outstanding pieces of the Royal Collections part of the Patrimonio Nacional. Located next to the Royal Palace and the Almudena, Patrimonio Nacional has tentatively scheduled its opening for 2021.[169] Facsimile of the Madrid Codex exhibited at the Museum of the Americas The Museum of the Americas (Museo de América) is a national museum that holds artistic, archaeological, and ethnographic collections from the Americas, ranging from the Paleolithic period to the present day.[170] Other notable museums include the National Museum of Natural Sciences (the Spain's national museum of natural history),[171] the Naval Museum,[172] the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales (with many works of Renaissance and Baroque art, and Brussels tapestries inspired by paintings of Rubens),[173] the Museum of Lázaro Galdiano (housing a collection specialising in decorative arts, featuring a collection of weapons that features the sword of Pope Innocent VIII),[174] the National Museum of Decorative Arts,[175] the National Museum of Romanticism (focused on 19th century Romanticism),[176] the Museum Cerralbo,[177] the National Museum of Anthropology (featuring as highlight a Guanche mummy from Tenerife)[178] the Sorolla Museum (focused in the namesake Valencian Impressionist painter,[179] also including sculptures by Auguste Rodin, part of Sorolla's personal effects),[180] or the History Museum of Madrid (housing pieces related to the local history of Madrid), the Wax Museum of Madrid, the Railway Museum (located in the building that was once the Delicias Station). Major cultural centres in the city include the Fine Arts Circle (one of Madrid's oldest arts centres and one of the most important private cultural centres in Europe, hosting exhibitions, shows, film screenings, conferences and workshops), the Conde Duque cultural centre or the Matadero Madrid, a cultural complex (formerly an abattoir) located by the river Manzanares. The Matadero, created in 2006 with the aim of "promoting research, production, learning, and diffusion of creative works and contemporary thought in all their manifestations", is considered the third most valued cultural institution in Madrid among art professionals.[181] Literature[edit] Chalcography for an edition of Francisco de Quevedo's El Parnaso Español (1648) Madrid has been one of the great centres of Spanish literature. Some of the best writers of the Spanish Golden Century were born in Madrid, including: Lope de Vega (Fuenteovejuna, The Dog in the Manger, The Knight of Olmedo), who reformed the Spanish theatre, a work continued by Calderon de la Barca (Life is a Dream), Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish nobleman and writer known for his satires, which criticised the Spanish society of his time, and author of El Buscón. And finally, Tirso de Molina, who created the character Don Juan. Cervantes and Góngora also lived in the city, although they were not born there. The homes of Lope de Vega, Quevedo, Gongora and Cervantes are still preserved, and they are all in the Barrio de las Letras (District of Letters). Other writers born in Madrid in later centuries have been Leandro Fernandez de Moratín, Mariano José de Larra, Jose de Echegaray (Nobel Prize in Literature), Ramón Gómez de la Serna, Dámaso Alonso, Enrique Jardiel Poncela and Pedro Salinas. Portrait of Benito Pérez Galdós, by Joaquín Sorolla, 1894 The "Barrio de las Letras" (Quarter of Letters) owes its name to the intense literary activity developed over the 16th and 17th centuries. Some of the most prominent writers of the Spanish Golden Age settled here, as Lope de Vega, Quevedo or Góngora, and the theatres of Cruz and Príncipe, two of the major comedy theatres of that time. At 87 Calle de Atocha, one of the roads that limit the neighbourhood, was the printing house of Juan Cuesta, where the first edition of the first part of Don Quixote (1604) was published, one of the greatest works of Spanish literature. Most of the literary routes are articulated along the Barrio de las Letras, where you can find scenes from novels of the Siglo de Oro and more recent works like "Bohemian Lights". Although born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, realist writer Benito Pérez Galdós is credited with making Madrid the setting for many of his stories, underpinning what has come to be known as the Madrid Galdosiano.[182] Interior of the National Library of Spain Madrid is home to the Royal Academy of Spanish Language (RAE), an internationally important cultural institution dedicated to language planning by enacting legislation aimed at promoting linguistic unity within the Hispanic states; this ensures a common linguistic standard, in accordance with its founding statutes "to ensure that the changes undergone [by the language] [...] not break the essential unity that keeps all the Hispanic".[183] Madrid is also home to another international cultural institution, the Instituto Cervantes, whose task is the promotion and teaching of the Spanish language as well as the dissemination of the culture of Spain and Hispanic America. The National Library of Spain is the largest major public library in Spain. The library's collection consists of more than 26,000,000 items, including 15,000,000 books and other printed materials, 30,000 manuscripts, 143,000 newspapers and serials, 4,500,000 graphic materials, 510,000 music scores, 500,000 maps, 600,000 sound recording, 90,000 audiovisuals, 90,000 electronic documents, more than 500,000 microforms, etc.[184] Cuisine[edit] Three squid sandwiches Patatas bravas, a very common bar snack served as tapa. The Madrilenian cuisine has received plenty of influences from other regions of Spain and its own identity actually relies in its ability to assimilate elements from the immigration.[185] The cocido madrileño, a chickpea-based stew, is one of the most emblematic dishes of the Madrilenian cuisine.[186] The callos a la madrileña [es] is another traditional winter specialty, usually made of cattle tripes.[187] Other offal dishes typical in the city include the gallinejas [es][187] or grilled pig's ear.[188] Fried squid has become a culinary specialty in Madrid, often consumed in sandwich as bocata de calamares.[187] Other generic dishes commonly accepted as part of the Madrilenian cuisine include the potaje, the sopa de ajo (Garlic soup), the Spanish omelette, the besugo a la madrileña [es] (bream), caracoles a la madrileña [es] (snails, sp. Cornu aspersum) or the soldaditos de Pavía, the patatas bravas (consumed as snack in bars) or the gallina en pepitoria [es] (hen or chicken cooked with the yolk of hard-boiled eggs and almonds) to name a few.[189][190][185] Traditional desserts include torrijas (a variant of French toast consumed in the Easter)[187][191] and bartolillos [es].[190] See also: Cuisine of the Community of Madrid Nightlife[edit] Nightlife in the Centro District Madrid is reputed to have a "vibrant nightlife".[192] Some of the highlight bustling locations include the surroundings of the Plaza de Santa Ana, Malasaña and La Latina (particularly near the Cava Baja [es]).[192] It is one of the city's main attractions with tapas bars, cocktail bars, clubs, jazz lounges, live music venues and flamenco theatres. Most nightclubs liven up by 1:30 a.m.and stay open until at least 6 a.m.[192] Nightlife flourished in the 1980s while Madrid's mayor Enrique Tierno Galván (PSOE) was in office, nurturing the cultural-musical movement known as La Movida.[193] Nowadays, the Malasaña area is known for its alternative scene. The area of Chueca has also become a hot spot in the Madrilenian nightlife, especially for the gay population. Chueca is known as gay quarter, comparable to The Castro district in San Francisco.[194] See also: La Movida Madrileña Bohemian culture[edit] The city has venues for performing alternative art and expressive art. They are mostly located in the centre of the city, including in Ópera, Antón Martín, Chueca and Malasaña. There are also several festivals in Madrid, including the Festival of Alternative Art, the Festival of the Alternative Scene.[195][196][197][198] The neighbourhood of Malasaña, as well as Antón Martín and Lavapiés, hosts several bohemian cafés/galleries. These cafés are typified with period or retro furniture or furniture found on the street, a colourful, nontraditional atmosphere inside, and usually art displayed each month by a new artist, often for sale. Cafés include the retro café Lolina and bohemian cafés La Ida, La Paca and Café de la Luz in Malasaña, La Piola in Huertas and Café Olmo and Aguardiente in Lavapiés. In the neighbourhood of Lavapiés, there are also "hidden houses", which are illegal bars or abandoned spaces where concerts, poetry readings and[199][200][201] the famous Spanish botellón (a street party or gathering that is now illegal but rarely stopped). Classical music and opera[edit] The Teatro Real The Auditorio Nacional de Música [202] is the main venue for classical music concerts in Madrid. It is home to the Spanish National Orchestra, the Chamartín Symphony Orchestra[203] and the venue for the symphonic concerts of the Community of Madrid Orchestra and the Madrid Symphony Orchestra. It is also the principal venue for orchestras on tour playing in Madrid. The Teatro Real is the main opera house in Madrid, located just in front of the Royal Palace, and its resident orchestra is the Madrid Symphony Orchestra.[204] The theatre stages around seventeen opera titles (both own productions and co-productions with other major European opera houses) per year, as well as two or three major ballets and several recitals. The Teatro de la Zarzuela is mainly devoted to Zarzuela (the Spanish traditional musical theatre genre), as well as operetta and recitals.[205][206] The resident orchestra of the theatre is the Community of Madrid Orchestra. The Teatro Monumental is the concert venue of the RTVE Symphony Orchestra.[207] Other concert venues for classical music are the Fundación Joan March and the Auditorio 400, devoted to contemporary music. Feasts and festivals[edit] San Isidro[edit] Festivities of San Isidro Labrador in the pradera, 2007. The local feast par excellence is the Day of Isidore the Laborer (San Isidro Labrador), the patron Saint of Madrid, celebrated on 15 May. It is a public holiday. According to tradition, Isidro was a farmworker and well manufacturer born in Madrid in the late 11th century, who lived a pious life and whose corpse was reportedly found to be incorrupt in 1212. Already very popular among the madrilenian people, as Madrid became the capital of the Hispanic Monarchy in 1561 the city council pulled efforts to promote his canonization; the process started in 1562.[208] Isidro was beatified in 1619 and the feast day set on 15 May[209] (he was finally canonized in 1622).[210] On 15 May the Madrilenian people gather around the Hermitage of San Isidro [es] and the Prairie of San Isidro [es] (on the right-bank of the Manzanares) often dressed with checkered caps (parpusas [es]) and kerchiefs (safos)[211] characteristic of the chulapos and chulapas, dancing chotis and pasodobles, eating rosquillas and barquillos.[212] LGBT pride[edit] Main article: Madrid Pride High heels race in WorldPride Madrid 2017 The Madrilenian LGTB Pride has grown to become the event bringing the most people together in the city each year[213] as well as one of the most importants Pride celebrations worldwide.[214] Madrid's Pride Parade began in 1977, in the Chueca neighbourhood, which also marked the beginning of the gay, lesbian, transgender, and bisexual rights movement after being repressed for forty years in a dictatorship.[215] This claiming of LGBT rights has allowed the Pride Parade in Madrid to grow year after year, becoming one of the best in the world. In 2007, this was recognised by the European Pride Owners Association (EPOA) when Madrid hosted Europride, the Official European Pride Parade. It was hailed by the President of the EPOA as “the best Europride in history”.[216] In 2017, Madrid celebrated the 40th anniversary of their first Pride Parade by hosting the WorldPride Madrid 2017. Numerous conferences, seminars and workshops as well as cultural and sports activities took place at the festival, the event being a “kids and family pride” and a source of education. More than one million people attended the pride's central march.[217] The main purpose of the celebration was presenting Madrid and the Spanish society in general as a multicultural, diverse, and tolerant community.[215] The 2018 Madrid Pride roughly had 1.5 million participants.[148]p. 34 Since Spain legalised same-sex marriage in July 2005,[218] Madrid has become one of the largest hot spots for LGBT culture. With about 500 businesses aimed toward the LGBT community, Madrid has become a “Gateway of Diversity”.[216] Other[edit] People in costumes during the proclamation (pregón) of the 2013 Carnival Despite often being labelled as "having no tradition" by foreigners,[219] the Carnival was popular in Madrid already in the 16th century. However, during the Francoist dictatorship the carnival was under government ban and the feasts suffered a big blow.[219][220] It has been slowly recovering since then. Other signalled days include the regional day (2 May) commemorating the Dos de Mayo Uprising (a public holiday), the feasts of San Antonio de la Florida (13 June), the feast of the Virgen de la Paloma (circa 15 August) or the day of the co-patron of Madrid, the Virgin of Almudena (9 November), although the latter's celebrations are rather religious in nature.[221] The most important musical event in the city is the Mad Cool festival; created in 2016, it reached an attendance of 240,000 during the three-day long schedule of the 2018 edition.[148]p. 33 Bullfighting[edit] The Las Ventas bullring Madrid hosts the largest plaza de toros (bullring) in Spain, Las Ventas, established in 1929. Las Ventas is considered by many to be the world centre of bullfighting and has a seating capacity of almost 25,000. Madrid's bullfighting season begins in March and ends in October. Bullfights are held every day during the festivities of San Isidro (Madrid's patron saint) from mid May to early June, and every Sunday, and public holiday, the rest of the season. The style of the plaza is Neo-Mudéjar. Las Ventas also hosts music concerts and other events outside of the bullfighting season. Sport[edit] Main article: Sport in Madrid Events[edit] Women's Singles Final of the 2009 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open at the Caja Mágica The main annual international events held in Madrid are: Cycling: Vuelta a España: one of the three worldwide prestigious three-week-long Grand Tours, takes Madrid as the final stage. It takes place in the second week of September. Tennis: Madrid Open: a male and female professional tennis tournament, played on clay court. The event is part of the ATP Tour Masters 1000 and one of the top four Premier Mandatory on the WTA Tour. It is held during the first week of May. Davis Cup Finals: the finals of the major tournament between men's national teams, will be played from November 2019 in Madrid. Football[edit] Main article: Football in Madrid The Madrid Derby at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium Madrid is home to La Liga football club Real Madrid, who play their home games at the Santiago Bernabéu. The club is one of the most widely supported teams in the world and their supporters are referred to as madridistas or merengues (Meringues). Real Madrid was selected as the best club of the 20th century (FIFA Club of the Century), being the leader of the European teams ranking and the most valuable sports team in the world. Real is also the worldwide leader with a record 26 international titles. Another football club, Atlético Madrid, are also well-supported in the city and play their home games at the Metropolitano Stadium. Their supporters are referred to as colchoneros (The Mattressers), in reference to the team's red and white jersey colours.[222] Atlético is considered a European elite team, having reached in the last ten seasons, three UEFA Europa League titles and two UEFA Champions League finals. Historically nationwide, Atletico has won ten Leagues and ten Cups. Madrid has hosted five European Cup/Champions League finals at the Bernabéu, and the 2019 final was played at the Metropolitano. As well, the Bernabéu has hosted the final matches for the national teams competitions UEFA Euro 1964 and 1982 FIFA World Cup. Basketball[edit] 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup Final at the Palacio de Deportes Madrid boasts a main place in Spanish basketball, with two ACB clubs, both playing their home games at the Palacio de Deportes (WiZink Center). The Real Madrid's basketball section (founded in 1931) is one of the most decorated European basketball teams, having won most Euroleague throphies (10) than any other team. Madrid's other professional basketball club is Estudiantes another longstanding ACB team, founded in 1948. Regarding international competitions, the city hosted the final matches for the 1986 and 2014 FIBA World Cups and the EuroBasket 2007, both held at the Palacio de Deportes. Education[edit] Main article: Education in Spain State Education in Spain is free, and compulsory from 6 to 16 years. The education system is called LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación).[223] Universities[edit] Madrid is home to many public and private universities. Some of them are among the oldest in the world, and many of them are the most prestigious universities in Spain. The National Distance Education University (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia; UNED) has as its mission the public service of higher education through the modality of distance education. At more than 205,000 students (2015), UNED has the largest student population in Spain and is one of the largest universities in Europe. Since 1972, UNED has sought to translate into action the principle of equal opportunity in access to higher education through a methodology based on the principles of distance learning and focused on the needs of the student.[citation needed] The rectorate of the Complutense University of Madrid The Complutense University of Madrid (Universidad Complutense de Madrid; UCM) is the second largest university in Spain after UNED and one of the oldest universities in the world. It has over 11,000 staff members and a student population of 117,000. Most of the academic staff is Spanish. It is located on two campuses, the main one of Ciudad Universitaria in the Moncloa-Aravaca district, and the secondary campus of Somosaguas, located outside the city limits in Pozuelo de Alarcón and founded in 1971.[224][225] The Complutense University of Madrid was founded in Alcalá de Henares, old Complutum, by Cardinal Cisneros in 1499. Nevertherless, its real origin dates back to 1293, when King Sancho IV of Castile built the General Schools of Alcalá, which would give rise to Cisnero's Complutense University. During the course of 1509–1510 five schools were already operative: Artes y Filosofía (Arts and Philosophy), Teología (Theology), Derecho Canónico (Canonical Laws), Letras (Liberal Arts) and Medicina (Medicine). In 1836, during the reign of Isabel II, the University was moved to Madrid, where it took the name of Central University and was located at San Bernardo Street. Subsequently, in 1927, a new University City (Ciudad Universitaria) was planned to be built in the district of Moncloa-Aravaca, in lands handed over by the King Alfonso XIII to this purpose. The Spanish Civil War turned the University City into a war zone, causing the destruction of several schools in the area, as well as the loss of part of its rich scientific, artistic and bibliographic heritage. In 1970 the Government reformed the High Education, and the Central University became the Complutense University of Madrid. It was then when the new campus at Somosaguas was created to house the new School of Social Sciences. The old Alcalá campus was reopened as the independent UAH, University of Alcalá, in 1977. Complutense also serves to the population of students who select Madrid as their residency during their study abroad period. Students from the United States for example, might go to Madrid on a program like API (Academic Programs International) and study at Complutense for an intense immersion into the Spanish Language. After studying at the University, students return home with a fluent sense of Spanish as well as culture and diversity.[226] School of Mines, Technical University of Madrid The Technical University of Madrid (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid; UPM), is the top technical university in Spain. It is the result of the merge of different Technical Schools of Engineering. It shares the Ciudad Universitaria campus with the UCM, while it also owns several schools scattered in the city centre and additional campuses in the Puente de Vallecas district and in the neighbouring municipality of Boadilla del Monte. The Autonomous University of Madrid (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid; UAM) was instituted under the leadership of the physicist, Nicolás Cabrera. The Autonomous University is widely recognised for its research strengths in theoretical physics. Known simply as La Autónoma by locals, its main site is the Cantoblanco Campus, located at the North of the municipality, close to its boundaries with the neighbouring municipalities of Alcobendas, San Sebastián de los Reyes and Tres Cantos. Located on the main site are the Rectorate building and the Faculties of Science, Philosophy and Fine Arts, Law, Economic Science and Business Studies, Psychology, Higher School of Computing Science and Engineering, and the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education. The UAM is considered the institution to study Law in Spain,[according to whom?][227] The Medical School is sited outside the main site and beside the Hospital Universitario La Paz.[228] The private Comillas Pontifical University (Universidad Pontificia Comillas; UPC) has its rectorate and several faculties in Madrid. The private Nebrija University is also based in Madrid. Some of the big public universities headquartered in the surrounding municipalities also have secondary campuses in Madrid proper: it is the case of the Charles III University of Madrid (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid; UC3M) with its main site in Getafe and an educational facility in Embajadores (after signing a deal with the regional government and the city council in 2011)[229] and the King Juan Carlos University (Universidad Rey Juan Carlos; URJC) having its main site in Móstoles and a secondary campus in Vicálvaro. The private Camilo José Cela University (Universidad Camilo José Cela; UCJC) has a postgrade school in Chamberí. Business schools[edit] Students of the IE Business School IE Business School (formerly Instituto de Empresa) has its main campus on the border of the Chamartín and Salamanca districts of Madrid. IE Business School recently ranked #1 in WSJ's 2009 rankings for Best MBA Programs under 2 years. It scored ahead of usual stalwarts, INSEAD and IMD, giving it top billing among International MBA programs. Although based in Barcelona, both IESE Business School and ESADE Business School also have Madrid campuses. These three schools are the top-ranked business schools in Spain, consistently rank among the top 20 business schools globally, and offer MBA programs (in English or Spanish) as well as other business degrees. Madrid is a good destination for business schools and a city much desired by foreign students. The most important Spanish business schools (IESE, IE, ESADE) have invested 125 million euros in expanding their campuses in Madrid in 2020.[230] Other Madrid business schools and universities that have MBA programs include: EAE Business School (in English and Spanish), the Charles III University of Madrid through the Centro de Ampliación de Estudios (in English or Spanish); the Comillas Pontifical University (in Spanish only) and the Technical University of Madrid (in Spanish only). Transport[edit] Main article: Transport in Madrid The M-607 meets the M-30 north of the municipality. Madrid is served by several roads and three modes of public surface transport, and two airports, one of them being almost two different airports. A great many important road, rail and air links converge on the capital, providing effective connections with other parts of the metropolitan region and with the rest of Spain and other parts of Europe. Road transport[edit] Madrid Central Main article: Madrid Central Cars (except for hybrid and electric vehicles as well as residents and guests) were banned in the Madrid Central low-emission zone in 2018.[231][232] Pollution in the area dropped following the ban.[233][231] In 2016 it was announced that Madrid will stop the use of all diesel powered cars and trucks within the next decade.[234] Radial roads The network of high capacity roads in Spain features its most important node in Madrid. Madrid is the centre of the most important roads of Spain. Already in 1720, the Reglamento General de Postas enacted by Philip V configurated the basis of a radial system of roads in the country.[235] Madrid features a number of the most prominent autovías (fast dualled highways), part of the State Road Network [es]. Clock-wise starting from the north: the A-1 (Madrid–Irún–French border), A-2 (Madrid–Zaragoza–Barcelona–French border), A-3 (Madrid–Valencia), A-4 (Madrid–Córdoba–Sevilla–Cádiz), A-5 (Madrid–Badajoz–Portuguese border) and the A-6 (Madrid–A Coruña). The A-42, another highway connecting Madrid to Toledo, is also part of the State Network. The M-607 connects Madrid to the Puerto de Navacerrada. It is a fast dualled highway in its initial stretch from Madrid to Colmenar Viejo, and part of the Regional Road Network [es] (in relation to the concerning administration, not to the technical features of the road). Due to the large amount of traffic, new toll highways were built parallel to the main national freeways. Their names are R-2 [es], R-3, R-4 and R-5 [es] and they were intended to provide a paid alternative to the often overcrowded free radials. However, except the R-3, they do not end close to the M-30 innermost ring road, as the R-2 finishes in the M-40, the R-4 in the M-50 and the R-5 in the M-40. Orbital roads M-30 tunnel parallel to the Manzanares Also Madrid road network includes four orbital ones at different distances from the centre. The innermost ring-road, the M-30, is the only one with its path strictly located within the Madrid municipal limits. It is owned by the Madrid City Council and operated by Madrid Calle 30, S.A. It is the busiest Spanish road, famous for its traffic jams. A significant portion of the southern part runs underground parallel to the Manzanares, with tunnel sections of more than 6 kilometres (3.7 miles) in length and 3 to 6 lanes in each direction. The second ring-road, the M-40 (part of the State Road Network) circles the city, while also extending to other surrounding municipalities. A NW stretch of the road runs underground, below the southern reaches of the Monte de El Pardo protected area. The M-45 partially circles the city, connecting the M-40 and M-50, passing through areas like Villaverde and Vallecas in the South-East of the municipality. The M-50, the Madrid's outer ring road, connects municipalities and cities in the metropolitan area, like Fuenlabrada, Móstoles, Getafe, Leganés in the South and Boadilla del Monte and Las Rozas in the West. Public transport[edit] Map of the Madrid Metro Cercanías Madrid map There are four major components of public transport, with many intermodal interchanges. The Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid (CRTM) coordinates the public transport operations across multiple providers in the region,[236][237] harmonizing fares for the commuter rail, rapid transit, light rail and bus transport services provided by different operators. Metro Main article: Madrid Metro The Metro is the rapid transit system serving Madrid as well as some suburbs. Founded in 1919, it underwent extensive enlargement in the second half of the 20th century.[238] It is the second longest metro system in Europe (after London's) at 294 kilometres (183 miles). As of 2019[update], it has 302 stations.[239] Only the Métro of Paris has more stations. It features 13 lines; 12 of them are colour-coded and numbered 1 to 12 (Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, Line 5, Line 6, Line 7, Line 8, Line 9, Line 10, Line 11 and Line 12), while the other one, the short Ramal (R), links Ópera to Príncipe Pío.[238] Cercanías Main article: Cercanías Madrid Cercanías Madrid is the commuter rail service used for longer distances from the suburbs and beyond into Madrid, consisting of nine lines totalling 578 kilometres (359 miles) and more than 90 stations. With fewer stops inside the centre of the city they are faster than the Metro, but run less frequently. This system is connected with Metro (presently 22 stations) and Light Metro. The lines are named: C-1, C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5, C-7, C-8, C-9, C-10, respectively. Buses There is a dense network of bus routes, run by the municipal company Empresa Municipal de Transportes (or EMT Madrid), which operates 24 hours a day; special services called "N lines" are run during nighttime. The special Airport Express Shuttle line connecting the airport with the city centre features distinctively yellow buses. In addition to the urban lines operated by the EMT, the green buses (interurbanos) connect the city with the suburbs. The later lines, while also regulated by the CRTM, are often run by private operators. Almost half of all journeys in the metropolitan area are made on public transport, a very high proportion compared with most European cities.[140]:62–4 Madrid has 15723 taxis around all the city. Taxi The taxicabs are regulated by a specific sub-division of taxi service, a body dependent of the Madrid City Council. The authorisation entails a badge for the vehicle and a license for the driver, who has to be older than 18.[240] Since the 1970s, the fleet of taxis has remained stable roughly around 16,000 vehicles, accounting for 15,600 in 2014.[241] Long-distance transport[edit] AVE at the Madrid Atocha station In terms of longer-distance transport, Madrid is the central node of the system of autovías, giving the city direct fast road links with most parts of Spain and with France and Portugal. It is also the focal point of one of the world's three largest high-speed rail systems, Alta Velocidad Española (AVE), which has brought major cities such as Seville and Barcelona within 2.5 hours travel time. There are now 2,900 kilometres (1,800 miles) of AVE track, connecting Madrid with 17 provincial capitals, and further lines are under construction.[140]:72–75 Also Spain business are designing new high speed trains which will be the new generation AVE like Talgo AVRIL. Aside from the local and regional bus commuting services, Madrid is also a node for long-distance bus connections to plenty of national destinations. The Estación Sur de Autobuses [es] in Méndez Álvaro, the busiest bus station in the country,[242] also features international bus connections to cities in Morocco as well as to diverse European destinations.[242] Airport[edit] Main article: Madrid-Barajas Airport Interior of the terminal 4 (T4) of the Madrid–Barajas Airport. Madrid is also home to the Madrid-Barajas Airport, the sixth-largest airport in Europe, handling over 60 million passengers annually, of whom 70% are international travellers, in addition to the majority of Spain's air freight movements.[140]:76–78 Barajas is a major European hub, yet a largely westward facing one, specialized in the Americas, with a comparatively lighter connectivity to Asia.[243] Madrid's location at the centre of the Iberian Peninsula makes it a major logistics base.[140]:79–80 Madrid-Barajas Airport has 4 Terminals and also the terminal 4S, called Satellite terminal, this terminal is 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the terminal 4 and connected by an Automated People Mover System (AMP) train. The smaller (and older) Cuatro Vientos Airport has a dual military-civilian use and hosts several aviation schools. The Torrejón Air Base, located in the neighbouring municipality of Torrejón de Ardoz, also has a secondary civilian use aside from the military purpose. International relations[edit] Diplomacy[edit] Madrid hosts 121 foreign embassies accredited before Spain,[244] comprising all resident embassies in the country. The headquarters of the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation, the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation and the Diplomatic School are also located in the city. International organizations[edit] Madrid hosts the seat of international organizations such as the United Nations' World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the International Youth Organism for Iberoamerica [es] (OIJ), the Ibero-American Organization of Social Security [es] (OISS), the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), the Club of Madrid and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) Twin towns and sister cities[edit] Madrid has reached twin towns, sister city 'agreements' (acuerdos) with:[245] Tokyo, Japan (1965).[245] Seoul, South Korea (1978).[245] Lisbon, Portugal (1979).[245] Panama City, Panama (1980).[245] New York, United States (1982).[245] Malabo, Equatorial Guinea (1982).[245] Bordeaux, France (1984).[245][246] Nouakchott, Mauritania (1986).[245] Manila, Philippines (2005).[245] Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2007).[245] Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (2007).[245] Miami, United States (2014).[245] Madrid has reached twin towns, sister city 'minutes' (actas) with:[245] Rabat, Morocco (1988)[245] Tripoli, Libya (1988)[245] Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities[edit] Madrid is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities[247] establishing brotherly relations with the following cities through the issuing of a collective statement in October 1982: Asunción, Paraguay Bogotá, Colombia Buenos Aires, Argentina Caracas, Venezuela Guatemala City, Guatemala Havana, Cuba La Paz, Bolivia Lima, Peru Lisbon, Portugal Managua, Nicaragua Mexico City, Mexico Montevideo, Uruguay Panama City, Panama Quito, Ecuador Rio de Janeiro, Brazil San Jose, Costa Rica San Juan, Puerto Rico San Salvador, El Salvador Santiago, Chile Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Tegucigalpa, Honduras Other city partnerships[edit] Athens, Greece[245] Beijing, China[245] Belgrade, Serbia[245] Berlin, Germany[245][248] Brasilia, Brazil[245] Brussels, Belgium[245] Budapest, Hungary[245] Cebu City, Philippines[245] Chongqing, China[245] Davao City, Philippines[245] Guadalajara, Mexico[245] Kathmandu, Nepal[245] Lumbini, Nepal[245] Moscow, Russia[245] Paris, France[245] Prague, Czech Republic[245] Rome, Italy[245] Sofia, Bulgaria[245] Sucre, Bolivia[245] Warsaw, Poland[245] Zamboanga City, Philippines[245] Partnerships with international organizations[edit] C-40 Cities (C40)[245] International Labour Organization (OIT)[245] Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB)[245] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)[245] United Nations Human Settlements Programme (ONU-HABITAT)[245] Notable people[edit] Main articles: List of people from Madrid and List of predilect and adoptive sons and daughters of Madrid Honours[edit] Madrid Dome in Aristotle Mountains, Graham Land in Antarctica is named after the city.[249] See also[edit] C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group Madrid Conference of 1991 Mayor of Madrid List of tallest buildings in Madrid OPENCities List of films set in Madrid References[edit] Footnotes[edit] ^ Alternative pronunciations going roughly as IPA: [maˈðɾi] and [maˈðɾiθ] (listen) are also locally common (particularly the former), both coexisting with the standard pronunciation,[6] although [maˈðɾiθ] (Madriz) is considered vulgar.[7] Madriz experienced a revitalization in the 1980s, as it was meta-symbolically vindicated by the Movida madrileña in its aspiration to pass for a cultural movement with a "folksy" origin.[6] ^ Francisco Goya was once one of the academy's directors, and its alumni include Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Antonio López García, Juan Luna, and Fernando Botero.[165][166] Citations[edit] ^ "History of Madrid". 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en-wikipedia-org-6361	----	Hypnos - Wikipedia Hypnos From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hypnos (disambiguation). Hypnos God of Sleep Hypnos and Thanatos, Sleep and His Half-Brother Death by John William Waterhouse Abode Underworld Symbol Poppy, River Lethe, Cottonwood Personal information Parents Nyx and Erebus Siblings Thanatos, Nemesis, Eris, Keres, Oneiroi, Apate, Clotho, Lachesis, Atropos, Oizys and many others Consort Pasithea Roman equivalent Somnus In Greek mythology, Hypnos (/ˈhɪpnɒs/; Greek: Ὕπνος, "sleep")[1] is the personification of sleep; the Roman equivalent is known as Somnus. His name is the origin of the word hypnosis.[2] Contents 1 Description 2 Family 3 Hypnos in the Iliad 4 Hypnos in Endymion myth 5 Hypnos in art 6 Words derived from Hypnos 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Description[edit] Hypnos is the son of Nyx ("The Night") and Erebus ("The Darkness"). His brother is Thanatos ("Death"). Both siblings live in the underworld (Hades) or in Erebus, another valley of the Greek underworld. According to rumors, Hypnos lived in a big cave, which the river Lethe ("Forgetfulness") comes from and where night and day meet. His bed is made of ebony, on the entrance of the cave grow a number of poppies and other hypnotic plants. No light and no sound would ever enter his grotto. According to Homer, he lives on the island Lemnos, which later on has been claimed to be his very own dream-island. He is said to be a calm and gentle god, as he helps humans in need and, due to their sleep, owns half of their lives.[3][4] Family[edit] Hypnos lived next to his twin brother, Thanatos (Θάνατος, "death personified") in the underworld. Hypnos' mother was Nyx (Νύξ, "Night"), the deity of Night, and his father was Erebus, the deity of Darkness. Nyx was a dreadful and powerful goddess, and even Zeus feared to enter her realm. His wife, Pasithea, was one of the youngest of the Charites and was promised to him by Hera, who is the goddess of marriage and birth. Pasithea is the deity of hallucination or relaxation. Hypnos in the Iliad[edit] Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, ca. 440 BC. Hypnos used his powers to trick Zeus. Hypnos was able to trick him and help the Danaans win the Trojan war. During the war, Hera loathed her brother and husband, Zeus, so she devised a plot to trick him. She decided that in order to trick him she needed to make him so enamoured with her that he would fall for the trick. So she washed herself with ambrosia and anointed herself with oil, made especially for her to make herself impossible to resist for Zeus. She wove flowers through her hair, put on three brilliant pendants for earrings, and donned a wondrous robe. She then called for Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and asked her for a charm that would ensure that her trick would not fail. In order to procure the charm, however, she lied to Aphrodite because they sided on opposite sides of the war. She told Aphrodite that she wanted the charm to help herself and Zeus stop fighting. Aphrodite willingly agreed. Hera was almost ready to trick Zeus, but she needed the help of Hypnos, who had tricked Zeus once before. Hera called on Hypnos and asked him to help her by putting Zeus to sleep. Hypnos was reluctant because the last time he had put the god to sleep, he was furious when he awoke. It was Hera who had asked him to trick Zeus the first time as well. She was furious that Heracles, Zeus' son, sacked the city of the Trojans. So she had Hypnos put Zeus to sleep, and set blasts of angry winds upon the sea while Heracles was still sailing home. When Zeus awoke he was furious and went on a rampage looking for Hypnos. Hypnos managed to avoid Zeus by hiding with his mother, Nyx. This made Hypnos reluctant to accept Hera's proposal and help her trick Zeus again. Hera first offered him a beautiful golden seat that can never fall apart and a footstool to go with it. He refused this first offer, remembering the last time he tricked Zeus. Hera finally got him to agree by promising that he would be married to Pasithea, one of the youngest Graces, whom he had always wanted to marry. Hypnos made her swear by the river Styx and call on gods of the underworld to be witnesses so that he would be ensured that he would marry Pasithea. Hera went to see Zeus on Gargarus, the topmost peak of Mount Ida. Zeus was extremely taken by her and suspected nothing as Hypnos was shrouded in a thick mist and hidden upon a pine tree that was close to where Hera and Zeus were talking. Zeus asked Hera what she was doing there and why she had come from Olympus, and she told him the same lie she told Aphrodite. She told him that she wanted to go help her parent stop quarrelling and she stopped there to consult him because she didn't want to go without his knowledge and have him be angry with her when he found out. Zeus said that she could go any time, and that she should postpone her visit and stay there with him so they could enjoy each other's company. He told her that he was never in love with anyone as much as he loved her at that moment. He took her in his embrace and Hypnos went to work putting him to sleep, with Hera in his arms. While this went on, Hypnos travelled to the ships of the Achaeans to tell Poseidon, God of the Sea, that he could now help the Danaans and give them a victory while Zeus was sleeping. This is where Hypnos leaves the story, leaving Poseidon eager to help the Danaans. Thanks to Hypnos helping to trick Zeus, the war changed its course to Hera's favour, and Zeus never found out that Hypnos had tricked him one more time.[5] Hypnos in Endymion myth[edit] According to a passage in Deipnosophistae, the sophist and dithyrambic poet Licymnius of Chios[6] tells a different tale about the Endymion myth, in which Hypnos, in awe of his beauty, causes him to sleep with his eyes open, so he can fully admire his face. Hypnos in art[edit] Hypnos appears in numerous works of art, most of which are vases. An example of one vase that Hypnos is featured on is called "Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus," which is part of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston’s collection. In this vase, Hypnos is shown as a winged god dripping Lethean water upon the head of Ariadne as she sleeps.[7] One of the most famous works of art featuring Hypnos is a bronze head of Hypnos himself, now kept in the British Museum in London. This bronze head has wings sprouting from his temples and the hair is elaborately arranged, some tying in knots and some hanging freely from his head.[8] Words derived from Hypnos[edit] The English word "hypnosis" is derived from his name, referring to the fact that when hypnotized, a person is put into a sleep-like state (hypnos "sleep" + -osis "condition").[9] The class of medicines known as "hypnotics" which induce sleep also take their name from Hypnos. The 97th pokemon, Hypno, derives from Hypnos, as one of its signature move puts others to sleep. Additionally, the English word "insomnia" comes from the name of his Latin counterpart, Somnus. (in- "not" + somnus "sleep"),[10] as well as a few less-common words such as "somnolent", meaning sleepy or tending to cause sleep and hypersomnia meaning excessive sleep, which can be caused by many conditions (known as secondary hypersomnia) or a rare sleep disorder causing excessive sleep with unknown cause, called Idiopathic Hypersomnia.[11] Sarpedon’s body carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches, Attic red-figured calyx-krater signed by Euxitheos (potter) and Euphronios (painter) See also[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hypnos. Aergia, a goddess of sloth and attendant of Hypnos Theogony Morpheus, god of dreams Nyx, goddess of the night Hypnos, a short story written by H. P. Lovecraft References[edit] ^ ὕπνος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ James H. Mantinband. Concise Dictionary of Greek Literature. New York: Philosophical Library, 1962. ^ Wilhelm Vollmer: Wörterbuch der Mythologie aller Völker. Reprint-Verlag, Leipzig 2003 (new edition), ISBN 3826222008, page 263. ^ Scott C. Littleton: Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4. Marshall Cavendish/Tarrytown, New York (US) 2005, ISBN 076147563X, pages 474–476. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. Ed. Bernard Knox. New York: Viking, 1990. ^ Licymnius is known only through a few quoted lines and second-hand through references (William Smith, ed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 1870 Archived 2007-04-05 at the Wayback Machine) ^ "Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus." Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. ^ "Bronze Head of Hypnos." British Museum -. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. ^ "Hypnosis | Define Hypnosis at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. ^ "Insomnia | Define Insomnia at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. ^ "Somnolent". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. External links[edit] Look up Hypnos in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 3D model of Bronze head of Hypnos via laser scan of a cast of British Museum's bronze. 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en-wikipedia-org-6532	----	Sinon - Wikipedia Sinon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek warrior during the Trojan War This article is about the Greek warrior Sinon. For a definition of the word "sinon", see the Wiktionary entry sinon. For the Sword Art Online character, see Sinon (Sword Art Online). Sinon as a captive in front of the walls of Troy, in the Vergilius Romanus, 5th century AD In Greek mythology, Sinon (Greek: "Σίνων",[1] from the verb "σίνομαι"—sinomai, "to harm, to hurt"[2]), a son of Aesimus (son of Autolycus) or of the crafty Sisyphus and the Pleiad Merope, was a Greek warrior during the Trojan War. Contents 1 Mythology 1.1 Aeneid 1.2 Quintus of Smyrna's The Trojan Epic 2 Sinon in other literature 3 References 4 External links Mythology[edit] Aeneid[edit] In the Aeneid, he pretended to have deserted the Greeks and, as a Trojan captive, told the Trojans that the giant wooden horse the Greeks had left behind was intended as a gift to the gods to ensure their safe voyage home. He told them that the horse was made too big for the Trojans to move it into their city, because if they did they would be invincible to later Achaean invasion. His story convinced the Trojans because it included the former details as well as an explanation that he was left behind to die by the doing of Odysseus, who was his enemy. The Trojans brought the Trojan Horse into their city against the advice of Cassandra (given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, but condemned to never be believed for not returning his love) and Laocoön (because two serpents came out of the water and strangled him and his sons, which the Trojans saw as a punishment for attacking the horse with a spear). Inside the giant wooden horse were Greek soldiers, who, as night fell, disembarked from the horse and opened the city gates, thus sealing the fate of Troy.[3] He was also an Achaean spy who told the Greeks when the soldiers in the horse had begun their fight. This scene is in neither the Iliad nor the Odyssey but is in the Aeneid; it is central to the perspective Virgil builds, in support of the actual Roman sentiment, of the Greeks as cunning, deceitful, and treacherous. Quintus of Smyrna's The Trojan Epic[edit] In Quintus of Smyrna, the Trojans, ready to attack the Greek camp, see smoke coming from the Greek camp and cautiously approach. When they arrive at the camp they find only Sinon alongside the Trojan Horse. The reader later finds out that it was Sinon who started the fire signal that drew the Trojans to the Greek camp.[4] The rest of the camp is deserted. The Trojans circle him and gently ask him questions but when he does not answer they grow angry and begin to threaten to stab him. When he still does not answer, the Trojans cut off his ears and nose. Finally he tells them that the Greeks have fled and they built the Trojan Horse to honor Athena. Sinon claims that Odysseus wanted to sacrifice him but he managed to escape and hide in a marsh. When they gave up looking for him and left he returned to the Trojan Horse. Sinon claims that the Greeks stopped looking for him out of respect for Zeus. All the Trojans believe this story, except Laocoön who, along with his two sons, is promptly attacked by a giant sea serpent. Following this, believing that Laocoön was attacked because he offended the gods, the rest of the Trojans begin to believe Sinon's story. Feeling bad for Sinon, and fearing wrath from the gods, the Trojans bring Sinon and the Trojan Horse into Troy.[5] Sinon in other literature[edit] In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy poem Inferno (Canto 30), Sinon is seen in the Tenth Bolgia of Hell's Circle of Fraud where, along with other Falsifiers of words, he is condemned to suffer a burning fever for all eternity. Sinon is here rather than the Evil Counselors Bolgia because his advice was false as well as evil. The word "Sinonical" was coined by Lewes Lewknor in his 1595 work The Estate of English Fugitives. William Shakespeare referred to Sinon on several occasions in his work, using him as a symbol of treachery.[6] References[edit] ^ Σίνων, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ σίνομαι, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library ^ Virgil, Aeneid II, 77 ^ Apollodorus, 5.14–5.18 ^ Quintus, and Alan James. "Book XII". The Trojan Epic: Posthomerica. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2004. Print. ^ Pursued by a bear[permanent dead link] External links[edit] Media related to Sinon at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sinon&oldid=993959350" Categories: Characters in the Aeneid Achaeans (Homer) Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Commons category link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本語 Polski Русский Shqip Slovenčina Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2020, at 12:00 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6541	----	Sisyphus cooling - Wikipedia Sisyphus cooling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Physical principle of Sisyphus cooling: The atoms are running against the potential energy, become excited into a higher band, fall back into a low-energy state (i.e. from the rather high "blue" state upwards, then immediately backwards to the lower "red" state), always on the left-hand side, from which, after one and a half of the "red" or "blue" period, say, of the laser action, they get excited and de-excited again, now from "red" to "blue", on the r.h.s., etc. Sisyphus cooling (sometimes called polarization gradient cooling) is a type of laser cooling of atoms used to reach temperatures below the Doppler cooling limit. This cooling method was first proposed by Claude Cohen-Tannoudji in 1989,[1] motivated by earlier experiments which observed sodium atoms cooled below the Doppler limit in an optical molasses.[2] Cohen-Tannoudji received part of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1997 for his work. The technique is named after Sisyphus, a figure in the Greek mythology, who was doomed, for all eternity, to roll a stone up a mountain only to have it roll down again whenever he got near the summit. Contents 1 Method 1.1 Principal of sisyphus cooling 1.2 Typical optical pumping scheme 2 Limits 3 References Method[edit] Sisyphus cooling can be achieved by shining two counter-propagating laser beams with orthogonal polarization onto an atom sample. Atoms moving through the potential landscape along the direction of the standing wave lose kinetic energy as they move to a potential maximum, at which point optical pumping moves them back to a lower energy state, thus lowering the total energy of the atom. This description of Sisyphus cooling is largely based on Foot's description. [3] Principal of sisyphus cooling[edit] The counter-propagation of two orthogonally polarized lasers, the so-called "lin perp lin" configuration, generates a standing wave in polarization with a gradient between σ − {\textstyle \sigma -} (left-hand circularly polarized light), linear, and σ + {\textstyle \sigma +} (right-hand circularly polarized light) along the standing wave. Note that this counter propagation does not make a standing wave in intensity, but only in polarization. This gradient occurs over a length scale of λ 2 {\textstyle {\frac {\lambda }{2}}} , and then repeats, mirrored about the y-z plane. At positions where the counter-propagating beams have a phase difference of π 2 {\textstyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}} , the polarization is circular, and where there is no phase difference, the polarization is linear. In the intermediate regions, there is a gradient elipticity of the superposed fields. Consider, for example, an atom with ground state angular momentum J = 1 2 {\textstyle J={\frac {1}{2}}} and excited state angular momentum J ′ = 3 2 {\textstyle J'={\frac {3}{2}}} . The M J {\textstyle M_{J}} sublevels for the ground state are M J = − 1 2 , + 1 2 {\displaystyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}},+{\frac {1}{2}}} and the M J ′ {\textstyle M_{J'}} levels for the excited state are M J ′ = − 3 2 , − 1 2 , + 1 2 , + 3 2 {\displaystyle M_{J'}=-{\frac {3}{2}},-{\frac {1}{2}},+{\frac {1}{2}},+{\frac {3}{2}}} In the field-free case, all of these energy levels for each J value are degenerate, but in the presence of a circularly polarized light field, the Autler-Townes effect, (AC Stark shift or light shift), lifts this degeneracy. The extent and direction of this lifted degeneracy is dependent on the polarization of the light. It is this polarization dependence that is leveraged to apply a spatially-dependent slowing force to the atom. Typical optical pumping scheme[edit] In order to have a cooling effect, there must be some dissipation of energy. Selection rules for dipole transitions dictate that for this example, Δ J = − 1 , + 1 {\displaystyle \Delta J=-1,+1} and Δ M J = 0 , − 1 , + 1 {\displaystyle \Delta M_{J}=0,-1,+1} with relative intensities given by the square of the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. Suppose we start with a single atom in the ground state, J = 1 2 {\textstyle J={\frac {1}{2}}} , in the M J = 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}={\frac {1}{2}}} state at z=0 with velocity in the +z direction. The atom is now pumped to the M J ′ = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J'}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} excited state, where it spontaneously emits a photon and decays to the M J = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} ground state. The key concept is that in the presence of σ − {\textstyle \sigma -} light, the AC stark shift lowers the M J = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} further in energy than the M J = + 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=+{\frac {1}{2}}} state. In going from the M J = + 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=+{\frac {1}{2}}} to the M J = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} state via the , the atom has indeed lost U 0 {\textstyle U_{0}} in energy, where U 0 = E M J = + 1 2 − E M J = − 1 2 {\displaystyle U_{0}=E_{M_{J}=+{\frac {1}{2}}}-E_{M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}}} approximately equal to the AC Stark shift U 0 ≃ ℏ Ω 2 4 δ {\displaystyle U_{0}\simeq {\frac {\hbar \Omega ^{2}}{4\delta }}} where omega is the Rabi frequency and delta is the detuning. At this point, the atom is moving in the +z direction with some velocity, and eventually moves into a region with σ + {\textstyle \sigma +} light. The atom, still in its M J = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} state that it was pumped into, now experiences the opposite AC Stark shift as it did in σ {\textstyle \sigma } - light, and the M J = 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}={\frac {1}{2}}} state is now lower in energy than the M J = − 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=-{\frac {1}{2}}} state. The atom is pumped to the M J ′ = 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J'}={\frac {1}{2}}} excited state, where it spontaneously emits a photon and decays to the M J = + 1 2 {\textstyle M_{J}=+{\frac {1}{2}}} state. As before, this energy level has been lowered by the AC Stark shift, and the atom loses another U 0 {\textstyle U_{0}} of energy. Repeated cycles of this nature convert kinetic energy to potential energy, and this potential energy is lost via the photon emitted during optical pumping. Limits[edit] The fundamental lower limit of Sisyphus cooling is the recoil temperature, T r {\textstyle T_{r}} , set by the energy of the photon emitted in the decay from the J' to J state. This limit is k b T r = h M λ 2 {\displaystyle k_{b}T_{r}={\frac {h}{M\lambda ^{2}}}} though practically the limit is a few times this value because of the extreme sensitivity to external magnetic fields in this cooling scheme. Atoms typically reach temperatures on the order of μ K {\textstyle \mu K} , as compared to the doppler limit T D ≃ 250 μ K {\textstyle T_{D}\simeq 250\mu K} . References[edit] ^ Dalibard, J.; Cohen-Tannoudji, C. (1989). "Laser cooling below the Doppler limit by polarization gradients: simple theoretical models". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 6 (11): 2023. doi:10.1364/josab.6.002023. ^ Lett, Paul D.; Watts, Richard N.; Westbrook, Christoph I.; Phillips, William D.; Gould, Phillip L.; Metcalf, Harold J. (1988). "Observation of atoms laser cooled below the Doppler limit". Phys. Rev. Lett. 61 (2): 169–172. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.169. PMID 10039050. ^ Foot, C.J. (2005). Atomic Physics. Oxford University Press. Section 9.6. ISBN 9780198506966. Metcalf, Harold J.; van der Straten, Peter (1999). Laser Cooling and Trapping. Springer. Section 8.8. ISBN 9780387987286. This atomic, molecular, and optical physics–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus_cooling&oldid=999236908" Categories: Nuclear physics Cooling technology Atomic, molecular, and optical physics stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch فارسی Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 04:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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en-wikipedia-org-6596	----	Absurdism - Wikipedia Absurdism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Philosophical concept This article is about the philosophy. For an extremely unreasonable, silly, or foolish thing, see Absurdity. For absurdist humour, see surreal humour. For the literary genre, see Absurdist fiction. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Absurdism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sisyphus, the symbol of the absurdity of existence, painting by Franz Stuck (1920) In philosophy, "the Absurd" refers to the conflict between the human tendency to seek inherent value and meaning in life, and the human inability to find any in a purposeless, meaningless or chaotic and irrational universe.[1] The universe and the human mind do not each separately cause the Absurd, but rather, the Absurd arises by the contradictory nature of the two existing simultaneously. The absurdist philosopher Albert Camus stated that individuals should embrace the absurd condition of human existence. Absurdism shares some concepts, and a common theoretical template, with existentialism and nihilism. It has its origins in the work of the 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who chose to confront the crisis that humans face with the Absurd by developing his own existentialist philosophy.[2] Absurdism as a belief system was born of the European existentialist movement that ensued, specifically when Camus rejected certain aspects of that philosophical line of thought[3] and published his essay The Myth of Sisyphus. The aftermath of World War II provided the social environment that stimulated absurdist views and allowed for their popular development, especially in the devastated country of France. Contents 1 Overview 2 Relationship to existentialism and nihilism 3 Søren Kierkegaard 4 Albert Camus 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Overview[edit] ... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible – no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other – no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek help he would prefer to be himself – with all the tortures of hell, if so it must be. – Søren Kierkegaard, The Sickness Unto Death[4] See also: Existentialism § The absurd In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), respectively: Suicide (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option. Camus states that it does not counter the Absurd. Rather, in the act of ending one's existence, one's existence only becomes more absurd. Religious, spiritual, or abstract belief in a transcendent realm, being, or idea: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires an irrational but perhaps necessary religious "leap" into the intangible and empirically unprovable (now commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, Camus regarded this solution, and others, as "philosophical suicide". Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution, believing that by accepting the Absurd, one can achieve the greatest extent of one's freedom. By recognizing no religious or other moral constraints, and by rebelling against the Absurd (through meaning-making) while simultaneously accepting it as unstoppable, one could find contentment through the transient personal meaning constructed in the process. Kierkegaard, on the other hand, regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!"[5] Relationship to existentialism and nihilism[edit] Absurdism originated from (as well as alongside) the 20th-century strains of existentialism and nihilism; it shares some prominent starting points with both, though also entails conclusions that are uniquely distinct from these other schools of thought. All three arose from the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from the Absurd: the apparent meaninglessness in a world in which humans, nevertheless, are compelled to find or create meaning.[6] The three schools of thought diverge from there. Existentialists have generally advocated the individual's construction of their own meaning in life as well as the free will of the individual. Nihilists, on the contrary, contend that "it is futile to seek or to affirm meaning where none can be found."[7] Absurdists, following Camus's formulation, hesitantly allow the possibility for some meaning or value in life, but are neither as certain as existentialists are about the value of one's own constructed meaning nor as nihilists are about the total inability to create meaning. Absurdists following Camus also devalue or outright reject free will, encouraging merely that the individual live defiantly and authentically in spite of the psychological tension of the Absurd.[8] Camus himself passionately worked to counter nihilism, as he explained in his essay "The Rebel," while he also categorically rejected the label of "existentialist" in his essay "Enigma" and in the compilation The Lyrical and Critical Essays of Albert Camus, though he was, and still is, often broadly characterized by others as an existentialist.[9] Both existentialism and absurdism entail consideration of the practical applications of becoming conscious of the truth of existential nihilism: i.e., how a driven seeker of meaning should act when suddenly confronted with the seeming concealment, or downright absence, of meaning in the universe. Camus's own understanding of the world (e.g., "a benign indifference", in The Stranger), and every vision he had for its progress,[example needed] however, sets him apart from the general existentialist trend. Basic relationships between existentialism, absurdism and nihilism Monotheistic existentialism Atheistic existentialism Absurdism Nihilism 1. There is such a thing as meaning or value: Yes Yes It is a logical possibility. No 2. There is inherent meaning in the universe: Yes, but the individual must have come to the knowledge of God. No No No 3. The pursuit of meaning may have meaning in itself: Yes Yes Such a pursuit can and should generate meaning for an individual, but death still renders the activity "ultimately" meaningless. No 4. The individual's construction of any type of meaning is possible: Yes, though this meaning would eventually incorporate God, being the creator of the universe and the "meaning" itself. Yes, meaning-making in a world without inherent meaning is the goal of existentialism. Yes, though it must face up to the Absurd, which means embracing the transient, personal nature of our meaning-making projects and the way they are nullified by death.[10] No 5. There is resolution to the individual's desire to seek meaning: Yes, the creation of one's own meaning involving God. Yes, the creation of one's own meaning. Embracing the absurd can allow one to find joy and meaning in one's own life, but the only "resolution" is in eventual annihilation by death. No Such a chart represents some of the overlap and tensions between existentialist and absurdist approaches to meaning. While absurdism can be seen as a kind of response to existentialism, it can be debated exactly how substantively the two positions differ from each other. The existentialist, after all, doesn't deny the reality of death. But the absurdist seems to reaffirm the way in which death ultimately nullifies our meaning-making activities, a conclusion the existentialists seem to resist through various notions of posterity or, in Sartre's case, participation in a grand humanist project. Søren Kierkegaard[edit] Main article: Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard Kierkegaard designed the relationship framework based (in part) on how a person reacts to despair. Absurdist philosophy fits into the 'despair of defiance' rubric.[11] A century before Camus, the 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote extensively about the absurdity of the world. In his journals, Kierkegaard writes about the absurd: What is the Absurd? It is, as may quite easily be seen, that I, a rational being, must act in a case where my reason, my powers of reflection, tell me: you can just as well do the one thing as the other, that is to say where my reason and reflection say: you cannot act and yet here is where I have to act... The Absurd, or to act by virtue of the absurd, is to act upon faith ... I must act, but reflection has closed the road so I take one of the possibilities and say: This is what I do, I cannot do otherwise because I am brought to a standstill by my powers of reflection.[12] — Kierkegaard, Søren, Journals, 1849 Here is another example of the Absurd from his writings: What, then, is the absurd? The absurd is that the eternal truth has come into existence in time, that God has come into existence, has been born, has grown up. etc., has come into existence exactly as an individual human being, indistinguishable from any other human being, in as much as all immediate recognizability is pre-Socratic paganism and from the Jewish point of view is idolatry. —Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 1846, Hong 1992, p. 210 How can this absurdity be held or believed? Kierkegaard says: I gladly undertake, by way of brief repetition, to emphasize what other pseudonyms have emphasized. The absurd is not the absurd or absurdities without any distinction (wherefore Johannes de Silentio: "How many of our age understand what the absurd is?"). The absurd is a category, and the most developed thought is required to define the Christian absurd accurately and with conceptual correctness. The absurd is a category, the negative criterion, of the divine or of the relationship to the divine. When the believer has faith, the absurd is not the absurd — faith transforms it, but in every weak moment it is again more or less absurd to him. The passion of faith is the only thing which masters the absurd — if not, then faith is not faith in the strictest sense, but a kind of knowledge. The absurd terminates negatively before the sphere of faith, which is a sphere by itself. To a third person the believer relates himself by virtue of the absurd; so must a third person judge, for a third person does not have the passion of faith. Johannes de Silentio has never claimed to be a believer; just the opposite, he has explained that he is not a believer — in order to illuminate faith negatively. —Journals of Søren Kierkegaard X6B 79[13] Kierkegaard provides an example in Fear and Trembling (1843), which was published under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio. In the story of Abraham in the Book of Genesis, Abraham is told by God to kill his son Isaac. Just as Abraham is about to kill Isaac, an angel stops Abraham from doing so. Kierkegaard believes that through virtue of the absurd, Abraham, defying all reason and ethical duties ("you cannot act"), got back his son and reaffirmed his faith ("where I have to act").[14] Another instance of absurdist themes in Kierkegaard's work appears in The Sickness Unto Death, which Kierkegaard signed with pseudonym Anti-Climacus. Exploring the forms of despair, Kierkegaard examines the type of despair known as defiance.[15] In the opening quotation reproduced at the beginning of the article, Kierkegaard describes how such a man would endure such a defiance and identifies the three major traits of the Absurd Man, later discussed by Albert Camus: a rejection of escaping existence (suicide), a rejection of help from a higher power and acceptance of his absurd (and despairing) condition. According to Kierkegaard in his autobiography The Point of View of My Work as an Author, most of his pseudonymous writings are not necessarily reflective of his own opinions. Nevertheless, his work anticipated many absurdist themes and provided its theoretical background. Albert Camus[edit] Though the notion of the 'absurd' pervades all Albert Camus's writing, The Myth of Sisyphus is his chief work on the subject. In it, Camus considers absurdity as a confrontation, an opposition, a conflict or a "divorce" between two ideals. Specifically, he defines the human condition as absurd, as the confrontation between man's desire for significance, meaning and clarity on the one hand – and the silent, cold universe on the other. He continues that there are specific human experiences evoking notions of absurdity. Such a realization or encounter with the absurd leaves the individual with a choice: suicide, a leap of faith, or recognition. He concludes that recognition is the only defensible option.[16] For Camus, suicide is a "confession" that life is not worth living; it is a choice that implicitly declares that life is "too much." Suicide offers the most basic "way out" of absurdity: the immediate termination of the self and its place in the universe. The absurd encounter can also arouse a "leap of faith," a term derived from one of Kierkegaard's early pseudonyms, Johannes de Silentio (although the term was not used by Kierkegaard himself),[17] where one believes that there is more than the rational life (aesthetic or ethical). To take a "leap of faith," one must act with the "virtue of the absurd" (as Johannes de Silentio put it), where a suspension of the ethical may need to exist. This faith has no expectations, but is a flexible power initiated by a recognition of the absurd. (Although at some point, one recognizes or encounters the existence of the Absurd and, in response, actively ignores it.) However, Camus states that because the leap of faith escapes rationality and defers to abstraction over personal experience, the leap of faith is not absurd. Camus considers the leap of faith as "philosophical suicide," rejecting both this and physical suicide.[17][18] Lastly, a person can choose to embrace the absurd condition. According to Camus, one's freedom – and the opportunity to give life meaning – lies in the recognition of absurdity. If the absurd experience is truly the realization that the universe is fundamentally devoid of absolutes, then we as individuals are truly free. "To live without appeal,"[19] as he puts it, is a philosophical move to define absolutes and universals subjectively, rather than objectively. The freedom of humans is thus established in a human's natural ability and opportunity to create their own meaning and purpose; to decide (or think) for him- or herself. The individual becomes the most precious unit of existence, representing a set of unique ideals that can be characterized as an entire universe in its own right. In acknowledging the absurdity of seeking any inherent meaning, but continuing this search regardless, one can be happy, gradually developing meaning from the search alone. Camus states in The Myth of Sisyphus: "Thus I draw from the absurd three consequences, which are my revolt, my freedom, and my passion. By the mere activity of consciousness I transform into a rule of life what was an invitation to death, and I refuse suicide."[20] "Revolt" here refers to the refusal of suicide and search for meaning despite the revelation of the Absurd; "Freedom" refers to the lack of imprisonment by religious devotion or others' moral codes; "Passion" refers to the most wholehearted experiencing of life, since hope has been rejected, and so he concludes that every moment must be lived fully. See also[edit] Philosophy portal Absurdist fiction Credo quia absurdum Discordianism Existential nihilism Existentialism Irrationality Is-ought problem Fact-value distinction Lottery of birth Meaning of life Nihilism Non sequitur (literary device) 'Pataphysics Peter Wessel Zapffe The Stranger (novel) Theatre of the Absurd Absurdistan Church of the SubGenius Terror management theory Use–mention distinction References[edit] ^ Dotterweich, John (March 11, 2019). "An Argument for the Absurd". Southern Cross University. Retrieved October 8, 2019. ^ Stewart, Jon (2011). Kierkegaard and Existentialism. Farnham, England: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4094-2641-7. pp. 76–78. ^ Solomon, Robert C. (2001). From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 245. ISBN 0-7425-1241-X. ^ Kierkegaard, Søren (1941). The Sickness Unto Death. Princeton University Press. ^ Kierkegaard, Søren (1941). The Sickness Unto Death. Princeton University Press. Part I, Ch. 3. ^ Alan Pratt (April 23, 2001). "Nihilism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Embry-Riddle University. Retrieved February 4, 2012. ^ Donald A. Crosby (July 1, 1988). The Specter of the Absurd: Sources and Criticisms of Modern Nihilism. State University of New York Press. Retrieved January 29, 2012. ^ "Albert Camus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. What is the Camusean alternative to suicide or hope? The answer is to live without escape and with integrity, in “revolt” and defiance, maintaining the tension intrinsic to human life ^ Solomon, Robert C. (2001). From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 245. ISBN 0-7425-1241-X. ^ "Albert Camus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. What is the Camusean alternative to suicide or hope? The answer is to live without escape and with integrity, in “revolt” and defiance, maintaining the tension intrinsic to human life ^ Kierkegaard, Søren. The Sickness Unto Death. Kierkegaard wrote about all four viewpoints in his works at one time or another, but the majority of his work leaned towards what would later become absurdist and theistic existentialist views. ^ Dru, Alexander. The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard, Oxford University Press, 1938. ^ "Søren Kierkegaard". Naturalthinker.com. Retrieved 2016-02-26. ^ Silentio, Johannes de. Fear and Trembling, Denmark, 1843 ^ Sickness Unto Death, Ch.3, part B, sec. 2 ^ Camus, Albert (1991). Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-73373-6. ^ a b "The Kierkegaardian Leap" in The Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard. ^ Camus, Myth of Sisyphus, p. 41 ^ Camus, Myth of Sisyphus, p. 55 ^ Camus, Myth of Sisyphus, p. 64 Further reading[edit] OBERIU, edited by Eugene Ostashevsky. Northwestern University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8101-2293-6 Thomas Nagel: Mortal Questions, 1991. ISBN 0-521-40676-5 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Absurdism Absurdist Monthly Review Magazine The Absurdist (Literary Journal) v t e Søren Kierkegaard 1841–1846 On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates Either/Or De omnibus dubitandum est: Everything Must Be Doubted Two Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 Repetition Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 Fear and Trembling Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 Sermon Preached at Trinity Church, 1844 Two Upbuilding Discourses, 1844 Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1844 Philosophical Fragments Prefaces The Concept of Anxiety Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1844 Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses Three Discourses on Imagined Occasions Stages on Life's Way Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments Two Ages: A Literary Review 1847–1854 Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits Works of Love Christian Discourses The Crisis and a Crisis in the Life of an Actress The Lily of the Field and the Bird of the Air Two Minor Ethical-Religious Essays The Sickness Unto Death Three Discourses at the Communion on Fridays Practice in Christianity Two Discourses at the Communion on Fridays The Book on Adler For Self-Examination Attack Upon Christendom Posthumous The Point of View of My Work as an Author Judge for Yourselves! The Journals Writing Sampler Ideas Philosophy Theology Angst Anguish Authenticity Double-mindedness Indirect communication Infinite qualitative distinction Knight of faith Leap of faith Levelling Present age Ressentiment Rotation method Thorn in the flesh Despair Related topics Works about Kierkegaard Regine Olsen Peter Kierkegaard Hans Lassen Martensen Jacob Peter Mynster J. L. Heiberg Thomasine Christine Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd Adolph Peter Adler Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard Danish Golden Age Søren Kierkegaard Research Center Howard V. and Edna H. Hong Kierkegaard Library Prayers of Kierkegaard Kierkegaard Studies Yearbook v t e Albert Camus (works) Novels The Stranger The Plague The Fall A Happy Death The First Man Short stories Exile and the Kingdom "The Adulterous Woman" "The Renegade" "The Silent Men" "The Guest" "The Artist at Work" "The Growing Stone" Plays Caligula The Misunderstanding The State of Siege The Just Assassins The Possessed Requiem for a Nun Essays The Myth of Sisyphus The Rebel "Reflections on the Guillotine" Resistance, Rebellion, and Death Non-fiction Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism Betwixt and Between Neither Victims nor Executioners Notebooks 1935–1942 Notebooks 1942–1951 Notebooks 1951–1959 Nuptials Correspondance (1944-1959) Algerian Chronicles American Journals Related Francine Faure (second wife) v t e Existentialism Concepts Abandonment Absurdism Angst Authenticity Bad faith Being in itself Existence precedes essence Existential crisis Facticity Meaning Nihilism Other Thinkers Nicola Abbagnano Hannah Arendt Abdel Rahman Badawi Hazel Barnes Karl Barth Nikolai Berdyaev Steve Biko Martin Buber Rudolf Bultmann Dino Buzzati Albert Camus Jane Welsh Carlyle Thomas Carlyle Emil Cioran Walter A. Davis Simone de Beauvoir Fyodor Dostoevsky William A. Earle Ralph Ellison Frantz Fanon Vilém Flusser Benjamin Fondane James Anthony Froude Alberto Giacometti Juozas Girnius Lewis Gordon Martin Heidegger Edmund Husserl Eugène Ionesco Nae Ionescu William James Karl Jaspers Franz Kafka Walter Kaufmann Søren Kierkegaard Ladislav Klíma Emmanuel Levinas Ash Lieb John Macquarrie Naguib Mahfouz Gabriel Marcel Vytautas Mačernis Maurice Merleau-Ponty Friedrich Nietzsche José Ortega y Gasset Viktor Petrov Franz Rosenzweig Jean-Paul Sartre Aous Shakra Lev Shestov Joseph B. Soloveitchik Paul Tillich Rick Turner Miguel de Unamuno John Daniel Wild Colin Wilson Richard Wright Peter Wessel Zapffe Related Phenomenology (philosophy) Continental philosophy Transcendentalism German idealism Western Marxism Existentialist anarchism Existential nihilism Atheistic existentialism v t e Philosophy Branches Traditional Metaphysics Epistemology Logic Ethics Aesthetics Philosophy of... 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6611	----	Macaria - Wikipedia Macaria From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Macaria (disambiguation). Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Macaria or Makaria (Greek Μακαρία) is the name of two figures from ancient Greek religion and mythology. Although they are not said to be the same and are given different fathers, they are discussed together in a single entry both in the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda and by Zenobius.[1] Contents 1 Daughter of Heracles 2 Goddess 3 References 4 External links Daughter of Heracles[edit] In the Heracleidae of Euripides, Macaria ("she who is blessed") is a daughter of Heracles.[2] Even after Heracles' death, King Eurystheus pursues his lifelong vendetta against the hero by hunting down his children. Macaria flees with her siblings and her father's old friend Iolaus to Athens, where they are received by Demophon, the king. Arriving at the gates of Athens with his army, Eurystheus gives Demophon an ultimatum, threatening war upon Athens unless Demophon surrenders Heracles's children. When Demophon refuses and begins to prepare for war, an oracle informs him that Athens will be victorious only if a noble maiden is sacrificed to Persephone. Upon hearing this, Macaria sees that her only choice is immediate death on the altar or eventual death at the hands of Eurystheus. Since in neither case will she be granted a normal, happy life, she offers herself as the victim to save the welcoming city and its inhabitants, declining a lottery that would put other girls at risk. The Athenians honored her with lavish funeral rites, and the myth has an aetiological aspect: the spring where she died was named the Macarian in her honor. Goddess[edit] A goddess Macaria ('μακαρία', literally 'blessed') is named in the Suda.[3] This Macaria is the daughter of Hades (no mother is mentioned). She seems to have embodied a blessed death; the Suda connects her name to the figure of speech "be gone to blessedness," instead of misery or damnation, which may be euphemistic, in the way that the dead are referred to as "the blessed ones." The phrase was proverbial for those whose courage endangered them.[4] References[edit] ^ Zenobius 2.61 in Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum, edited by E.L. von Leutsch and F.W. Schneidwein (Vandenhoeck et Ruprecht, 1839), vol. 1, p. 48. ^ Euripides, Heracleidae ^ Suidas s.v. Makaria, with English translation at Suda On Line, Adler number mu 51.[1] ^ Suda On Line, Adler number beta 74. External links[edit] Look up Macaria in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Makaria at The Theoi Project English translation of Euripides' Heracleidae Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macaria&oldid=992504242" Categories: Heracleidae Greek goddesses Underworld goddesses Children of Heracles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 16:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6685	----	National Library of Poland - Wikipedia National Library of Poland From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from PLWABN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Central Polish library National Library Biblioteka Narodowa Type National library Established August 8, 1747 (273 years ago) (1747-08-08) as Załuski Library February 24, 1928 (92 years ago) (1928-02-24) as National Library Location Warsaw, Poland Coordinates 52°12′52″N 21°00′16″E / 52.21444°N 21.00444°E / 52.21444; 21.00444Coordinates: 52°12′52″N 21°00′16″E / 52.21444°N 21.00444°E / 52.21444; 21.00444 Collection Size 9,634,026 (As of 2013)[1] Legal deposit Yes Other information Director Dr. Tomasz Makowski Website www.bn.org.pl Map The National Library (Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa) is the central Polish library, subject directly to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland. The library collects books, journals, electronic and audiovisual publications published in the territory of Poland, as well as Polonica published abroad. It is the most important humanities research library, the main archive of Polish writing and the state centre of bibliographic information about books. It also plays a significant role as a research facility and is an important methodological center for other Polish libraries. The National Library receives a copy of every book published in Poland as legal deposit. The Jagiellonian Library is the only other library in Poland to have a national library status. Contents 1 Organizational structure 2 History 3 Collections 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Organizational structure[edit] There are three general sections: The Library The Bibliographic Institute of the National Library The Book and Readership Institute History[edit] Special Collections Building: Krasiński Palace (Palace of the Commonwealth), Warsaw The National Library's history has origins in the 18th century (Załuski Library)[2] including items from the collections of John III Sobieski which were obtained from his grand daughter Maria Karolina Sobieska, Duchess of Bouillon. However, the Załuski collection was confiscated by troops of Russian tsarina Catherine II in the aftermath of the second Partition of Poland and sent to Saint Petersburg, where the books formed the mass of the Imperial Public Library on its formation in 1795.[3][4][5] Parts of the collection were damaged or destroyed as they were mishandled while being removed from the library and transported to Russia, and many were stolen.[3][4] According to the historian Joachim Lelewel, the Zaluskis' books, "could be bought at Grodno by the basket".[4] Because of that, when Poland regained her independence in 1918, there was no central institution to serve in the capacity of a national library. On 24 February 1928, by the decree of president Ignacy Mościcki, the National Library was created in its modern form.[6] It was opened in 1930 and initially had 200 thousand volumes. Its first Director General was Stefan Demby, succeeded in 1934 by Stefan Vrtel-Wierczyński. The collections of the library were rapidly extended. For instance, in 1932 president Mościcki donated all of the books and manuscripts from the Wilanów Palace Museum to the library, some 40 thousand volumes and 20 thousand pictures from the collection of Stanisław Kostka Potocki. Initially the National Library lacked a seat of its own. Because of that, the collections had to be accommodated in several places. The main reading room was located in the newly built library building of the Warsaw School of Economics. In 1935 the Potocki Palace in Warsaw became home for the special collections. A new, purpose-built building for the library was planned in what is now the Pole Mokotowskie, in a planned monumental "Government District". However, its construction was hampered by the outbreak of World War II. Before World War II, the library collections consisted of: 6.5 million books and journals from 19th and 20th centuries 3,000 early prints 2,200 incunables 52,000 manuscripts maps, icons and music In 1940 the Nazi occupants changed the National Library into Municipal Library of Warsaw and divided it as follows: Department of Books for Germans (located in the Warsaw University building) Restricted Department, containing books that were not available to readers (located in the then main seat of the library—the School of Economics) All special collections from various Warsaw offices and institutions (located in the Palace of the Republic) In 1944 the special collections were set ablaze by the Nazi occupants as a part of repressions after the Warsaw Uprising.[7] This caused the destruction of 80,000 early printed books, including priceless 16th–18th century Polonica, 26,000 manuscripts, 2,500 incunables, 100,000 drawings and engravings, 50,000 pieces of sheet music and theatre materials.[8] It is estimated that out of over six million volumes in Warsaw's major libraries in 1939, 3.6 million volumes were lost during World War II, a large part of them belonging to the National Library.[9][10] Collections[edit] The main reading room Today the collections of the National Library are one of the largest in the country. Among 7,900,000 volumes (2004) held in the library are 160,000 objects printed before 1801, over 26,000 manuscripts (including 6,887 music manuscripts), over 114,000 music prints and 400,000 drawings. The library collections also include photographs and other iconographic documents, more than 101,000 atlases and maps, over 2,000,000 ephemera, as well as over 2,000,000 books and about 800,000 copies of journals from the 19th to 21st centuries. Notable items in the collection include 151 leaves of the Codex Suprasliensis, which was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2007 in recognition for its supranational and supraregional significance.[11] In 2012 the library signed an agreement to add 1.3 million Polish library records to WorldCat.[12] See also[edit] Digital Library of the National Library of Poland List of libraries damaged during the World War II Notes[edit] ^ Zbiory—www.bn.org.pl ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 5 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ a b Czechowicz, ¶ "After the fall..." ^ a b c Witt, ¶ "The Dispersal of the collection" ^ Basbanes, p. 185 ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 3 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ Knuth, p. 166 ^ Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska 2000, p. 9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPasztaleniec-Jarzyńska2000 (help) ^ Mężyński, p. 296 ^ Balcerzak, p. 4 ^ UNESCO, ¶ "The codex was written..." ^ "National Library of Poland will add 1.3 million more records to WorldCat". Research Information. November 8, 2012. References[edit] Nicholas A. Basbanes (2003). A Splendor of Letters: The Permanence of Books in an Impermanent World. Warsaw: HarperCollins. p. 155. ISBN 0-06-008287-9. Retrieved 2008-02-17. Zaluski library Russia. various authors; Tomasz Balcerzak; Lech Kaczyński (2004). Tomasz Balcerzak (ed.). Pro memoria: Warszawskie biblioteki naukowe w latach okupacji 1939-1945. transl. Philip Earl Steele. Warsaw: Biblioteka Narodowa. p. 38. Katarzyna Czechowicz (August 14, 2007). "The 260th anniversary of opening the Załuski Library". eduskrypt.pl. Archived from the original on August 14, 2017. Retrieved 2008-02-17. Rebecca Knuth (2006). Burning books and leveling libraries: extremist violence and cultural destruction. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 166. ISBN 0-275-99007-9. Andrzej Mężyński (2010). Biblioteki Warszawy w latach 1939–1945 [Warsaw's Libraries in the years 1939-1945]. Straty Kultury Polskiej (in Polish). Warsaw: Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. p. 367. ISBN 9788392922766. Joanna Pasztaleniec-Jarzyńska; Halina Tchórzewska-Kabata (2000), The National Library in Warsaw: tradition and the present day (in Polish), Warsaw: National Library, ISBN 83-7009-295-0 UNESCO (corporate author) (2007). "Codex Suprasliensis". portal.unesco.org. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2013-07-18. Maria Witt (September 15, 2005). "The Zaluski Collection in Warsaw". The Strange Life of One of the Greatest European Libraries of the Eighteenth Century. FYI France. ISSN 1071-5916. Retrieved 2008-02-17. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Library in Warsaw. National Library website Polona—National Digital Library A Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures (an exhibition carried out by the National Library) v t e National libraries of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control BIBSYS: 90860808 BNE: XX121233 BNF: cb11882741b (data) GND: 1002214-4 ISNI: 0000 0001 0942 8415 LCCN: n80014571 LNB: 000050545 NKC: kn20010709017 NLA: 36059319 NLG: 100012 NLP: A10237288 NSK: 000033546 PLWABN: 9810679371205606 SUDOC: 026613603 ULAN: 500312754 VIAF: 132112363 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n80014571 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Library_of_Poland&oldid=998486300" Categories: 1928 establishments in Poland Buildings and structures in Warsaw Deposit libraries Libraries established in 1928 Libraries in Warsaw Library buildings completed in 1930 National libraries Rebuilt buildings and structures in Poland Research libraries Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Articles containing Polish-language text CS1 Polish-language sources (pl) Commons link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Pages using the Kartographer extension Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Kaszëbsczi Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Türkçe Удмурт Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 January 2021, at 16:17 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6698	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption. If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider. Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. This block has been set to expire: 16:25, 2 June 2023. Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6754	----	Virtual International Authority File - Wikipedia Virtual International Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from VIAF (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file For use of VIAF with Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control and Wikipedia:VIAF/errors. Virtual International Authority File Screenshot 2012 Acronym VIAF Organisation OCLC Introduced 6 August 2003 (2003-08-06) Example 106965171 Website viaf.org The Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) is an international authority file. It is a joint project of several national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC).[1] Contents 1 History 2 VIAF clusters 3 Participating libraries and organizations 3.1 Libraries added for testing purposes 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links History[edit] Discussion about having a common international authority started in the late 1990s. After a series of failed attempts to come up with a unique common authority file, the new idea was to link existing national authorities. This would present all the benefits of a common file without requiring a large investment of time and expense in the process.[2] The VIAF concept was introduced at the 2003 World Library and Information Congress, hosted by the International Federation of Library Associations.[3] The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress (LC), the German National Library (DNB) and the OCLC on 6 August 2003.[4][5] The Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) joined the project on 5 October 2007. The project transitioned to being a service of the OCLC on 4 April 2012.[6] The aim is to link the national authority files (such as the German Name Authority File) to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together. A VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary "see" and "see also" records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are made available online and are available for research and data exchange and sharing. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) protocol. The file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata.[7][8] Christine L. Borgman groups VIAF with the International Standard Name Identifier and ORCID systems, describing all three as "loosely coordinated efforts to standardize name forms".[9] Borgman characterizes all three systems as attempts to solve the problem of author name disambiguation, which has grown in scale as the quantity of data multiplies.[9] She notes that VIAF, unlike the other two systems, is led by libraries, as opposed to individual authors or creators.[9] VIAF clusters[edit] VIAF's clustering algorithm is run every month. As more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records.[10] Participating libraries and organizations[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Bibliotheca Alexandrina EGAXA Arabic: مكتبة الإسكندرية‎ Alexandria Egypt Biblioteca Nacional de Chile BNCHL Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile Santiago Chile Biblioteca Nacional de España BNE Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de España Madrid Spain Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal PTBNP Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal Lisbon Portugal Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec B2Q French: Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Quebec Canada Bibliothèque nationale de France BnF French: Bibliothèque nationale de France Paris France Bibliothèque Nationale du Royaume du Maroc (BNRM) MRBNR Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية للمملكة المغربية‎ French: Bibliothèque nationale du Royaume du Maroc Rabat Morocco Biografisch Portaal BPN Dutch: Biografisch Portaal The Hague Netherlands British Library – London England Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces Danish: Kulturstyrelsen Copenhagen Denmark Danish Bibliographic Centre DBC Danish: Dansk BiblioteksCenter Ballerup Denmark German National Library (DNB) GND German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Frankfurt Germany International Standard Name Identifier[11] ISNI – London United Kingdom Israel Museum Hebrew: מוזיאון ישראל‎ Jerusalem Israel Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico ICCU SBN Italian: Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo Unico Rome Italy Lebanese National Library LNL Arabic: المكتبة الوطنية‎ Beirut Lebanon Library and Archives Canada LAC French: Bibliothèque et Archives Canada Ottawa, Ontario Canada Library of Congress NACO consortium (Name Authority Cooperative Program)[12] LCCN – Washington, D.C. United States National and University Library in Zagreb NSK Croatian: Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica u Zagrebu Zagreb Croatia National and University Library of Slovenia Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica Ljubljana Slovenia National Central Library NCL CYT Chinese: 國家圖書館 Taipei Taiwan National Diet Library NDL Japanese: 国立国会図書館 Tokyo Kyoto Japan National Institute of Informatics NII CiNii Japanese: 国立情報学研究所 Tokyo Japan National Library Board NLB – – Singapore National Library of Australia NLA – Canberra Australia National Library of Brazil BLBNB Portuguese: Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil Rio de Janeiro Brazil National Library of Catalonia BNC Catalan: Biblioteca de Catalunya Barcelona Spain National Library of Estonia ERRR Estonian: Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu Tallinn Estonia National and University Library of Iceland (NULI) UIY Icelandic: Háskólabókasafn Reykjavík Iceland National Library of Ireland N6I Irish: Leabharlann Náisiúnta na hÉireann Dublin Ireland National Library of Israel NLI Hebrew: הספרייה הלאומית‎ Jerusalem Israel National Library of Korea KRNLK Korean: 국립중앙도서관 Seoul Korea National Library of Latvia LNB Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālā bibliotēka Riga Latvia National Library of Luxembourg BNL Luxembourgish: Nationalbibliothéik Lëtzebuerg French: Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg Luxembourg City Luxembourg National Library of Mexico BNM Spanish: Biblioteca Nacional de México Mexico City Mexico National Library of the Netherlands NTA Dutch: Koninklijke Bibliotheek The Hague Netherlands National Library of New Zealand – Wellington New Zealand National Library of Norway BIBSYS W2Z Norwegian: Nasjonalbiblioteket Trondheim Norway National Library of Poland NLP Polish: Biblioteka Narodowa Warsaw Poland National Library of Russia NLR Russian: Российская национальная библиотека Saint Petersburg Russia National Library of Scotland Scottish Gaelic: Leabharlann Nàiseanta na h-Alba Scots: Naitional Leebrar o Scotland Edinburgh Scotland National Library of South Africa Afrikaans: Staats-Bibliotheek der Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek Cape Town Pretoria South Africa National Library of Sweden SELIBR Swedish: Kungliga biblioteket - Sveriges nationalbibliotek Stockholm Sweden National Library of Wales Welsh: Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru Aberystwyth Wales National Library of the Czech Republic NKC Czech: Národní knihovna České republiky Prague Czech Republic National Széchényi Library NSZL Hungarian: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár Budapest Hungary Perseus Project PERSEUS – Medford, Massachusetts United States RERO (Library Network of Western Switzerland) RERO German: Westschweizer Bibliothekverbund French: Réseau des bibliothèques de Suisse occidentale Italian: Rete delle bibliotheche della Svizzera occidentale Martigny Switzerland Répertoire International des Sources Musicales RISM – Frankfurt Germany Système universitaire de documentation SUDOC French: Système universitaire de documentation – France Syriac Reference Portal SRP – Nashville, Tennessee United States Swiss National Library SWNL German: Schweizerische Nationalbibliothek French: Bibliothèque nationale suisse Italian: Biblioteca nazionale svizzera Romansh: Biblioteca naziunala svizra Bern Switzerland Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny, NUKAT [pl] NUKAT Polish: Narodowy Uniwersalny Katalog Centralny – Poland Union List of Artist Names – Getty Research Institute ULAN JPG – Los Angeles, California United States United States National Agricultural Library NALT – Beltsville, Maryland United States United States National Library of Medicine – Bethesda, Maryland United States Vatican Library BAV Latin: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana – Vatican City Vlaamse openbare bibliotheken (VLACC): Bibnet [nl] VLACC Dutch: Vlaamse Centrale Catalogus Brussels Belgium Wikidata WKP – Berlin, Germany International Libraries added for testing purposes[edit] English Wikipedia entry name Identifier Native-language name Location Country Lithuanian National Library LIH Lithuanian: Lietuvos nacionalinė Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka Vilnius Lithuania National and University Library of Slovenia / COBISS SIMACOB Slovene: Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, NUK Ljubljana Slovenia See also[edit] Authority control Faceted Application of Subject Terminology (FAST) Integrated Authority File (GND) International Standard Authority Data Number (ISADN) International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) Wikipedia's authority control template for articles References[edit] ^ Kelley, Michael; Schwartz, Meredith (2012). "VIAF service transitions to OCLC". Library Journal. Media Source Inc. 137 (8): 16.  ^ O'Neill, Edward T. (12 August 2016). "VIAF: Origins" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ Loesch, Martha Fallahay (28 February 2011). "The Virtual International Authority File". Technical Services Quarterly. 28 (2): 255–256. doi:10.1080/07317131.2011.546304. ISSN 0731-7131. S2CID 62694070. ^ Morris, Susan R. (September 2003). "Virtual International Authority". Library of Congress Information Bulletin. Library of Congress. Retrieved 5 January 2021. ^ Agnew, Grace (2008). Digital Rights Management: A Librarian's Guide to Technology and Practise. Chandos Publishing. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-84334-125-3. OCLC 62715356. ^ Murphy, Bob (4 April 2012). "Virtual International Authority File service transitions to OCLC; contributing institutions continue to shape direction through VIAF Council" (Press release). OCLC. Dublin, OH. ^ Klein, Max; Renspie, Melissa (7 December 2012). "VIAFbot Edits 250,000 Wikipedia Articles to Reciprocate All Links from VIAF into Wikipedia". OCLC. ^ Klein, Maximilian; Kyrios, Alex (14 October 2013). "VIAFbot and the Integration of Library Data on Wikipedia". The Code4Lib Journal (22). ISSN 1940-5758. ^ a b c Borgman 2015, p. 260. ^ Hickey, Thomas B.; Toves, Jenny A. (July 2014). "Managing Ambiguity In VIAF". D-Lib Magazine. Corporation for National Research Initiatives. 20 (7/8). doi:10.1045/july2014-hickey. ^ MacEwan, Andrew (12 August 2016). "ISNI and VIAF" (Video presentation). Authority Data on the Web, a Satellite Meeting of the 2016 IFLA World Library and Information Congress. OCLC. ^ "NACO - Name Authority Cooperative Program". Library of Congress. Sources[edit] Borgman, Christine L. (2015). Big Data, Little Data, No Data: Scholarship in the Networked World. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-32786-2. OCLC 900409008. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to VIAF. Wikidata has the property: VIAF ID (P214) (see uses) Official website VIAF at OCLC v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_International_Authority_File&oldid=1000820529" Categories: Identifiers Library cataloging and classification Library of Congress OCLC Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Arabic-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Articles containing Portuguese-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Dutch-language text Articles containing Danish-language text Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Articles containing Croatian-language text Articles containing Slovene-language text Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles containing Japanese-language text Articles containing Catalan-language text Articles containing Estonian-language text Articles containing Icelandic-language text Articles containing Irish-language text Articles containing Korean-language text Articles containing Latvian-language text Articles containing Luxembourgish-language text Articles containing Norwegian-language text Articles containing Polish-language text Articles containing Russian-language text Articles containing Scottish Gaelic-language text Articles containing Scots-language text Articles containing Afrikaans-language text Articles containing Swedish-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text Articles containing Czech-language text Articles containing Hungarian-language text Articles containing Romansh-language text Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Lithuanian-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Ligure Magyar Македонски मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 22:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-675	----	Asopus - Wikipedia Asopus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Asopides) Jump to navigation Jump to search For the town in ancient Laconia, see Asopus (Laconia). For the city of Asia Minor, see Laodicea on the Lycus. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Asopus" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Asopus (/əˈsoʊpəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἀ̄σωπός Āsōpos) is the name of four different rivers in Greece and one in Turkey. In Greek mythology, it was also the name of the gods of those rivers. Zeus carried off Aegina, Asopus' daughter, and Sisyphus, who had witnessed the act, told Asopus that he could reveal the identity of the person who had abducted Aegina, but in return Asopus would have to provide a perennial fountain of water at Corinth, Sisyphus' city. Accordingly, Asopus produced a fountain at Corinth, and pursued Zeus, but had to retreat for fear of Zeus' terrible thunderbolt. Contents 1 Rivers 1.1 The rivers in Greece 1.2 The river in Turkey 2 Mythology 2.1 Boeotian Asopus 2.2 Phliasian Asopus 2.3 Mixed tales 2.3.1 Daughters of Asopus (Asopides) 2.3.2 Sons of Asopus 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links Rivers[edit] The rivers in Greece[edit] Asopos (Boeotia), a river of Boeotia originating on Mt. Cithaeron and flowing through the district of Plataea into the Euripus Strait.[1] Asopos (Corinthia) or Phliasian Asopus, originating in Phliasian territory and flowing through Sicyonian territory into the Gulf of Corinth near Sicyon. Pausanias [2.5.3] mentions that Phliasians and Sicyonians claimed that its source was in fact the Phrygian and Carian river Maeander that purportedly descended underground where it appeared to enter the sea at Miletus and rose again in the Peloponnesos as Asopus.[2] Asopos (Thessaly) or Trachean Asopus, a river originating on Mount Oeta in Thessaly and emptying into the Malian Gulf near Thermopylae, mentioned by Herodotus (7.199, 216–17).[3] Asopus, a river in Corfu The river in Turkey[edit] Phrygian Asopus, a small river in Phrygia which joins the River Lycus near Laodicea on the Lycus. Mythology[edit] As mythological entities, the Boeotian river Asopus and the Phliasian river Asopus are much confounded. They are duplicated a second time as supposed mortal kings who gave their names to the corresponding rivers. Indeed, logically, since the children fathered by gods on various daughters of either Boeotian or Phliasian Asopus were mortal in these tales, then the daughters themselves must have been mortal, and therefore either the mother of these daughters (often given as Metope daughter of river Ladon) or their father Asopus must have been mortal, or both of them. The Bibliotheca[4] informs that the river Asopus was a son of Oceanus and Tethys or, according to Acusilaus, of Poseidon by Pero (otherwise unknown to us), or according to yet others of Zeus by Eurynome; it is uncertain whether he knows there is more than one river named Asopus. Boeotian Asopus[edit] Further information: Asopos (Boeotia) Phliasian Asopus[edit] Pausanias[5] writes that during the reign of Aras, the first earth-born king of Sicyonian land, Asopus, said to be son of Poseidon by Celusa (this Celusa otherwise unknown but possibly identical to Pero mentioned above), discovered for him the river called Asopus and gave it his name. Diodorus Siculus[6] similarly presents Asopus (here son of Oceanus and Tethys) as a settler in Phlius and wife of Metope daughter of Ladon, presumably here and elsewhere the Arcadian river Ladon. Pausanias[7] mentions his daughter Nemea, eponym for the region of the same name (possibly the mother of Archemorus in Aeschylus' lost play Nemea). Pausanias[8] and Diodorus Siculus[9] also mention a daughter Harpina and state that according to the traditions of the Eleans and Phliasians Ares lay with her in the city of Pisa and she bore him Oenomaus who Pausanias[10] says founded the city of Harpina named after her, not far from the river Harpinates. The Bibliotheca[11] refers to Ismene daughter of Asopus who was wife of Argus Panoptes to whom she bore Iasus, the father of Io. Mixed tales[edit] Daughters of Asopus (Asopides)[edit] We find first in Pindar's odes[12] the sisters, Aegina and Thebe, here the youngest daughters of Boeotian Asopus by Metope who came from Stymphalia in Arcadia. Both are abducted by the god Zeus, one carried to the island of Oenone later to be named Aegina and the other to Dirce's water to be queen there. Corinna, Pindar's contemporary, in a damaged fragment, mentions nine daughters of Boeotian Asopus: Aegina, Thebe, and Plataea abducted by Zeus; Corcyra, Salamis, and Euboea abducted by Poseidon; Sinope and Thespia (who has been dealt with above) abducted by Apollo; and Tanagra abducted by Hermes. Asopus cannot discover what has become of them until the seer Acraephen (otherwise unknown) tells him that the gods Eros and Aphrodite persuaded the four gods to come secretly to his house and steal his nine daughters. He advises Asopus to yield to the immortals and cease grieving since he is father-in-law to gods. This hints that perhaps, for Corinna, Asopus himself is not a god. Asopus accepts Acraephen's advice. Of these daughters, Thebe, Plataea, Thespia and Tanagra are properly Boeotian. Euboea is near Boeotia, but Salamis and Aegina are regions that would perhaps associate better with the Phliasian Asopus. Korkyra (Corfu) is definitely Corinthian rather than Boeotian. Sinope is surely the colony of Sinope on the Black Sea (founded from Miletus). It is notable that tradition as it comes down to us does not record any children resulting from a union of gods with Thebe, Plataea, Thespia or Tanagra and only Diodorus[13] mentions the otherwise unknown sons Phaiax, son of Poseidon by Corcyra, and Syrus sprung from Apollo by Sinope and that this child of Sinope is opposed by a conflicting tradition that Sinope tricked Zeus, Apollo and Halys and remained a virgin. Later texts mostly indicate Zeus' abduction of Aegina, presented as a solitary abduction. Asopus is often clearly the Phliasian Asopus (so indicated by Pherecydes) but not always so. Asopus chases after Zeus and his daughter until Zeus turns upon him and strikes him with a thunderbolt, whence ever after Asopus is lame and flows very slowly, a feature ascribed to both the Boeotian and Phliasian Asopus. In these tales Asopus discovers the truth about the abduction from Sisyphus, King of Corinth in return for creating a spring on the Corinthian Acropolis. This spring, according to Pausanias[14] was behind the temple of Aphrodite and people said its water was the same as that of the spring Peirene, the water in the city flowing from it underground. Diodorus Siculus[13] who, as mentioned, places his Asopus in Phlius, gives him twelve daughters. Diodorus' list omits the Plataea and Boeotia included by Corinna's list of nine daughters. But it introduces Chalcis which was the chief city of Boeotia and may represent Boeotia. To make up the twelve Diodorus' list also adds Peirene (the famous spring in Corinth), Cleone (possible eponym of the small city of Cleonae on the road from Corinth to Argos according to Pausanias),[15] Ornia (possible eponym of the small town of Orneai south of Phlius), and Asopis. But Asopis may mean Asopian and be an epithet for one of the other known daughters. Ovid in his poem Metamorphoses[16] twice calls Aegina by the name Asopis. Indeed, in his very next section Diodorus discusses Asopus' daughter Harpina who has been discussed above. Apollodorus[17] claims Asopus had twenty daughters but he does not provide a list. Pausanias[18] mentions three supposed daughters of Phliasian Asopus named Corcyra, Aegina, and Thebe according to the Phliasians and notes additionally that the Thebans insist that this Thebe was daughter of the Boeotian Asopus. He mentions no dispute about the others which suggests that in his time the assignment of Aegina to the Phliasian Asopus was generally admitted. Pausanias[8] also describes a group sculpture in the sanctuary of Hippodamia at Olympia donated by the Phliasians. It included Nemea, Zeus seizing Aegina, Harpina, Corcyra, Thebe, and Asopus himself. It seems the Phliasians were insistent that Thebe belonged to their Asopus. According to Pherecydes, Asopus also fathered Philyra who became the mother of Hypseus by Peneus.[19] Sons of Asopus[edit] Both Apollodrus and Diodorus also mention two sons of Asopus, the first named Ismenus and the second named Pelagon (by Apollodorus) or Pelasgus (by Diodorus). Nothing else has survived about this Pelagon. Of Ismenus, Diodorus states only that he emigrated to Boeotia and settled near the Boeotian river, which was afterwards named Ismenus from his name. Another son, Hypseus who fought in the war of the Seven against Thebes was killed by Capaneus.[20] Comparative table of Asopus' family Relation Names Sources Hom. Acu. Cori. (Sch.) on Pin. (Sch.) on Bacc. Herod. Apollon. Dio. Stat. Apollod. Pau. Hyg. Anto. Non. Parentage Poseidon and Pero ✓ ✓ Oceanus and Tethys ✓ ✓ Zeus and Eurynome ✓ Poseidon and Celusa ✓ Wife Metope ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Children Antiope ✓ Philyra ✓ Aegina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Euboea ✓ Corcyra ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Plataea ✓ ✓ Salamis ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sinope ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tanagra ✓ ✓ ✓ Thebe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Thespia ✓ ✓ ✓ Cleone ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Harpina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Nemea ✓ ✓ ✓ Peirene ✓ ✓ Oeroe ✓ ✓ Ismenus ✓ ✓ Chalcis ✓ Asopis ✓ Ornia / Oenia ✓ Pelasgus ✓ Hypseus ✓ Pelegon ✓ Ismene ✓ Number of daughters mentioned 1 - 9 7 8 3 2 13 1 3 + 17 others 11 1 1 1 Notes[edit] Ancient Greece portal Myths portal ^ Fossey, J., J. Morin. "Places: 540672 (Asopos (river))". Pleiades. Retrieved August 28, 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Reger, G., J. McK. Camp II. "Places: 570131 (Asopos (river))". Pleiades. Retrieved August 28, 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Smith, William (1856). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: Abacaenum-Hytanis. Walton and Maberly. p. 241. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.12.6 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.12.4 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.72 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.15.3 ^ a b Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 5.22.1 ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.73.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.21.6 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.3 ^ Pindar, Nem 8.6–12; Is 8.17–23; Paian 6.134–40 ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.72.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.5.1 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.15.1 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.113; 7.615 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.12.6 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.5.2 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Ode 9. 27a ^ Statius, Thebaid 7.310 ff & 723 ff References[edit] Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888-1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External links[edit] Hazlitt, Classical Gazetteer, "Asopus" v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. 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en-wikipedia-org-6785	----	Sisyphus - Wikipedia Sisyphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead. King of Ephyra in Greek mythology For other uses, see Sisyphus (disambiguation). Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attica black-figure amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen[1] In Greek mythology Sisyphus or Sisyphos (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Ancient Greek: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) was the king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the classical influence on modern culture, tasks that are both laborious and futile are therefore described as Sisyphean (/sɪsɪˈfiːən/).[2] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family 3 Mythology 3.1 Reign 3.2 Conflict with Salmoneus 3.3 Cheating death 3.4 Punishment in the underworld 4 Interpretations 4.1 Literary interpretations 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Etymology Linguistics Professor R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word sophos (σοφός, "wise").[3] German mythographer Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from sisys (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.[4] Family Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete[5] and the brother of Salmoneus. He married the Pleiad Merope by whom he became the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus, Sinon and Porphyrion.[6] Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus,[7][8] and Minyas, founder of Orchomenus, through Almus.[6] Mythology Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Reign Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth).[7] King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. Conflict with Salmoneus Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. Cheating death Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the Asopid Aegina to her father, the river god Asopus, in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis.[7] Zeus then ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Charon, whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and Ares, annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.[9] In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.[10] Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone, goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes.[11][12] In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.[13] In Philoctetes by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the Odyssey) upon having returned from the dead. Euripides, in Cyclops, also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. Punishment in the underworld As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.[7][14][15] The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as Sisyphean. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.[16] Interpretations Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649 According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.[17] Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea.[17] The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[18] Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach[19] that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese,[20] building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.[21] In his book The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking,[22] German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. Literary interpretations Sisyphus (1548–49) by Titian, Prado Museum, Madrid, Spain Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the Iliad and Book XI of the Odyssey.[8][15] Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").[23] In Plato's Apology, Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"[24] Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled The Myth of Sisyphus, in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[25] The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.[26] Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons.[27] See also The Hill (film) The Myth of Sisyphus, a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd Sisyphus cooling, a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth Sisyphus (dialogue), written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works Syzyfowe prace, a novel by Stefan Żeromski Triangle (2009 British film) Comparable characters: Naranath Bhranthan, a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore Wu Gang – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree Notes ^ museum inv. 1494 ^ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ^ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ a b Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ a b c d Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.3 ^ a b Homer, Iliad VI 152ff ^ Morford & Lenardon 1999, p. 491. ^ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ "Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus". www.mythweb.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019. ^ "Sisyphus". www.greekmythology.com. ^ Evslin 2006, p. 209-210. ^ "Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 9 October 2014. ^ a b Odyssey, xi. 593 ^ Pausanias x. 31 ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ^ De Rerum Natura III ^ Revue archéologique, 1904 ^ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. ISBN 0-89281-409-8 ^ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7. ^ Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. ISBN 978-3-7438-7149-6 ^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44. ^ Apology, 41a ^ Karl, Frederick. Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 ^ Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. ^ Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. References Evslin, Bernard (2006). Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84511-321-6. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Morford, Mark P. O.; Lenardon, Robert J. (1999). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514338-6. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. External links Look up Sisyphean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sisyphus. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sisyphus "Sisyphus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. "Sisyphus" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Authority control BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 PLWABN: 9810697447205606 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67258418 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=1001781392" Categories: Aeolides Corinthian mythology Condemned souls into Tartarus Kings of Corinth Heroes who ventured to Hades Mythological tricksters Mythological city founders Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 08:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6804	----	Library of Congress Control Number - Wikipedia Library of Congress Control Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from LCCN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search For information on using this system on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Authority control § LCCN. Numbering system for catalog records at the Library of Congress The Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) is a serially based system of numbering cataloged records in the Library of Congress, in the United States. It is not related to the contents of any book, and should not be confused with Library of Congress Classification. Contents 1 History 2 Format 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History[edit] The LCCN numbering system has been in use since 1898, at which time the acronym LCCN originally stood for Library of Congress Card Number.[1][2] It has also been called the Library of Congress Catalog Card Number, among other names. The Library of Congress prepared cards of bibliographic information for their library catalog and would sell duplicate sets of the cards to other libraries for use in their catalogs. This is known as centralized cataloging. Each set of cards was given a serial number to help identify it. Although most of the bibliographic information is now electronically created, stored, and shared with other libraries, there is still a need to identify each unique record, and the LCCN continues to perform that function. Librarians all over the world use this unique identifier in the process of cataloging most books which have been published in the United States. It helps them reach the correct cataloging data (known as a cataloging record), which the Library of Congress and third parties make available on the Web and through other media. In February 2008, the Library of Congress created the LCCN Permalink service, providing a stable URL for all Library of Congress Control Numbers.[3][4] Format[edit] In its most elementary form, the number includes a year and a serial number. The year has two digits for 1898 to 2000, and four digits beginning in 2001. The three ambiguous years (1898, 1899, and 1900) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. There are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a "7" because of an experiment applied between 1969 and 1972 which added a check digit.[2] Serial numbers are six digits long and should include leading zeros.[5] The leading zeros padding the number are a more recent addition to the format, so many older works will show less-full codes. The hyphen that is often seen separating the year and serial number is optional. More recently, the Library of Congress has instructed publishers not to include a hyphen. See also[edit] Accession number (library science) Authority control Books in the United States CODEN Integrated Authority File (GND; Gemeinsame Normdatei) International Standard Book Number (ISBN) Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) References[edit] ^ "Types of Numbers Found in LC Catalog Records". catalog.loc.gov. Retrieved 2021-01-18. ^ a b "Structure of the LC Control Number". Network Development and MARC Standards Office. Library of Congress. 16 June 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2021. ^ "Library of Congress Update for 2008 ALA Annual Conference: January-May, 2008". Archived from the original on 2017-08-28. ^ "LCCN Permalink Frequently Asked Questions". Library of Congress. Retrieved 18 January 2021. ^ "The LCCN Namespace". Network Development and MARC Standards Office. Library of Congress. 10 November 2003. Retrieved 18 January 2021. External links[edit] Wikidata has the properties: Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) (bibliographic) (P1144) (see uses) Library of Congress authority ID (P244) (see uses) Library of Congress Name Authority File (NAF) Bibliographic Processing Cataloging Rules: Library of Congress Control Number (LCCN) at the Wayback Machine (archived 2016-05-13) v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Library_of_Congress_Control_Number&oldid=1001253315" Categories: Library of Congress Identifiers Library cataloging and classification Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Webarchive template wayback links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6814	----	Wikipedia:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikipedia page explaining the terms under which contributions are licensed. 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en-wikipedia-org-6821	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: === Punishment in the underworld === As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2:11.13-11.13 |title=Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13 |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=2014-10-09}}</ref><ref name="Odyssey, xi. 593">''[[Odyssey]]'', xi. 593</ref> The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his [[hubris]]tic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as ''Sisyphean''. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter [[Polygnotus]] on the walls of the [[Lesche]] at [[Delphi]].<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] x. 31</ref> Return to Sisyphus. 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en-wikipedia-org-6861	----	Thersander - Wikipedia Thersander From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, the name Thersander (/θɜːrˈsændər, -ˈsɑːn-/; Ancient Greek: Θέρσανδρος "bold man" derived from θέρσος thersos "boldness, braveness" and ανδρος andros "of a man") refers to several distinct characters: Thersander, one of the Epigoni.[1] Thersander, a son of Sisyphus, brother of Glaucus, Ornytion and Almus.[2] His own sons were Haliartus and Coronus, eponyms of Haliartus and Coronea respectively,[3][4] and also Proetus, himself father of Maera who was known to have died a maiden.[5] Thersander, one of the Heracleidae, son of Agamedidas. His twin daughters Anaxandra and Lathria married the twin sons of Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes.[6] Thersander of Crete, father, by Arethusa, of a son Hyllus (not to be confused with the son of Heracles). Hyllus was killed by Aeneas in the Trojan War.[7] Thersander, son of Polynices, killed by Telephus Notes[edit] ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.7.2 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.4.3 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 9.34.7 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Haliartos, Korōneia ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 10.30.5 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 3.16.6 ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 10.30 References[edit] Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy translated by Way. A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19. London: William Heinemann, 1913. Online version at theio.com Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy. Arthur S. Way. London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 1913. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thersander&oldid=1001688380" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Achaeans (Homer) Heracleidae Characters in Greek mythology Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages 日本語 Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 21:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6873	----	Elysium - Wikipedia Elysium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Afterlife in Greek mythology This article is about the place in Greek mythology. For other uses, see Elysium (disambiguation) and Elysian (disambiguation). Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Goethe's Ankunft im Elysium by Franz Nadorp Elysium or the Elysian Fields (Ancient Greek: Ἠλύσιον πεδίον, Ēlýsion pedíon) is a conception of the afterlife that developed over time and was maintained by some Greek religious and philosophical sects and cults. Initially separate from the realm of Hades, admission was reserved for mortals related to the gods and other heroes. Later, it expanded to include those chosen by the gods, the righteous, and the heroic, where they would remain after death, to live a blessed and happy life, and indulging in whatever employment they had enjoyed in life.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The Elysian Fields were, according to Homer, located on the western edge of the Earth by the stream of Okeanos.[1] In the time of the Greek poet Hesiod, Elysium would also be known as the "Fortunate Isles", or the "Isles (or Islands) of the Blessed", located in the western ocean at the end of the earth.[1][7][8] The Isles of the Blest would be reduced to a single island by the Theban poet Pindar, describing it as having shady parks, with residents indulging in athletic and musical pastimes.[1][2] The ruler of Elysium varies from author to author: Pindar and Hesiod name Cronus as the ruler,[9] while the poet Homer in the Odyssey describes fair-haired Rhadamanthus dwelling there.[6][7][10][11] "The Isle of the Blessed" is also featured in the 2nd Century comedic novel "True Story" by Lucian of Samosata. Contents 1 Classical literature 2 Post-classical literature 3 Modern influence 4 Honors 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Classical literature[edit] In Homer's Odyssey, Elysium is described as a paradise: to the Elysian plain...where life is easiest for men. No snow is there, nor heavy storm, nor ever rain, but ever does Ocean send up blasts of the shrill-blowing West Wind that they may give cooling to men. — Homer, Odyssey (4.560–565)[11] According to Eustathius of Thessalonica[12] the word "Elysium" (Ἠλύσιον) derives from ἀλυουσας (ἀλύω, to be deeply stirred from joy)[13] or from ἀλύτως, synonymous of ἀφθάρτως (ἄφθαρτος, incorruptible),[14] referring to souls' life in this place. Another suggestion is from ελυθ-, ἔρχομαι (to come).[15] The Greek poet Hesiod refers to the Isles of the Blest in his didactic poem Works and Days. In his book Greek Religion, Walter Burkert notes the connection with the motif of far-off Dilmun: "Thus Achilles is transported to the White Isle and becomes the Ruler of the Black Sea, and Diomedes becomes the divine lord of an Adriatic island".[10] And they live untouched by sorrow in the islands of the blessed along the shore of deep-swirling Ocean, happy heroes for whom the grain-giving earth bears honey-sweet fruit flourishing thrice a year, far from the deathless gods, and Cronos rules over them — Hesiod, Works and Days (170)[9] Pindar's Odes describes the reward waiting for those living a righteous life: The good receive a life free from toil, not scraping with the strength of their arms the earth, nor the water of the sea, for the sake of a poor sustenance. But in the presence of the honored gods, those who gladly kept their oaths enjoy a life without tears, while the others undergo a toil that is unbearable to look at. Those who have persevered three times, on either side, to keep their souls free from all wrongdoing, follow Zeus' road to the end, to the tower of Cronus, where ocean breezes blow around the island of the blessed, and flowers of gold are blazing, some from splendid trees on land, while water nurtures others. With these wreaths and garlands of flowers they entwine their hands according to the righteous counsels of Rhadamanthys, whom the great father, the husband of Rhea whose throne is above all others, keeps close beside him as his partner — Pindar, Odes (2.59–75)[16] In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas, like Heracles and Odysseus before him, travels to the underworld. Virgil describes those who will travel to Elysium, and those who will travel to Tartarus: Night speeds by, And we, Aeneas, lose it in lamenting. Here comes the place where cleaves our way in twain. Thy road, the right, toward Pluto's dwelling goes, And leads us to Elysium. But the left Speeds sinful souls to doom, and is their path To Tartarus th' accurst. — Virgil, Aeneid (6.539)[17] Virgil goes on to describe an encounter in Elysium between Aeneas and his father Anchises. Virgil's Elysium knows perpetual spring and shady groves, with its own sun and lit by its own stars: solemque suum, sua sidera norunt. In no fix'd place the happy souls reside. In groves we live, and lie on mossy beds, By crystal streams, that murmur thro' the meads: But pass yon easy hill, and thence descend; The path conducts you to your journey's end.” This said, he led them up the mountain's brow, And shews them all the shining fields below. They wind the hill, and thro' the blissful meadows go. — Virgil, Aeneid (6.641)[18] In the Greek historian Plutarch's Life of Sertorius, Elysium is described as: These are two in number, separated by a very narrow strait; they are ten thousand furlongs distant from Africa, and are called the Islands of the Blest. They enjoy moderate rains at long intervals, and winds which for the most part are soft and precipitate dews, so that the islands not only have a rich soil which is excellent for plowing and planting, but also produce a natural fruit that is plentiful and wholesome enough to feed, without toil or trouble, a leisured folk. Moreover, an air that is salubrious, owing to the climate and the moderate changes in the seasons, prevails on the islands. For the north and east winds which blow out from our part of the world plunge into fathomless space, and, owing to the distance, dissipate themselves and lose their power before they reach the islands; while the south and west winds that envelope the islands sometimes bring in their train soft and intermittent showers, but for the most part cool them with moist breezes and gently nourish the soil. Therefore a firm belief has made its way, even to the Barbarians, that here is the Elysian Field and the abode of the blessed which is not true, of which Homer sang. — Plutarch, Life of Sertorius, VIII, 2[19][20] Diodorus, in his first book, suggested that the Elysian fields which were much celebrated in ancient Greek poetry, corresponded to the beautiful plains in the neighborhood of Memphis which contained the tombs of that capital city of Egypt.[21][22] He further intimated that the Greek prophet Orpheus composed his fables about the afterlife when he traveled to Egypt and saw the customs of the Egyptians regarding the rites of the dead.[23] Post-classical literature[edit] Elysium as a pagan expression for paradise would eventually pass into usage by early Christian writers. In Dante's epic The Divine Comedy, Elysium is mentioned as the abode of the blessed in the lower world; mentioned in connection with the meeting of Aeneas with the shade of Anchises in the Elysian Fields.[24] With such affection did Anchises' shade reach out, if our greatest muse is owed belief, when in Elysium he knew his son. — Dante, Divina Commedia (Par Canto XV Line 25–27)[25] In the Renaissance, the heroic population of the Elysian Fields tended to outshine its formerly dreary pagan reputation; the Elysian Fields borrowed some of the bright allure of paradise. In Paris, the Champs-Élysées retain their name of the Elysian Fields, first applied in the late 16th century to a formerly rural outlier beyond the formal parterre gardens behind the royal French palace of the Tuileries. After the Renaissance, an even cheerier Elysium evolved for some poets. Sometimes it is imagined as a place where heroes have continued their interests from their lives. Others suppose it is a location filled with feasting, sport, song; Joy is the "daughter of Elysium" in Friedrich Schiller's ode "To Joy". The poet Heinrich Heine explicitly parodied Schiller's sentiment in referring to the Jewish Sabbath food cholent as the "daughter of Elysium" in his poem "Princess Shabbat".[26] Christian and classical attitudes to the afterlife are contrasted by Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus saying, "This word 'damnation' terrifies not me, For I confound hell in elysium."[27] In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night when Viola says "My brother he is in Elysium" she and Elizabethan audiences understand this as Paradise.[28] In Mozart's The Magic Flute Papageno compares being in Elysium to winning his ideal woman: "Des Lebens als Weiser mich freun, Und wie im Elysium sein." ("Enjoy life as a wiseman, And feel like I'm in Elysium.") Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote describes Dulcinea del Toboso as "beauty superhuman, since all the impossible and fanciful attributes of beauty which the poets apply to their ladies are verified in her; for her hairs are gold, her forehead Elysian fields". In John Ford's 1633 tragedy 'Tis Pity She's a Whore Giovanni seals his requited love for his sister Annabella, stating "And I'de not change it for the best to come: A life of pleasure in Elyzium".[29] Modern influence[edit] Wax cabinet with the three fathers of the French Revolution, Franklin, Voltaire and Rousseau, installed at Elysium, 1792, (Musée de la Révolution française) Elysian Fields by Carlos Schwabe, 1903 The term and concept of Elysium has had influence in modern popular culture; references to Elysium can be found in literature, art, film, and music. Examples include the New Orleans neighborhood of Elysian Fields in Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire as the déclassé purgatory where Blanche Dubois lives with Stanley and Stella Kowalski. New Orleans' Elysian Fields also provides the second-act setting of Elmer Rice's The Adding Machine and the musical adaptation Adding Machine (musical). In his poem "Middlesex", John Betjeman describes how a few hedges "Keep alive our lost Elysium – rural Middlesex again". In his poem An Old Haunt, Hugh McFadden sets an Elysian scene in Dublin's St. Stephen's Green park "Very slowly solitude slips round me in St. Stephen's Green. I rest: see pale salmon clouds blossom. I'm back in the fields of Elysium".[30] In Spring and All, William Carlos Williams describes a dying woman's "elysian slobber/upon/the folded handkerchief". In David Gemmell's Parmennion series (Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince) and his Troy trilogy, his characters refer to Elysium as the "Hall of Heroes". In Siegfried Sassoon's Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man, Sassoon writes "The air was Elysian with early summer". Its use in this context could be prolepsis, as the British countryside he is describing would become the burial ground of his dead comrades and heroes from World War I. The avenue des Champs-Élysées, the most prestigious avenue in Paris and one of the most famous streets in the world, is French for "Elysian Fields". The nearby Élysée Palace houses the President of the French Republic, for which reason "l'Élysée" frequently appears as a metonym for the French presidency, similar to how "the White House" can metonymically refer to the American presidency. Elysium and Elysian are also used for numerous other names all over the world - examples include Elysian Fields, Hoboken, New Jersey, Elysian Park, Los Angeles; Elysian Valley, Los Angeles, California; Elysian, Minnesota; Elysian Fields, Texas; and the Elysian Clinic[31] in São Paulo, Brazil. Elysium is referenced in the Schiller poem which inspired Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" (9th symphony, 4th movement). Elysium is also referenced in Mozart's opera Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute). It is in Act II when Papageno is feeling very melancholy because he does not have a sweetheart or wife and he is drunk singing the song that could be called "Den Mädchen" (The Girls). There are many examples of use of the name "Elysium" in popular culture. For example, Elysium is briefly mentioned in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator, wherein the general Maximus addresses his troops thus: "If you find yourself alone, riding in the green fields with the sun on your face, do not be troubled. For you are in Elysium, and you're already dead!" In Hercules: The Legendary Journeys and its spin-off Xena: Warrior Princess, the actual Elysian Fields appears several times as a happy afterlife, with the families of the title characters dwelling there; Heaven appears as a separate location in the same universe. The name Elysium was used in a Star Trek novel, Before Dishonor, as the name of the fourth moon of Pluto. In Masami Kurumada's mythologically themed Saint Seiya comic books, the Elysium is the setting of the final chapters of the Hades arc. In it, the Saints, the warriors of Athena's army, traverse the Underworld to defeat its ruler, the ruthless Hades and rescue their kidnapped goddess. The Saints discover that the only way to kill Hades is to destroy his true body, which has rested in Elysium since the ages of myth. The Saints then invade Elysium, which Kurumada depicts as described in Greek mythology, and carry on their mission after a difficult battle with the deity. The 2012 opera "Dolls of New Albion", written by Paul Shapera, and its sequels, reference Elysium as an afterlife somewhat accessible to the living, though the living in Elysium are hunted by horrid creatures who guard Elysium. The 2013 dystopian film Elysium, starring Matt Damon used the name Elysium to describe the orbital space station of luxury that the rich live on in contrast to the ravaged Earth that the poor live on.[32] In the novel, This Ruler, the story takes place at Elysium Hills High School. It is a reference to the mythology that surrounds American education and in particular high school. It also alludes to the teenagers, in the book, being Greek heroes.[33] Elysium appears in the Fate of Atlantis DLC of the 2018 video game, Assassins Creed: Odyssey. In the first part of this DLC, The Fields of Elysium, the misthios travels to Elysium which is ruled by members of the precursor civilisation known as the Isu which were then worshipped as the gods of the Greek pantheon.[34] Honors[edit] Elysian Beach in Antarctica and Elysium Mons on Mars are named after the Elysian Fields, as is the aforementioned avenue des Champs-Élysées. See also[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Elysium Aaru Asphodel Meadows Tartarus Elysium (Dungeons & Dragons) Elysium in popular culture Gimlé Heaven Locus amoenus The Golden Bough (mythology) Utopia References[edit] ^ a b c d Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, Volume 1. New York: Harper. pp. 588, 589. ^ a b Sacks, David (1997). A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World. Oxford University Press US. pp. 8, 9. ISBN 0-19-511206-7. ^ Zaidman, Louise Bruit (1992). Religion in the Ancient Greek City. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-521-42357-0. ^ Clare, Israel Smith (1897). Library of Universal History, Volume 2: Ancient Oriental Nations and Greece. New York: R. S. Peale, J. A. Hill. ^ Petrisko, Thomas W. (2000). Inside Heaven and Hell: What History, Theology and the Mystics Tell Us About the Afterlife. McKees Rocks, PA: St. Andrews Productions. pp. 12–14. ISBN 1-891903-23-3. ^ a b Ogden, Daniel (2007). A Companion to Greek Religion. Singapore: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 92, 93. ISBN 1-4051-2054-1. ^ a b Westmoreland, Perry L. (2007). Ancient Greek Beliefs. Lee And Vance Publishing Co. p. 70. ISBN 0-9793248-1-5. ^ Rengel, Marian (2009). Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 1-60413-412-7. ^ a b Evelyn-White, Hugh G. (1914). The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation. London: William Heinemann Ltd. ^ a b Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. United Kingdom: Blackwell. p. 198. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. ^ a b Murray, A.T. (1919). Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation. Perseus Digital Library Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ^ Commentarii ad Homerii Odisseam, IV, v. 563. ^ Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. sub voce. ^ A Greek-English Lexicon ec. s. v. ^ Storia vera. Dialoghi dei morti, Lucian, Oscar Mondadori, Milano, 1991 (2010), p. 79. ^ Svarlien, Diane (1990). Odes. ^ Williams, Theodore C. (1910). Verg. A. 6.539. The Perseus Digital Library. ^ Dryden, John. Verg. A. 6.641. The Perseus Digital Library Project. ^ Perrin, Bernadotte (1919). Plutarch's Lives. Perseus Digital Library Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2011. ^ Thayer, Bill. "The Life of Sertorius". The Parallel Lives Plutarch. The Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 19 June 2011. ^ Seymer, John Gunning. (1835) The Romance of Ancient Egypt: Second Series. p 72. ^ Priestley, Joseph. Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit. p. 209 ^ Toland, John. Letters to Serena, History of the Immortality of the Soul. pp. 46–52 ^ Toynbee, Paget (1968). A Dictionary of Proper Names and Notable Matters in the Works of Dante. Oxford University Press. ^ Hollander, Robert. "The Divine Comedy". Princeton Dante Project. Retrieved 26 June 2011. ^ Friedlander, Joseph. "Princess Sabbath". The Standard Book of Jewish Verse. Retrieved 3 January 2016. ^ Waterfield, Waterfield John; Waterfield, John (1 December 2016). "The Heart of His Mystery: Shakespeare and the Catholic Faith in England Under Elizabeth and James". iUniverse – via Google Books. ^ Hylton, Jeremy. "Twelfth Night, Act 1, Scene 2". The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. MIT. Retrieved 26 June 2011. ^ Ford, John (1915). 'Tis Pity She's a Whore and The Broken Heart. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. pp. 105. ^ McFadden, Hugh (1984). Cities of Mirrors. Dublin: Beaver Row Press. ISBN 0-946308-08-X. ^ "ELYSIAN - Clínica Médica & Neurologia". elysian-clinica-medica-neurologia.negocio.site. Retrieved 2019-02-19. ^ Blomkamp, Neill (2013-08-09), Elysium, Matt Damon, Jodie Foster, Sharlto Copley, retrieved 2017-10-28 ^ Duff, Mark (2019). This Ruler. USA: Mark Duff. ISBN 9780578476315. ^ "Assassin's Creed Odyssey Goes Mythical In New Fate Of Atlantis DLC". Gamespot. Retrieved 2020-10-28. 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en-wikipedia-org-6894	----	Argonautica - Wikipedia Argonautica From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the epic poem. For other uses, see Argonautica (disambiguation). Greek epic poem dated to the 3rd century BC Jason and the Argonauts Arriving at Colchis, by Charles de La Fosse. The poem Argonautica was written specifically for Ptolemaic Alexandria,[1] but it has long been a resource for other dynasties seeking to illustrate their power and ambitions.[2] This painting is located in the Château de Versailles. Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e The Argonautica (Greek: Ἀργοναυτικά, romanized: Argonautika) is a Greek epic poem written by Apollonius Rhodius in the 3rd century BC. The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from remote Colchis. Their heroic adventures and Jason's relationship with the dangerous Colchian princess/sorceress Medea were already well known to Hellenistic audiences, which enabled Apollonius to go beyond a simple narrative, giving it a scholarly emphasis suitable to the times. It was the age of the great Library of Alexandria, and his epic incorporates his research in geography, ethnography, comparative religion, and Homeric literature. However, his main contribution to the epic tradition lies in his development of the love between hero and heroine – he seems to have been the first narrative poet to study "the pathology of love".[3] His Argonautica had a profound impact on Latin poetry: it was translated by Varro Atacinus and imitated by Valerius Flaccus, it influenced Catullus and Ovid, and it provided Virgil with a model for his Roman epic, the Aeneid.[4] Contents 1 The story 1.1 Background 1.2 Some issues 1.2.1 Date of the poem 1.2.2 Sources 1.3 Plot 1.3.1 Book 1 1.3.2 Book 2 1.3.3 Book 3 1.3.4 Book 4 1.4 Discussion 1.4.1 Callimachean epic 1.4.2 Epic heroism 1.4.3 Characters without character 1.4.4 Episodic epic 1.4.5 Other issues 2 The poetry 3 Information charts 3.1 The Argonauts 3.2 Itinerary 4 Notes 5 Citations 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links The story[edit] Background[edit] The Argonautica was an adventure for the poet, one of the major scholars of the Alexandrian period – it was a bold experiment in re-writing Homeric epic in a way that would meet the demanding tastes of his contemporaries. According to some accounts, a hostile reception even led to his exile to Rhodes. The literary fashion was for small, meticulous poems, featuring displays of erudition and paradoxography (the account of marvels and oddities), as represented by the work of Callimachus. In adapting the epic genre to this audience, Apollonius went a long way towards inventing the romance novel,[5] including narrative techniques like the "interior monologue", whereby the author identifies with a character's thoughts and feelings.[6] The re-evaluation of his work in recent times has led to a mass of innovative studies, often jostling each other for attention, so that Argonautica has become a daunting adventure for many modern scholars too: Scholars that row against this current feel as if they are sailing through the Clashing Rocks; they have barely struggled halfway through one wave and there rolls the next one tossing them backwards twice as far as they had progressed ... Even if the attempt to pass through the clashing mountain of books succeeds, there is no hope of a pause and scholars find themselves in the grip of a debilitating Ancient Greek: ἀμηχανία [helplessness]. — Reinhold F. Glei.[7] Since scholarship is a key feature of this unique story, here is a preview of some of the main issues in the poet's treatment of the Argonaut myth, as addressed by recent scholarship.[nb 1] Some issues[edit] A "Callimachian epic"? Callimachus set the standards for Hellenistic aesthetics in poetry and, according to ancient sources, he engaged in a bitter literary feud with Apollonius. Modern scholars generally dismiss these sources as unreliable and point to similarities in the poetry of the two men. Callimachus, for example, composed a book of verses dealing with aitia, the mythical origins of contemporary phenomena. According to one survey, there are eighty aitia in Argonautica.[nb 2] Yet Argonautica is clearly intended to be fundamentally Homeric[8] and therefore seems at odds with the fashionable poetics of Callimachus. The epic hero? Addressing the issue of heroism in Argonautica, the German classicist H. Fränkel once noted some unheroic characteristics of Jason and his crew. In particular, their frequent moods of despair and depression, summed up in the word helplessness (Ancient Greek: ἀμηχανία). By contrast, the bullying Argonaut Idas seemed to Fränkel an ugly example of the archaic warrior. It looks as if Apollonius meant to underscore the obsolescence of traditional heroism in the Hellenistic period. These arguments have caused much discussion among scholars about the treatment and nature of heroism in Argonautica.[nb 3] Characters without character? Another fruitful discussion gained impetus from an article by D. A. Van Krevelen, who dismissed all the characters, apart from Medea, as flimsy extras without any interesting qualities.[nb 4] An "episodic epic?" In addition to aitia, Argonautica incorporates descriptions of wonders and marvels, and digressions associated with Hellenistic "science", including geography, ethnography, anthropology and comparative religion.[9] So the question arises: is the poem a unified narrative, or is the epic plot merely a coathanger for erudite and colourful episodes? A "philosophical epic?" The Argonautica heavily sources themes from Pyrrhonism in such a way that it appears to be a subtle parody of the philosophy. It repeatedly puts the characters into aporia (a state of puzzlement) and they fall into a chronic mental paralysis in decision-making that parodies epoche. Medea's experience in trying to decide what to do for or about Jason is presented as a tetralemma. Nearly all of the decisions made by the characters follow the Pyrrhonist criteria of action rather than criteria of truth. The text uses a technical term from Pyrrhonism, phantasiai, regarding what to consider in decision making, and the author repeatedly says how things appear rather than how things are. Ataraxia is parodied as apathy.[10] Date of the poem[edit] There is some dispute about the date when the poem was originally published. It could have been during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC),[11] or a generation later. According to Jackie Murray, the poem was published at the time of Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–221 BC).[12] Sources[edit] Apollonius' Argonautica was based on multiple ancient sources, including Homer and Pindar. The story of the expedition seems to have been known to the author of the Odyssey (xii. 69, &c.), who states, that the ship Argo was the only one that ever passed between the whirling rocks (petrai planktai Πλαγκταὶ; Planctae, after the encounter with the Clashing Rocks). Jason is mentioned several times in the Iliad (vii. 467, &c., xxi. 40, xxiii. 743, &c.), but not as the leader of the Argonauts. Hesiod (Theog. 992, &c.) relates the story of Jason saying that he fetched Medeia at the command of his uncle Pelias, and that she bore him a son, Medeius, who was educated by Cheiron. The first trace of the common tradition that Jason was sent to fetch the golden fleece from Aea, the city of Aeetes, in the eastern boundaries of the earth, occurs in Mimnermus (ap. Strab. i. p. 46, &c.), a contemporary of Solon; but the most ancient detailed account of the expedition of the Argonauts which is extant, is that of Pindar (Pythian Odes iv.)[13] Plot[edit] Book 1[edit] Athena helps build the Argo; Roman moulded terracotta plaque, first century AD. The poem begins with an invocation to Apollo and briefly recounts his prophetic warning to Pelias, king of Iolcus, that his downfall will be the work of a man with only one sandal. Jason has recently emerged as the man in question, having lost a sandal while crossing a swollen stream. Consequently, Pelias has entrusted him with a suicidal mission to Colchis to bring back the Golden Fleece. A ship, the Argo, has already been constructed by Argus, a shipwright working under Athena's instructions. Meanwhile, a band of heroes has arrived to help in the venture. The locals marvel at such a gathering – young Jason has been given an impossible mission yet this band of heroes just might help him pull it off. His mother fears the worst. He bids her to stay strong and calm. Jason urges the heroes to elect a leader for the voyage. They all nominate Heracles (Hercules). Heracles however insists on Jason as leader and the others submit to this choice. Rejoicing in his election, Jason orders the crew to haul the ship down to the water. The Argo is then moored for the night so that they can enjoy a farewell feast. Two bulls are sacrificed to Apollo, wine flows and conversation becomes animated. Jason however becomes withdrawn and glum. One of the heroes, Idas, accuses him of cowardice; the prophet Idmon in turn accuses Idas of drunken vainglory. A fight almost breaks out but Orpheus soothes everyone with a song about the cosmos and how the gods and all things were created. At dawn, Tiphys, the ship's helmsman, rouses the crew. The ship itself calls to them, since its keel includes a magical beam of Dodonian oak. The shore cables are loosed. Jason sheds a tear as they pull away from his home, Iolcus. The oars churn up the sea, wielded by heroic hands in time to Orpheus's stirring music. Soon the eastern coast of Thessaly is left behind. The first major port they reach is Lemnos, where the women, led by their Queen Hypsipyle, have recently murdered all their menfolk, including husbands, sons, brothers and fathers.[nb 5] The all-female parliament decides that the heroes should be encouraged to stay. Jason, as leader, is summoned and he goes to town wrapped in a magnificent cloak made for him by Athena. Hypsipyle falls in love on the spot and he settles into the palace. His crew is taken home by the other women – all but Heracles and some comrades, who prefer to stay with the ship. Thus the voyage is postponed day after day. Finally Heracles assembles all the Argonauts for a strong talk. He tells them that they are not behaving like heroes and the Golden Fleece won't bring itself back to Greece. Thus chastised, they immediately prepare to leave. Jason tells the queen to entrust their son to his parents, if she bears him one. He is the first back on board when the Argo sets sail again. Traveling through the Hellespont, they reach an island/peninsula that is home to savage Earth-born men (Γηγενέες) with six arms each. Their neighbours are the Doliones, a civilized people descended from Poseidon. The savages are hostile but the Argonauts receive a friendly welcome from Cyzicus, the newly wed king of the Doliones, about Jason's age. However, the Argonauts and Doliones end up fighting each other in the dark, mistaking one another for enemies. Cyzicus is killed by Jason. His widow Cleite hangs herself in despair. Shared grief and a magnificent funeral reconcile the two sides. Meanwhile, the Argonauts are kept there by adverse winds. Finally the seer Mopsus learns from omens that they are meant to establish a cult of the mother of the gods (Rhea/Cybele).[nb 6] The cult is soon established, the weather changes for the better and the Argonauts set off again. Their next landfall is by the river Cius, where Heracles's handsome young squire Hylas is abducted by a water nymph while filling an urn at her spring. Heracles and his comrade Polyphemus are still searching for him when the rest of the Argonauts set sail again. When at last the absences are noticed, Telamon accuses Jason of leaving Heracles behind on purpose. Just then the sea divinity Glaucus emerges from the depths, assuring them that the loss of their three crewmen is the work of the gods. He vanishes back into the water and they continue the voyage without their three comrades. Book 2[edit] Map showing the route taken by the Argo. "Lake Triton", the departure point from Libya, may be further east, near Cyrene.[nb 7] Map interpreting the voyage according to Apollonius Rhodius' Argonautica, reprint of Ortelius' Parergon, 1624 The Argonauts reach a gulf in the Propontis, home to the Bebrycians, whose king Amycus demands a boxing match with the champion of these "sea-wanderers" (Ancient Greek: ἁλίπλαγκτοι). He does this with all travellers and he doesn't even ask who they are. Angered by such disrespect, Polydeukes volunteers and the fight begins. Amycus is a man-mountain but the young Argonaut is skilled with his fists and eventually lands a lethal blow. The Bebrycians rush on the victor, weapons drawn, but they are intercepted and chased off by his rampant crewmates. Some sheep are herded on board and the Argo leaves the following day. Their next stop is on the opposite coast, near the home of Phineus, once a king of the Thynians. He too doesn't ask who these travellers are. He already knows. His powers of prophesy are so great that Zeus has punished him for giving away divine secrets, afflicting him with extreme old age, blindness and daily visits from the harpies. Jason and the Argonauts are destined to rescue him from the harpies and thus he welcomes them as his deliverers, Zetes and Calais, sons of the north wind, duly chase the pests away, and the blind old man gratefully reveals the safest route to Colchis and how best to sail past the Clashing Rocks. Passing through the Clashing Rocks (thanks to the advice of Phineus, the pilot skills of Tiphys and the aid of Athena), they enter the Black Sea and arrive at a deserted island, Thynias, where they observe Apollo flying overhead on his way north to visit the Hyperboreans. The island shakes with his passing. There they build an altar and a shrine (lasting memorials of their voyage). Next stop is an outlet of the river Acheron, one of the entries to Hades, where they meet Lycus, king of the Mariandynians and an enemy to the now defunct king of the Bebrycians. He receives them very hospitably. Their departure is delayed when the prophet Idmon is killed by a wild boar and Tiphys dies of illness. Two tombs are built (some more lasting memorials of their voyage) and the Argonauts set off again. Their next two landfalls bring them into contact with some old comrades of Heracles, left behind after his campaign against the Amazons. One is Sthenelus, whose ghost beckons to them from his tomb by the sea, and the others are three men stranded at Sinope. The Argonauts pour libations to the ghost of Sthenelus and the three survivors gain places aboard the Argo. They arrive next at the river Thermodon, where the Amazons have their harbour, and they leave the next day before the women can assemble for battle. The Amazon influence however reaches even to the deserted Island of Ares, where they have built a temple to the god of war. When the Argonauts arrive, it is only defended by birds. They fight off the birds and then chance upon four survivors of a shipwreck. These are the four sons of the exiled Greek hero, Phrixus, and they are also grandsons of Aetes, king of Colchis. Jason welcomes them as god-sent allies in his quest for the Golden Fleece. Approaching Colchis, the Argonauts see the eagle of Zeus flying to and from the Caucasus mountains, where it feeds on the liver of Prometheus. It glides through the air as large as another ship, disturbing the Argo's sails as it passes overhead. Soon after, the heroes enter the Phasis, the main river of Colchis, and furtively anchor in a backwater. Book 3[edit] In Medea, a conflicted Medea is shown mixing a potion for an incantation, c. 1867 by Frederick Sandys The third book begins by invoking Erato, the Muse of love poetry. The Argo is still hidden in a Colchis backwater when the goddesses Hera and Athena retire to a private room on Olympus to consider in secret how best to help Jason. Hera thinks the daughter of the Colchian king might prove useful if she could be made to fall in love with him. She then suggests enlisting the help of Aphrodite. Athena likes the plan but, being a virgin conscious of appearances, asks Hera to do all the talking. They find the goddess of love indolently combing her hair in her apartment. She has been bickering with her young son Eros and doubts if the unruly child will fire any arrows at Medea just to please her. Hera, an experienced mother, advises her to avoid quarrels with the boy and Aphrodite subsequently buys his support with the gift of a fabulous ball, composed of gold and intricately fashioned so as to leave a trail like a falling star when thrown at the sky. Jason advises his comrades that they should try persuasion before attempting to take the Golden Fleece by force and then he leads Phrixus' sons home to the palace of Aetes. Their unexpected arrival is greeted by Medea with a cry that brings everyone running, including her sister Chalciope (mother of the four castaways) and Aetes, the king. Meanwhile, Eros invisibly joins the throng, squats at Jason's feet and fires off the fateful arrow, departing then with a laugh. Medea's heart floods with the sweet pain of love. Aetes however is filled with rage when his grandsons ask him to hand the Golden Fleece to Jason for return to Iolcus. He accuses them of conspiring with foreigners to steal away his kingdom. Jason delivers a soothing speech and Aetes responds with a mock compromise – he can have what he came for if he first ploughs the Plain of Ares with fire-breathing oxen, next sows four acres with dragon's teeth and finally cuts down the crop of armed men before they can cut him down. It's a task that Aetes, son of the Sun, has often performed. Jason accepts the challenge reluctantly. He sets off for the ship to inform his crew and Medea's thoughts flutter at his departing heels (νόος ... ἑρπύζων πεπότητο μετ' ἴχνια), torn between love and anguish. That night, in a dream, she envisions herself performing Jason's task for him. She wakes fearing the wrath of Aetes and the danger to her reputation if she helps Jason without good cause. The safety of her sister's four sons depends on his success. She wonders if Chalciope can be enticed into asking her to help Jason for their sake. Even this seems too bold for a young virgin and finally she surrenders to sobs of dismay. Her sister comes in response to the noise. Medea tells her that she is worried about her nephews, since they are doomed if the stranger fails. Chalciope then asks her to help Jason and Medea gladly agrees. Alone in her room again, she continues to be torn between hope and fear. She contemplates suicide, opens her chest of drugs looking for poison but instead selects a drug that will help Jason in his trial of strength. Arrangements for a secret meeting are made. The tryst is outside a temple of Hecate, where Medea is the priestess. At first they are as speechless as lofty pines rooted together on a mountain-side, until the force of love comes like a sudden gust of wind. He reminds her that he is utterly at her mercy and he promises to make her famous throughout Greece if she assists him. She draws the drug out from between her breasts and hands it to him. If he ever forgets her kindness, she warns him, she will fly to Greece on the wind and there rebuke him to his face. He urges her to forget the wind and sail back with him instead, as his future wife. She doesn't commit herself to anything and returns home as if in a dream. He returns to the crew, welcomed by all but Idas, who considers his reliance on a woman's help to be unheroic. The day of trial arrives and so do the people of Colchis, gathering on the hillsides as spectators. Aetes rides about in his chariot, glorying in his own magnificence. The Argo comes upstream and moors by the river's edge. Jason steps forward. Secretly fortified by Medea's spells, he manhandles the monstrous oxen and sows the deadly field with teeth. He pauses briefly for a drink then, cheered on by his comrades, returns to the scene of action, where an army of men is springing from the broken soil, ready to attack him. These he routs single-handedly, relying on a trick taught him by Medea. Dumbfounded, Aetes returns to the palace, all the while wondering how best to cheat Jason of his promised reward. Book 4[edit] The poet calls upon the Muse to describe Medea's state of mind: is it shame, alarm or love that leads her to flee Colchis? Her treason is already known to her father and self-poisoning seems like an option again. She decides instead to flee Colchis with her nephews, the sons of Phrixus, camped with the Argonauts by the river. Doors open for her by magic as she hurries barefoot though the palace, and the moon laughs at her outdoors, recalling the many times that she was captured and brought to earth by Medea's cruel love spells (a reference to the moon's passion for Endymion). Arriving at the camp, Medea warns the others about her father's treachery and offers to help steal the Golden Fleece from its guardian serpent. Jason solemnly pledges to marry her, she puts the snake to sleep with a spell and then the hero takes the Fleece back to the Argo, exulting in its sheen like a young girl who has caught moonbeams in the folds of her gown. The fugitive Argo is pursued by two Colchian fleets, ships numerous as flocking birds. One of the fleets sails into the Propontis through the now-motionless Clashing Rocks. The second is led by Medea's half-brother, Apsyrtus, and it takes the same route as the Argo, up the river Ister (Danube). A distant branch of the river eventually leads the Argonauts into the Sea of Cronus (Adriatic), where Apsyrtus finally corners them on the Brygean Islands. Peace talks result in a deal – Jason can keep the fleece, since he won it after all, but Medea's fate must be decided by a mediator chosen from the neighbouring kings. Fearing the worst, Medea comes up with an alternative plan. She lures Apsyrtus into a trap with promises of rewards. Jason murders him and the body is dismembered to avoid retribution from the Erinyes. The leaderless Colchians are easily outwitted and, rather than return home empty-handed to a wrathful Aetes, they disperse and settle around the nearby coast. Indignant at the brutal murder, Zeus condemns the Argonauts to wander homeless for a longer term. A gale blows them back north and they enter the river Eridanus (Po), whose different branches eventually bring them into The Sardinian Sea (Gulf of Lyons), on the western side of Ausonia (Italy). Here the enchantress Circe absolves the lovers of blood-guilt. Meanwhile, Hera has a friendly chat with the sea nymph Thetis. The goddess advises the nymph that her infant son Achilles is destined to marry Medea in the Elysian fields and then she sends her on an errand to secure the Argo's passage south. The Argonauts safely pass the Sirens, whose music however causes Butes to fall overboard; they get past the Wandering Rocks, from which Argo is saved by the Nereids, like girls on the beach passing a ball to and fro. Thus the Argonauts arrive at Drepane (Corfu) off the western coast of Greece. It is here they encounter the other Colchian fleet. Alcinous, the virtuous king of Drepane, offers to mediate between the two sides, later confiding in his virtuous wife, Arete, that he means to surrender Medea to the Colchians, unless she happens to be married. The queen reveals this to the lovers and they are duly married in a sacred cave on the island, where the bridal bed is draped with the Golden Fleece. Disappointed, the Colchians follow the example of the first fleet and settle nearby rather than return home. The Argonauts can't return home either: another gale drives them off course, this time south towards the Syrtes, an interminable sandbank off Libya. Here they can see no means of escape and they resign themselves to an inglorious end, parting from each other to die in private, while Medea and her maids lament their fate in a forlorn group. Jason's isolation soon ends with a visit by three nymphs, the guardians of Libya, with mysterious instructions about how to survive. Peleus interprets the instructions on his behalf: they must carry the Argo across the desert. Twelve days later, their ship on their shoulders, they arrive at Lake Triton and the garden of the Hesperides. They receive some astonishing news from the Hesperides: Heracles raided the garden just the day before. He has already vanished into the distance and so they must depart without him yet again. Meanwhile, they lose another two comrades, Mopsus and Canthus, one dying from snake bite, the other from a wound inflicted by a local shepherd belonging to the ancestral family of the native Garamantes and Nasamones. Shortly afterwards, Triton reveals a route from the lake to the open sea and entrusts Euphemus with a magical clod of earth that is destined to become the island of Thera, from which Libya would later be settled by Greek colonists. Triton carries off a tripod, as an offering of thanks. The story ends with a visit to the island of Anaphe, where the Argonauts institute rites in honour of Apollo, and Aegina (not far from Jason's home), where they establish a festival competition, fetching water and racing one another with full amphoras on their shoulders. Discussion[edit] Callimachean epic[edit] The Argonautica is modelled on Homer's poetry to a profound extent. There are of course similarities in plots. The return journey in Book 4, for example, has many parallels in the Odyssey – Scylla, Charybdis, the Sirens and Circe are hazards that Odysseus also negotiates. The Argonautica is notable too for the high number of verses and phrases imitating Homer, and for the way it reproduces linguistic peculiarities of old epic, in syntax, metre, vocabulary and grammar. Apollonius in fact is the most Homeric of all the poets whose work has come down to us from the Hellenistic age, when Homeric scholarship flourished and almost all poets responded to Homer's influence, including Callimachus.[14] Homeric echoes in Argonautica are quite deliberate and are not slavish imitation. When Jason first meets Hypsipyle in Book 1, he wears a cloak made for him by Athena, embroidered with various scenes alluding to tragic women that Homer's Odysseus met in Hades (Odyssey 11.225–380). This Homeric echo has ominous connotations, prefiguring Jason's betrayal of Hypsipyle and Medea.[15] Apollonius often implies that he is updating and therefore improving on Homer. Symbolically this is represented by the abandonment of Heracles and the fixing of the Clashing Rocks –it is as if Jason and his crew are leaving behind the heroic world of traditional myth. Argonautica includes numerous aitia or mythological accounts of the origins of things (see Argonautica#Itinerary below) and these ensure that the narrative points forward to the world of the third century audience rather than back to Homer.[16] Cultured Alexandrians considered themselves heirs of a long literary tradition and this is evoked when Apollonius crowds his poem with as much research material as he could borrow from mythical, historiographical and ethnographic sources.[17] Argonautica was just one of many narrative epics written in the Hellenistic period – and the only one to survive. Apollonius is too much of an individual for us to deduce from his work the nature of the other epics.[18] It is known that Callimachus was an influential critic of contemporary epics but that need not have included Argonautica, which seems to have been responsive to his views. Thus even though modelled on the Homeric epic, it is much shorter, with four books totaling fewer than 6,000 lines (Homer's Iliad for example runs to more than 15,000). Apollonius may have been influenced here by Callimachus' advocacy of brevity. Possibly he was responding too to Aristotle’s demand for "poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting",[19] since theater audiences at the Dionysia typically sat through four plays per day and Argonautica's four books are about the same total length.[20] The influence of Callimachus is seen in the widespread use of aitia since these were a notable feature of his work too. More particularly, there are some pointed allusions to his work. For example, one line (1.1309) is a verbatim quotation of Callimachus (Aitia I fr. 12.6 Pf): "And thus were those things to be accomplished in the course of time".[nb 8] The epiphany of Apollo in book 2, over the island of Thynia, is followed by an account of the god's deeds and worship (2.686–719) that recalls an account in Callimachus's Hymn to Apollo (97–104), and book 4 ends in a cluster of aitia, including the origins of the island Thera, the naming of Anaphe, and the water-carrying festival on Aegina, that are reminiscent of Aitia I and Iamb. 8.[21] This final cluster of aitia can seem like an arbitrary addition to the narrative, as if Apollonius prolonged the story just to add mere curiosities, but they may have been included as a final "programmatic statement" of support for Callimachean Aitia-style aesthetics, expressing Apollonius's debt to Callimachus as mentor:[22] The poem's anti-heroic qualities are generally regarded as further evidence of its 'Callimacheanism'.[23] Jason is not like a traditional epic hero,[24] and the contrast between him and Heracles can be interpreted as a distinction between Homeric and Callimachean poetics.[25] In summary, recent scholarship leads to the conclusion that Argonautica was a successful and fundamental renewal of the Homeric epic, expressed in terms of Callimachean aesthetics: the label Callimachean epic is not misplaced.[26] Epic heroism[edit] Jason's character traits are more characteristic of the genre of realism than epic, in that he was, in the words of J. F. Carspecken: "chosen leader because his superior declines the honour, subordinate to his comrades, except once, in every trial of strength, skill or courage, a great warrior only with the help of magical charms, jealous of honour but incapable of asserting it, passive in the face of crisis, timid and confused before trouble, tearful at insult, easily despondent, gracefully treacherous in his dealings with the love-sick Medea..."[nb 9] This hostile view can be extended to the whole crew: the Bebrycian episode, where Polydeuces beats the native king to death, and where the Argonauts turn piratical, may be understood as the start of their moral decline, which intensifies and culminates in the murder of Medea's brother.[27] Medea too may forfeit our sympathy, appearing to change from a likable heroine in Book 3 to a frightful witch engaged in evil in Book 4.[28] Interpretations of Jason's character however differ from one critic to another. According to a less hostile view, he resembles the ordinary man and his brand of heroism is relevant to the real world, whereas Heracles stands for a primitive and anachronistic kind of heroism, which is why he is abandoned early in the story.[29] On the other hand, epic poets are not supposed to arbitrate moral values, Jason and Heracles each have good and bad qualities and we shouldn't overplay the differences between them.[30] Jason is a democratic-minded hero with a weakness for women,[31] or he is just the chance result of the poet's literary experiments.[32] His lack of heroic stature seems quite appropriate to the melancholy world Apollonius depicts. In this world, people are alienated from each other and from their environment, as symbolized by the Libyan desert, where the Argonauts scatter so as to die privately: "effort no longer has the power to transform, and weakness is as influential as strength."[33] For many readers, the strangely unheroic quality of the poem is only redeemed by the romance between Jason and Medea in Book 3,[34] and even the history of scholarship on Apollonius has had its focus there.[35][36] Sensitive descriptions of heterosexual love first emerge in Western literature during the Hellenistic period[37] and Argonautica was innovative in making it an epic topic.[38] Characters without character[edit] Medea is generally agreed to be the most interesting and lifelike character in the poem yet even she may be considered unconvincing in some respects. Her role as a romantic heroine seems at odds with her role as a sorceress. These contradictory roles were embedded in the traditional accounts that Apollonius inherited. On the other hand, Apollonius emphasizes the technical aspect of her magical powers, such as her mastery of drugs, a touch of realism that may seem to downplay her role as a sorceress.[39] Unconvincing characterization may also be explained as a comic effect. Heracles can be seen as something of a buffoon. His homosexual or pederastic relationship with Hylas is covered only obliquely and even then in a humorous way, as if to set the stage for the more serious relationship between the hero and heroine.[40] The entire crew of the Argo acquires comic significance whenever fantastic or 'fairy-tale' elements are incorporated into the epic plot, such as the encounters with the Clashing Rocks, The Wandering Rocks, the Argo's voyage overland etc. They appear comic precisely because these fairy-tale elements are in contrast to the Argonauts' unheroic stature, as people like you and me. The gods in particular are characterized by Alexandrian realism. Homer's gods also are more like people than divinities but Apollonius provides them with a liveliness, an orderliness and a degree of banality that evoke domesticity in Alexandrian high society. Much of the poem's irony and charm in fact lies in the conflation of these different worlds.[41] Characters have symbolic roles to fulfill. Though Heracles is abandoned at the end of Book 1, he continues to haunt the narrative as a background figure, glimpsed in the distance and reported as an active presence, thus symbolizing the way traditional epic offers the poem a literary background. As one scholar recently observed: "This is just the way in which old epic with its generic conventions and its ideology is present in the Argonautica: dimly visible...but still present."[42] Characters also function as the poet's alter ego. Homer in the Odyssey also uses the device, through the singers Demodocus and Phemius. In Argonautica, the role is performed by the doomed seers Mopsus and Idmon, and especially the singer Orpheus. Whereas the companions of Homer's Odysseus pass the Sirens in safety by stuffing their ears with wax, the Argonauts are saved from the Sirens by the music that Orpheus plays to drown them out. Two types of song are represented here, one from the Homeric world, voiced through the Sirens, and the other from the world of Ptolemaic Alexandria, through the identification Orpheus=Apollonius. The contest symbolizes the updating of epic.[43] Apollonius takes the symbolic role of characters further than Homer. The seers Idmon and Mopsus, able to interpret signs, might also be understood to represent the ideal audience, able to interpret symbols. Other characters however can also fulfill this role, such as Peleus, who successfully interprets Jason's encounter with the Libyan nymphs, thus leading to the Argo being carried across the desert. By this means the audience is encouraged to interpret the poet's own complex meanings – 'heroes' like Peleus are people just like us and their powers of insight are ours too.[44] Episodic epic[edit] Some of the episodic quality of Argonautica can be put down to its genre, as a voyage narrative. Homer's Odyssey also features some disunity, as a set of adventures, with surprising discoveries waiting around every headland. Thus Longinus contrasted the Odyssey unfavourably with the Iliad: in the former, he thought the mythical element predominates over the action, whereas he thought the Iliad gains dramatic tension through the development of a single, great contest.[45] Voyage narratives don't fit in well with Aristotelian notions of dramatic unity, or, as one modern scholar recently put it: "It is precisely this inherent inconsequentiality, the episodic partition imposed by the very nature of travel, which can be seen at the heart of the Western tradition of romance, as opposed to the harsh teleologies of epic."[46] Argonautica however goes beyond Homer's Odyssey in its fragmentation of the action. Apollonius seems to have rejected the Aristotelian concept of unity, since numerous aitia interrupt the story with 'flashbacks' to myths predating the Argonaut story, and with 'fast-forwards' to customs in the poet's own time. The narrator's choice of material is thus of immediate interest to the reader, since it interrupts the action, unlike the traditional method of Homer, where the poet keeps a low profile.[47] One of Homer's virtues as a narrator, from Aristotle's point of view, was in letting characters do much of the talking.[nb 10] The dominant presence in Argonautica is the poet himself – 71% of the verses are spoken by him, rather than by his characters, whereas only 55% of the Iliad and 33% of the Odyssey are in Homer's own voice.[48] Some of the episodic quality comes also from the poet's literary eclecticism. For instance, the role of the Argo in the Greek settlement of northern Africa was a common topic of Greek literature. Pindar, a poetic model for Apollonius and Callimachus, composed three odes for the ruling elite of Cyrene, including Pythian 4, where he mentions the clod of earth that Euphemus received from Triton and which became the island Thera, the mother city of Cyrene. The historian Herodotus mentioned the tripod that Triton received, a pledge of Libya's future colonization by descendants of the Argonauts (Herodotus 4.179). Both these accounts found their way into Argonautica. Paradoxically, this highly episodic poem, fragmented in time and with events unfolding in a changing landscape, can yet be thought to have more unity than any other epic. Its unity comes from its location within the milieu of Ptolemaic Alexandria.[49] Occupying the eastern corner of Libya, Alexandria was founded only about sixty years before Apollonius wrote his epic and it comprised, in addition to native Egyptians, a large share of the Greek diaspora, about half of whom came via the Greek colony of Cyrene. The Ptolemaic setting makes sense of many of the poet's enigmatic choices. Thus for example the final cluster of aitia is not an arbitrary addition but neatly associates the story's end with the beginning of Greek settlement in Egypt. The island of Thera was the mother city of Cyrene and symbolized Greek settlement of Libya. Aegina was once home to the Argonauts Peleus and Telamon, exiled thence for murdering their brother, thus symbolizing the Greek diaspora. The island of Anaphe is where the Aitia of Callimachus begins with a tale of the Argonauts, and his final aition is in Alexandria, so that Argonautica's progression from Iolcus to Anaphe becomes part of a cycle: "Taken together these two poems de facto complete the prophecy that begins in a mythic past."[50] Any apparent weaknesses in characterization can also be explained in the Ptolemaic setting – the story isn't really about Jason or about any of the Argonauts, as individuals, but about their historic role in establishing a Greek destiny in Libya.[51] Argonautica's original audience of ethnic Greeks would have glimpsed their own migrant history in the motley Greek crew of the Argo, and similarly Hellenized Egyptians would have glimpsed themselves in the Colchian diaspora depicted in Book 4. According to Herodotus, Colchis was colonized by Egyptians (see details in Itinerary). In that case, the Colchian fleets that settle in and around Greece may be thought to prefigure the Greek colonization of Egypt.[52] Apollonius conflates Greek and Egyptian mythology. Islands symbolized creation in the Egyptian scheme of things, being associated with the ground emerging from the Nile floods. Thera and Anaphe, as emergent islands, are recreations of the myth. Egyptians considered Libya's western desert to be the land of the dead. The Sun, who traversed the sky in a boat during the day, returned at night in the same boat via the underworld, a cycle associated with cosmic life and death. The stranding of the Argonauts on the Libyan coast, their carrying of Argo across the desert and the deaths there of Mopsus and Canthus give a Greek perspective to this Egyptian symbolism, with the Golden Fleece figuring as a solar emblem. Thus the action of the Argonautica can seem highly organized, as an attempt to soften the boundaries between Alexandria's indigenous ethnic population and its immigrant Greeks, by means of a shared mythology and world-view.[53] Other issues[edit] Though critics have concentrated on Homeric echoes in Argonautica, direct borrowings from tragedy, such as Euripides' Medea, can be found.[54] Argonautica is often placed in a literary tradition that leads to the Ancient Greek novel.[nb 11] Apollonius chooses the less shocking versions of some myths, having Medea, for example, merely watch the murder of Absyrtus instead of murdering him herself. The gods are relatively distant and inactive throughout much of the epic, following the Hellenistic trend to allegorize and rationalize religion. The poetry[edit] For a discussion of poetic style and technique in Argonautica see Apollonius of Rhodes#Poetic style Information charts[edit] The Argonauts[edit] The Argonauts are listed here in the order in which they are catalogued in lines 1–227 of Book 1.[nb 12] Argonauts Name Characteristics Actions Mentions by name: [book] & line no. Jason Father Aeson, mother Alcimede As indicated by the page numbers, he becomes a more influential hero in the second half of the poem (books 3 and 4). He is often referred to only as 'Son of Aeson'. [1] 8, 206, 232, 349, 409, 534, 1330; [2] 122, 211, 491, 871, 1158, 1281; [3] 2, 28, 66, 143, 357, 439, 474, 566, 922, 1147, 1194, 1246, 1363; [4] 63, 79, 107, 165, 170, 352, 393, 454, 489, 1083, 1122, 1152, 1331, 1701 "Son of Aeson": [1] 33, 46, 123, 228, 407, 436, 460, 463, 494, 854, 887, 1032, 1084, 1092, 1133, 1288, 1332; [2] 437, 444, 615, 762, 1178, 1271; [3] 58, 60, 86, 169, 194, 282, 288, 318, 385, 475, 491, 509, 542, 574, 752, 913, 941, 961, 973, 1017, 1142, 1163, 1214, 1221, 1262, 1278; [4] 73, 92, 114, 149, 187, 253, 355, 427, 464, 477, 530, 688, 785, 1012, 1087, 1116, 1162, 1313, 1528, 1593, 1664, 1747, 1755 Orpheus Son of Oeagrus and Calliope, born at Pimpleia in Thessalian Pieria, home of the Muses, he is the ruler of Bistonian (Thracian) Pieria He encourages the crew with his music and he establishes musical rites for cults they establish along the way, as at Bear Mountain and Thynias Island [1] 23, 32, 494, 540, 915, 1134; [2] 161, 685, 928; [4] 905, 1159, 1409, 1547 Asterion Son of Cometes, from Thessalian Peiresia, near the junction of rivers Apidanus and Enipeus [1] 35 Polyphemus From Thessalian Larissa, son of Eilatus, he once fought for the Lapiths against the Centaurs and is now "heavy" with age but still warlike. He is left behind with Heracles at the river Cius (end of Book I), and he is destined to establish a city there (Cius), before dying in the land of the Chalybes. [1] 40, 1241, 1347; [4] 1470 Iphiclus Jason's maternal uncle [1] 45, 121 Admetus Ruler of Thessalian Pherae [1] 49 Erytus Son of Hermes, from Thessalian Alope, skilled in trickery; his mother was Antianeira, the daughter of Menetes [1] 52 Echion Brother of Erytus and skilled in trickery [1] 52 Aethalides Thessalian half-brother of the above two, father Hermes, mother was Eupolemeia, daughter of Myrmidon. He acts as a herald thanks to his "imperishable memory', serving for example as a messenger between the Argonauts and the women of Lemnos. [1] 54, 641; [3] 1175 Coronus Son of Caeneus, from Thessalian Gyrton, a brave man; his father was buried alive by the Centaurs, who were unable to kill him in battle. [1] 57 Mopsus Apollo's son, skilled in the augury of birds, from Thessalian Titaresia. He is an advisor to Jason. He dies from snake bite in Libya [1] 65, 80, 1083, 1106; [2] 923; [3] 543, 916, 938; [4] 1502, 1518 Eurydamas Son of Ctimenus, from Thessalian Ctimene near lake Xynias [1] 67 Menoetius From Locrian Opus, son of Actor [1] 69 Eurytion Son of Irus, his grandfather is Actor, from Opus [1] 71 Eribotes Son of Teleon, from Opus [1] 71, 73; [2] 1039 Oïleus Unrivalled for courage, skilled in battle, from Opus He is wounded by a feather when a bird swoops the Argo off the island of Ares, causing him to drop his oar. [1] 74; [2] 1037 Canthus Son of Canethus, his grandfather is Abas, from Euboea He dies in Libya, killed by a shepherd while trying to steal his sheep (the shepherd, Caphaurus, is a grandson of Apollo). [1] 77; [4] 1467, 1485, 1497 Clytius Son of the archer Eurytus, from Thessalian Oechalia In battle, he kills one of the Doliones and later one of the Bebrycians, then shoots down a bird at Ares Island. [1] 86, 1044; [2] 117, 1043 Iphitus Brother of Clytius [1] 86; [2] 115 Telamon Son of Aeacus, originally from Aegina, settled on Salamis He angrily accuses Jason of treachery at the end of Book 1 but Glaucus reconciles them, and he nearly threatens the Colchian king but Jason prevents it with a conciliatory speech. [1] 93, 1043, 1289, 1330; [3] 196, 363, 440, 515, 1174 Peleus Brother of Telamon, from Phthia, he is father of the infant Achilles One of Jason's counselors. He rallies the Argonauts with brave advice when Tiphys dies and later when they are daunted by lurid descriptions of Colchis, and he receives instructions from the goddess Hera via his wife Thetis. [1] 94, 558, 1042; [2] 829, 868, 1217; [3] 504; [4] 494, 816, 853, 880, 1368 Butes An Athenian, son of Teleon He is left behind when lured from the ship by the Sirens. Aphrodite saves him and settles him in Sicily. [1] 95; [4] 914 Phalerus Another Athenian, his father is Alcoon, who sent him on the voyage though he had no other sons to care for him in old age [1] 96 Tiphys Son of Hagnias, from Thespian Siphae (Boeotia), navigator skilled in reading the sea, weather and stars, sent on the voyage by Athena His skill, with Athena's assistance, gets the Argo through the clashing rocks. He dies of illness soon afterwards and he is buried beside Idmon. [1] 105, 381, 401, 522, 561, 956, 1274, 1296; [2] 175, 557, 574, 584, 610, 622, 854 Phlias Son of Dionysus from Araethyraea, near the springs of Boeotian Asopus [1] 115 Talaus Son of Bias and Pero, from Argos [1] 118; [2] 63, 111 Areius Brother of Talaus [1] 118 Leodocus Half-brother of the previous two, by their mother, Pero [1] 119 Heracles Son of Zeus and Alcmene Separated from the other Argonauts at the end of Book I, even before they reach Colchis. This is by the will of the gods, so he can complete the Twelve Labours that will secure his immortality (1.1315–20) [1] 122, 197, 341, 349, 397, 426, 631, 855, 864, 993, 997, 1040, 1163, 1242, 1253, 1291, 1303, 1316; [2] 146, 767, 772, 793, 913, 957, 967, 1052; [3] 1233; [4] 538, 1400, 1459, 1469, 1477 Hylas Squire to Heracles. Abducted by a water nymph to be her husband, causing Heracles to separate from the voyage. [1] 131, 1207, 1258, 1324, 1350, 1354 Nauplius Son of Clytonaeus from Argos, descended from another Nauplius who was sired by Poseidon upon Danaus's daughter Amymone [1] 134; [2] 896 Idmon Son of Apollo, fostered by Abas in Argos, skilled in omens from birds and burnt offerings; joined the voyage though he knew it would be his death He is killed by a wild boar at a mouth of the Acheron [1] 139, 436, 449, 475; [2] 816, 850 Polydeuces son of Zeus and Leda, fostered by Tyndareus, from Sparta In battle, he kills one of the Doliones, and the bullying king of the Bebrycians in a boxing match, which wins the Argonauts friends among neighbouring people [1] 146; [2] 20, 100, 756; [4] 588 Castor Half-brother of Polydeuces, son of Leda and Tyndareus In battle, he kills one of the Doliones and a Bebrycian [1] 147; [2] 62; [4] 589 He and Polydeukes are often mentioned as Tyndaridae: [1] 148, 1045; [2] 30, 41, 74, 798, 806; [3] 517, 1315; [4] 592 Lynceus Son of Aphareus, from Arene, he has miraculous powers of eyesight He observes Heracles in the distance in the Libyan desert – too far away to be reached. [1] 151, 153; [4] 1466, 1478 Idas Brother of Lynceus A critic of Jason even before they leave Iolcus. In battle, he kills one of the Doliones and he slays the wild boar that killed Idmon. [1] 151, 462, 470, 485, 1044; [2] 830; [3] 516, 556, 1170, 1252 Periclymenus Son of Neleus from Pylos; he could assume any form he chose when in battle [1] 156 Amphidamas Son of Aleus, from Arcadian Tegea He comes up with the strategy that defeats the birds at Ares Island [1] 161; [2] 1046 Cepheus King of Tegea and brother of Amphidamas [1] 161 Ancaeus Nephew of the previous two, sent on the voyage by his father Lycurgus, who stayed behind to look after the aged Aleus The Argonauts choose him to row alongside Heracles in the middle of the ship [1] 164, 398, 426, 429, 531; [2] 118 Augeas From Elis, a son of Helius The Colchian king is his half-brother via the sun god, so Jason uses him there as an Argonaut ambassador [1] 172; [3] 197, 363, 440 Asterius Son of Hyperasius, from Achaean Pellene [1] 176 Amphion Brother of Asterius [1] 176 Euphemus From Taenarus, sired by Poseidon on Europa; he is the fastest of all runners He manages the dove that signals to the Argonauts to charge the Clashing Rocks, and he urges them onwards with rallying calls. He accepts a clod of earth from Triton that is destined to become the island of Calliste (Thera), whence Libya would be settled by his descendants. [1] 179; [2] 536, 556, 562, 588, 896; [4] 1466, 1483, 1563, 1732, 1756, 1758, 1764 Erginus Son of Poseidon from Miletus [1] 187; [2] 896 Ancaeus 2 Son of Poseidon from Parthenia (Samos) He becomes the pilot when Tiphys dies. [1] 188; [2] 865, 898, 1276; [4] 210, 1260 Meleager Son of Oeneus, from Calydon (Aetolia); [1] 191; sometimes called Oeneides: [1] 190, 192, 193 1046; [3] 518 Laocoon Half-brother of Oeneus, mother a servant girl; sent by Oeneus as mentor to Meleager [1] 191, 192 Iphiclus 2 Maternal uncle of Meleager, son of Thestius, expert in warfare [1] 201 Palaimonius Son of Hephaestus and foster son of Lernus, crippled in both feet like his father but strong and dauntless [1] 202 Iphitus 2 Son of Naubolus, from Phocis; he once hosted Jason when he went to Pytho to ask the oracle about the voyage [1] 207 Zetes Son of the wind god Boreas by Oreithyia, from Thrace; he has wings at his ankles and temples He chases away the harpies [1] 211; [2] 243, 282, 430 Calais Brother of Zetes, winged likewise He chases away the harpies [1] 211; [2] 282 Acastus Son of the wicked Thessalian king Pelias, Jason's taskmaster He kills one of the Doliones [1] 224, 321, 1041, 1082 Argus Son of Arestor, he is Athena's helper in building the Argo; he is mentioned at the start of the crew list (19), in the middle (111) and at the end (226) He carves an image of the mother goddess for her cult at Cyzicus/Bear Mountain. Not mentioned in the second half of the poem, where 'Argus' signifies the eldest son of Phrixus (below) [1] 19, 111, 226, 321, 325, 367, 912, 1119; [2] 613, 1188 The Argonauts are joined by others during the voyage: Dascylus, son of the Mariandylian king Lycus (he leaves the ship again at Sinope on the return journey from Colchis). Argus, Cytissorus, Phrontis and Mela: the four sons of Phrixus, grandsons of the Colchian king. Deileon, Autolycus and Phlogius: three sons of the Thessalian, Deimachus, and formerly comrades of Hercules stranded at Sinope ever since their campaign against the Amazons. Medea Twelve female attendants for Medea, a gift from Arete, queen of Phaeacian Drepane Itinerary[edit] Here follows a list of places where the narrative states or implies that Argo came to shore. Time is here seen from the perspective of the poet – the time at which Apollonius wrote is governed by the present tense and by qualifiers like "now" and "to this day", the mythical action of the poem is governed by the past tense, whereas our own time is denoted 'modern'. Itinerary Places Comments Aitia and foundation myths Iolcus Home of Jason, its harbour Pagasae was starting point for the voyage. Magnesia Their first landfall, near the "tomb of Dolops" (a son of Hermes). They were kept there by adverse winds for two days.[55] The beach is named "Argo's Aphetae" (Argo's Launching), commemorating their departure on the third day (1.592) Lemnos Their next landfall after two days without stop. The Lemian women once murdered all males on the island, except their king Thoas, who was cast adrift in a wooden chest. He came ashore at an island named after the nymph Oenoe but now (and also in modern times) it is called Sicinus after the son she bore Thoas (1.620-26) Samothrace (Island of Electra) They arrived the same day they left Lemnos, on the advice of Orpheus, since there were secret rites here that could protect sailors. Apollonius piously refuses to describe the sacred rites of the Cabiri (1.919–21). Cyzicus Peninsula (Bear Mountain) Next port of call after passing through the Hellespont at night. Apollonius refers to the Hellespont as "Athamas' daughter" (1.927), an allusion to its well-known mythical association with Helle and the Golden Fleece. Jason's long stay at Cyzicus accounts for multiple aetia. One of the Argo's anchor stones is at a temple of 'Athena, Jason's Helper' (1.955-60), and a shoreline stone that the ship was once tied to is now known as 'Sacred Rock' (1.1018–20) A path up the local mountain Dindymum is named 'Jason's Way' because he once passed that way (1.988). The local Doliones still commemorate their countrymen who died in the accidental fight with the Argonauts (1.1047–48) and the tomb of their slain king is still visible (1.1061–62). His bride's suicide caused the wood nymphs to shed tears that became the eponymous spring 'Cleite' (1.1065–69) and the locals still commemorate those sad events by grinding their grain at the public mill every anniversary, as if they are too grief-stricken to grind it themselves (1.1075–77). The cult of the Mother Goddess (Rhea/Cybele) was established there by Jason and thus a spring that miraculously appeared at that time is called 'Jason's Spring' (1.1146–48). A musical rite was initiated by Orpheus and it is still associated with the cult(1.1134–39). Cius River They arrived the same day they left Bear Mountain. Heracles took child-hostages so that their relatives would help him search for Hylas and he later settled them at Trachis. Polyphemus founded a city now named after the river (1.1345–47). The inhabitants of Cius to this day "ask after Hylas" and they still maintain close relations with Trachis (1.1354–57). Gulf of Olbia Their next stop brought them to the land of the Bebrycians, where Polydeuces killed the king in a boxing match Thynian coast They arrived after a wave almost wiped them out near the Bosphorus. They rescued Phineus from the harpies and they were then detained here for some days by the Etesian winds. The sons of Boreas overtook the harpies far to the west at the Floating Islands but Iris turned them back, not permitting the harpies to be killed. Thus the islands are now called the Turning Islands (Greek: Στροφάδες, romanized: Strofades). In a digression, the poet also explains the origin of the Etesian winds, associated with the myth of Aristaeus and some sacrificial rites still practised on the island of Ceos Thynias Their landfall after passing the Clashing Rocks. They saw Apollo passing northwards to visit the Hyperboreans and they honoured him with a paean.[nb 13] They then swore to help each other ever after. The Clashing Rocks stopped moving once the Argonauts passed through and they are still fixed in their place. The island Thynias is now called "The Sacred Island of Apollo Heoïus" (Apollo of the Dawn) and a shrine of Concord can be found there to this very day. In a digression, the poet tells us how the paean sung here originated with the Corycian nymphs. Acherusian headland Argo moored in the harbour here after a day and night sailing from Thynias. Here Idmon was subsequently killed by a wild boar and Tiphys perished by illness. The king of the native Mariandynians, Lycus, received the Argonauts hospitably, happy in the death of the Bebrycian king at the hands of Polydeukes, and he said he would build a shrine on top of the headland, visible to sailors far away, in honour of Polydeukes and his brother. The tombs of Idmon and Tiphys are visible today. Later settlers from Boetia and Megara were instructed by Apollo to honour Idmon as their city guardian but today instead they honour Agamestor[nb 14] Tomb of Sthenelus The Argonauts come ashore here when Sthenelus (son of Actor) appeared to them on his tomb. They offered him libations and set up an altar to Apollo the Ship Preserver. Orpheus dedicated his lyre to the god and the place is now called Lyra. Sinope Here they meet three companions of Heracles stranded after his expedition against the Amazons In a digression, the poet tells the story of Sinope, the nymph settled here by Zeus. Thermodon River The harbour of the Amazons. Argonauts depart before the women can assemble for battle Ares Island Island sacred to Amazons, infested with hostile birds Approaching the island, they pass the Mossynoeci, and the poet tells us in a digression that these people are named after their wooden towers ("mossynes") Colchis Scene of the entire Book 3 In a digression, the poet links the field of Ares in Colchis with the foundation of Thebes by Cadmus: Athena shared the dragon's teeth between Cadmus and Aetes. The main city, Aea, is said to be one of many cities that were founded in Europe and Asia by Egyptian forces. Modern scholars connect this account with one by Herodotus (Histories 2.102–106)), identifying the Egyptian leader as the legendary king Sesostris.[nb 15] Halys River The Argonauts arrived here on the third morning after fleeing Colchis. They built a sanctuary to Hecate, still visible, where Medea practised sacrificial rites that the poet dares not reveal. Narex The northern end of a "three-cornered island" (Danube Delta), which allowed the Argonauts to sail up the Ister or Danube behind their pursuers, who had entered at the southern end. Brygean Islands[nb 16] The Argonauts and Colchians reached the Adriatic Sea by a fabled branch of the Ister River. Jason and Medea murdered her brother Apsyrtus on one of the Brygean Islands. His Colchian followers later settled around the Adriatic and their descendants still remain there, including the 'Apsyrtians' on the Brygean Islands. Other Colchians settled in Illyria (near the tombs of Cadmus and Harmonia, modern day Pola)[56] and the Ceraunian Mountains. Electris Island An island near the mouth of the Eridanus. Its exact location is unknown to modern scholars. Herodotus (3.115) and Strabo (5.1.9) considered it imaginary. The Argonauts hid out here while the leaderless Colchian fleet disbanded, following the death of Apsyrtus. Hyllus A city on the Dalmatian coast. Its exact location is unknown to modern scholars but somewhere near modern Šibenik. It is home of the Hylleans, who proved friendly to the Argonauts after the death of Apsyrtus. In gratitude for their kindness, Jason endowed the Hylleans with a tripod, originally a gift to him from Apollo, which protects their country against invaders to this very day. They buried it for safe-keeping deep under the city of Hyllus, where it still lies hidden. The city, country and people took their name from Hyllus, a son of Heracles and the water nymph Melite. Eridanus A fabulous river, often identified with the Po. The Argo was driven back north into this river by a storm. The storm was sent by Hera to forestall a worse fate planned by Zeus as punishment for the murder of Apsyrtus. Apollonius assumes that the Eridanus joins with the Rhine and Rhone, allowing the Argo to enter either the Ligurian Sea or North Sea. The "innermost stream" (μύχατον ῥόον) of this river spews noxious steam, where Phaethon once crashed to earth. The Heliades, his sisters, mourn for him in the form of poplar trees, their tears the amber drops that are found in the river. However, Apollonius also mentions a local Celtic legend, according to which these are tears that Apollo shed for his dead son Asclepius. Hyeres Islands ('Stoechades' or 'Ligystian' Islands)[nb 17] After entering the Ligurian Sea via the Rhone, the Argo arrived safely at these islands thanks mainly to the prayers of Castor and Pollux. Altars and rites in honour of Castor and Pollux were established here forever, as they were not only guardians of this voyage but continue protectors of sailors to this day. Elba ('Aethalia') Argo's next stop after the Stoechades. Here the Argonauts wiped their sweaty hands on pebbles on a beach and they played discus with large stones. The pebbles are flesh-coloured today, the discus stones are still visible, as are other signs of the visit. The place where they rested is now named Argo Harbour. Aeaea (Mount Circeo?) The island home of Circe, whose magic released Jason and Medea from the consequences of her brother's murder. The island was populated by biological monstrosities, each sporting a strange assortment of limbs. Such creatures were common in the early history of the earth, before the physical elements had attained their present level of organization (Apollonius's 'science' owes much to pre-Socratic philosophers such as Anaximander and Empedocles)[57] Eryx A domain of Aphrodite. The Athenian Argonaut Butes fell overboard in a rapture while the Argo was sailing past the island home of the Sirens, Anthemoessa. Aphrodite rescued him and carried him to Eryx, settling him on Cape Lilybaeum (not far from Drepana or modern Trapani). The other Argonauts sailed on without him, facing even greater perils ahead: Scylla, Charybdis and the Wandering Rocks. Apollonius doesn't state the aition underlying his account: there is a sanctuary of Aphrodite and Butes at the western tip of Sicily. Corfu ('Drepane') The Argonauts were trapped on this island, off the west coast of Greece, by the second Colchian fleet. The Colchians demanded that Medea be surrendered to them but Alcinous, the virtuous king of the native Phaeacians, refused to comply once he learned that she and Jason were husband and wife. They were married on the island in a cave that was once a refuge to Macris, the nurse of Dionysus. The island is named Drepane (Δρεπάνη), the word for 'sickle', because it rests on the sickle that Cronus used to castrate his father Uranus, from whose blood the Phaeacians sprang. Apollonius also offers an alternative account: the island rests on a scythe (ἅρπη) belonging to Demeter, who taught the Titans how to reap grain, which she did as a memorial to Macris. The cave where Jason and Medea were married is now called Medea's Cave. Altars that Medea set up in a local temple of Apollo still receive annual sacrifices to the nymphs who attended her wedding, and to the Fates (associated with births and marriages). As with the first Colchian fleet, the second dispersed rather than return home empty-handed. They lived for a long time on the island among the Phaeacians, later migrating to the Ceraunian Mountains and Oricum. Libya The Argo was beached in the notorious shallows of the Syrtis (Gulf of Sidra) after a north wind swept them from Greek waters. The Argonauts here resigned themselves to death until three nymphs, the guardians of Libya, appeared, advising them to carry the Argo overland. Arriving thus at 'Lake Triton', they encountered the Hesperides, whose garden had been ravaged by Heracles just the day before. Canthus, one of the Argonauts, is subsequently killed by the son of Garamas, a native shepherd and son of Apollo. Another Argonaut, Mopsus, dies from snake bite. A third, Euphemus, receives directions and a clod of earth from Triton. The Garamantes, a Libyan pastoral tribe, are descended from Garamas (though this is not explicitly stated by Apollonius). The snake that killed Mopsus was descended from the blood of the Gorgon's head that dripped onto the soil when Perseus once flew past. The clod of earth, once dropped into the sea, would become the island Calliste (Thera), from where Greek migrants would one day colonize Libya. The harbour in Lake Triton, where Argo rested before entering the sea, is called Argo Harbour and signs of the visit are still visible there to this day. Crete Next stop after Libya was the rugged island of Carpathus, from which it was a short trip to Dicte in Crete (not the mountain of that name, but a haven probably in the north eastern corner of the island).[58] The bronze giant Talos attempted to stop them landing by throwing boulders from a cliff, until Medea put the evil eye on him, causing him to gash open his ankle, whereby he bled to death. The Argonauts built a shrine here to 'Minoan Athena'. Anafi (Anaphe) Leaving Crete, the Argonauts were soon trapped in a starless night, a terror to sailors, called the shroud. Jason prayed for help and then Apollo, brandishing his brilliant bow (in the manner of a modern lighthouse), revealed a tiny island, where they took refuge. The island was too rocky and bare to offer victims for a sacrifice of thanksgiving so the Argonauts libated by pouring water on naked flames, which made the Phaeacian women laugh The island was named Anaphe ever after ("because Phoebus made it appear to them":[59] Ἀνάφη is here derived from the aorist for make appear). To this day, women on Anaphe taunt their menfolk whenever offerings are made to Apollo Aegina Arriving here from Anaphe, the Argonauts began fetching water to their ship. Hurrying to make the most of a good sailing breeze, they made the task into a friendly race. To this day, there is a race on the island, in which men carry full amphorae on their shoulders. The narrative ends here, within a day's voyage of Iolcus Notes[edit] ^ The issues are identified by R. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, 4–19 ^ The survey was by S. Valverde (1989), El aition en las 'Argonáuticas' de Apolonio de Rodas: estudio literario, Diss. Murcia, cited by A. Köhnken, Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius Rhodius,, 79 ^ Fränkel H. (1957), "Das Argonautenepos des Apollonios", MH 14, 1–19; and (1960), "Ein Don Quijote unter den Argonauten des Apollonios", MH 17, 1–20). (The two articles are cited by R. Glei, Outline of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999, 6) ^ Van Krevelen D. A. (1956), "Bemerkungen zur Charakteristik der in den 'Argonautica' des Apollonios auftretenden Personen", RhM 99, 3–8 (the article is cited by R. Glei, Outline of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999) ^ Only Hypsipyl'e father was spared, cast adrift in a wooden chest ^ The mother of the gods, Rhea, is associated with Cybele, the rites being established on a Cyzicus mountain, Dindymum (not to be confused with Dindymon in central Phrygia) – W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 91 ^ The correct route is shown, for example, by W.H.Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, maps section. ^ In Greek, the imitation is especially notable: καὶ τὰ μὲν ὣσ ἤμελλε μετὰ χρόνον ἐκτελέεσθαι, where ἤμελλε is an un-Homeric word used by Apollonius only here, in contrast to the Homeric ἔμελλε, which he uses ten times – A. Köhnken, Theocritus, Callimachus and Apollonius Rhodius, 77 ^ Carspecken, "Apollonius Rhodius and the Homeric epic", ''Yale Classical Studies 13 (1952:101) finds the heroism instead in the group, the Argonauts. ^ Homer especially deserves praise as the only epic poet to realize what the epic poet should do in his own person, that is, say as little as possible, since it is not in virtue of speaking in his own person that he is a maker of mimesis – Aristotle, Poetics 1460a5-11 ^ Charles R. Beye, in emphasising the internal life of the protagonist observes, "We have reached, in effect, the beginnings of the novel." (Beye, Epic and Romance in the Argonautica of Apollonius [University of Southern Illinois Press] 1982:24). ^ Argonaut list and information adapted from W. Race's Apollonius Rhodius:Argonautica, lines 1.23-227 and index ^ The refrain of the paean is "Hail to the Healing God, hail to the Healing God Phoebus", for which see Homeric Hymn to Apollo 517 – cited by W.H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 168 ^ Boeotians and Megarians founded the city Heraclea (Pontica) in the sixth century. Agamestor was a local hero – see for example Pausanias 5.26.7 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 351, note 31 ^ The 'Brygean Islands' are located in the Kvarner Gulf by W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, maps section ^ For the identification of Hyeres Islands, see W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, note 71, page 373 Citations[edit] ^ Stephens, S. Ptolemaic Epic. pp. 96–8. ^ Newman, J.K. The Golden Fleece: Imperial Dream. pp. 413–44. ^ Bulloch, A.W. Hellenistic Poetry. pp. 588, 591. ^ Race, W.H. Apollonius Rhodius. p. xiv. ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 588–89 ^ M. Fusillo, Apollonius Rhodius as "Inventor", 163 ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, 1 ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 589 ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 588 ^ Dee Clayman, Timon of Phlius 2009 ISBN 3110220806 pp 187–200 ^ Based on the publication by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, in 1914, of the 2nd century C.E. papyrus, P.Oxy.X.1241, known as “the list of Alexandrian Librarians” ^ Jackie Murray, ANCHORED IN TIME: THE DATE IN APOLLONIUS’ ARGONAUTICA, in M.A. Harder e.o. (eds.) Hellenistic Poetry in Context (Leuven, 2014) ^ ARGONAUTAE mythindex.com ^ A. Rengakos, Apollonius Rhodius as a Homeric Scholar, p. 243–44 ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 589, 594 ^ M. Asper, Apollonius on Poetry, 184–8 ^ M. Fusillo, Apollonius Rhodius as "Inventor", 162 ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 586 ^ Aristotle, Poetics1459b19–22, or xxiv here ^ R. Hunter, The Poetics of Narrative in the "Argonautica", 133 ^ A. Köhnken, Theocritus, Callimachus and Apollonius Rhodius, 77 ^ M. A. Harder, Aspects of the Structure of Callimachus' Aetia, 108 f. ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, 5 ^ R. L. Hunter, "'Short on heroics': Jason in the Argonautica", The Classical Quarterly New Series 38 (1988:436–53). ^ M. M. DeForest, Apollonius' "Argonautica": A Callimachean Epic, cited by R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, 11 ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, p. 5 ^ A. Rose, Three Narrative Themes in Apollonius' Bebrycian Episode (Argonautica 2.1–163) ^ E. R. Schwinge, Künstlichkeit von Kunst. Zur Geschichtlichkeit der alexandrinischen Poesie (cited by R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, p. 9 ^ F. Vian, ΙΗΣΩΝ ΜΗΧΑΝΕΩΝ, 1025–41, cited by R. Glei, Outlines of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999, 7–8 ^ G. K. Galinsky, The Heracles Theme ^ S. A. Natzel, Frauen in den Argonautika des Apollonios Rhodios, cited by R. Glei, Outlines of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999, 10 ^ R. Hunter, Short on Heroics: Jason in the "Argonautica" ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 596-7 ^ A. W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 598 ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, 2 ^ A recent examination of Argonautica is R. J. Clare, The Path of the Argo: Language, Imagery and Narrative in the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. ^ B. Hughes Fowler, Hellenistic Poetry: An Anthology, xiv ^ M. Asper, Apollonius on Poetry, 177 ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, p. 14-15 ^ C. R. Beye, Epic and Romance in the 'Argonautica' of Apollonius, 95-6 ^ R. F. Glei, Outlines of Apollonian Scholarship 1955–1999, p. 13-15 ^ M. Asper, Apollonius on Poetry, p. 186 ^ M. Asper, Apollonius on Poetry, p. 174-77 ^ M. Asper, Apollonius on Poetry, p. 175 ^ Longinus, De subl. 9.13 ^ R. Hunter, The Poetics of Narrative in the Argonautica, 140-41 ^ R. Glei, Outlines of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999, 17–18 ^ R. Hunter, The Poetics of Narrative in the Argonautica, p. 141 ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, p. 96 ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, p. 103 ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, 99 ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, passim ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, 105-9 ^ Virginia Knight, "Apollonius, Argonautica 4.167-70 and Euripides' Medea" The Classical Quarterly New Series, 41.1 (1991:248–250). ^ W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, page 51 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 370-71, note 60 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, p. 385 n.96, 97 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, p. 461 note 185 ^ Argonautica 4.1717–18 References[edit] Asper, Markus (2011), "Apollonius on Poetry", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Beye, Charles R. (1982), Epic and Romance in the 'Argonautica' of Apollonius, University of Southern Illinois Press Bulloch, A. W. (1985), "Hellenistic Poetry", in P. Easterling; B. Knox (eds.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press Carspecken (1952), "Apollonius and the Homeric Epic", Yale Classical Studies, 13 Fusillo, Massimo (2011), "Apollonius Rhodius as "Inventor"", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Galinsky, G. K. (1972), The Heracles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press Glei, Reinhold F. (2011), "Outlines of Apollinian Scholarship 1955–1999", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Graves, Robert (1944), The Golden Fleece, Cassel and Company Ltd. London, Toronto, Melbourne Harder, M. A. (1993), "Aspects of Structure of Callimachus' "Aetia"", in M. A. Harder; R. F. Regtuit; G. C. Wakker (eds.), Callimachus, Groningen Hughes Fowler, Barbara (1990), Hellenistic Poetry: An Anthology, University of Wisconsin Press Hunter, R. L., (1988), "'Short on heroics': Jason in the Argonautica", The Classical Quarterly New Series 38 (436–53). Hunter, Richard (2011), "The Poetics of Narrative in the 'Argonautica'", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Knight, Virginia (1991), "Apollonius, Argonautica 4.167-70 and Euripides' Medea" The Classical Quarterly New Series, 41.1 (248–250) Köhnken, Adolf (2011), "Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius Rhodius", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Newman, John Kevin (2011), "The Golden Fleece: Imperial Dream", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Pompella, Giuseppe (2004), Apollonii Rhodii Lexicon, Hildesheim & New York: Georg Olms Verlag Pompella, Giuseppe (2006), Apollonii Rhodii Argonautica. Lehrs translatione in Latinum addita, Hildesheim & New York: Olms-Weidmann Race, William H. (2008), Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, Loeb Classical Library Rengakos, Antonio (2011), "Apollonius Rhodius as a Homeric Scholar", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Rose, A. (1984), "Three Narrative Themes in Apollonius' Bebrycian Episode (Argonautica 2.1–163)", WS, 97 Schwinge, E. R. (1986), "Künstlichkeit von Kunst. Zur Geschichtlichkeit der alexandrinischen Poesis", Zetemata, 84, Munich Stephens, Susan (2011), "Ptolemaic Epic", in T. Papanghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Vian, F. (1978), "ΙΗΣΩΝ ΜΗΧΑΝΕΩΝ", in E. Livrea; G. Privitera (eds.), Studi in onore di Anthos Ardizzoni, Rome Further reading[edit] Editio princeps (Florence, 1496). Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854). Longinus (On the Sublime, p. 54, 19) Quintilian, (Instit, x. 1, 54) Aristotle, Poetics Seaton (1900). 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Peter Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), particularly Ch. 11 and 13. Giuseppe Pompella, Apollonii Rhodii Argonautica. Lehrs translatione in Latinum addita. Olms-Weidmann, Hildesheim & New York 2006. William G. Thalmann, Apollonius of Rhodes and the Spaces of Hellenism (Oxford University Press US, 2011: ISBN 0-19-973157-8). English translations (verse): Edward Burnaby Greene, The Argonautic Expedition (1780) Francis Fawkes, The Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius (1780) William Preston, The Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius (1803) Arthur S. Way, The Tale of the Argonauts (1901) John Gardner, Jason and Medeia (1973) Peter Green, The Argonautika by Apollonios Rhodios (1987) Rodney Merrill, The Argonautika (2012) English translations (prose): Edward Philip Coleridge, The Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius (1889) Available on Internet Archive Seaton, RC, The Argonautica (1912) E. V. Rieu, The Voyage of Argo (1959) Penguin Classics Edition Richard Hunter, Apollonius of Rhodes: Jason and the Golden Fleece (1992) External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Argonautica Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἀργοναυτικά Works by Apollonius of Rhodes at Project Gutenberg Leiden Apollonius bibliography "Space and Culture in an Ancient Epic", William G. Thalmann, Berfrois, 1 July 2011 "What is an argonaut?", and "Jason and the Argonauts: The Archetypal Adventure", an English prose adaptation. Stoll, Scott. 1999. 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en-wikipedia-org-6922	----	Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades - Wikipedia Help Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heroes who ventured to Hades. Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. H ► Heracles‎ (4 C, 24 P) O ► Orpheus‎ (1 C, 42 P) T ► Theseus‎ (3 C, 14 P) Pages in category "Heroes who ventured to Hades" The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Aeneas C Cupid and Psyche H Heracles O Odysseus Orpheus P Pirithous S Sisyphus T Theseus Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Heroes_who_ventured_to_Hades&oldid=857010618" Categories: Greek underworld Greek mythological heroes Hidden categories: Commons link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2018, at 23:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-6925	----	De rerum natura - Wikipedia De rerum natura From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from De Rerum Natura) Jump to navigation Jump to search "On the Nature of Things" redirects here. For the documentary television series, see The Nature of Things. For other works, see De natura rerum. De rerum natura  by Lucretius Opening of Pope Sixtus IV's 1483 manuscript of De rerum natura, scribed by Girolamo di Matteo de Tauris Written First-century BC Country Roman Republic Language Latin Subject(s) Epicureanism, ethics, physics, natural philosophy Genre(s) Didactic Meter Dactylic hexameter Media type manuscript Lines 7,400 Read online "De rerum natura" at Wikisource De rerum natura (Latin: [deː ˈreːrʊn naːˈtuːraː]; On the Nature of Things) is a first-century BC didactic poem by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius (c. 99 BC – c. 55 BC) with the goal of explaining Epicurean philosophy to a Roman audience. The poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through poetic language and metaphors.[1] Namely, Lucretius explores the principles of atomism; the nature of the mind and soul; explanations of sensation and thought; the development of the world and its phenomena; and explains a variety of celestial and terrestrial phenomena. The universe described in the poem operates according to these physical principles, guided by fortuna ("chance"),[2] and not the divine intervention of the traditional Roman deities. Contents 1 Background 2 Contents 2.1 Synopsis 2.2 Purpose 2.3 Completeness 3 Main ideas 3.1 Metaphysics 3.1.1 Lack of divine intervention 3.1.2 Repudiation of immortality 3.2 Physics 3.2.1 The swerve 4 Textual history 4.1 Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages 4.2 Rediscovery to the present 5 Reception 5.1 Classical antiquity 5.2 Late antiquity and the Middle Ages 5.3 Renaissance to the present 6 Editions 6.1 Translations 7 Notes 8 Work cited 9 External links Background[edit] De rerum natura was written by the Roman poet Lucretius. To the Greek philosopher Epicurus, the unhappiness and degradation of humans arose largely from the dread which they entertained of the power of the deities, from terror of their wrath. This wrath was supposed to be displayed by the misfortunes inflicted in this life and by the everlasting tortures that were the lot of the guilty in a future state (or, where these feelings were not strongly developed, from a vague dread of gloom and misery after death). Epicurus thus made it his mission to remove these fears, and thus to establish tranquility in the minds of his readers. To do this, Epicurus invoked the atomism of Democritus to demonstrate that the material universe was formed not by a Supreme Being, but by the mixing of elemental particles that had existed from all eternity governed by certain simple laws. He argued that the deities (whose existence he did not deny) lived forevermore in the enjoyment of absolute peace—strangers to all the passions, desires, and fears, which affect humans—and totally indifferent to the world and its inhabitants, unmoved alike by their virtues and their crimes. This meant that humans had nothing to fear from them. Lucretius's task was to clearly state and fully develop these views in an attractive form; his work was an attempt to show through poetry that everything in nature can be explained by natural laws, without the need for the intervention of divine beings.[3] Lucretius identifies the supernatural with the notion that the deities created our world or interfere with its operations in some way. He argues against fear of such deities by demonstrating, through observations and arguments, that the operations of the world can be accounted for in terms of natural phenomena. These phenomena are the result of regular, but purposeless motions and interactions of tiny atoms in empty space. Contents[edit] Play media Latin reading of De rerum natura by Lucretius Synopsis[edit] The poem consists of six untitled books, in dactylic hexameter. The first three books provide a fundamental account of being and nothingness, matter and space, the atoms and their movement, the infinity of the universe both as regards time and space, the regularity of reproduction (no prodigies, everything in its proper habitat), the nature of mind (animus, directing thought) and spirit (anima, sentience) as material bodily entities, and their mortality, since, according to Lucretius, they and their functions (consciousness, pain) end with the bodies that contain them and with which they are interwoven. The last three books give an atomic and materialist explanation of phenomena preoccupying human reflection, such as vision and the senses, sex and reproduction, natural forces and agriculture, the heavens, and disease. Lucretius opens his poem by addressing Venus (center), urging her to pacify her lover, Mars (right). Given Lucretius's relatively secular philosophy and his eschewing of superstition, his invocation of Venus has caused much debate among scholars. Lucretius opens his poem by addressing Venus not only as the mother of Rome (Aeneadum genetrix) but also as the veritable mother of nature (Alma Venus), urging her to pacify her lover Mars and spare Rome from strife.[4][5] By recalling the opening to poems by Homer, Ennius, and Hesiod (all of which begin with an invocation to the Muses), the proem to De rerum natura conforms to epic convention. The entire proem is also written in the format of a hymn, recalling other early literary works, texts, and hymns and in particular the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite.[6] The choice to address Venus may have been due to Empedocles's belief that Aphrodite represents "the great creative force in the cosmos".[5] Given that Lucretius goes on to argue that the gods are removed from human life, many have thus seen this opening to be contradictory: how can Lucretius pray to Venus and then deny that the gods listen to or care about human affairs?[5] In response, many scholars argue that the poet uses Venus poetically as a metonym. For instance, Diskin Clay sees Venus as a poetic substitute for sex, and Bonnie Catto sees the invocation of the name as a metonym for the "creative process of natura".[7] After the opening, the poem commences with an enunciation of the proposition on the nature and being of the deities, which leads to an invective against the evils of superstition. Lucretius then dedicates time to exploring the axiom that nothing can be produced from nothing, and that nothing can be reduced to nothing (Nil fieri ex nihilo, in nihilum nil posse reverti). Following this, the poet argues that the universe comprises an infinite number of Atoms, which are scattered about in an infinite and vast void (Inane). The shape of these atoms, their properties, their movements, the laws under which they enter into combination and assume forms and qualities appreciable by the senses, with other preliminary matters on their nature and affections, together with a refutation of objections and opposing hypotheses, occupy the first two books.[3] In the third book, the general concepts proposed thus far are applied to demonstrate that the vital and intellectual principles, the Anima and Animus, are as much a part of us as are our limbs and members, but like those limbs and members have no distinct and independent existence, and that hence soul and body live and perish together; the book concludes by arguing that the fear of death is a folly, as death merely extinguishes all feeling—both the good and the bad.[3] The fourth book is devoted to the theory of the senses, sight, hearing, taste, smell, of sleep and of dreams, ending with a disquisition upon love and sex.[3] The fifth book is described by Ramsay as the most finished and impressive,[3] while Stahl argues that its "puerile conceptions" is proof that Lucretius should be judged as a poet, not as a scientist.[8] This book addresses the origin of the world and of all things therein, the movements of the heavenly bodies, the changing of the seasons, day and night, the rise and progress of humankind, society, political institutions, and the invention of the various arts and sciences which embellish and ennoble life.[3] The sixth book contains an explanation of some of the most striking natural appearances, especially thunder, lightning, hail, rain, snow, ice, cold, heat, wind, earthquakes, volcanoes, springs and localities noxious to animal life, which leads to a discourse upon diseases. This introduces a detailed description of the great pestilence that devastated Athens during the Peloponnesian War. With this episode, the book closes; this abrupt ending suggests that Lucretius might have died before he was able to finalize and fully edit his poem.[3] Purpose[edit] Lucretius wrote this epic poem to "Memmius", who may be Gaius Memmius, who in 58 BC was a praetor, a judicial official deciding controversies between citizens and the government.[9] There are over a dozen references to "Memmius" scattered throughout the long poem in a variety of contexts in translation, such as "Memmius mine", "my Memmius", and "illustrious Memmius". According to Lucretius's frequent statements in his poem, the main purpose of the work was to free Gaius Memmius's mind of the supernatural and the fear of death—and to induct him into a state of ataraxia by expounding the philosophical system of Epicurus, whom Lucretius glorifies as the hero of his epic poem. However, the purpose of the poem is subject to ongoing scholarly debate. Lucretius refers to Memmius by name four times in the first book, three times in the second, five in the fifth, and not at all in the third, fourth, or sixth books. In relation to this discrepancy in the frequency of Lucretius's reference to the apparent subject of his poem, Kannengiesse advances the theory that Lucretius wrote the first version of De rerum natura for the reader at large, and subsequently revised in order to write it for Memmius. However, Memmius' name is central to several critical verses in the poem, and this theory has therefore been largely discredited.[10] The German classicists Ivo Bruns and Samuel Brandt set forth an alternative theory that Lucretius did at first write the poem with Memmius in mind, but that his enthusiasm for his patron cooled over time.[11][12] Stearns suggests that this is because Memmius reneged on a promise to pay for a new school to be built on the site of the old Epicurean school.[13] Memmius was also a tribune in 66, praetor in 58, governor of Bithynia in 57, and was a candidate for the consulship in 54 but was disqualified for bribery, and Stearns suggests that the warm relationship between patron and client may have cooled (sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas / suavis amicitiae quemvis efferre laborem, "But still your merit, and as I hope, the joy / Of our sweet friendship, urge me to any toil").[13][14] There is a certain irony to the poem, namely that while Lucretius extols the virtue of the Epicurean school of thought, Epicurus himself had advised his acolytes from penning poetry because he believed it to make that which was simple overly complicated.[15] Near the end of his first book, Lucretius defends his fusion of Epicureanism and poetry with a simile, arguing that the philosophy he espouses is like a medicine: life-saving but often unpleasant. Poetry, on the other hand, is like honey, in that it is a "a sweetener that sugarcoats the bitter medicine of Epicurean philosophy and entices the audience to swallow it."[16][17] (Of note, Lucretius repeats these 25 lines, almost verbatim, in the introduction to the fourth book.)[18] Completeness[edit] The state of the poem as it currently exists suggests that it was released in an unfinished state.[19] For instance, the poem concludes rather abruptly while detailing the Plague of Athens, there are redundant passages throughout (e.g., 1.820–821 and 2.1015–1016) alongside other aesthetic “loose ends”, and at 5.155 Lucretius mentions that he will spend a great deal of time discussing the nature of the gods, which never comes to pass.[3][20][21] Some have suggested that Lucretius died before being able to edit, finalize, and publish his work.[22] Main ideas[edit] Metaphysics[edit] Lack of divine intervention[edit] After the poem was rediscovered and made its rounds across Europe and beyond, numerous thinkers began to see Lucretius's Epicureanism as a "threat synonymous with atheism."[23] Some Christian apologists viewed De rerum natura as an atheist manifesto and a dangerous foil to be thwarted.[23] However, at that time the label was extremely broad and did not necessarily mean a denial of divine entities (for example, some large Christian sects labelled dissenting groups as atheists).[24] What is more, Lucretius does not deny the existence of deities;[25][26] he simply argues that they did not create the universe, that they do not care about human affairs, and that they do not intervene in the world.[23] Regardless, due to the ideas espoused in the poem, much of Lucretius's work was seen by many as direct a challenge to theistic, Christian belief.[27] The historian Ada Palmer has labelled six ideas in Lucretius's thought (viz. his assertion that the world was created from chaos, and his denials of Providence, divine participation, miracles, the efficacy of prayer, and an afterlife) as "proto-atheistic".[28][29] She qualifies her use of this term, cautioning that it is not to be used to say that Lucretius was himself an atheist in the modern sense of the word, nor that atheism is a teleological necessity, but rather that many of his ideas were taken up by 19th, 20th, and 21st century atheists.[29] Repudiation of immortality[edit] De rerum natura does not argue that the soul does not exist; rather, the poem claims that the soul, like all things in existence, is made up of atoms, and because these atoms will one day drift apart, the human soul is not immortal. Lucretius thus argues that death is simply annihilation, and that there is no afterlife. He likens the physical body to a vessel that holds both the mind (mens) and spirit (anima). To prove that neither the mind nor spirit can survive independent of the body, Lucretius uses a simple analogy: when a vessel shatters, its contents spill everywhere; likewise, when the body dies, the mind and spirit dissipate. And as a simple ceasing-to-be, death can be neither good nor bad for this being, since a dead person—being completely devoid of sensation and thought—cannot miss being alive.[5] To further alleviate the fear of non-existence, Lucretius makes use of the symmetry argument: he argues that the eternal oblivion awaiting all humans after death is exactly the same as the infinite nothingness that preceded our birth. Since that nothingness (which he likens to a deep, peaceful sleep) caused us no pain or discomfort, we should not fear the same nothingness that will follow our own demise:[5] Look back again—how the endless ages of time comes to pass Before our birth are nothing to us. This is a looking glass Nature holds up for us in which we see the time to come After we finally die. What is there that looks so fearsome? What's so tragic? Isn't it more peaceful than any sleep?[30] According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Lucretius sees those who fear death as embracing the fallacious assumption that they will be present in some sense "to regret and bewail [their] own non-existence."[5] Physics[edit] Lucretius maintained that he could free humankind from fear of the deities by demonstrating that all things occur by natural causes without any intervention by the deities. Historians of science, however, have been critical of the limitations of his Epicurean approach to science, especially as it pertained to astronomical topics, which he relegated to the class of "unclear" objects.[31][32] Thus, he began his discussion by claiming that he would explain by what forces nature steers the courses of the Sun and the journeyings of the Moon, so that we shall not suppose that they run their yearly races between heaven and earth of their own free will [i.e., are gods themselves] or that they are rolled round in furtherance of some divine plan....[33] However, when he set out to put this plan into practice, he limited himself to showing how one, or several different, naturalistic accounts could explain certain natural phenomena. He was unable to tell his readers how to determine which of these alternatives might be the true one.[34] For instance, when considering the reason for stellar movements, Lucretius provides two possible explanations: that the sky itself rotates, or that the sky as a whole is stationary while constellations move. If the latter is true, Lucretius, notes, this is because: "either swift currents of ether whirl round and round and roll their fires at large across the nocturnal regions of the sky"; "an external current of air from some other quarter may whirl them along in their course"; or "they may swim of their own accord, each responsive to the call of its own food, and feed their fiery bodies in the broad pastures of the sky". Lucretius concludes that "one of these causes must certainly operate in our world... But to lay down which of them it is lies beyond the range of our stumbling progress."[35] Despite his advocacy of empiricism and his many correct conjectures about atomism and the nature of the physical world, Lucretius concludes his first book stressing the absurdity of the (by then well-established) round earth theory, favor instead a flat earth cosmology.[36] Drawing on these, and other passages, William Stahl considered that "The anomalous and derivative character of the scientific portions of Lucretius' poem makes it reasonable to conclude that his significance should be judged as a poet, not as a scientist."[37] His naturalistic explanations were meant to bolster the ethical and philosophical ideas of Epicureanism, not to reveal true explanations of the physical world.[36] The swerve[edit] Main article: Clinamen Determinism appears to conflict with the concept of free will. Lucretius attempts to allow for free will in his physicalistic universe by postulating an indeterministic tendency for atoms to veer randomly (Latin: clinamen, literally "the turning aside of a thing", but often translated as "the swerve").[1][38] According to Lucretius, this unpredictable swerve occurs at no fixed place or time: When atoms move straight down through the void by their own weight, they deflect a bit in space at a quite uncertain time and in uncertain places, just enough that you could say that their motion has changed. But if they were not in the habit of swerving, they would all fall straight down through the depths of the void, like drops of rain, and no collision would occur, nor would any blow be produced among the atoms. In that case, nature would never have produced anything.[39][40] This swerving provides the indeterminacy that Lucretius argues allows for the "free will which living things throughout the world have" (libera per terras ... haec animantibus exstat ... voluntas).[41] Textual history[edit] Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages[edit] St. Jerome contended in his Chronicon that Cicero amended and edited De rerum natura. This assertion has been hotly debated, with most scholars thinking it was a mistake on Jerome's part. Martin Ferguson Smith notes that Cicero's close friend, Titus Pomponius Atticus, was an Epicurean publisher, and it is possible his slaves made the very first copies of De rerum natura.[42] If this were the case, then it might explain how Cicero came to be familiar with Lucretius's work.[43] In c. AD 380, St. Jerome would contend in his Chronicon that Cicero amended and edited De rerum natura,[44] although most scholars argue that this is an erroneous claim;[45] the classicist David Butterfield argues that this mistake was likely made by Jerome (or his sources) because the earliest reference to Lucretius is in the aforementioned letter from Cicero.[45] Nevertheless, a small minority of scholars argue that Jerome's assertion may be credible.[5] The oldest purported fragments of De rerum natura were published by K. Kleve in 1989 and consist of sixteen fragments. These remnants were discovered among the Epicurean library in the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum. Because, as W. H. D. Rouse notes, "the fragments are so minute and bear so few certainly identifiable letters", at this point in time "some scepticism about their proposed authorship seems pardonable and prudent."[46] However, Kleve contends that four of the six books are represented in the fragments, which he argues is reason to assume that the entire poem was at one time kept in the library. If Lucretius's poem were to be definitely placed at the Villa of the Papyri, it would suggest that it was studied by the Neapolitan Epicurean school.[46] Copies of the poem were preserved in a number of medieval libraries, with the earliest extant manuscripts dating to the ninth century.[47] The oldest—and, according to David Butterfield, most famous—of these is the Codex Oblongus, often called O. This copy has been dated to the early ninth century and was produced by a Carolingian scriptorium (likely a monastery connected to the court of Charlemagne).[48] O is currently housed at Leiden University.[49] The second of these ninth-century manuscripts is the Codex Quadratus, often called Q. This manuscript was likely copied after O, sometime in the mid-ninth century.[50] Today, Q is also housed at Leiden University.[51] The third and final ninth-century manuscript—which comprises the Schedae Gottorpienses fragment (commonly called G and located in the Kongelige Bibliotek of Copenhagen) and the Schedae Vindobonenses fragments (commonly called V and U and located in the Austrian National Library in Vienna)—was christened by Butterfield as S and has been dated to the latter part of the ninth century.[52][53] Scholars consider manuscripts O, Q, and S to all be descendants of the original archetype, which they dub Ω.[54] However, while O is a direct descendant of the archetype,[54] Q and S are believed to have both been derived from a manuscript (Ψ) that in turn had been derived from a damaged and modified version of the archetype (ΩI).[55][56] Rediscovery to the present[edit] De rerum natura was rediscovered by Poggio Bracciolini c. 1416–1417. While there exist a handful of references to Lucretius in Romance and Germanic sources dating between the ninth and fifteenth centuries (references that, according to Ada Palmer, "indicate a tenacious, if spotty knowledge of the poet and some knowledge of [his] poem"), no manuscripts of De rerum natura currently survive from this span of time.[57] Rather, all the remaining Lucretian manuscripts that are currently extant date from or after the fifteenth century.[58] This is because De rerum natura was rediscovered in January 1417 by Poggio Bracciolini, who probably found the poem in the Benedictine library at Fulda. The manuscript that Poggio discovered did not survive, but a copy (the "Codex Laurentianus 35.30") of it by Poggio's friend, Niccolò de' Niccoli, did, and today it is kept at the Laurentian Library in Florence.[1] Machiavelli made a copy early in his life. Molière produced a verse translation which does not survive; John Evelyn translated the first book.[1] The Italian scholar Guido Billanovich demonstrated that Lucretius' poem was well known in its entirety by Lovato Lovati (1241–1309) and some other Paduan pre-humanists during the thirteenth century.[59][60] This proves that the work was known in select circles long before the official rediscovery by Poggio. It has been suggested that Dante (1265–1321) might have read Lucretius's poem, as a few verses of his Divine Comedy exhibit a great affinity with De rerum natura, but there is no conclusive evidence that Dante ever read Lucretius.[59] The first printed edition of De rerum natura was produced in Brescia, Lombardy, in 1473. Other printed editions followed soon after. Additionally, although only published in 1996, Lucy Hutchinson's translation of De rerum natura was in all likelihood the first in English and was most likely completed some time in the late 1640s or 1650s.[61] Reception[edit] Classical antiquity[edit] Many scholars believe that Lucretius and his poem were referenced or alluded to by Cicero. The earliest recorded critique of Lucretius's work is in a letter written by the Roman statesman Cicero to his brother Quintus, in which the former claims that Lucretius's poetry is "full of inspired brilliance, but also of great artistry" (Lucreti poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt, multis luminibus ingeni, multae tamen artis).[62][63] It is also believed that the Roman poet Virgil referenced Lucretius and his work in the second book of his Georgics when he wrote: "Happy is he who has discovered the causes of things and has cast beneath his feet all fears, unavoidable fate, and the din of the devouring Underworld" (felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas/atque metus omnis et inexorabile fatum/subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari).[5][64][65] According to David Sedley of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "With these admiring words, Virgil neatly encapsulates four dominant themes of the poem—universal causal explanation, leading to elimination of the threats the world seems to pose, a vindication of free will, and disproof of the soul's survival after death."[5] Lucretius was almost certainly read by the imperial poet Marcus Manilius (fl. 1st century AD), whose didactic poem Astronomica (written c. AD 10–20), alludes to De rerum natura in a number of places.[66] However, Manilius's poem, espouses a Stoic, deterministic understanding of the universe,[67] and by its very nature attacks the very philosophical underpinnings of Lucretius's worldview.[66] This has led scholars like Katharina Volk to argue that "Manilius is a veritable anti-Lucretius".[66] What is more, Manilius also seems to suggest throughout this poem that his work is superior to that of Lucretius's.[68] (Coincidentally, De rerum natura and the Astronomica were both rediscovered by Poggio Bracciolini in the early 15th century.)[69] Additionally, Lucretius's work is discussed by the Augustan poet Ovid, who in his Amores writes "the verses of the sublime Lucretius will perish only when a day will bring the end of the world" (Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti / exitio terras cum dabit una dies),[70] and the Silver Age poet Statius, who in his Silvae praises Lucretius as being highly "learned".[71][72] David Butterfield also writes that "clear echoes and/or responses" to De rerum natura can be detected in the works of the Roman elegiac poets Catullus, Propertius, and Tibullus, as well as the lyric poet Horace.[73] In regards to prose writers, a number either quote from Lucretius's poem or express great admiration for De rerum natura, including: Vitruvius (in De Architectura),[74][75] Marcus Velleius Paterculus (in the Historiae Romanae),[75][76] Quintilian (in the Institutio Oratoria),[71][77] Tacitus (in the Dialogus de oratoribus),[71][78] Marcus Cornelius Fronto (in De eloquentia),[79][80] Cornelius Nepos (in the Life Of Atticus),[75][81] Apuleius (in De Deo Socratis),[82][83] and Gaius Julius Hyginus (in the Fabulae).[84][85] Additionally, Pliny the Elder lists Lucretius (presumably referring to his De rerum natura) as a source at the beginning of his Naturalis Historia, and Seneca the Younger quoted six passages from De rerum natura across several of his works.[86][87] Late antiquity and the Middle Ages[edit] Lucretius was quoted by several early Christian writers, including Lactantius (left) and Isidore of Seville (right). Because Lucretius was critical of religion and the claim of an immortal soul, his poem was disparaged by most early Church Fathers.[88] The Early Christian apologist Lactantius, in particular, heavily cites and critiques Lucretius in his The Divine Institutes and its Epitome, as well as his De ira Dei.[88] While he argued that Lucretius's criticism of Roman religion were "sound attacks on paganism and superstition", Lactantius claimed that they were futile against the "True Faith" of Christianity.[89] Lactantius also disparages the science of De rerum natura (as well as of Epicureanism in general), calls Lucretius "the most worthless of the poets" (poeta inanissimus), notes that he is unable to read more than a few lines of De rerum natura without laughing, and sarcastically asks, "Who would think that [Lucretius] had a brain when he said these things?"[89] After Lactantius's time, Lucretius was almost exclusively referenced or alluded to in a negative manner by the Church Fathers. The one major exception to this was Isidore of Seville, who at the start of the 7th century produced a work on astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king Sisebut that was entitled De natura rerum. In both this work, and as well as his more well-known Etymologiae (c. AD 600–625), Isidore liberally quotes from Lucretius a total of twelve times, drawing verses from all of Lucretius's books except his third.[90][91] (About a century later, the British historian and Doctor of the Church Bede produced a work also called De natura rerum, partly based on Isidore's work but apparently ignorant of Lucretius's poem.)[92] Renaissance to the present[edit] Montaigne owned a Latin edition published in Paris, in 1563, by Denis Lambin which he heavily annotated.[93] His Essays contain almost a hundred quotes from De rerum natura.[1] Additionally, in his essay "Of Books", he lists Lucretius along with Virgil, Horace, and Catullus as his four top poets.[94] Notable figures who owned copies include Ben Jonson whose copy is held at the Houghton Library, Harvard; and Thomas Jefferson, who owned at least five Latin editions and English, Italian and French translations.[1] Lucretius has also had a marked influence upon modern philosophy, as perhaps the most complete expositor of Epicurean thought.[95] His influence is especially notable in the work of the Spanish-American philosopher George Santayana, who praised Lucretius—along with Dante and Goethe—in his book Three Philosophical Poets,[96] although he openly admired the poet's system of physics more so than his spiritual musings (referring to the latter as "fumbling, timid and sad").[97] In 2011, the historian and literary scholar Stephen Greenblatt wrote a popular history book about the poem, entitled The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. In the work, Greenblatt argues that Poggio Bracciolini's discovery of De rerum natura reintroduced important ideas that sparked the modern age.[98][99][100] The book was well-received, and later earned the 2012 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and the 2011 National Book Award for Nonfiction.[101][102] Editions[edit] Translations[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of English translations of De rerum natura. Lucretius (1968). The Way Things Are: The De Rerum Natura. Translated by Rolfe Humphries. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 025320125X. ———— (1994). On the Nature of the Universe. Translated by R. E. Latham. London, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140446109. ———— (1992) [1924]. On the Nature of Things. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by W. H. Rouse. Revised by Martin Ferguson Smith. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674992008. ———— (1995). On the Nature of Things: De rerum natura. Translated by Anthony M. Esolen. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 080185055X. ———— (1998). On the Nature of the Universe. Translated by Ronald Melville. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198150978. ———— (2001). On the Nature of Things. Hackett Classics Series. Translated by Martin Ferguson Smith. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0872205878. ———— (2007). The Nature of Things. Penguin Classics. Translated by A.E. Stallings. London, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140447965. ———— (2008). De Rerum Natura (The Nature of Things): A Poetic Translation. Translated by David R. Slavitt. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520942769. ———— (2009). Philip De May (ed.). Lucretius: Poet and Epicurean. Cambridge Learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521721561. Notes[edit] ^ a b c d e f Greenblatt (2011). ^ In particular, De rerum natura 5.107 (fortuna gubernans, "guiding chance" or "fortune at the helm"). See: Gale (1996) [1994], pp. 213, 223–24. ^ a b c d e f g h Ramsay (1867), pp. 829–30. ^ Leonard (1916). ^ a b c d e f g h i Sedley (2013) [2004]. ^ Keith (2012), p. 39. ^ Catto (1988), p. 98. ^ Stahl (1962), pp. 82–83. ^ Englert (2003), p. xii. ^ Stearns (1931), p. 67. ^ Bruns (1884). ^ Brandt (1885). ^ a b Stearns (1931), p. 68. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 1.140. ^ Lucretius & de May (2009), v. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 1.936–50. ^ Keith (2013), p. 46. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 4.1–25. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 2. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 2, note 7. ^ Lucretius & Trevelyan (1937), p. xii. ^ West (2007), p. 13. ^ a b c Sheppard (2015), p. 31. ^ Sheppard (2015), pp. 21–23. ^ Palmer (2014), p. 26. "Lucretius was a theist." ^ Bullivant & Ruse 2013. "To be sure, Lucretius and Epicurus are not professed atheists [but] the resulting theism is one that denies providence and rejects transcendentalism." ^ Sheppard (2015), p. 29. ^ Palmer (2014), p. 25. ^ a b Palmer (2014), p. 26. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 3.972–76. ^ Lloyd (1973), p. 26. ^ Stahl (1962), pp. 81–83. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 5.76–81. ^ Alioto (1987), p. 97. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 5.510–533. ^ a b Hannam, James (29 April 2019). "Atoms and flat-earth ethics". Aeon. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019. ^ Stahl (1962), p. 83. ^ Lewis & Short (1879). ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.216–224. ^ Lucretius, Inwood, & Gerson (1994), pp. 65–66. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.256–57. ^ Smith (1992) [1924], pp. xiii–xiv. ^ Smith (1992) [1924], p. xiii. ^ Jerome, Chronicon. ^ a b Butterfield (2013), p. 1, note 4. ^ a b Rouse (1992) [1924], pp. liv–lv. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 6–13. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 6–8. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 8. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 8–9. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 312. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 10–11. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 313–14. ^ a b Butterfield (2013), p. 17. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 15–16. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 18–19. ^ Palmer (2014), p. 100. ^ Smith (1992) [1924], p. lvi. ^ a b Piazzi, Francesco (2010). "Hortus Apertus – La fortuna – Dante e Lucrezio" (PDF). Editrice La Scuola. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2015. ^ Billanovich (1958). ^ Goldberg (2006), p. 275. ^ Lucretius & Lee (1893), p. xiii. ^ Cicero, Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem 2.10.3. ^ Virgil, Georgics 2.490–492. ^ Smith (1992) [1924], p. xx. ^ a b c Volk (2009), p. 192. ^ Volk (2009) (2009), p. 1. ^ Volk (2009), p. 193. ^ "Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini" (2013). ^ Ovid, Amores 1.15.23–24. ^ a b c Butterfield (2013), pp. 50–51. ^ Statius, Silvae 2.7.76. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 47–48. ^ Vitruvius, De Architectura 9.pr.17–18. ^ a b c Butterfield (2013), p. 49. ^ Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Historiae Romanae 2.36.2. ^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 1.4.4; 3.1.4; 10.1.87; 12.11.27. ^ Tacitus, Dialogus de oratoribus 23.1. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 52–53. ^ Marcus Cornelius Fronto, De eloquentia 3.2. ^ Cornelius Nepos, Vitae, "Atticus" 12.4. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 53–54. ^ Apuleius, De Deo Socratis 1.7; 10.7. ^ Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 57, 151. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 54. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 1. ^ Butterfield (2013), pp. 49–50. ^ a b Butterfield (2013), p. 56. ^ a b Palmer (2014), p. 125. ^ Dronke (1984), p. 459. ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 89. ^ Kendall & Wallis (2010), p. 191. ^ "Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura Libri Sex (Montaigne.1.4.4)". Cambridge University. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2015 – via The Cambridge Digital Library. ^ Montaigne, Essays, "Of Books". ^ Gillespie & MacKenzie (2007), p. 322. ^ Santayana (1922) [1910], pp. 19–72. ^ Gray (2018), p. 127. ^ Brown, Jeffrey (May 25, 2012), 'The Swerve': When an Ancient Text Reaches Out and Touches Us, PBS, archived from the original on May 26, 2012 ^ Garner (2011). ^ Owchar (2011). ^ "The 2012 Pulitzer Prize Winners: General Nonfiction". Columbia University. Archived from the original on May 9, 2012. ^ "2011 National Book Award Winner, Nonfiction". National Book Foundation. Archived from the original on May 5, 2012. Work cited[edit] Alioto, Anthony M. (1987). A History of Western Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0133923908. Billanovich, Guido (1958). "'Veterum vestigia vatum' nei carmi dei preumanisti padovani". Italia Medievale e Umanistica (in Italian). Padua: Antenore. I: 155–243. ISBN 978-88-8455-089-7. Brandt, Samuel (1885). "Zur Chronologic des Gedichtes des Lucretius und zur Frage nach der Stellung des Memmius in demselben". Jahrbücher für classische Philologie (in German) (31): 601–13. Brown, P. Michael, ed. (1997). De rerum natura III. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0856686948. Bruns, Ivo (1884). Lukrez-Studien (in German). Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr – via the Internet Archive. Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael, eds. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191667404 – via Google Books. Butterfield, David (2013). The Early Textual History of Lucretius' De rerum natura. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107037458. Campbell, Gordon (2003). Lucretius on Creation and Evolution: A Commentary on De rerum natura Book Five, Lines 772–1104. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199263965. Catto, Bonnie A. (1988). "Venus and Natura in Lucretius: "De Rerum Natura" 1.1–23 and 2.167–74". The Classical Journal. 84 (2): 97–104. JSTOR 3297566. Dronke, Peter (1984). The Medieval Poet and His World. Rome, Italy: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura. Englert, Walter (2003). Lucretius: On the Nature of Things. Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing. ISBN 978-0941051217. Fowler, Don (2002). Lucretius on Atomic Motion: A Commentary on De rerum batura, Book Two, Lines 1–332. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199243581. Gale, Monica R. (1996) [1994]. Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Gale, Monica R. (2001), Lucretius and the Didactic Epic, London, UK: Bristol Classical Press, ISBN 1853995576 Garner, Dwight (September 27, 2011), "An Unearthed Treasure That Changed Things", The New York Times, retrieved May 31, 2012 "Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. November 7, 2013. Retrieved June 29, 2017. Gillespie, Stuart; MacKenzie, Donald (2007). "Lucretius and the Moderns". In Gillespie, Stuart; MacKenzie, Donald (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521612661. Goldberg, Jonathan (2006). "Lucy Hutchinson Writing Matter". ELH. 73 (1): 275–301. doi:10.1353/elh.2006.0003. S2CID 162125154. Gray, John (2018). Seven Types of Atheism. London, UK: Allen Lane. ISBN 9780241199411. Greenblatt, Stephen (August 8, 2011). "The Answer Man: An Ancient Poem Was Rediscovered—and the World Swerved". The New Yorker. Condé Nast. LXXXVII (23): 28–33. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Greenblatt, Stephen (2011). The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. New York City, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393064476. Johnson, W.R (2000). Lucretius and the Modern World. London, UK: Duckworth. ISBN 0715628828. Keith, Alison (2013). A Latin Epic Reader: Selections from Ten Epics. Mundelein, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci. ISBN 978-1610411103. Kendall, Calvin B.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2010). "Bede and Lucretius". Bede: On the Nature of Things and on Times. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press. pp. 191–2. ISBN 978-1846314957. Kennedy, Duncan F. (2002). Rethinking Reality: Lucretius and the Textualization of Nature. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472112880. Leonard, William Ellery (1916). "Proem – Lucr. 1.1". Perseus Project. Tufts University. Retrieved February 20, 2017. Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles, eds. (1879). "Clinamen". A Latin Dictionary. Retrieved June 30, 2017 – via the Perseus Project. Lloyd, G. E. R. (1973). Greek Science after Aristotle. New York City, NY: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0393043711. Lucretius (1893). J. H. Warburton Lee (ed.). T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura Libri I-III. London, UK: Macmillan Publishers. Lucretius (1937). Trevelyan, R. C. (ed.). De rerum natura. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lucretius (1992) [1924]. "Introduction". On the Nature of Things. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rouse, W. H. D. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674992008. Lucretius (1994). "The Testimony of Lucretius". In Inwood, Brad; Gerson, Lloyd P. (eds.). The Epicurus Reader. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 9781603845830. Lucretius (2009). Philip de May (ed.). Lucretius: Poet and Epicurean. Cambridge Learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521721561. Owchar, Nick (November 20, 2011), "Book review: 'The Swerve: How the World Became Modern'", Los Angeles Times, retrieved May 31, 2012 Palmer, Ada (2014). Reading Lucretius in the Renaissance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674725577. Ramsay, William (1867). "Lucretius". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 2. Santayana, George (1922) [1910]. "Lucretius". Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 19–72. Sedley, David (1998). Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521570328. Sedley, David (August 10, 2013) [2003]. "Lucretius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved June 29, 2017. Sheppard, Kenneth (2015). Anti-Atheism in Early Modern England 1580–1720: The Atheist Answered and His Error Confuted. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9004288164. Smith, M. F. (1992) [1924]. "Introduction". On the Nature of Things. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674992008. Stahl, William (1962). Roman Science: Origins, Development, and Influence to the Later Middle Ages. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ASIN B003HJJE0I. Stearns, John Barker (1931). "Lucretius and Memmius". Classical World. 25. Volk, Katharina (2009). Manilius and His Intellectual Background. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199265220. West, Stephanie (2007). "Terminal Problems". Hesperos: Studies in Ancient Greek Poetry Presented to M. L. West on His Seventieth Birthday. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–21. ISBN 978-0199285686. External links[edit] Wikisource has original text related to this article: Of The Nature of Things Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: De rerum natura Wikiquote has quotations related to: De rerum natura Wikimedia Commons has media related to De rerum natura. De rerum natura: full text in Latin Text at thelatinlibrary.com An English verse translation of On The Nature of Things at Project Gutenberg by William Ellery Leonard An English prose translation of On the Nature of Things at archive by John Selby Watson On the Nature of Things public domain audiobook at LibriVox De rerum natura public domain audiobook at LibriVox (in Latin) David Sedley, "Lucretius", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Includes extensive discussion of On the Nature of Things Summary of On the Nature of Things, by section De rerum natura (1475–1494), digitized codex, at Somni Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex, published in Paris 1563, later owned and annotated by Montaigne, fully digitised in Cambridge Digital Library v t e Epicureanism Philosophers Greek era Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Roman era Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Modern era Pierre Gassendi Denis Diderot Jeremy Bentham Jun Tsuji Christopher Hitchens Michel Onfray Philosophy Epicureanism (cf. Hedonism) Tetrapharmakos Concepts Aponia Ataraxia Clinamen Eikas Eudaimonia Hedone Metakosmia Works On the Nature of Things List of English translations of De rerum natura Authority control BNF: cb121941310 (data) GND: 4122497-8 LCCN: n81120503 SUDOC: 028343565 VIAF: 176199512 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 176199512 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_rerum_natura&oldid=1000068978" Categories: Natural philosophy Metaphysics literature Epic poems in Latin Epicureanism Philosophy books Hellenistic philosophical literature 1st-century BC Latin books Roman philosophical literature Hidden categories: Articles that link to Wikisource Articles containing Latin-language text Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 German-language sources (de) Commons category link from Wikidata Articles with LibriVox links Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Aragonés Arpetan Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Македонски Occitan Polski Português Русский Sardu Suomi Svenska Українська 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 11:49 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-6979	----	Epicureanism - Wikipedia Epicureanism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search system of philosophy "Epicurean" redirects here. For other uses, see Epicurean (disambiguation). Roman Epicurus bust Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for On the Nature of Things) by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers shunned politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions which can directly conflict with the Epicurean pursuit for peace of mind and virtues.[1] Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from "hedonism" as colloquially understood. Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established, such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the late 3rd century CE Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism) that were now in the ascendant. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era. Contents 1 History 2 Philosophy 3 Ethics 4 Politics 5 Religion 6 Epicurean physics 7 Epistemology 8 Tetrapharmakos 9 Notable Epicureans 10 Modern usage and misconceptions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History[edit] In Mytilene, the capital of the island Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus, Epicurus taught and gained followers. In Athens, Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", later the name of Epicurus' school.[2] Its members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slender evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.[3][4] The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire.[5] Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled hedonists, devoid of a sense of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia. Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Diogenes reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents.[2] With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. By the late third century CE, there was little trace of its existence.[6] The early Christian writer Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, the Epicureans are depicted as heretics suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.[7] The word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros" (אפיקורוס‎).[citation needed] In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the Cambridge Platonists.[citation needed] Philosophy[edit] Part of a series on Hedonism Thinkers Ajita Kesakambali Jeremy Bentham John Stuart Mill Julien Offray de La Mettrie Aristippus Epicurus Fred Feldman Theodorus the Atheist Michel Onfray Aristippus the Younger Hermarchus Lucretius Pierre Gassendi Metrodorus of Lampsacus David Pearce Zeno of Sidon Yang Zhu Torbjörn Tännsjö Esperanza Guisán Peter Singer Schools of hedonism Cārvāka Cyrenaics Epicureanism Christian hedonism Utilitarianism Yangism Psychological hedonism Ethical hedonism Axiological hedonism Key concepts Aponia Ataraxia Eudaimonia Happiness Hedone Pain Pleasure Sensation Suffering Tetrapharmakos Libertine Related articles Paradox of hedonism Hedonic treadmill v t e Epicureanism argued that pleasure was the chief good in life.[8] Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.[8] Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures.[8] Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed.[9] Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.[10][11] Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.[12] Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary desire that should be generally avoided.[13] The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial.[14] Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished.[15] Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.[15] Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship — quoted by Cicero[16] While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. In fact, Epicurus referred to life as a "bitter gift". When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. — Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus"[17] Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.[18] Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[19] From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire. This quotation is often used today at humanist funerals.[20] Ethics[edit] Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values. In the most basic sense, Epicureans see pleasure as the purpose of life.[21] As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible.[22] Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.[23] Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind.[23] Pleasures of the body: These pleasures involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present.[23] One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.[24] Pleasures of the mind: These pleasures involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind.[23] These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences.[24] Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.[24] The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure.[25] Kinetic pleasure: Kinetic pleasure describes the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change.[26] Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense.[25][27] According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.[25] Katastematic pleasure: Katastematic pleasure describes the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain.[27] Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear.[25][26] Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia.[25] From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental.[28] The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia.[28] In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful.[29] Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.[30] Epicurus distinguishes three kinds of desires: the natural and necessary, the natural but not necessary, and those that are neither natural nor necessary.[29] Natural and necessary: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them.[29] They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life.[29] Clothing would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.[29] Natural but not necessary: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival.[30] Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire.[30] The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary.[30] It is for this reason that they should be avoided.[30] Not natural nor necessary: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled.[31] Desires of wealth or fame would fall under this category, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.[31] If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby the highest form of happiness.[31] Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other.[14] The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness.[32] Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.[32] He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: "It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life."[33] ("justly" meaning to prevent a "person from harming or being harmed by another")[33] Epicureanism incorporated a relatively full account of the social contract theory, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato's Republic.[32] The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.[32] Politics[edit] Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions.[34] To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another.[35] That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal.[35] Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics.[35] However Epicureans are not apolitical, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans.[34] Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.[34] The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans.[34] While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics.[34] Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family.[34] Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.[34] However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics.[34] The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.[34] Religion[edit] Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way[36]-thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution.[37] One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods.[38] The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position).[36][39][40] The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality.[36][40] However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it.[41] Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia, or the space between worlds.[42] Contrarily, the idealist position holds that Epicurus did not actually conceive of the gods as existing in reality. Rather, Epicurus is said to have viewed the gods as just idealized forms of the best human life,[39][43] and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards.[39] The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position.[39][40] While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.[39][40] Epicureanism also offered arguments against the existence of the gods in the manner proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus, or Problem of evil, is a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods. As recorded by Lactantius: God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to god. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful – which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them? — Lactantius, De Ira Deorum[44] This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an atheist.[45] According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is settled that the argument of theodicy is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean.[46] The earliest extant version of this trilemma appears in the writings of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.[47] Parallels may be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which similarly emphasize a lack of divine interference and aspects of its atomism. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its temperateness, including the belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.[48][49][50] Some modern Epicureans have argued that Epicureanism is a type of religious identity, arguing that it fulfils Ninian Smart's "seven dimensions of religion", and that the Epicurean practices of feasting on the twentieth and declaring an oath to follow Epicurus, insistence on doctrinal adherence, and the sacredness of Epicurean friendship, make Epicureanism more similar to some non-theistic religions than to other philosophies.[51] Epicurean physics[edit] Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.[52] Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.[53][54] Atoms were felt to be unchanging because the Epicureans believed that the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species.[55][56] Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.[53] Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.[57] Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite amount of worlds, or cosmoi.[53] Some of these worlds could be vastly different than our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (metakosmia).[53] Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts, and Epicureans offered multiple arguments to support this position.[58] Epicureans argue that because void is necessary for matter to move, anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance.[55] They also argued that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.[58][55] Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways.[59] Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other.[59] When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.[59] When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest world.[59][60] This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path.[60] This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.[59][60] Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will.[61] If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect.[61] This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus' atomic theory.[61] Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.[62] All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles.[62] While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red.[62] The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.[62] Epistemology[edit] Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology.[63] The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true,[64][65] and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions.[65] When we form judgments about things (hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.[65][66][67][68] For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.[68] Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and feelings (pathê).[69] A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of the mind" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias) was said to have been added by later Epicureans.[69][70] These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.[63] Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans.[65] Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that image of the oar, that is the atoms travelling from the oar to the observer's eyes, have been shifted and thus really do arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar.[71] The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way.[71] In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" (enargeia) of the perceivable thing by closer examination.[72] This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived.[72] Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.[73] An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time.[74] When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts.[75] It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive.[68] Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning.[75] Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information.[75] Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.[75] Our feelings or emotions (pathê) are how we perceive pleasure and pain.[70] They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things.[70] According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.[70] The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive.[76] We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses.[69] The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.[69][76] Tetrapharmakos[edit] Main article: Tetrapharmakos Part of Herculaneum Papyrus 1005 (P.Herc.1005), col. 5. Contains Epicurean tetrapharmakos from Philodemus' Adversus Sophistas. Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is Philodemus of Gadara's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of Epicurus' Principal Doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: Don't fear god, Don't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure. — Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14 Notable Epicureans[edit] De rerum natura manuscript, copied by an Augustinian friar for Pope Sixtus IV, c. 1483, after the discovery of an early manuscript in 1417 by the humanist and papal secretary Poggio Bracciolini One of the earliest Roman writers espousing Epicureanism was Amafinius. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates the philosophy, as well as Lucretius, who wrote the poem De rerum natura about the tenets of the philosophy. The poet Virgil was another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for further details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as most of his work along with other Epicurean material was discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In the second century CE, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans. Julius Caesar leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato.[77] His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus was also an adept of the school. In modern times Thomas Jefferson referred to himself as an Epicurean: If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.[78] Other modern-day Epicureans were Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Evremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright and Jeremy Bentham. Christopher Hitchens referred to himself as an Epicurean.[79] In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean,[80] Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism.[81] In his recent book titled The Swerve, Stephen Greenblatt identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label. Modern usage and misconceptions[edit] In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; Epicureanism implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink. Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (telos), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded ataraxia (tranquility, freedom from fear) and aponia (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.[17] Epicurus preferred "the good", and "even wisdom and culture", to the "pleasure of the stomach".[82] While twentieth-century commentary has generally sought to diminish this and related quotations, the consistency of the lower-case epicureanism of meals with Epicurean materialism overall has more recently been explained.[83] While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury. Called "The Garden" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month). Criticism[edit] Francis Bacon wrote an apothegm related to Epicureanism: There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made capons, but capons could never be made cocks.[84] This echoed what the Academic Skeptic philosopher Arcesilaus had said when asked "why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?" to which he responded: "Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man."[85] See also[edit] Philosophy portal Charvaka, a hedonic Indian school Cyrenaics, a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE Dehellenization Epicurea Epicurean paradox Epikoros Hedonic treadmill List of English translations of De rerum natura Philosophy of happiness Separation of church and state Zeno of Sidon References[edit] ^ 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b David Konstan. "Epicurus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism ^ Dombrowski, Daniel (1984). The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-87023-431-6. ^ MacGillivray, Erlend D (2012). "The Popularity of Epicureanism in Late-Republic Roman Society". The Ancient World. XLIII: 151–172. ^ Michael Frede (1999). "Epilogue". The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. pp. 795–96. ^ Trans. Robert Pinsky, The Inferno of Dante, p. 320 n. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 107–115. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–127. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University. pp. 84–85. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 145. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–171. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–140. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 142–145. ^ On Goals, 1.65 ^ a b Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Brief Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy, pp. 239–40 ^ Epicurus (c 341–270 BCE) British Humanist Association ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 84. ^ Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 117–121. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 118–119. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 119–120. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 91–92. ^ a b Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 120. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 124–125. ^ a b c d e O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 126–127. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 125–126. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 139–142. ^ a b "Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks". 1925. ^ a b c d e f g h i The Cambridge companion to epicureanism. Warren, James, 1974-. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2009. ISBN 9780521873475. OCLC 297147109.CS1 maint: others (link) ^ a b c 1951-, Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism : a very short introduction (First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 155–156. ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, page 124 ^ The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism, edited by James Warren, age 105 ^ a b c d e Sedley, David (2011). "Epicurus' theological innatism". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30. ^ a b c d Konstan, David (2011). "Epicurus on the gods". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–54. ^ Mansfeld, Jaap (1993). "Aspects of Epicurean Theology". Mnemosyne. 46 (2): 176–178. doi:10.1163/156852593X00484. ^ Buchheit, Vinzenz (2007). "Epicurus' Triumph of the Mind". In Gale, Monica R. (ed.). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–111. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 158–159. ^ Lactantius, De Ira Deorum, 13.19 (Epicurus, Frag. 374, Usener). David Hume paraphrased this passage in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion: "EPICURUS's old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?" ^ Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), The Problem of Evil, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell ^ Glei, Reinhold F. (1988). "Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21". Vigiliae Christianae. 42: 47–58. doi:10.2307/1584470. ^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, 175: "those who firmly maintain that god exists will be forced into impiety; for if they say that he [god] takes care of everything, they will be saying that god is the cause of evils, while if they say that he takes care of some things only or even nothing, they will be forced to say that he is either malevolent or weak" ^ Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. SUNY Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780791436837. ^ Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2017). Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 9781351954310. ^ Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt, Dee L. Clayman, Oxford University Press, 2014, p.33 ^ "Epicureanism as a Religious Identity". ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 11–13. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ^ O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 21. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 18–20. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1998). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 34–35. ^ Diogenes, Laertius (1925). Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II: Books 6-10. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp. 573–575. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 35–37. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 25–28. ^ a b c Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicurus, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 64–66. ^ a b c d Wilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 54–55. ^ a b O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. p. 85. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Pres. pp. 97–98. ^ Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments. Canada: Trafford Publishing. pp. 193–197. ^ Konstan, David (2011). Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. ^ a b c O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 103–104. ^ a b c d Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 19. ^ a b c d Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–13. ^ a b Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 12–16. ^ Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism. Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ^ Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 18–19. ^ a b c d O'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press. pp. 101–103. ^ a b Tsouna, Voula (2016). "Epicurean Preconceptions". Phronesis. 61 (2): 215. doi:10.1163/15685284-12341304. ^ Cf. Sallust, The War With Catiline, Caesar's speech: 51.29 & Cato's reply: 52.13). ^ "Full text of "The writings of Thomas Jefferson;"". archive.org. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ "Townhall.com::Talk Radio Online::Radio Show". Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2019. ^ Anon., Gérald Ghislain – Creator of The Scent of Departure. IdeaMensch, 14 July 2011. ^ Michel Onfray, La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste, Grasset, 2006 ^ Cyril Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, p.131 ^ Michael Symons, "Epicurus, the foodies’ philosopher", pp. 13-30, in Fritz Allhoff and Dave Monroe, eds, Food & Philosophy: Eat, think, and be merry, Malden (MA, USA): Blackwell Publishing, 2007 ^ Francis Bacon, Apothegms 280, The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms ^ Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Book IV, Chapter 6, section 45 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6 Further reading[edit] Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, Epicurus. His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance, Rochester, N.Y.: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003. Holmes, Brooke & Shearin, W. H. Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Jones, Howard. The Epicurean Tradition, New York: Routledge, 1989. Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, Epicurus in the Enlightenment, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009. Long, A.A. & Sedley, D.N. The Hellenistic Philosophers Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ( ISBN 0-521-27556-3) Long, Roderick (2008). "Epicureanism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 153. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n95. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993. Martin Ferguson Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003. Warren, James (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Wilson, Catherine. Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 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en-wikipedia-org-706	----	Lucretius - Wikipedia Lucretius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman poet and philosopher This article is about the Roman poet and philosopher. For other people named Lucretius, see Lucretia gens. For the impact crater on the far side of the Moon, see Lucretius (crater). Titus Lucretius Carus Bust of Lucretius Born c. 99 BC Died c. 55 BC (aged around 44) Era Hellenistic philosophy School Epicureanism Atomism Materialism Main interests Ethics, metaphysics, atomic theory[1] Influences Gaius Memmius, Epicurus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Influenced Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, Pierre Gassendi, Baruch Spinoza, Stephen Greenblatt, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Charles Darwin, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gilles Deleuze, Montaigne Titus Lucretius Carus (/ˈtaɪtəs luːˈkriːʃəs/ TY-təs loo-KREE-shəs, Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs lʊˈkreːtɪ.ʊs ˈkaːrʊs]; c. 99 – c. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the philosophical poem De rerum natura, a didactic work about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism, and which usually is translated into English as On the Nature of Things. Lucretius has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised in 1836 by C. J. Thomsen. Very little is known about Lucretius's life; the only certain fact is, that he was either a friend or client of Gaius Memmius, to whom the poem was addressed and dedicated.[2] De rerum natura was a considerable influence on the Augustan poets, particularly Virgil (in his Aeneid and Georgics, and to a lesser extent on the Eclogues) and Horace.[3] The work was almost lost during the Middle Ages, but was rediscovered in 1417 in a monastery in Germany[4] by Poggio Bracciolini and it played an important role both in the development of atomism (Lucretius was an important influence on Pierre Gassendi)[5] and the efforts of various figures of the Enlightenment era to construct a new Christian humanism. Lucretius's scientific poem On the Nature of Things (c. 60 BC) has a remarkable description of Brownian motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms. Contents 1 Life 2 De rerum natura 2.1 Reception 3 Natural philosophy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Life[edit] And now, good Memmius, receptive ears And keen intelligence detached from cares I pray you bring to true philosophy De rerum natura (tr. Melville) 1.50 If I must speak, my noble Memmius, As nature's majesty now known demands De rerum natura (tr. Melville) 5.6 Virtually nothing is known about the life of Lucretius, and there is insufficient basis for a confident assertion of the dates of Lucretius's birth or death in other sources. Another, yet briefer, note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, he enters under the 171st Olympiad: "Titus Lucretius the poet is born."[6] If Jerome is accurate about Lucretius's age (43) when Lucretius died (discussed below), then it may be concluded he was born in 99 or 98 BC.[7][8] Less specific estimates place the birth of Lucretius in the 90s BC and his death in the 50s BC,[9][10] in agreement with the poem's many allusions to the tumultuous state of political affairs in Rome and its civil strife. Lucretius probably was a member of the aristocratic gens Lucretia, and his work shows an intimate knowledge of the luxurious lifestyle in Rome.[11] Lucretius's love of the countryside invites speculation that he inhabited family-owned rural estates, as did many wealthy Roman families, and he certainly was expensively educated with a mastery of Latin, Greek, literature, and philosophy.[11] A brief biographical note is found in Aelius Donatus's Life of Virgil, which seems to be derived from an earlier work by Suetonius.[12] The note reads: "The first years of his life Virgil spent in Cremona until the assumption of his toga virilis on his 17th birthday (when the same two men held the consulate as when he was born), and it so happened that on the very same day Lucretius the poet passed away." However, although Lucretius certainly lived and died around the time that Virgil and Cicero flourished, the information in this particular testimony is internally inconsistent: If Virgil was born in 70 BC, his 17th birthday would be in 53. The two consuls of 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus, stood together as consuls again in 55, not 53. Another yet briefer note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, Jerome contends in the aforementioned Chronicon that Lucretius "was driven mad by a love potion, and when, during the intervals of his insanity, he had written a number of books, which were later emended by Cicero, he killed himself by his own hand in the 44th year of his life."[6] The claim that he was driven mad by a love potion, although defended by such scholars as Reale and Catan,[13] is often dismissed as the result of historical confusion,[2] or anti-Epicurean bias.[14] In some accounts the administration of the toxic aphrodisiac is attributed to his wife Lucilia. Regardless, Jerome's image of Lucretius as a lovesick, mad poet continued to have significant influence on modern scholarship until quite recently, although it now is accepted that such a report is inaccurate.[15] De rerum natura[edit] Main article: De rerum natura Play media Latin reading of De Rerum Natura by Lucretius A manuscript of De Rerum Natura in the Cambridge University Library collection De rerum natura (1570) His poem, De rerum natura (usually translated as "On the Nature of Things" or "On the Nature of the Universe"), transmits the ideas of Epicureanism, which includes atomism and cosmology. Lucretius was the first writer known to introduce Roman readers to Epicurean philosophy.[16] The poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through richly poetic language and metaphors. Lucretius presents the principles of atomism, the nature of the mind and soul, explanations of sensation and thought, the development of the world and its phenomena, and explains a variety of celestial and terrestrial phenomena. The universe described in the poem operates according to these physical principles, guided by fortuna, "chance", and not the divine intervention of the traditional Roman deities [17] and the religious explanations of the natural world. Within this work, Lucretius makes reference to the cultural and technological development of humans in his use of available materials, tools, and weapons through prehistory to Lucretius's own time. He specifies the earliest weapons as hands, nails, and teeth. These were followed by stones, branches, and, once humans could kindle and control it, fire. He then refers to "tough iron" and copper in that order, but goes on to say that copper was the primary means of tilling the soil and the basis of weaponry until, "by slow degrees", the iron sword became predominant (it still was in his day) and "the bronze sickle fell into disrepute" as iron ploughs were introduced.[1] He had earlier envisaged a pre-technological, pre-literary kind of human whose life was lived "in the fashion of wild beasts roaming at large".[18] From this beginning, he theorised, there followed the development in turn of crude huts, use and kindling of fire, clothing, language, family, and city-states. He believed that smelting of metal, and perhaps too, the firing of pottery, was discovered by accident: for example, the result of a forest fire. He does specify, however, that the use of copper followed the use of stones and branches and preceded the use of iron.[18] Lucretius seems to equate copper with bronze, an alloy of copper and tin that has much greater resilience than copper; both copper and bronze were superseded by iron during his millennium (1000 BC to 1 BC). He may have considered bronze to be a stronger variety of copper and not necessarily a wholly individual material. Lucretius is believed to be the first to put forward a theory of the successive uses of first wood and stone, then copper and bronze, and finally iron. Although his theory lay dormant for many centuries, it was revived in the nineteenth century and he has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised from 1834 by C. J. Thomsen.[19] Reception[edit] In a letter by Cicero to his brother Quintus in February 54 BC, Cicero said: "The poems of Lucretius are as you write: they exhibit many flashes of genius, and yet show great mastership."[20] In the work of another author in late Republican Rome, Virgil writes in the second book of his Georgics, apparently referring to Lucretius,[21] "Happy is he who has discovered the causes of things and has cast beneath his feet[a] all fears, unavoidable fate, and the din of the devouring Underworld."[22] Natural philosophy[edit] An early thinker in what grew to become the study of evolution, Lucretius believed nature experiments endlessly across the aeons, and the organisms that adapt best to their environment have the best chance of surviving. Living organisms survived because of their strength, speed, or intellect. In contrast to modern thought on the subject, he did not believe that new species evolved from previously existing ones and denied that modern animals, which dwell on land, derived from marine ancestors. Lucretius challenged the assumption that humans are necessarily superior to animals, noting that mammalian mothers in the wild recognize and nurture their offspring as do human mothers.[citation needed] Despite his advocacy of empiricism and his many correct conjectures about atomism and the nature of the physical world, Lucretius concludes his first book stressing the absurdity of the (by then well-established) spherical Earth theory.[23] While Epicurus left open the possibility for free will by arguing for the uncertainty of the paths of atoms, Lucretius viewed the soul or mind as emerging from arrangements of distinct particles.[24] See also[edit] The Swerve: How the World Became Modern, a modern historiography by Stephen Greenblatt List of English translations of De rerum natura Notes[edit] ^ subiecit pedibus; cf. Lucretius 1.78: religio pedibus subiecta, "religion lies cast beneath our feet" References[edit] ^ a b Lucretius. De rerum natura, Book V, around Line 1200 ff. ^ a b Melville & Fowler (2008), p. xii. ^ Reckford, K. J. Some studies in Horace's odes on love ^ Greenblatt (2009), p. 44. ^ Fisher, Saul (2009). "Pierre Gassendi". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ a b Jerome, Chronicon. ^ Bailey (1947), pp. 1–3. ^ Smith (1992), pp. x–xi. ^ Kenney (1971), p. 6. ^ Costa (1984), p. ix. ^ a b Melville & Fowler (2008), Foreword. ^ Horsfall (2000), p. 3. ^ Reale & Catan (1980), p. 414. ^ Smith (2011), p. vii. ^ Gale (2007), p. 2. ^ Gale (2007), p. 35. ^ In particular, De rerum natura 5.107 (fortuna gubernans, "guiding chance" or "fortune at the helm"): see Monica R. Gale, Myth and Poetry in Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 1994, 1996 reprint), pp. 213, 223–224 online and Lucretius (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 238 online. ^ a b Lucretius. De rerum natura, Book V, around line 940 ff. ^ Barnes, pp. 27–28. ^ Cicero, 2.9. ^ Smith (1975), intro. ^ Virgil, 2.490. ^ Hannam, James (29 April 2019). "Atoms and flat-earth ethics". Aeon. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019. ^ Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-691-02350-6. Bibliography[edit] Bailey, C. (1947). "Prolegomena". Lucretius's De rerum natura. Barnes, Harry Elmer (1937). An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World, Volume One. Dover Publications. OCLC 390382. Cicero. "Letters to his brother Quintus". Translated by Evelyn Shuckburgh. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Costa, C. D. N. (1984). "Introduction". Lucretius: De Rerum Natura V. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814457-1. Dalzell, A. (1982). "Lucretius". The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gale, M.R. (2007). Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926034-8. Greenblatt, Stephen (2009). The Swerve: How the World Became Modern. New York: WW. Norton and Company. Horsfall, N. (2000). A Companion to the Study of Virgil. ISBN 978-90-04-11951-2. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Kenney, E. J. (1971). "Introduction". Lucretius: De rerum natura. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29177-4. Melville, Ronald; Fowler, Don and Peta, eds. (2008) [1999]. Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-162327-1. Reale, G.; Catan, J. (1980). A History of Ancient Philosophy: The Systems of the Hellenistic Age. SUNY Press. Santayana, George (1910). "Three philosophical poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe". Retrieved 16 May 2012. Smith, M. (1992). "Introduction". De rerum natura. Loeb Classical Library. Smith, M. F. (1975). De rerum natura. Loeb Classical Library. Smith, M. F. (2011) [2001]. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-587-1. Retrieved 16 May 2012. Stearns, J. B. (December 1931). "Lucretius and Memmius". The Classical Weekly. 25 (9): 67–68. doi:10.2307/4389660. JSTOR 4389660. Virgil. "Georgics". Retrieved 16 May 2012. Editions Hutchinson, Lucy (b. 1620 d. 1681) De Rerum Natura. Lucretius. De rerum natura. (3 vols. Latin text Books I-VI. Comprehensive commentary by Cyril Bailey), Oxford University Press 1947. On the Nature of Things, (1951 prose translation by R. E. Latham), introduction and notes by John Godwin, Penguin revised edition 1994, ISBN 0-14-044610-9 T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura (1963). Edidit Joseph Martin (Bibliotheca scriptorvm Graecorvm et Romanorvm Tevbneriana). Lucretius (1971). De rerum natura Book III. (Latin version of Book III only– 37 pp., with extensive commentary by E. J. Kenney– 171 pp.), Cambridge University Press corrected reprint 1984. ISBN 0-521-29177-1 Lucretius (2008 [1997, 1999]), On the Nature of the Universe (tr. Melville, Ronald) (introduction and notes by Fowler, Don; Fowler, Peta). Oxford University Press [Oxford World Classics], ISBN 978-0-19-955514-7 Munro H. A. J. Lucretius: On the Nature of Things Translated, with an analysis of the six books. 4th Edn, Routledge (1886). Online version at the Internet Archive (2011). Piazzi, Lisa (2006) Lucrezio e i presocratici. Edizioni della Normale. Stallings, A.E. (2007) Lucretius: The Nature of Things. Penguin Classics. Penguin. Englert, W (2003) Lucretius: On the Nature of Things (Focus Publishing). Commentary Beretta, Marco. Francesco Citti (edd), Lucrezio, la natura e la scienza (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2008) (Biblioteca di Nuncius / Istituto e Museo distoria della scienza, Firenze; 66). Campbell, Gordon. Lucretius on Creation and Evolution: A Commentary on De rerum natura Book Five, Lines 772–1104 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). DeMay, Philip. Lucretius: Poet and Epicurean (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009) (Series: Greece & Rome: texts and contexts). Deufert, Marcus. Pseudo-Lukrezisches im Lukrez (Berlin-New York, 1996). Erler M. "Lukrez," in H. Flashar (ed.), Die Philosophie der Antike. Bd. 4. Die hellenistische Philosophie (Basel, 1994), 381–490. Esolen, Anthony M. Lucretius On the Nature of Things (Baltimore, 1995). Fowler, Don. Lucretius on Atomic Motion: A Commentary on De rerum natura 2. 1–332 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). Johnson, W.R. Lucretius and the Modern World (London, Duckworth, 2000). Marković, Daniel. The Rhetoric of Explanation in Lucretius’ De rerum natura (Leiden, Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne, Supplements, 294). Melville, Ronald. Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe (Oxford, 1997). Nail, Thomas. Lucretius I: An Ontology of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018). Nail, Thomas. Lucretius II: An Ethics of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020). Gale Monica R. (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Garani, Myrto. Empedocles Redivivus: poetry and analogy in Lucretius. Studies in classics (London; New York: Routledge, 2007). Godwin, John. Lucretius (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2004) ("Ancient in Action" Series). Rumpf L. Naturerkenntnis und Naturerfahrung. Zur Reflexion epikureischer Theorie bei Lukrez (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2003) (Zetemata, 116). Sedley, David N. Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008 [1998]). Strauss, Leo. "Notes on Lucretius," in Liberalism: Ancient and Modern (Chicago, 1968), 76–139. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Titus Lucretius Carus Wikiquote has quotations related to: Lucretius Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucretius. Library resources about Lucretius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Lucretius Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries "Lucretius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. Works by Lucretius at Project Gutenberg On The Nature Of Things Works by or about Lucretius at Internet Archive Works by Lucretius at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Lucretius at Perseus Project Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry by David Simpson Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Lucretius's works: text, concordances and frequency list Bibliography De rerum natura Book III Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High-resolution images of works by Lucretius in .jpg and .tiff format. Lucretius: De rerum natura (1475–1494), digitised codex at Somni Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex, published in Paris 1563, later owned and annotated by Montaigne, fully digitised in Cambridge Digital Library Discussion Forum For Lucretius and Epicurean Philosophy Is nature continuous or discrete? How the atomist error was born v t e Epicureanism Philosophers Greek era Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Roman era Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Modern era Pierre Gassendi Denis Diderot Jeremy Bentham Jun Tsuji Christopher Hitchens Michel Onfray Philosophy Epicureanism (cf. Hedonism) Tetrapharmakos Concepts Aponia Ataraxia Clinamen Eikas Eudaimonia Hedone Metakosmia Works On the Nature of Things List of English translations of De rerum natura v t e Ancient Greek schools of philosophy Pre-Socratic Ionian Epimenides of Knossos Pherecydes of Syros Diogenes Metrodorus of Lampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades Theodorus of Cyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo Musaeus of Athens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus Metrodorus of Cos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Socratic Socrates Xenophon Cebes of Thebes Simmias of Thebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius Dio Chrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax Peregrinus Proteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus Arete of Cyrene Aristippus the Younger Theodorus the Atheist Antipater of Cyrene Aristotle of Cyrene Hegesias of Cyrene Anniceris Dionysius the Renegade Euhemerus Eretrian Phaedo of Elis Menedemus Asclepiades of Phlius Megarian Euclid of Megara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus Apollonius Cronus Euphantus Dionysius Diodorus Cronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus Clearchus of Soli Dicaearchus Eudemus of Rhodes Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Lyco of Troas Aristo of Ceos Critolaus Diodorus of Tyre Erymneus Andronicus of Rhodes Cratippus Andronicus of Rhodes Boethus of Sidon Aristocles of Messene Aspasius Adrastus Alexander of Aphrodisias Themistius Olympiodorus the Elder Platonic Plato Eudoxus Philip of Opus Aristonymus Coriscus Erastus of Scepsis Demetrius of Amphipolis Euaeon of Lampsacus Heraclides Python of Aenus Hestiaeus of Perinthus Lastheneia of Mantinea Timolaus of Cyzicus Speusippus Axiothea of Phlius Heraclides Ponticus Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Hellenistic Academic Skeptic Middle Arcesilaus Diocles of Cnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades Hagnon of Tarsus Metrodorus of Stratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas Aeschines of Neapolis Philo of Larissa Cicero Dio of Alexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus Dionysius of Lamptrai Basilides Philonides Diogenes of Tarsus Alcaeus and Philiscus Apollodorus Demetrius Lacon Zeno of Sidon Amafinius Rabirius Titus Albucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro Diogenes of Oenoanda Middle Platonic Antiochus Philo of 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en-wikipedia-org-710	----	Category:Kings of Corinth - Wikipedia Help Category:Kings of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Pages in category "Kings of Corinth" The following 9 pages are in this category, out of 9 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Aletes (Heraclid) B Bounos C Corinthus Creon of Corinth G Glaucus of Corinth O Ornytion P Polybus of Corinth S Sisyphus T Thoas (king of Corinth) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Kings_of_Corinth&oldid=699959682" Categories: Kings in Greek mythology Dorian mythology Ancient Corinthians People from Corinth Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Slovenčina Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 15 January 2016, at 14:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
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en-wikipedia-org-7203	----	Hecate - Wikipedia Hecate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Hecate (disambiguation). Greek goddess of magic and crossroads Hecate Goddess of boundaries, crossroads, witchcraft, and ghosts The Hecate Chiaramonti, a Roman sculpture of triple-bodied Hecate, after a Hellenistic original (Museo Chiaramonti, Vatican Museums) Abode Underworld Symbol Paired torches, dogs, red mullet, serpents, keys, polecats, daggers, and Hecate's wheel Parents Perses and Asteria Offspring Scylla, Aeëtes, Circe, Pasiphaë, Empusa Equivalents Mesopotamian equivalent Ereshkigal Part of a series on Ancient Greek religion Origins Ancient Greek Religion Mycenaean Greece and Mycenaean religion Minoan Civilization Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Sacred Places Sacred Islands Delos Ithaca Naxos Kythira Samothrace Crete Sacred Mountains Mount Lykaion Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Olympus Mount Kyllini Mount Othrys Sanctuaries Aornum Delphi Didyma Dion Dodona Eleusis Olympia Other Cave of Zeus Troy Deities Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Lesser deities Alpheus Amphitrite Asclepius Bia Circe Cybele Deimos Eileithyia Enyo Eos Eris Harmonia Hebe Hecate Helios Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Metis Momus Nemesis Nike Pan Persephone Phobos Proteus Scamander Selene Thanatos Thetis Triton Zelus Concepts Worldview Greek Mythology Orphic Egg Underworld and Afterlife Miasma Daimon Greek Heroic Age Divine and Reality Apeiron Monism Polytheism Pantheism Form of the Good Theory of forms Mind Anamnesis Ataraxia Apatheia Episteme Epoché Katalepsis Logos Nous Phronesis Soul Anima mundi Metempsychosis Henosis Plato's theory of soul Ethics Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of Reciprocity Delphic maxims Adiaphora Eudaimonia Kathekon Oikeiôsis Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Dionysian Mysteries Practices Worship Agalma Dithyramb Paean Orgion Hiera Orgas Hero Cult Oracle and Pythia Sacrifices and Offerings Holokaustos Libation Votive offering Animal Sacrifice Temples and holy sites Temple Temenos Meditation and Charity Eusebeia Meditation Euergetism Rites of passage Amphidromia Marriage Funeral Rites Festivals Thesmophoria Dionysia Daphnephoria Anthesteria Arrephoria Kronia Genesia Elaphebolia Pyanopsia Khalkeia Haloa Thargelia Three Monthly Festivals Deipnon Noumenia Agathodaemon Religious Games Panathenaia Herakleia Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Nemean Games Pythian Games Isthmian Games Hellenistic philosophy Stoicism Platonism Cynicism Epicureanism Peripatetic Pythagoreanism Pyrrhonism Sophism Philosophers Ancient Hesiod Homer Leucippus Democritus Diogenes of Apollonia Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Thales of Miletus Anaximenes of Miletus Parmenides Melissus of Samos Anaxagoras Empedocles Anaximander Prodicus Classical Socrates Antisthenes Diogenes Aristippus Euclid of Megara Stilpo Aristotle Aristoxenus Theophrastus Strato of Lampsacus Plato Speusippus Xenocrates Hellenistic and Roman Arcesilaus Carneades Epicurus Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) Plutarch Pyrrho Aenesidemus Agrippa the Skeptic Timon of Phlius Sextus Empiricus Cicero Plotinus Julian (emperor) Zeno of Citium Aratus Aristo of Chios Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius Marcus Aurelius Epictetus Arrian Texts Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days Other Topics Pilgrimage Sites Calendar Greek mythology Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Julian restoration Modern Restoration  Religion portal  Ancient Greece portal v t e Hecate or Hekate[a] is a goddess in ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches or a key[1] and in later periods depicted in triple form. She is variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, night, light, magic, witchcraft, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, ghosts, necromancy, and sorcery.[2][3] Her earliest appearance in literature was in Hesiod's Theogony in the 8th century BCE[4] as a goddess of great honor with domains in sky, earth, and sea. Her place of origin is debated by scholars, but she had popular followings amongst the witches of Thessaly[5] and an important sanctuary among the Carians of Asia Minor in Lagina.[5] Hecate was one of several deities worshiped in ancient Athens as a protector of the oikos (household), alongside Zeus, Hestia, Hermes, and Apollo.[6] In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd–3rd century CE) she was also regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea, and sky, as well as a more universal role as Savior (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul.[7][8] Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, "she is more at home on the fringes than in the center of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition."[9] Contents 1 Name and origin 1.1 Greek origin 1.2 Egyptian origin 1.3 Anatolian origin 1.4 Later development 2 Iconography 2.1 Sacred animals 2.2 Sacred plants 3 Functions 3.1 As a goddess of boundaries 3.2 As a goddess of the underworld 3.3 As a goddess of witchcraft 4 Cult 4.1 History 4.2 Sanctuaries 4.2.1 Cult at Lagina 4.2.2 Cult at Byzantium 4.3 Deipnon 4.4 Epithets 5 Historical and literary sources 5.1 Archaic period 5.2 Classical period 5.3 Late Antiquity 5.4 Parents and children 6 Legacy 6.1 Modern reception 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary sources 10 External links Name and origin[edit] The origin of the name Hecate (Ἑκάτη, Hekátē) and the original country of her worship are both unknown, though several theories have been proposed. Greek origin[edit] Whether or not Hecate's worship originated in Greece, some scholars have suggested that the name derives from a Greek root, and several potential source words have been identified. For example, ἑκών "willing" (thus, "she who works her will" or similar), may be related to the name Hecate.[10] However, no sources suggested list will or willingness as a major attribute of Hecate, which makes this possibility unlikely.[11] Another Greek word suggested as the origin of the name Hecate is Ἑκατός Hekatos, an obscure epithet of Apollo[9] interpreted as "the far reaching one" or "the far-darter".[12] This has been suggested in comparison with the attributes of the goddess Artemis, strongly associated with Apollo and frequently equated with Hecate in the classical world. Supporters of this etymology suggest that Hecate was originally considered an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon. Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood, on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshiped separately under her title Hecate.[13] Though often considered the most likely Greek origin of the name, the Ἑκατός theory does not account for her worship in Asia Minor, where her association with Artemis seems to have been a late development, and the competing theories that the attribution of darker aspects and magic to Hecate were themselves not originally part of her cult.[11] R. S. P. Beekes rejected a Greek etymology and suggested a Pre-Greek origin.[14] Egyptian origin[edit] A possibility for foreign origin of the name may be ḥqt or ḥqꜣt, an Egyptian goddess of fertility and childbirth, who, like Hecate, was also associated with ḥqꜣ, magic.[15] Anatolian origin[edit] Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia,[5] the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested,[16] and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivaled[17] cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess."[18] The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date.[19] William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavory ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens."[20] In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna) based on similar attributes.[21] If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans.[citation needed] Later development[edit] In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as /ˈhɛk.ɪt/) and sometimes spelled Hecat. It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final e, well into the 19th century.[citation needed] The spelling Hecat is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses,[22] and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period.[23] Webster's Dictionary of 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then-predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name.[24] Iconography[edit] Hekataion with the Charites, Attic, 3rd century BCE (Glyptothek, Munich) Hecate was generally represented as three-formed or triple-bodied, though the earliest known images of the goddess are singular. Her earliest known representation is a small terracotta statue found in Athens. An inscription on the statue is a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century, but it otherwise lacks any other symbols typically associated with the goddess. She is seated on a throne, with a chaplet around her head; the depiction is otherwise relatively generic.[25] Farnell states: "The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature."[25] A 6th century fragment of pottery from Boetia depicts a goddess which may be Hecate in a maternal or fertility mode. Crowned with leafy branches as in later descriptions, she is depicted offering a "maternal blessing" to two maidens who embrace her. The figure is flanked by lions, an animal associated with Hecate both in the Chaldean Oracles, coinage, and reliefs from Asia Minor.[26] Marble relief of Hecate. The 2nd-century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alcamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BC,[3] whose sculpture was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Though Alcamenes' original statue is lost, hundreds of copies exist, and the general motif of a triple Hecate situated around a central pole or column, known as a hekataion, was used both at crossroads shrines as well as at the entrances to temples and private homes. These typically depict her holding a variety of items, including torches, keys, serpents, and daggers.[27][26] Some hekataia, including a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BC, include additional dancing figures identified as the Charites circling the triple Hecate and her central column. It is possible that the representation of a triple Hecate surrounding a central pillar was originally derived from poles set up at three-way crossroads with masks hung on them, facing in each road direction. In the 1st century AD, Ovid wrote: "Look at Hecate, standing guard at the crossroads, one face looking in each direction."[26] Apart from traditional hekataia, Hecate's triplicity is depicted in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon." (Description of Greece 2.22.7). While Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art generally represented Hecate's triple form as three separate bodies, the iconography of the triple Hecate eventually evolved into representations of the goddess with a single body, but three faces. In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in the Greek Magical Papyri of Late Antiquity, Hecate is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations, her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar.[28] Sacred animals[edit] A goddess, probably Hekate or else Artemis, is depicted with a bow, dog and twin torches. Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament."[29] The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.[9] A 4th-century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner.[30] It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Images of her attended by a dog[31] are also found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Kybele in reliefs.[32] Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's underworld associations."[33] The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth in Lycophron: the friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hekabe, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar.[34] The polecat is also associated with Hecate. Antoninus Liberalis used a myth to explain this association: "At Thebes Proitos had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alkmene, daughter of Elektryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alkmene, the Moirai (Fates) and Eileithyia (Birth-Goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alkmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alkmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eleithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alkmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished. At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alkmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hekate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself."[35] Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: ""I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (Pharmakis); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me: fables and their telling I leave to others."[36] Athenaeus of Naucratis, drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens, notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form". The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets".[37] In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep."[38] At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice.[39] After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, "Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change."[40] In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse.[41] Lions are associated with Hecate in early artwork from Asia Minor, as well as later coins and literature, including the Chaldean Oracles.[26] The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly-named Egyptian goddess Heqet,[42] has also become sacred to Hecate in modern pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements.[43] Sacred plants[edit] Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs."[44] The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak.[45] The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison.[46] Hecate was said to favor offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult.[47] She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.[48] A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate.[49] These include aconite (also called hecateis),[50] belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic.[51] Functions[edit] Gilt bronze Hekataion, 1st century CE. Musei Capitolini, Rome. As a goddess of boundaries[edit] Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes—Olympian and Titan—but also between mortal and divine spheres."[52] This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away/protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc. As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals.[53] It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia's very name ("In-the-Road") suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants.[54] This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions."[55] This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans.[56] Drawing of a Hekataion. Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates).[9] In this form she came to be identified with the Roman goddess Trivia ("of the three ways").[citation needed] In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads",[57] and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...".[58] As a goddess of the underworld[edit] Thanks to her association with boundaries and the liminal spaces between worlds, Hecate is also recognized as a chthonic (underworld) goddess. As the holder of the keys that can unlock the gates between realms, she can unlock the gates of death, as described in a 3rd century BCE poem by Theocritus. In the 1st century CE, Virgil described the entrance to hell as "Hecate's Grove", though he says that Hecate is equally "powerful in Heaven and Hell." The Greek Magical Papyri describe Hecate as the holder of the keys to Tartaros.[26] Like Hermes, Hecate takes on the role of guardian not just of roads, but of all journeys, including the journey to the afterlife. In art and myth, she is shown, along with Hermes, guiding Persephone back from the underworld with her torches.[26] By the 5th century BCE, Hecate had come to be strongly associated with ghosts, possibly due to conflation with the Thessalian goddess Enodia (meaning "traveler"), who traveled the earth with a retinue of ghosts and was depicted on coinage wearing a leafy crown and holding torches, iconography strongly associated with Hecate.[26] As a goddess of witchcraft[edit] By the 1st century CE, Hecate's chthonic and nocturnal character had led to her transformation into a goddess heavily associated with witchcraft, witches, magic, and sorcery. In Lucan's Pharsalia, the witch Erichtho invokes Hecate as "Persephone, who is the third and lowest aspect of Hecate, the goddess we witches revere", and describes her as a "rotting goddess" with a "pallid decaying body", who has to "wear a mask when [she] visit[s] the gods in heaven."[26] Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it."[59] Cult[edit] Worship of Hecate existed alongside other deities in major public shrines and temples in antiquity, and she had a significant role as household deity.[60] Shrines to Hecate were often placed at doorways to homes, temples, and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits. Home shrines often took the form of a small Hekataion, a shrine centered on a wood or stone carving of a triple Hecate facing in three directions on three sides of a central pillar. Larger Hekataions, often enclosed within small walled areas, were sometimes placed at public crossroads near important sites – for example, there was one on the road leading to the Acropolis.[61] Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils.[62] Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road.[63] This can be compared to Pausanias' report that in the Ionian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as "the wayside goddess", and Plutarch's observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess.[64] History[edit] The earliest definitive record of Hecate's worship dates to the 6th century B.C.E., in the form of a small terracotta statue of a seated goddess, identified as Hekate in its inscription. This and other early depictions of Hecate lack distinctive attributes that would later be associated with her, such as a triple form or torches, and can only be identified as Hecate thanks to their inscriptions. Otherwise, they are typically generic, or Artemis-like.[26] Hecate's cult became established in Athens about 430 B.C.E. At this time, the sculptor Alcamenes made the earliest known triple-formed Hecate statue for use at her new temple. While this sculpture has not survived to the present day, numerous later copies are extant.[26] It has been speculated that this triple image, usually situated around a pole or pillar, was derived from earlier representations of the goddess using three masks hung on actual wooden poles, possibly placed at crossroads and gateways.[26] Sanctuaries[edit] Hecate was a popular divinity, and her cult was practiced with many local variations all over Greece and Western Anatolia. Caria was a major center of worship and her most famous temple there was located in the town of Lagina. The oldest known direct evidence of Hecate's cult comes from Selinunte (near modern-day Trapani in Sicily), where she had a temple in the 6th–5th centuries BCE.[65] There was a Temple of Hecate in Argolis: Over against the sanctuary of Eilethyia is a temple of Hekate [the goddess probably here identified with the apotheosed Iphigenia, and the image is a work of Skopas. This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hekate, were made respectively by Polykleitos and his brother Naukydes.[66] There were also a shrine to Hecate in Aigina, where she was very popular: Of the gods, the Aiginetans worship most Hekate, in whose honour every year they celebrate mystic rites which, they say, Orpheus the Thrakian established among them. Within the enclosure is a temple; its wooden image is the work of Myron, and it has one face and one body. It was Alkamenes, in my opinion, who first made three images of Hekate attached to one another [in Athens].[67] Aside from her own temples, Hecate was also worshipped in the sanctuaries of other gods, where she was apparently sometimes given her own space. A round stone altar dedicated to the goddess was found in the Delphinion (a temple dedicated to Apollo) at Miletus. Dated to the 7th century BCE, this is one of the oldest known artifacts dedicated to the worship of Hecate.[11] In association with her worship alongside Apollo at Miletus, worshipers used a unique form of offering: they would place stone cubes, often wreathes, known as γυλλοι (gylloi) as protective offerings at the door or gateway.[11][68] There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated.[69] This sanctuary was called Hekatesion (Shrine of Hekate).[70] Hecate was also worshipped in the Temple of Athena in Titane: "In Titane there is also a sanctuary of Athena, into which they bring up the image of Koronis [mother of Asklepios] ... The sanctuary is built upon a hill, at the bottom of which is an Altar of the Winds, and on it the priest sacrifices to the winds one night in every year. He also performs other secret rites [of Hekate] at four pits, taming the fierceness of the blasts [of the winds], and he is said to chant as well the charms of Medea."[71] She was most commonly worshipped in nature, where she had many natural sanctuaries. An important sanctuary of Hecate was a holy cave on the island of Samothrake called Zerynthos: In Samothrake there were certain initiation-rites, which they supposed efficacious as a charm against certain dangers. In that place were also the mysteries of the Korybantes [Kabeiroi] and those of Hekate and the Zerinthian cave, where they sacrificed dogs. The initiates supposed that these things save [them] from terrors and from storms.[72] Cult at Lagina[edit] Hecate's most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs.[5] The temple is mentioned by Strabo: Stratonikeia [in Karia, Asia Minor] is a settlement of Makedonians ... There are two temples in the country of the Stratonikeians, of which the most famous, that of Hekate, is at Lagina; and it draws great festal assemblies every year.[73] Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city's patron.[74] In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a ruler of liminal regions, particularly gates, and the wilderness. Cult at Byzantium[edit] Juniper wood Hekataion. Ptolemaic Egypt, c. 304–30 BCE. Hecate was greatly worshipped in Byzantium. She was said to have saved the city from Philip II of Macedon, warning the citizens of a night time attack by a light in the sky, for which she was known as Hecate Lampadephoros. The tale is preserved in the Suda.[75] As Hecate Phosphorus (Venus) she is said to have lit the sky during the Siege of Philip II in 340 BCE, revealing the attack to its inhabitants. The Byzantines dedicated a statue to her as the "lamp carrier".[76] According to Hesychius of Miletus there was once a statue of Hecate at the site of the Hippodrome in Constantinople.[77] Deipnon[edit] The Athenian Greeks honored Hekate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hekate's Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hekate and the restless dead once a lunar month[78] during the new moon. The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia,[79] when the first sliver of the sunlit Moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that. The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honor Hekate and to placate the souls in her wake who "longed for vengeance."[80] A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hekate, causing her to withhold her favor from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home[81] 2) an expiation sacrifice,[82] and 3) purification of the household.[83] Epithets[edit] Sketch of a stone Hecataion. Richard Cosway, British Museum. Hecate was known by a number of epithets: Apotropaia (Ἀποτρόπαια, that turns away/protects)[84] Chthonia (Χθωνία, of the earth/underworld)[85] Enodia (Ἐννοδία, on the way)[86] Klêidouchos (Κλειδοῦχος, holding the keys)[87] Kourotrophos (Κουροτρόφος, nurse of children)[87] Krokopeplos (Κροκόπεπλος, saffron cloaked)[88] Melinoe (Μηλινόη)[89] Phosphoros, Lampadephoros (Φωσφόρος, Λαμπαδηφόρος, bringing or bearing light)[87] Propolos (Πρόπολος, who serves/attends)[87] Propulaia/Propylaia (Προπύλαια, before the gate)[90] Soteria (Σωτηρία, savior)[8] Trimorphe (Τρίμορφε, three-formed)[87] Triodia/Trioditis (Τριοδία, Τριοδίτης, who frequents crossroads)[87] Historical and literary sources[edit] Archaic period[edit] Hecate, Greek goddess of the crossroads; drawing by Stéphane Mallarmé in Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée in Paris, 1880 Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. The first literature mentioning Hecate is the Theogony (c. 700 BCE) by Hesiod: And [Asteria] conceived and bore Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea.[91] According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things: Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honours.[92] The coins of Agathocles of Bactria (ruled 190–180 BCE), show Zeus holding Hecate in his hand.[93] Hesiod's inclusion and praise of Hekate in the Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception. One theory is that Hesiod's original village had a substantial Hekate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers.[94] Another theory is that Hekate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship.[95] In Athens Hekate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household.[6] However, it is clear that the special position given to Hekate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins depicting Hekate on the hand of Zeus[96] as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine.[97] In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (composed c. 600 BCE), Hekate is called "tender-hearted", a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the Sun, Helios. Subsequently, Hekate became Persephone's companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades; serving as a psychopomp. Because of this association, Hekate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone,[1] and there was a temple dedicated to her near the main sanctuary at Eleusis.[26] Classical period[edit] Variations in interpretations of Hekate's role or roles can be traced in classical Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres.[citation needed] One surviving group of stories[clarification needed] suggests how Hekate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. Here, Hekate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigenia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide.[94] In the Argonautica, a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material,[98] Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of a ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs.[99] All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.[citation needed] Late Antiquity[edit] Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the Chaldean Oracles (2nd–3rd century CE),[100] where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate."[101] This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus.[102] In Hellenistic syncretism, Hecate also became closely associated with Isis. Lucius Apuleius in The Golden Ass (2nd century) equates Juno, Bellona, Hecate and Isis: Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis.[103] In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian ("Chaldean") elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, Hecate Ereschigal is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife.[104] Parents and children[edit] In the earliest written source mentioning Hekate, Hesiod emphasized that she was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the Moon.[92] In various later accounts, Hekate was given different parents.[105] She was said to be the daughter of Zeus and Asteria, according to Musaeus; the daughter of Aristaeus the son of Paion, according to Pherecydes; the daughter of Nyx, according to Bacchylides; while in Orphic literature, she was said to be the daughter of Demeter.[106] As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla[107] through either Apollo [108] or Phorkys.[109] Sometimes she is also stated to be the mother (by unknown father) of the goddess Circe,[110] who in later accounts was herself associated with magic while initially just being a herbalist goddess, similar to how Hecate’s association with Underworld and Mysteries had her later converted into a deity of witchcraft. Legacy[edit] The Triple Hecate, 1795. William Blake Strmiska (2005) claimed that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an "emerging legend complex" known as "The Society of Diana"[111] associated with gatherings of women, the Moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans."[112] This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807[113] and is reflected[dubious – discuss] in etymological claims by early modern lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, connecting hag, hexe "witch" to the name of Hecate.[114] Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority[115] [116] A medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word "jinx" with Hecate: "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence "jinx"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate."[117] Shakespeare mentions Hecate both before the end of the 16th century (A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1594–1596), and just after, in Macbeth (1605): specifically, in the title character's "dagger" soliloquy: "Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate's offerings..."[118] Modern reception[edit] Hekate, pastel on paper by Maximilian Pirner, 1901. In 1929, Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, "The Cult of the Great Eleven,") with Hecate worship rituals. He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its "queens" with seven dogs.[119] Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult's focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection.[120] As a "goddess of witchcraft", Hecate has been incorporated in various systems of modern witchcraft, Wicca, and neopaganism,[121] in some cases associated with the Wild Hunt of Germanic tradition,[122] in others as part of a reconstruction of specifically Greek polytheism, in English also known as "Hellenismos".[123] In Wicca, Hecate has in some cases become identified with the "crone" aspect of the "Triple Goddess".[124] See also[edit] Hecate (journal) Janus – Roman god of beginnings and doorways Lampade Notes[edit] ^ Hecate, Hekate /ˈhɛk.ə.ti/; older form Hecat /ˈhɛk.ɪt/ Ancient Greek: Ἑκάτη, romanized: Hekátē, Attic Greek pronunciation: [he.ká.tɛː], Koine Greek pronunciation: [hɛˈka.ti] Doric Greek: Ἑκάτᾱ, romanized: Hekátā [he.ká.taː] Latin: Hecatē [ˈhɛ.ka.t̪eː] or Hecata [ˈhɛ.ka.t̪a] ^ a b Edwards, Charles M. (July 1986). "The Running Maiden from Eleusis and the Early Classical Image of Hekate". American Journal of Archaeology. Boston, Massachusetts: Archaeological Institute of America. 90 (3): 307–318. doi:10.2307/505689. JSTOR 505689. ^ "HECATE : Greek goddess of witchcraft, ghosts & magic ; mythology ; pictures : HEKATE". Theoi.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ a b d'Este, Sorita & Rankine, David, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009. ^ trans. M.L. West (1988). Hesiod Theogony and Works and Days. New York: Oxforx World's Classics. pp. vii. ISBN 978-0-19-953831-7. ^ a b c d Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, p. 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. ^ a b Panopoulos, Christos Pandion. "Hellenic Household Worship". LABRYS. ^ "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 02.06.11". Bmcr.brynmawr.edu. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ a b Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira, Scholars Press, 1990. ^ a b c d Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. ^ At least in the case of Hesiod's use, see Clay, Jenny Strauss (2003). Hesiod's Cosmos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-521-82392-7. Clay lists a number of researchers who have advanced some variant of the association between Hecate's name and will (e.g. Walcot (1958), Neitzel (1975), Derossi (1975)). The researcher is led to identify "the name and function of Hecate as the one 'by whose will' prayers are accomplished and fulfilled." This interpretation also appears in Liddell-Scott, A Greek English Lexicon, in the entry for Hecate, which is glossed as "lit. 'she who works her will'" ^ a b c d Mooney, Carol M., "Hekate: Her Role and Character in Greek Literature from before the Fifth Century B.C." (1971). Open Access Dissertations and heses. Paper 4651. ^ Wheelwright, P. E. (1975). Metaphor and Reality. Bloomington. p. 144. ISBN 0-253-20122-5. ^ Fairbanks, Arthur. A Handbook of Greek Religion. American Book Company, 1910. ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek (2009), Brill, p. 396. ^ McKechnie, Paul R.; Guillaume, Philippe (2008). Ptolemy the second Philadelphus and his world. BRILL. p. 133. ISBN 978-90-04-17089-6. ^ Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960. ^ Berg 1974, p. 128: Berg comments on Hecate's endorsement of Roman hegemony in her representation on the pediment at Lagina solemnising a pact between a warrior (Rome) and an amazon (Asia) ^ Berg 1974, p. 134. Berg's argument for a Greek origin rests on three main points: 1. Almost all archaeological and literary evidence for her cult comes from the Greek mainland, and especially from Attica—all of which dates earlier than the 2nd century BCE. 2. In Asia Minor only one monument can be associated with Hecate prior to the 2nd century BCE. 3. The supposed connection between Hecate and attested "Carian theophoric names" is not convincing, and instead suggests an aspect of the process of her Hellenization. He concludes, "Arguments for Hecate's "Anatolian" origin are not in accord with evidence." ^ Kraus 1960, p. 52; list pp. 166 ff. ^ Berg 1974, p. 129. ^ Mary Bachvarova, Hecate: An Anatolian Sun-Goddess of the Underworld, SSRN Electronic Journal · May 2010 DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1608145 ^ Golding, Arthur (1567). Ovid's Metamorphoses, Book Seven. ISBN 9781406792416. ^ Marlowe, Christopher (first published 1604; performed earlier). Doctor Faustus, Act III, Scene 2, line 21: "Pluto's blue fire and Hecat's tree". Shakespeare, William (c. 1594–96). A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act V, Scene 1, line 384: "By the triple Hecat's team". Shakespeare, William (c. 1603–07). Macbeth, Act III, Scene 5, line 1: "Why, how now, Hecat!" Jonson, Ben (c. 1637, printed 1641). The Sad Shepherd, Act II, Scene 3, line 668: "our dame Hecat". ^ Webster, Noah (1866). A Dictionary of the English Language (10th ed.). Rules for pronouncing the vowels of Greek and Latin proper names", p.9: "Hecate..., pronounced in three syllables when in Latin, and in the same number in the Greek word Ἑκάτη, in English is universally contracted into two, by sinking the final e. Shakespeare seems to have begun, as he has now confirmed, this pronunciation, by so adapting the word in Macbeth.... And the play-going world, who form no small portion of what is called the better sort of people, have followed the actors in this world, and the rest of the world have followed them. Cf. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1894): "Hec'ate (3 syl. in Greek, 2 in Eng.)" ^ a b Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). "Hekate: Representations in Art", The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 549. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Rabinowitz, Jacob. The Rotting Goddess: The origin of the witch in classical antiquity's demonization of fertility religion. Autonomedia, 1998. ^ Hekate Her Sacred Fires, ed. Sorita d'Este, Avalonia, 2010 ^ Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195. ^ Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p67 ^ This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number 816. ^ [1] Archived 24 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Images". Eidola.eu. 28 February 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead, University of California Press, 1999, pp. 211–212. ^ "LYCOPHRON, ALEXANDRA – Theoi Classical Texts Library". ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 29, translation by Francis Celoria, Psychology Press, 1992 ^ On the Characteristics of Animals by Aelian, translated by Alwyn Faber Scholfield, Harvard University Press, 1958 ^ Charles Duke Yonge, tr., The Learned Banqueters, H.G. Bohn, 1854. ^ Robert Parker, Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 362–363. ^ William Martin Leake, The Topography of Athens, London, 1841, p. 492. ^ Alan Davidson, Mediterranean Seafood, Ten Speed Press, 2002, p. 92. ^ Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195; "Hecate" article, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1823. ^ Armour, Robert A. (2001). Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt. American University in Cairo Press. p. 116. ^ Varner, Gary R. (2007). Creatures in the Mist: Little People, Wild Men and Spirit Beings Around the World: A Study in Comparative Mythology, p. 135. New York: Algora Publishing. ISBN 0-87586-546-1. ^ R. L. Hunter, The Argonautica of Apollonius, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 142, citing Apollonius of Rhodes. ^ Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 82–83. ^ Matthew Suffness (Ed.), Taxol: Science and Applications, CRC Press, 1995, p. 28. ^ Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, p. 143; Fragkiska Megaloudi, Plants and Diet in Greece From Neolithic to Classic Periods, Archaeopress, 2006, p. 71. ^ Frieze, Henry; Dennison, Walter (1902). Virgil's Aeneid. New York: American Book Company. pp. N111. ^ "Hecate had a "botanical garden" on the island of Colchis where the following alkaloid plants were kept: Akoniton (Aconitum napellus), Diktamnon (Dictamnus albus), Mandragores (Mandragora officinarum), Mekon (Papaver somniferum), Melaina (Claviceps pupurea), Thryon (Atropa belladona), and Cochicum [...]" Margaret F. Roberts, Michael Wink, Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications, Springer, 1998, p. 16. ^ Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, Penguin Books, 1977, p. 154. ^ Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, pp. 121–124. ^ Bonnie MacLachlan, Judith Fletcher, Virginity Revisited: Configurations of The Unpossessed Body, University of Toronto Press, 2007, p. 14. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 209. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 208. ^ Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary And The Creation of Christian Constantinople, Routledge, 1994, pp. 126–127. ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. ^ Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the history of Christianity, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 72. ^ Saint Ouen, Vita Eligii book II.16 Archived 20 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Richard Cavendish, The Powers of Evil in Western Religion, Magic and Folk Belief, Routledge, 1975, p. 62. ^ Aune, David Edward (2006). Apocalypticism, Prophecy and Magic in Early Christianity: Collected Essays. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 356ff. ISBN 3161490207. ^ Wycherley, R. (1970). Minor Shrines in Ancient Athens. Phoenix, 24(4), 283–295. doi:10.2307/1087735 ^ "CULT OF HEKATE : Ancient Greek religion". Theoi.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ As Sterckx (2002) observes, "The use of dog sacrifices at the gates and doors of the living and the dead as well as its use in travel sacrifices suggest that dogs were perceived as daemonic animals operating in the liminal or transitory realm between the domestic and the unknown, danger-stricken outside world". Roel Sterckx, The Animal and The Daemon in Early China, State University of New York Press, 2002, pp 232–233. Sterckx explicitly recognizes the similarities between these ancient Chinese views of dogs and those current in Greek and Roman antiquity, and goes on to note "Dog sacrifice was also a common practice among the Greeks where the dog figured prominently as a guardian of the underworld." (Footnote 113, p318) ^ Simoons, Frederick J. (1994). Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 233–234. ISBN 978-0299142544. ^ Redazione ANSA. "Oldest ever trace of Hekate cult found". 16 January 2018. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 22. 7 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 30. 2 (trans. Jones) ^ J.-M. Carbon, S. Peels and V. Pirenne-Delforge, Collection of Greek Ritual Norms (CGRN), Liège 2015– (http://cgrn.ulg.ac.be, consulted in [2019]). ^ Strabo, Geography, 14.1.23 ^ Strabo, Geography 14. 1. 23 (trans. Jones) ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.12.1 ^ Suidas s.v. All' ei tis humôn en Samothraikei memuemenos esti ^ Strabo, Geography 14.2.15 (trans. Jones) ^ Strabo, Geography 14.2.25; Kraus 1960. ^ "In 340 B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]". William Gordon Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora, 2003, pp. 5–6; "If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of "liminal places", in Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros' was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate's defensive aid." Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress, Routledge, 1994, pp. 126–127; this story apparently survived in the works Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the Suda, a Byzantine lexicon of the 10th century CE. The tale is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium and Eustathius. ^ Russell, Thomas James (2017). Byzantium and the Bosporus. Oxfordshire, England: Oxford University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780198790525. ^ Patria of Constantinople ^ The play Plutus by Aristophanes (388 BCE), line 594 any translation will do or Benjamin Bickley Rogers is fine ^ Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 65, No.2, 1972 pages 291–297 ^ These are the biaiothanatoi, aoroi and ataphoi (cf. Rohde, i. 264 f., and notes, 275–277, ii. 362, and note, 411–413, 424–425), whose enthumion, the quasi-technical word designating their longing for vengeance, was much dreaded. See Heckenbach, p. 2776 and references. ^ Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 313 B (2. 39 K), and 358 F; Melanthius, in Athenaeus, 325 B. Plato, Com. (i. 647. 19 K), Apollodorus, Melanthius, Hegesander, Chariclides (iii. 394 K), Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 358 F; Aristophanes, Plutus, 596. ^ Hekate's Suppers, by K. F. Smith. Chapter in the book The Goddess Hekate: Studies in Ancient Pagan and Christian Philosophy edited by Stephen Ronan. Pages 57 to 64 ^ Roscher, 1889; Heckenbach, 2781; Rohde, ii. 79, n. 1. also Ammonius (p. 79, Valckenaer) ^ Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p. 68. ^ Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion, UNC Press, 1987, p. 76. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, pp. 208–209. ^ a b c d e f Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. ^ Adam Forrest, The Orphic Hymn to Hekate, Hermetic Fellowship, 1992. ^ Ivana Petrovic, Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur (C.H. Beck, 1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 16. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p. 207. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 411–425. ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony 429–452. ^ Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992 [2] ^ a b Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 ^ Household and Family Religion in Antiquity by John Bodel and Saul M. Olyan, page 221, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2009 ^ "Baktria, Kings, Agathokles, ancient coins index with thumbnails". WildWinds.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012. ^ d'Este & Rankine, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009 ^ "The legend of the Argonauts is among the earliest known to the Greeks," observes Peter Green, The Argonautika, 2007, Introduction, p. 21. ^ Apollonios Rhodios (tr. Peter Green), The Argonautika, University of California Press, 2007, p140 ^ The Chaldean Oracles is a collection of literature that date from somewhere between the 2nd century and the late 3rd century, the recording of which is traditionally attributed to Julian the Chaldaean or his son, Julian the Theurgist. The material seems to have provided background and explanation related to the meaning of these pronouncements, and appear to have been related to the practice of theurgy, pagan magic that later became closely associated with Neoplatonism, see Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 316. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. ^ English translation used here from: William Wynn Wescott (tr.), The Chaldean Oracles of Zoroaster, 1895. ^ "A top of Hekate is a golden sphere enclosing a lapis lazuli in its middle that is twisted through a cow-hide leather thong and having engraved letters all over it. [Diviners] spin this sphere and make invocations. Such things they call charms, whether it is the matter of a spherical object, or a triangular one, or some other shape. While spinning them, they call out unintelligible or beast-like sounds, laughing and flailing at the air. [Hekate] teaches the taketes to operate, that is the movement of the top, as if it had an ineffable power. It is called the top of Hekate because it is dedicated to her. In her right hand she held the source of the virtues. But it is all nonsense." As quoted in Frank R. Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C. 370–529, Brill, 1993, p. 319. ^ Apuleius, The Golden Ass 11.47. ^ Hans Dieter Betz, "Fragments from a Catabasis Ritual in a Greek Magical Papyrus", History of Religions 19,4 (May 1980):287–295). The goddess appears as Hecate Ereschigal only in the heading: in the spell itself only Erschigal is called upon with protective magical words and gestures. ^ Gantz, p. 26. ^ Scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.467 = Pherecydes, fr. 44 Fowler = FGrHist 3 fr. 44 = Vorsokr. 2 B 16 = Bacchylides, fr. 1 B Snell-Maehler = Orphic fr. 41 Kern. ^ Joseph Eddy Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1974, p. 96. ^ Hesiod fr. 200 Most [= fr. 262 MW] (Most, pp. 310, 311). ^ Acusilaus. fr. 42 Fowler (Fowler, p. 32). ^ Grimal; Smith. ^ Magliocco, Sabina. (2009). Aradia in Sardinia: The Archaeology of a Folk Character. Pp. 40–60 in Ten Years of Triumph of the Moon. Hidden Publishing. ^ Michael Strmiska, Modern paganism in world cultures, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p. 68. ^ Francis Douce, Illustrations of Shakspeare, and of Ancient Manners, 1807, p. 235-243. ^ John Minsheu and William Somner (17th century), Edward Lye of Oxford (1694–1767), Johann Georg Wachter, Glossarium Germanicum (1737), Walter Whiter, Etymologicon Universale (1822) ^ e.g. Gerald Milnes, Signs, Cures, & Witchery, Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2007, p. 116; Samuel X. Radbill, "The Role of Animals in Infant Feeding", in American Folk Medicine: A Symposium Ed. Wayland D. Hand. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. ^ "Many have been caught by the obvious resemblance of the Gr. Hecate, but the letters agree to closely, contrary to the laws of change, and the Mid. Ages would surely have had an unaspirated Ecate handed down to them; no Ecate or Hecate appears in the M. Lat. or Romance writings in the sense of witch, and how should the word have spread through all German lands?" Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, 1835, (English translation 1900). The actual etymology of hag is Germanic and unrelated to the name of Hecate. See e.g. Mallory, J.P, Adams, D.Q. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 223 ^ Mark Edwards, Neoplatonic saints: the Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by their Students, Liverpool University Press, 2000, p. 100; Writing at some length about the ancient greek 'iunx' Marcel Detienne never mentions any connection to Hecate, see Detienne M, The Gardens of Adonis, Princeton UP, 1994, pp.83–9.. ^ "No Fear Shakespeare: Macbeth: Act 2, Scene 1, Page 2". ^ Weird Rituals Laid to Primitive Minds, Los Angeles Examiner, 14 October 1929. ^ Cult of the Great Eleven, Samuel Fort, 2014, 320 pages. ASIN B00OALI9O4 ^ e.g.Sabina Magliocco, Witching Culture: Folklore and Neopaganism in America, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, p79 ^ James R. Lewis, Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions, 1999, pp 303–304; For a 'Moon magick' reference to Hecate as "Lady of the Wild Hunt and witchcraft" see: D. J. Conway, Moon Magick: Myth & Magic, Crafts & Recipes, Rituals & Spells, Llewellyn, 1995, p157 ^ Hellenion (USA) "Hellenion".. "Hekate's Deipnon – Temenos". ^ E.g. Wilshire, Donna (1994). Virgin mother crone: myths and mysteries of the triple goddess. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International. p. 213. ISBN 0-89281-494-2.. References[edit] Primary sources[edit] Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece Ovid, Metamorphoses, VI 140, VII 74, 94, 174, 177, 194, 241, XIV 44, 405. Strabo, Geography Secondary sources[edit] Berg, William, "Hecate: Greek or "Anatolian"?", Numen 21.2 (August 1974:128-40) Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, 1987. (Oxford: Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-15624-0. de’Este, Sorita. Circle for Hekate: volume 1. 1910191078 Farnell, Lewis Richard, (1896). "Hekate: Representations in Art", The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0198147404. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature. Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. 1951. Kern, Otto. Orphicorum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive Mallarmé, Stéphane, (1880). Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée. Rabinovich, Yakov. The Rotting Goddess. 1990. Ruickbie, Leo. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History. Robert Hale, 2004. Von Rudloff, Robert. Hekate in Early Greek Religion. Horned Owl Publishing (July 1999) External links[edit] Myths of the Greek Goddess Hecate Encyclopædia Britannica 1911: "Hecate" The Rotting Goddess by Yakov Rabinovich, complete book included in the anthology "Junkyard of the Classics" published under the pseudonym Ellipsis Marx. 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en-wikipedia-org-7259	----	Menoetius - Wikipedia Menoetius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with Menoeceus. For the moon, see 617 Patroclus. Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Titans The Twelve Titans Oceanus and Tethys, Hyperion and Theia, Coeus and Phoebe, Cronus and Rhea, Mnemosyne and Themis, Crius and Iapetus Children of Cronus Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, Chiron Children of Oceanus Oceanids, Potamoi Children of Hyperion Helios, Selene, Eos Children of Coeus Leto, Asteria Sons of Iapetus Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, Epimetheus Sons of Crius Astraeus, Pallas, Perses Personified concepts Adrasteia Apate Bia Charites Eris Eros Horae Kratos Metis Moirai Muses Nemesis Nike Themis Zelus v t e Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Menoetius or Menoetes (/məˈniːʃiəs/; Greek: Μενοίτιος, Μενοίτης Menoitios), meaning doomed might, is a name that refers to three distinct beings from Greek mythology: Menoetius, a second generation Titan, son of Iapetus and Clymene or Asia, and a brother of Atlas, Prometheus and Epimetheus. Menoetius was killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning in the Titanomachy, and banished to Tartarus.[1] His name means "doomed might," deriving from the Ancient Greek words menos ("might, power") and oitos ("doom, pain"). Hesiod described Menoetius as hubristic, meaning exceedingly prideful and impetuous to the very end. From what his name suggests, along with Hesiod's own account, Menoetius was perhaps the Titan god of violent anger and rash action.[2] Menoetes, guard of the cattle of Hades. During Heracles twelfth labor, which required him to steal the hound Cerberus from the Underworld, he slays one of Hades' cattle. A certain Menoetes, son of Keuthonymos, challenges Heracles to a wrestling match, during which Heracles hugs him and breaks his ribs before Persephone intervenes.[3] Menoetius from Opus was one of the Argonauts, and son of Actor[4] and Aegina. He was the father of Patroclus and Myrto by either Damocrateia,[5] Sthenele, Periopis or Polymele.[6] Among the settlers of Locris, Menoetius was chiefly honored by King Opus II, son of Zeus and Protogeneia.[7] See also[edit] Menoeceus Notes[edit] ^ Hesiod, Theogony 507–516; Apollodorus, 1.2.3; Scholia to Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound 347 ^ Smiley, Charles N (1922). "Hesiod as an Ethical and Religious Teacher". The Classical Journal. 1922: 514. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.10. ^ Homer, Iliad 11.785, 16.14. ^ Scholia on Pindar, Olympian Ode 9 & 107 ^ Apollodorus, 3.13.8; Plutarch, Aristides 20.6 ^ Pindar, Olympian Ode 9.65 ff References[edit] Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menoetius&oldid=994174419" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Greek underworld Argonauts Mythology of Heracles Characters in Greek mythology Titans (mythology) Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Polski Русский Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 14 December 2020, at 13:07 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7314	----	Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 6,243,945 articles in English The arts Biography Geography History Mathematics Science Society Technology All portals From today's featured article Robert Goff, Baron Goff of Chieveley (1926–2016) was an English barrister and judge. He was the original co-author of Goff & Jones, the leading English law textbook on restitution and unjust enrichment, first published in 1966. He practised as a commercial barrister from 1951 to 1975, and then began his career as a judge. He was appointed to the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords in 1986 and was Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary from 1996 until his retirement in 1998. Goff long advocated a complementary view of the roles of the legal academic and judge. The former Lord Justice of Appeal Stephen Tomlinson said that "no judge has done more than Robert to ensure that the views of legal academic commentators now regularly inform the decision-making in our higher courts". For building bridges between judges in the United Kingdom and Germany, Goff was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (First Class). (Full article...) Recently featured: Cheadle Hulme Pacific swift Bee-eater Archive By email More featured articles Did you know ... 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Archive Start a new article Nominate an article In the news Aung San Suu Kyi Aung San Suu Kyi (pictured), the State Counsellor of Myanmar, is detained by the military in a coup d'état. A coordinated short squeeze targeting American hedge funds causes GameStop's stock price to spike. Kaja Kallas becomes the first female Prime Minister of Estonia, following the resignation of Jüri Ratas. In Russia, protests against the arrest of Alexei Navalny occur in more than 120 towns and cities. Ongoing: COVID-19 pandemic Indian farmers' protest Recent deaths: Robert A. Altman Tony Trabert Jim Weatherly Rennie Davis Libuše Domanínská Emil J. Freireich Nominate an article On this day February 6: Sámi National Day (1917); Waitangi Day in New Zealand (1840) Stamford Raffles 1778 – France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance, respectively establishing commercial and military ties between the two nations. 1806 – Napoleonic Wars: A British naval squadron captured or destroyed five French ships of the line at the Battle of San Domingo in the Caribbean Sea. 1819 – British official Stamford Raffles (pictured) signed a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor, establishing Singapore as a trading post for the East India Company. 1951 – A train derailed while crossing a temporary wooden trestle in Woodbridge, New Jersey, causing 85 deaths. 1987 – Mary Gaudron became the first woman to be appointed a justice of the High Court of Australia. Joseph Priestley (d. 1804) Pierre André Latreille (d. 1833) Barbara W. 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Many other Wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. 1,000,000+ articles العربية Deutsch Español Français Italiano Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 250,000+ articles Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu Bân-lâm-gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Esperanto Euskara فارسی‎ עברית 한국어 Magyar Norsk Bokmål Română Srpski Srpskohrvatski Suomi Türkçe 50,000+ articles Asturianu Bosanski Eesti Ελληνικά Simple English Galego Hrvatski Latviešu Lietuvių മലയാളം Македонски Norsk nynorsk Slovenčina Slovenščina ไทย Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page&oldid=1004593520" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Main Page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikispecies Wikibooks Wikidata Wikimania Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Languages العربية বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 This page was last edited on 3 February 2021, at 11:11 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7323	----	Integrated Authority File - Wikipedia Integrated Authority File From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from GND (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search International authority file for personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies Parts of this article (those related to Types of GND high-level entities) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2018) Integrated Authority File GND: Screenshot of the German National Library (Browser: Opera 11.62). Acronym GND Organisation DNB Introduced 5 April 2012 (2012-04-05) Example 7749153-1 Website www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html The Integrated Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Normdatei; also known as the Universal Authority File) or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives and museums. The GND is managed by the German National Library (German: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek; DNB) in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero (CC0) licence.[1] The GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format.[2] The Integrated Authority File became operational in April 2012 and integrates the content of the following authority files, which have since been discontinued: Name Authority File (German: Personennamendatei; PND) Corporate Bodies Authority File (German: Gemeinsame Körperschaftsdatei; GKD) Subject Headings Authority File (German: Schlagwortnormdatei; SWD) Uniform Title File of the Deutsches Musikarchiv (German: Einheitssachtitel-Datei des Deutschen Musikarchivs; DMA-EST) At the time of its introduction on 5 April 2012, the GND held 9,493,860 files, including 2,650,000 personalised names. Contents 1 Types of GND high-level entities 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Types of GND high-level entities[edit] There are seven main types of GND entities:[3] Typ German (official) English (translation) p Person (individualisiert) person (individualised) n Name (nicht individualisiert) name (not individualised) k Körperschaft corporate body v Veranstaltung event w Werk work s Sachbegriff topical term g Geografikum geographical place name See also[edit] LIBRIS Virtual International Authority File References[edit] ^ www.dnb.de/EN/Professionell/Standardisierung/GND/gnd_node.html Integrated Authority File (GND) ^ GND Ontology – Namespace Document Archived 2013-01-03 at the Wayback Machine, version 2012-06-30. ^ Entitätencodierung: Vergaberichtlinien (short lists – old and new versions) External links[edit] Wikidata has the property: GND ID (P227) (see uses) Information pages about the GND from the German National Library Search via OGND (Bibliotheksservice-Zentrum Baden-Württemberg) Bereitstellung des ersten GND-Grundbestandes DNB, 19 April 2012 From Authority Control to Linked Authority Data Presentation given by Reinhold Heuvelmann (German National Library) to the ALA MARC Formats Interest Group, June 2012 v t e Authority control files AAG • ACM DL • ADB • AGSA • autores.uy • AWR • BALaT • BIBSYS • Bildindex • BNC • BNE • BNF • Botanist • BPN • CANTIC • CiNii • CWGC • DAAO • DBLP • DSI • FNZA • GND • HDS • IAAF • ICCU • ICIA • ISNI • Joconde • KulturNav • LCCN • LIR • LNB • Léonore • MBA • MGP • NARA • NBL • NDL • NGV • NKC • NLA • NLG • NLI • NLK • NLP • NLR • NSK • NTA • ORCID • PIC • PLWABN • ResearcherID • RERO • RKD • RKDimages ID • RSL • SELIBR • SIKART • SNAC • SUDOC • S2AuthorId • TA98 • TDVİA • TE • TePapa • TH • TLS • Trove • UKPARL • ULAN • US Congress • VcBA • VIAF • WorldCat Identities Authority control GND: 7749153-1 VIAF: 188136221 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 188136221 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Authority_File&oldid=993458488#GND" Categories: Computer-related introductions in 2012 Library cataloging and classification Unique identifiers Creative Commons-licensed databases Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Wikipedia articles in need of updating from February 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles containing German-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2020, at 18:41 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7345	----	Lesche - Wikipedia Lesche From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Lesche (disambiguation). Lesche[pronunciation?] (Gr. λέσχη) is an Ionic Greek word, signifying council or conversation, and a place for council or conversation.[1] There is frequent mention of places of public resort, in the Greek cities, by the name of leschai (λέσχαι, the Greek plural of lesche), some set apart for the purpose, and others so called because they were so used by loungers; to the latter class belong the agora and its porticoes, the gymnasia, and the shops of various tradesmen, especially those of the smiths, which were frequented in winter on account of their warmth, and in which, for the same reason, the poor sought shelter for the night.[2][3] In these passages, however, in which are the earliest examples of the use of the word, it seems to refer to places distinct from the smiths' workshops, though resorted to in the same manner; and we may gather from the grammarians, that there were in the Greek cities numerous small buildings or porticoes, furnished with seats, and exposed to the sun, to which the idle resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor to obtain warmth and shelter, and which were called leschai: at Athens alone there were 360 such.[4][5][6] The Suda, referring to a passage in Hesiod, explains lesche (λέσχη) by means of the word kaminos (κάμινος, "oven" or "furnace").[7] By Aeschylus[8] and Sophocles[9] the word is used for a solemn council; but elsewhere the same writers, as well as Herodotus, employ it to signify common conversation. In the Dorians states the word retained the meaning of a place of meeting for deliberation and intercourse, a council-chamber or club-room. At Sparta every phyle had its lesche, in which and in the gymnasium the elders passed the greater part of the day in serious and sportive conversation, and in which the newborn children were presented for the decision of the elders as to whether they should be brought up or destroyed.[10][11] Some of these Spartan leschae seem to have been halls of some architectural pretensions: Pausanias mentions two of them, the lesche krotanon (λέσχη Κροτανῶν) and the lesche poikile (λέσχη ποικίλη).[12] They were also used for other purposes.[13] There were generally chambers for council and conversation, called by this name, attached to the temples of Apollo, one of whose epithets was Apollo Leschenorios (Λεσχηνόριος).[14][15][16] Of such leschae the chief was the Lesche of the Knidians, which was erected at Delphi by the Cnidians, and which was celebrated throughout Greece, less for its own magnificence, than for the paintings with which it was adorned by Polygnotus.[17][18] References[edit] ^ Smith, Philip (1870). "Lesche". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 681. ^ Homer, Odyssey xviii. 329 ^ Hesiod, Op. 491, 499 ^ Eustathius of Thessalonica, on Homer l.c. ^ Eutychius Proclus, on Hesiod l.c. ^ Hesychius, Etym. Mag., s.v. ^ Liddell, Henry; Robert Scott (1996). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 872. ISBN 0-19-864226-1. ^ Aeschylus, The Eumenides 366 ^ Sophocles, Antigone 160 ^ Plutarch, Lyc.16, 25 ^ Müller, Dor. iii. 10. § 2, iv. 9. § 1 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece iii. 14. § 2, 15. § 8 ^ Ath. iv. p. 138, e. ^ Harpocration s.v. ^ Plutarch, Plut. de El ap. Delph. p. 385, b. ^ Müller, Dor. ii. 2. § 15, note ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece x. 25 ^ Karl Böttiger, Archaeol. d. Malerci, p. 296, &c.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. Missing or empty |title= (help) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lesche&oldid=997163079" Categories: Greek words and phrases Ancient Greek leisure Ionia Hidden categories: Articles needing pronunciation Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 errors: missing title Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 07:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7460	----	Greek mythology - Wikipedia Greek mythology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Body of myths originally told by ancient Greeks Scenes from Greek mythology depicted in ancient art. Left-to-right, top-to-bottom: the birth of Aphrodite, a revel with Dionysus and Silenus, Adonis playing the kithara for Aphrodite, Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra, the Colchian dragon regurgitating Jason in the presence of Athena, Hermes with his mother Maia, the Trojan Horse, and Odysseus's ship sailing past the island of the sirens Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities of deities, heroes, and mythological creatures, and the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks' own cult and ritual practices. Modern scholars study the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece, and to better understand the nature of myth-making itself.[1] The Greek myths were initially propagated in an oral-poetic tradition most likely by Minoan and Mycenaean singers starting in the 18th century BC;[2] eventually the myths of the heroes of the Trojan War and its aftermath became part of the oral tradition of Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias. Aside from this narrative deposit in ancient Greek literature, pictorial representations of gods, heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancient vase paintings and the decoration of votive gifts and many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.[3] Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.[4]:43 Achilles and Penthesileia by Exekias, c. 540 BC, British Museum, London Contents 1 Sources 1.1 Literary sources 1.2 Archaeological sources 2 Survey of mythic history 2.1 Origins of the world and the gods 2.1.1 Greek pantheon 2.2 Age of gods and mortals 2.3 Heroic age 2.3.1 Heracles and the Heracleidae 2.3.2 Argonauts 2.3.3 House of Atreus and Theban Cycle 2.3.4 Trojan War and aftermath 3 Greek and Roman conceptions of myth 3.1 Philosophy and myth 3.2 Hellenistic and Roman rationalism 3.3 Syncretizing trends 4 Modern interpretations 4.1 Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches 4.2 Origin theories 5 Motifs in Western art and literature 6 References 6.1 Notes 6.2 Citations 6.3 Primary sources (Greek and Roman) 6.4 Secondary sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Sources Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900 BC to c. 800 BC onward.[5]:200 In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots.[6] Literary sources Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends.[7]:1 Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180 BC to c. 125 BC and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however, the "Library" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus. Prometheus (1868 by Gustave Moreau). The myth of Prometheus first was attested by Hesiod and then constituted the basis for a tragic trilogy of plays, possibly by Aeschylus, consisting of Prometheus Bound, Prometheus Unbound, and Prometheus Pyrphoros. Among the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the "epic cycle", but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the "Homeric Hymns" have no direct connection with Homer. The oldest are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age.[8]:7 Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants; as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and etiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet advises on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.[3] Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents.[9]:xii Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in The Birds and The Frogs.[8]:8 Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions.[9]:xii Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East.[10]:60[11]:22 Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts. The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of: The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary. The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus. The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius. Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descriptions of Callistratus. Finally, several Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective.[12] Archaeological sources The Roman poet Virgil, here depicted in the fifth-century manuscript, the Vergilius Romanus, preserved details of Greek mythology in many of his writings. The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.[3] Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth-century  BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles.[3] These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text.[13] Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries.[5] In the Archaic (c. 750 – c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.[3] Survey of mythic history Phaedra with an attendant, probably her nurse, a fresco from Pompeii, c. 60 – c. 20 BC Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson (1975) has argued.[i][14] The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using Animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods.[15]:17 When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.[15]:18 After the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (παιδικὸς ἔρως, eros paidikos), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth-century  BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and many legendary figures.[16] Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light.[17]:54 Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often re-adapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion. The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans.[18]:11 While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological "history of the world" may be divided into three or four broader periods: The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race. The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals. The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate, fourth period).[8]:35 While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian.[19]:205 In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races to the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar.[20] In Metamorphoses, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.[21] Origins of the world and the gods Further information: Greek primordial gods and Family tree of the Greek gods Amor Vincit Omnia (Love Conquers All), a depiction of the god of love, Eros. By Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, circa 1601–1602. "Myths of origin" or "creation myths" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language.[9]:10 The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus.[22] Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus ("the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children"),[22] was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife, Rhea, as his consort, and the other Titans became his court. A motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full-grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children, including Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, and Hera, and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all this time. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus.[23] Attic black-figured amphora depicting Athena being "reborn" from the head of Zeus, who had swallowed her mother Metis, on the right, Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, assists, circa 550–525 BC (Musée du Louvre, Paris). Zeus was plagued by the same concern, and after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god "greater than he", Zeus swallowed her.[24]:98 She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war.[24]:108 The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods.[25] Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony.[26]:147 A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held. After they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public. Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth-century  BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.[19]:236[26]:147 The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.[3][27]:45 Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes. Greek pantheon Further information: Ancient Greek religion, Twelve Olympians, Family Tree of the Greek Gods, and List of Mycenaean gods Zeus, disguised as a swan, seduces Leda, the Queen of Sparta. A sixteenth-century copy of the lost original by Michelangelo. According to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.)[28]:8 Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.[29] In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs).[30] Gregory Nagy (1992) regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god."[31]:54 The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts."[19]:182 Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.[28]:4 Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer, or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece. Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage.[28]:20ff Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally "hearth") and Helios (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demigods) supplemented that of the gods. Age of gods and mortals Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.[8]:38 Dionysus with satyrs. Interior of a cup painted by the Brygos Painter, Cabinet des Médailles. Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings.[8]:39 In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas.[32] The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as "a place between the history of the gods and that of man."[33]:291 An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife.[34]:50 The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy.[35]:28 In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.[36]:195 Demeter and Metanira in a detail on an Apulian red-figure hydria, circa 340 BC (Altes Museum, Berlin). In another story, based on an old folktale-motif,[37] and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.[38] Heroic age The age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age.[39] The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden (1992), "there is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations."[18]:11 After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them.[19]:205 Burkert (2002) notes that "the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead." Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.[19]:206 The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle, and the Trojan War.[39][40]:340 Heracles and the Heracleidae Further information: Heracles, Heracleidae, and Hercules Heracles with his baby Telephus (Louvre Museum, Paris). Some scholars believe[40]:10 that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac.[41] Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus.[42] His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert (2002), "He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy.[19] While his tragic end provided much material for tragedy—Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas."[43][19]:211 In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.[19]:211 Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romans as "Herakleis" was to the Greeks.[19]:211 In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.[42] Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus—other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.[44][19]:211 Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.[45] Argonauts Further information: Argonauts The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.[46][47][48] Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it).[49][50] In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization.[49] It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.[50] House of Atreus and Theban Cycle Further information: Theban Cycle and Seven against Thebes In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.[51] The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the war of the Seven against Thebes and the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Epigoni.[7]:317 (It is not known whether the Seven figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children—markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' Oedipus Rex) and later mythological accounts.[7]:311 Trojan War and aftermath Further information: Trojan War and Epic Cycle El Juicio de Paris by Enrique Simonet, 1904. Paris is holding the golden apple on his right hand while surveying the goddesses in a calculative manner. In The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Fresco, 300 x 300 cm, Villa Valmarana, Vicenza) Achilles is outraged that Agamemnon would threaten to seize his warprize, Briseis, and he draws his sword to kill Agamemnon. The sudden appearance of the goddess Athena, who, in this fresco, has grabbed Achilles by the hair, prevents the act of violence. Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy).[52][53] Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.[54] The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos, or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos.[53] Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and Homer's Odyssey.[52] The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus).[53] The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization.[52] The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.[55] Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were: On the Trojan side: Aeneas Hector Paris On the Greek side: Ajax (there were two Ajaxes) Achilles King Agamemnon Menelaus Odysseus Greek and Roman conceptions of myth Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece.[15]:15 Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist, and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the "education of Greece" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry "the Book".[56] Philosophy and myth Raphael's Plato in The School of Athens fresco (probably in the likeness of Leonardo da Vinci). The philosopher expelled the study of Homer, of the tragedies and the related mythological traditions from his utopian Republic. After the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th-century  BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history).[57] While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.[8] A few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th-century  BC; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another."[5]:169–70 This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts, and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature.[8] Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition,[56] referring to the myths as "old wives' chatter."[58] For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them."[57] Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:[59] But perhaps someone might say: "Are you then not ashamed, Socrates, of having followed such a pursuit, that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result?" But I should make to him a just reply: "You do not speak well, Sir, if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death, and not rather regard this only, when he does things, whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy, including the son of Thetis, who so despised danger, in comparison with enduring any disgrace, that when his mother (and she was a goddess) said to him, as he was eager to slay Hector, something like this, I believe, My son, if you avenge the death of your friend Patroclus and kill Hector, you yourself shall die; for straightway, after Hector, is death appointed unto you. (Hom. Il. 18.96) he, when he heard this, made light of death and danger, and feared much more to live as a coward and not to avenge his friends, and said, Straightway may I die, after doing vengeance upon the wrongdoer, that I may not stay here, jeered at beside the curved ships, a burden of the earth. Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization.[56] The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.[57] More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.[5]:169–70 Hellenistic and Roman rationalism Cicero saw himself as the defender of the established order, despite his personal skepticism concerning myth and his inclination towards more philosophical conceptions of divinity. During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced.[60]:89 Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events.[61] Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.[7]:7 Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies.[62] Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens.[63]:xxvi Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae).[60]:88 The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents.[63]:xxvi According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers.[64] The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.[64] Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy.[60]:87 Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended.[60]:88 Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures,[65] but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people.[66] De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought.[63]:xxvii Syncretizing trends See also: Roman mythology Apollo (early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth-century Greek original, Louvre Museum). In Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents.[60]:88 The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations.[67] For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes.[68] Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity. The surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology.[69] The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.[62] Modern interpretations Further information: Modern understanding of Greek mythology The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" or fable had been retained.[70] In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.[5]:9 Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches See also: Comparative mythology Max Müller is regarded as one of the founders of comparative mythology. In his Comparative Mythology (1867) Müller analysed the "disturbing" similarity between the mythologies of "savage races" with those of the early Europeans. The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology.[71] In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion.[72][73]:9 Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.[71] Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochement between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought.[74] Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it.[3] According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche."[75] Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal (1990) concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth."[76] Karl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.[5]:38 Origin theories See also: Mycenaean religion; Mycenaean deities; and Similarities between Roman, Greek and Etruscan mythologies Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, "Aryan") "original" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that "the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century concerning the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr".[73]:12 The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected.[77] In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology.[78] It appears that the Mycenaean religion was the mother of the Greek religion[79] and its pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in classical Greece.[80] However, Greek mythology is generally seen as having heavy influence of Pre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, and as such contains few important elements for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European religion.[81] Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention in the context of Indo-European comparative mythology until the mid 2000s.[82] Archaeology and mythography have revealed influence from Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart—more clearly in cult than in myth—of a Near Eastern "dying god". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish.[83][84] According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way…into Greek mythology."[85] In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the indigenous pre-Greek societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus.[19]:23 Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur, etc.). Martin P. Nilsson asserts, based on the representations and general function of the gods, that a lot of Minoan gods and religious conceptions were fused in the Mycenaean religion.[86] and concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaean centres and anchored in prehistoric times.[87] Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.[19]:24 Motifs in Western art and literature Further information: Greek mythology in western art and literature See also: List of films based on Greco-Roman mythology and Greek mythology in popular culture Botticelli's The Birth of Venus (c. 1485–1486, oil on canvas, Uffizi, Florence)—a revived Venus Pudica for a new view of pagan Antiquity—is often said to epitomize for modern viewers the spirit of the Renaissance.[3] The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists.[3][88] From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes.[3][88] Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.[3] The Lament for Icarus (1898) by Herbert James Draper In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature.[89] The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths.[3][88] Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas.[90] By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema).[91] Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music.[3] American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature.[9]:4 In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide.[3] References Notes ^ Cuthbertson (1975) selects a wider range of epic, from Gilgamesh to Voltaire's Henriade, but his central theme—that myths encode mechanisms of cultural dynamics structure community by the creation of moral consensus—is a familiar mainstream view that applies to Greek myth. Citations ^ "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952. ^ Cartwirght, Mark. "Greek Mythology". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 March 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Adkins, A. W. H.; Pollard, John R. T. (2002) [1998]. "Greek Mythology". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Foley, John Miles (1999). "Homeric and South Slavic Epic". Homer's Traditional Art. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01870-6. ^ a b c d e f Graf, Fritz. 2009 [1993]. Greek Mythology: An Introduction, translated by T. Marier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801846571. ^ Alms, Anthony. 2007. Theology, Trauerspiel, and the Conceptual Foundations of Early German Opera. City University of New York. ^ a b c d Hard, Robin (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth". The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: based on H. J. Rose's "A Handbook of Greek mythology". London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. ^ a b c d e f g Miles, Geoffrey (1999). "The Myth-kitty" in Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-415-14754-5. ^ a b c d Klatt, Mary J., and Antoinette Brazouski. 1994. "Preface" in Children's Books on Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-28973-6. ^ Cartledge, Paul A. 2004. The Spartans (translated in Greek). Livanis. ISBN 978-960-14-0843-9. ^ Cartledge, Paul A. 2002. "Inventing the Past: History v. Myth" in The Greeks. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280388-7. ^ Pasiphae, Encyclopedia: Greek Gods, Spirits, Monsters ^ Homer, Iliad, 8. An epic poem about the Battle of Troy. 366–369 ^ Cuthbertson, Gilbert (1975) Political Myth and Epic. Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press. ^ a b c Albala, Ken G, Claudia Durst Johnson, and Vernon E. Johnson. 2000. Understanding the Odyssey. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41107-1. ^ Calimach, Andrew, ed. 2002. "The Cultural Background." Pp. 12–109 in Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths. New Rochelle, NY: Haiduk Press. ISBN 978-0-9714686-0-3. ^ Percy, William A. 1999. "The Institutionalization of Pederasty" in Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-252-06740-2. ^ a b Dowden, Ken. 1992. "Myth and Mythology" in The Uses of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06135-3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Burkert, Walter. 2002. "Prehistory and the Minoan Mycenaen Era" in Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, translated by J. Raffan. Blackwell Publishing. 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Cashford, The Homeric Hymns, vii ^ Nagy, Gregory. 1992. "The Hellenization of the Indo-European Poetics" in Greek Mythology and Poetics. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8048-5. ^ Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, 75–109 Archived 12 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Morris, Ian. 2000. Archaeology As Cultural History. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19602-0. ^ Weaver, John B. 1998. "Introduction" in The Plots of Epiphany. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018266-8. ^ Bushnell, Rebecca W. 2005. "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo" in Medieval: A Companion to Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0735-8. ^ Trobe, Kala. 2001. "Dionysus" in Invoke the Gods. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-7387-0096-0. ^ Nilsson, Martin P. 1940. "The Religion of Eleusis" in Greek Popular Religion. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 50. ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 255–274 ^ a b Kelsey, Francis W. (1889). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Allyn and Bacon. p. 30. ^ a b Rose, Herbert Jennings. 1991. A Handbook of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04601-5. ^ Dupuis, C. F. The Origin of All Religious Worship. p. 86. ^ a b "Heracles". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 February 2020 [1999]. ^ Papadopoulou, Thalia. 2005. "Introduction" in Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85126-8. p. 1. ^ Herodotus, The Histories, I, 6–7. ^ Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen. 1973. "The Thematic Simplicity of the Myths" in Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02389-5. p. 183. ^ Apollodorus, Library and Epitome, 1.9.16. ^ Apollonius, Argonautica, I, 20ff. ^ Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4.1. ^ a b "Argonaut". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. ^ a b Grimal, Pierre. 1986. "Argonauts." P. 58 in The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. ^ Bonnefoy, Yves. 1992. "Kinship Structures in Greek Heroic Dynasty" in Greek and Egyptian Mythologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06454-3. p. 103. ^ a b c "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952. ^ a b c "Troy (Ancient City)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 April 2019 [1998]. ^ Dunlop, John. 1842. "Romances of Chivalry" in The History of Fiction. Carey and Hart. ISBN 978-1-149-40338-9. p. 355. ^ Kelly, Douglas. The Conspiracy of Allusion. p. 121. ^ a b c Hanson, Victor Davis, and John Heath. 1999. Who Killed Homer, with translations by R. Karakatsani. Kakos. ISBN 978-960-352-545-5. p. 37. ^ a b c Griffin, Jasper. 1986. "Greek Myth and Hesiod" in The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World, edited by J. Boardman, J. Griffin, and O. Murray. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285438-4. p. 80. ^ Plato, Theaetetus, 176b ^ Plato, Apology, 28b-d ^ a b c d e Gale, Monica R. 1994. Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45135-2. ^ "Euhemerus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 January 2020 [1998]. ^ a b Chance, Jane. 1994. Medieval Mythography. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1256-8. p. 69. ^ a b c Walsh, Patrick Gerald. 1998. The Nature of the Gods. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282511-7. ^ a b Barfield, Raymond (2011). The Ancient Quarrel Between Philosophy and Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-1-139-49709-1. ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.11 ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.81 ^ North John A., Mary Beard, and Simon R. F. Price. 1998. "The Religions of Imperial Rome" in Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31682-8. p. 259. ^ Hacklin, Joseph. 1994. "The Mythology of Persia" in Asiatic Mythology. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0920-4. p. 38. ^ Sacred Texts, Orphic Hymns ^ Ackerman, Robert. 1991. Introduction to Jane Ellen Harrison's 'A Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion'. p. xv. ^ a b Buxton, Richard G. A.; Bolle, Kees W.; Smith, Jonathan Z. (2002). "myth". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Segal, Robert A. 1999. Theorizing about Myth. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-191-5. p. 16. ^ a b Allen, Douglas. 1978. Structure & Creativity in Religion: Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliade's Phenomenology and New Directions. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7594-2. ^ Caldwell, Richard. 1990. "The Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Greek Myth" in Approaches to Greek Myth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3864-4. p. 344. ^ Jung, Carl. The Psychology of the Child Archetype. p. 85. ^ Segal, Robert A. (1990). "The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell." Christian Century (April 1990):332–5. Archived from the original on 7 January 2007. ^ H.I. Poleman, Review, 78–79 ^ A. Winterbourne, When the Norns Have Spoken, 87 ^ Nilsson, Martin Persson. 1967. Geschichte der Griechischen Religion (3rd ed.). Munich: C.H. Beck Verlag. Volume I, p. 339. ^ Paul, Adams John (10 January 2010). "Mycenaean Divinities". Northridge, CA: California State University. Retrieved 25 September 2013. ^ Puhvel, Jaan. 1987. Comparative Mythology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 138, 143. ^ Mallory, J.P., and Douglas Q. Adams. 2006. Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. London: Oxford University Press. p. 440. ^ L. Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth, 184 ^ Segal, Robert A. 1991. "A Greek Eternal Child" in Myth and the Polis, edited by D. C. Pozzi and J. M. Wickersham. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2473-1. p. 64. ^ M. Reinhold, The Generation Gap in Antiquity, 349 ^ Martin P. Nilsson (1927) The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion ^ M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War, 112 ^ a b c L. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 ^ Miles, Geoffrey, ed. (2006). Classical Mythology in English literature: A Critical Anthology. Routledge. ISBN 0415147557. OCLC 912455670. ^ l. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 ^ l. Burn, Greek Myths, 75–76 Primary sources (Greek and Roman) Aeschylus, The Persians. See original text in Perseus program. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound. See original text in Perseus program. Apollodorus, Library and Epitome. See original text in Perseus program. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, Book I. See original text in Sacred Texts. Cicero, De Divinatione. See original text in the Latin Library. Cicero, Tusculanae resons. See original text in the Latin Library. Herodotus, The Histories, I. See original text in the Sacred Texts. Hesiod, Works and Days. Translated into English by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Hesiod (1914). Theogony . Translated by Hugh Gerard Evelyn-White – via Wikisource. Homer, Iliad. See original text in Perseus program. Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Translated into English by Gregory Nagy. Homeric Hymn to Demeter. See original text in Perseus project. Homeric Hymn to Hermes. See the English translation in the Medieval and Classical Literature Library. Ovid, Metamorphoses. See original text in the Latin Library. Pausanias. Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4: For Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot Race 462 BC. See original text in the Perseus program. Plato, Apology. See original text in Perseus program. Plato, Theaetetus. See original text in Perseus program. Secondary sources Ackerman, Robert (1991). "Introduction". Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion by Jane Ellen Harrison (Reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01514-9. Albala Ken G; Johnson Claudia Durst; Johnson Vernon E. (2000). "Origin of Mythology". Understanding the Odyssey. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41107-1. Algra, Keimpe (1999). "The Beginnings of Cosmology". The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44667-9. Allen, Douglas (1978). "Early Methological Approaches". Structure & Creativity in Religion: Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliade's Phenomenology and New Directions. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7594-2. "Argonaut". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Betegh, Gábor (2004). "The Interpretation of the poet". The Derveni Papyrus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80108-9. Bonnefoy, Yves (1992). "Kinship Structures in Greek Heroic Dynasty". Greek and Egyptian Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06454-3. Bulfinch, Thomas (2003). "Greek Mythology and Homer". Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30881-9. Burkert, Walter (2002). "Prehistory and the Minoan Mycenaen Era". Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical (translated by John Raffan). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-15624-6. Burn, Lucilla (1990). Greek Myths. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72748-9. Bushnell, Rebecca W. (2005). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo". Medieval A Companion to Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0735-8. Chance, Jane (1994). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo". Medieval Mythography. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1256-8. Caldwell, Richard (1990). "The Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Greek Myth". Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3864-4. Calimach, Andrew (2002). "The Cultural Background". Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths. Haiduk Press. ISBN 978-0-9714686-0-3. Cartledge, Paul A. (2002). "Inventing the Past: History v. Myth". The Greeks. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280388-7. Cartledge, Paul A. (2004). The Spartans (translated in Greek). Livanis. ISBN 978-960-14-0843-9. Cashford, Jules (2003). "Introduction". The Homeric Hymns. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-043782-9. Dowden, Ken (1992). "Myth and Mythology". The Uses of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-06135-3. Dunlop, John (1842). "Romances of Chivalry". The History of Fiction. Carey and Hart. ISBN 978-1-149-40338-9. Edmunds, Lowell (1980). "Comparative Approaches". Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3864-4. "Euhemerus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Foley, John Miles (1999). "Homeric and South Slavic Epic". Homer's Traditional Art. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01870-6. Gale, Monica R. (1994). "The Cultural Background". Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45135-2. "Greek Mythology". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. "Greek Religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Griffin, Jasper (1986). "Greek Myth and Hesiod". The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285438-4. Grimal, Pierre (1986). "Argonauts". The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. Hacklin, Joseph (1994). "The Mythology of Persia". Asiatic Mythology. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0920-4. Hanson, Victor Davis; Heath, John (1999). Who Killed Homer (translated in Greek by Rena Karakatsani). Kakos. ISBN 978-960-352-545-5. Hard, Robin (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth". The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: based on H. J. Rose's "A Handbook of Greek mythology". Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. "Heracles". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Jung Carl Gustav, Kerényi Karl (2001). "Prolegomena". Essays on a Science of Mythology (Reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01756-3. Jung, C.J. (2002). "Troy in Latin and French Joseph of Exeter's "Ylias" and Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie"". Science of Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-26742-7. Kelly, Douglas (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth". An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology. Douglas Kelly. ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. Kelsey, Francis W. (1889). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Allyn and Bacon. Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1973). "The Thematic Simplicity of the Myths". Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02389-5. Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1974). The Nature of Greek Myths. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-021783-4. Klatt J. Mary, Brazouski Antoinette (1994). "Preface". Children's Books on Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-28973-6. Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Artemis-Verlag. 1981–1999. Missing or empty |title= (help) Miles, Geoffrey (1999). "The Myth-kitty". Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-415-14754-5. Morris, Ian (2000). Archaeology As Cultural History. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19602-0. "myth". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. Nagy, Gregory (1992). "The Hellenization of the Indo-European Poetics". Greek Mythology and Poetics. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8048-5. Nilsson, Martin P. (1940). "The Religion of Eleusis". Greek Popular Religion. Columbia University Press. North John A.; Beard Mary; Price Simon R.F. (1998). "The Religions of Imperial Rome". Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31682-8. Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). "Introduction". Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85126-8. Percy, William Armostrong III (1999). "The Institutionalization of Pederasty". Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-252-06740-2. Poleman, Horace I. (March 1943). "Review of "Ouranos-Varuna. Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europeenne by Georges Dumezil"". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 63 (1): 78–79. doi:10.2307/594160. JSTOR 594160. Reinhold, Meyer (20 October 1970). "The Generation Gap in Antiquity". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 114 (5): 347–65. JSTOR 985800. Rose, Herbert Jennings (1991). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-04601-5. Segal, Robert A. (1991). "A Greek Eternal Child". Myth and the Polis edited by Dora Carlisky Pozzi, John Moore Wickersham. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2473-1. Segal, Robert A. (4 April 1990). "The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell". Christian Century. Archived from the original on 7 January 2007. Segal, Robert A. (1999). "Jung on Mythology". Theorizing about Myth. Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-191-5. Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul) (1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks. Francis and John Rivington. Trobe, Kala (2001). "Dionysus". Invoke the Gods. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-7387-0096-0. "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952. "Troy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952. Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). "Liberating Appearance in Mythic Content". The Nature of the Gods. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282511-7. Weaver, John B. (1998). "Introduction". The Plots of Epiphany. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018266-8. Winterbourne, Anthony (2004). "Spinning and Weaving Fate". When the Norns Have Spoken. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-4048-7. Wood, Michael (1998). "The Coming of the Greeks". In Search of the Trojan War. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3. Further reading Ancient Greece portal Myths portal Religion portal Mythology portal History portal Gantz, Timothy (1993). Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4410-2. Graves, Robert (1993) [1955]. The Greek Myths (Cmb/Rep ed.). Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 978-0-14-017199-0. Hamilton, Edith (1998) [1942]. Mythology (New ed.). Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0-316-34151-6. Kerenyi, Karl (1980) [1951]. The Gods of the Greeks (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27048-6. Kerenyi, Karl (1978) [1959]. The Heroes of the Greeks (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27049-3. Luchte, James (2011). Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-35331-3. Morford M.P.O., Lenardon L.J. (2006). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530805-1. Pinsent, John (1972). Greek Mythology. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-448-00848-6. Pinsent, John (1991). Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece. Library of the World's Myths and Legends. Peter Bedrick Books. ISBN 978-0-87226-250-8. Powell, Barry (2008). Classical Myth (6th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-606171-7. Powell, Barry (2001). A Short Introduction to Classical Myth. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-025839-7. Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994). The World of Classical Myth. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-575-7. Smith, William (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Veyne, Paul (1988). Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on Constitutive Imagination. (translated by Paula Wissing). University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-85434-2. Woodward, Roger D. (editor) (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84520-5.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) External links Library resources about Greek mythology Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Listen to this article (1 hour and 8 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 19 January 2009 (2009-01-19), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Media related to Greek mythology at Wikimedia Commons Greek Myths on In Our Time at the BBC Library of Classical Mythology Texts translations of works of classical literature LIMC-France provides databases dedicated to Graeco-Roman mythology and its iconography. Martin P. Nilsson, The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology, on Google books Greek mythology, the age of gods, myths and heroes, Hellenism.Net v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra v t e Mythology of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Authority control BNE: XX527512 BNF: cb11939424r (data) GND: 7508662-1 LCCN: sh85089396 NDL: 00562484 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_mythology&oldid=991569675" Categories: Greek mythology Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from November 2020 Pages using multiple image with 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en-wikipedia-org-7518	----	Richard Taylor (philosopher) - Wikipedia Richard Taylor (philosopher) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American philosopher This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Richard Taylor" philosopher – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Richard Taylor Born November 5, 1919 Charlotte, Michigan, US Died October 30, 2003(2003-10-30) (aged 83) Trumansburg, New York, US Nationality American Alma mater Brown University (PhD) Institutions Brown University, Columbia University, University of Rochester Main interests Metaphysics Influences Schopenhauer Influenced David Foster Wallace Richard Taylor (November 5, 1919 – October 30, 2003),[1] born in Charlotte, Michigan,[2] was an American philosopher renowned for his dry wit and his contributions to metaphysics. He was also an internationally known beekeeper. Contents 1 Biography 2 Death 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] Taylor took his PhD at Brown University, where his supervisor was Roderick Chisholm. He taught at Brown University, Columbia and the University of Rochester, and had visiting appointments at about a dozen other institutions. His best-known book was Metaphysics (1963). Other works included Action and Purpose (1966), Good and Evil (1970) and Virtue Ethics (1991). Professor Taylor was also the editor of The Will to Live: Selected Writings of Arthur Schopenhauer.[3] He was an enthusiastic advocate of virtue ethics. He also wrote influential papers on the meaning of life, which, like Albert Camus, he explored through an examination of the myth of Sisyphus. Taylor's 1962 essay "Fatalism"[4] was the subject of David Foster Wallace's undergraduate thesis at Amherst College, published in 2011 together with Taylor's essay and contemporary responses under the title Fate, Time, and Language: An Essay on Free Will.[5] Taylor made significant contributions to beekeeping. He owned three hundred hives of bees and, from 1970, produced mostly comb honey. He explained his management techniques in several books, including The Comb Honey Book and The Joys of Beekeeping. In 1993, he debated William Lane Craig over the subject 'Is The Basis For Morality Natural or Supernatural?'.[6] Notable philosophers who studied under Taylor as graduate students include Norman Bowie, Myles Brand, Keith Lehrer, and Peter van Inwagen.[7] Death[edit] Taylor died at the age of 83 on October 30, 2003 in his home in Trumansburg, New York due to complications ensuing from lung cancer. [8] See also[edit] American philosophy List of American philosophers References[edit] ^ "Richard Taylor Remembered - Issue 44 - Philosophy Now". www.philosophynow.org. ^ Bee Culture Magazine, "Richard Taylor (1919-2003)", January 2004, Vol 132, No 1, p 64. ^ Anchor Books A266: 1962. ^ Philosophical Review, Vol. 71, No. 1 (1962). ^ New York: Columbia University Press ( ISBN 978-0-231-15156-6) ^ "Is the Basis of Morality Natural or Supernatural? - Reasonable Faith". www.reasonablefaith.org. Archived from the original on 2012-04-13.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ^ Holmes, Robert (2004). "Richard Taylor Remembered". Philosophy Now. Retrieved 29 March 2019. ^ Holmes, Robert (2004). "Richard Taylor Remembered". Philosophy Now. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Further reading[edit] Donnelly, John (2007), Reflective Wisdom, Prometheus Books, ISBN 978-0-87975-522-5 LaScola, Russell (1992), "A Common Sense Approach to the Mind-body Problem: A Critique of Richard Taylor", Journal of Philosophical Research, 17: 279–286, doi:10.5840/jpr_1992_24 External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Richard Taylor (philosopher) Ryerson, James (12 December 2008). "Consider the Philosopher". The New York Times Magazine. — Article on David Foster Wallace's analysis of Taylor's fatalism. Authority control BNE: XX4875093 BNF: cb12684332j (data) ISNI: 0000 0001 1067 6328 LCCN: n79151529 NKC: jcu2012685235 NLK: KAC200606184 NTA: 068508301 PLWABN: 9810653110405606 SELIBR: 338856 SUDOC: 10057887X VIAF: 64127594 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79151529 This biography of an American philosopher is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Taylor_(philosopher)&oldid=999254406" Categories: 1919 births 2003 deaths 20th-century American philosophers American beekeepers American philosophy academics American atheists Brown University alumni Brown University faculty Columbia University faculty Metaphysicians 21st-century American philosophers Virtue ethicists American ethicists American philosopher stubs Hidden categories: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from September 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikiquote Languages العربية Eesti Español Latina 日本語 Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2021, at 06:58 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7561	----	Acheron - Wikipedia Acheron From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Acheron River" redirects here. For other uses, see Acheron (disambiguation). Acheron Acheron river near the village of Glyki Location Country Greece Physical characteristics Source    • location Ioannina regional unit, Epirus Mouth    • location Ionian Sea  • coordinates 39°14′10″N 20°28′34″E / 39.23611°N 20.47611°E / 39.23611; 20.47611Coordinates: 39°14′10″N 20°28′34″E / 39.23611°N 20.47611°E / 39.23611; 20.47611 Length 52 km (32 mi) Basin size 705 km2 (272 sq mi) The Acheron (/ˈækərən/; Ancient Greek: Ἀχέρων Acheron or Ἀχερούσιος Acherousios; Greek: Αχέροντας Acherontas) is a river located in the Epirus region of northwest Greece. It is 52 km (32 mi) long, and its drainage area is 705 km2 (272 sq mi).[1] Its source is near the village Zotiko, in the southwestern part of the Ioannina regional unit and it flows into the Ionian Sea in Ammoudia, near Parga. Contents 1 Mythology 2 Modern references in popular culture 3 Namesake 4 Gallery 5 References 6 External links Mythology[edit] In ancient Greek mythology, Acheron was known as the "river of woe", and was one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld. The word is of uncertain etymology.[2] In the Homeric poems, the Acheron was described as a river of Hades, into which Cocytus and Phlegethon both flowed.[3][4] The Roman poet Virgil called it the principal river of Tartarus, from which the Styx and Cocytus both sprang.[5] The newly dead would be ferried across the Acheron by Charon in order to enter the Underworld.[6] William Blake's depiction of "The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls Mustering to Cross the Acheron" in his Illustrations to Dante's "Divine Comedy" object 5 c. 1824–27. The original for the work is held by the National Gallery of Victoria.[7] The Suda describes the river as "a place of healing, not a place of punishment, cleansing and purging the sins of humans".[8] According to later traditions, Acheron had been a son of Helios and either Gaia or Demeter, who had been turned into the Underworld river bearing his name after he refreshed the Titans with drink during their contest with Zeus.[9] By this myth, Acheron is also the father of Ascalaphus by either Orphne[10] or Gorgyra.[11] The river called Acheron with the nearby ruins of the Necromanteion (oratory of the dead) is found near Parga on the mainland of Greece opposite Corfu. Another branch of Acheron was believed to surface at the Acherusian cape (now Karadeniz Ereğli in Turkey) and was seen by the Argonauts according to Apollonius of Rhodes. Greeks who settled in Italy identified the Acherusian lake into which Acheron flowed with Lake Avernus. Plato in his Phaedo identified Acheron as the second greatest river in the world, excelled only by Oceanus. Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls across the Acheron to Hell. Those who were neutral in life sit on the banks He claimed that Acheron flowed in the opposite direction from Oceanus beneath the earth under desert places. The word is also occasionally used as a synecdoche for Hades itself. Virgil mentions Acheron with the other infernal rivers in his description of the underworld in Book VI of the Aeneid. In Book VII, line 312[12] he gives to Juno the famous saying, flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo: 'If I cannot bend the will of Heaven, I shall move Hell.' The same words were used by Sigmund Freud as the dedicatory motto for his seminal book The Interpretation of Dreams, figuring Acheron as psychological underworld beneath the conscious mind. The Acheron was sometimes referred to as a lake or swamp in Greek literature, as in Aristophanes' The Frogs and Euripides' Alcestis. In Dante's Inferno, the Acheron river forms the border of Hell. Following Greek mythology, Charon ferries souls across this river to Hell. Those who were neutral in life sit on the banks. Modern references in popular culture[edit] The name Acheron was used as a reference within the Alien film series for the planet LV426 (where the crashed alien vessel containing the face-huggers was originally found). Known solely by its alphanumeric designation during the first film, the planet was named as Acheron during the sequel Aliens. Robert E. Howard used Acheron as the name of an ancient kingdom, ruled by evil sorcerers a few thousand years before The Hyborian Age. In The Hour of the Dragon, the only novel-length Conan the Barbarian story by Howard, the wizard Xaltotun, formerly of Acheron, is resurrected by necromancy and is Conan's main antagonist. Acheron was the French privateer ship that Captain Jack Aubrey pursued in the film of the book; Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003). The first movement of the first track on the album Warp Riders by The Sword is titled "Acheron". The name "Acheron" is also used for the Lawful (Neutral) Evil Outer Plane in Dungeons & Dragons, however it is described as consisting of a huge number of iron cubes of varying size, instead of a river. Acheron was referenced in Golden Sun: The Lost Age as a critical hit named 'Acheron's Grief' by one of Golden Sun's endgame weapons: 'Darksword'. In addition, the River Acheron makes multiple appearances in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series. In the universe of The Mechanisms Album Ulysses Dies At Dawn The Acheron is a massive database of disembodied brains that run and process The City. "Acheron" is a track name off the debut album Pantheon of the Nightside Gods by the band Belzebubs. Acheron is the name of an alliance lord from the video game Fire Emblem: Three Houses. Namesake[edit] Acheron Lake in Antarctica is named after the mythical river. Gallery[edit] Acheron river Acheron river (another view) Truss bridge over the Acheron river Eurasian penduline tit nest above the river References[edit] ^ Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment Archived 2017-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change, p. 54 ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 182. ^ Homer, The Odyssey x. 513 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece i. 17, § 5 ^ Virgil, Aeneid vi. 297 ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6. 323 ^ Morris Eaves; Robert N. Essick; Joseph Viscomi (eds.). "Illustrations to Dante's "Divine Comedy", object 5 (Butlin 812.5) "The Vestibule of Hell and the Souls Mustering to Cross the Acheron"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved January 25, 2015. ^ Suda On Line ^ Natalis Comes. Mythologiae, 3.1 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 539 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 33 ^ Line 312 in the conventional lineation, see J.W. Mackail (Editor and Translator), The AEneid (Clarendon press, Oxford: 1930), p. 271. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Acheron. Look up Acheron in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. L'Achéron, Viol Consort v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where the Sun Is Silent (2011 album) Film L'Inferno (1911) Dante's Inferno (1924) Dante's Inferno (1935) The Dante Quartet (1987) A TV Dante (1989) Dante's Inferno (2007) Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic (2010) Dante's Hell Animated (2013) Literature The Story of Rimini (1816) La Comédie humaine (1830–1850) Earth Inferno (1905) The Cantos (1917–1962) As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (1937) The System of Dante's Hell (1965) Demon Lord Dante (1971) Inferno (1976) The Dante Club (2003) Jimbo's Inferno (2006) Inferno (2013) Video games Devil May Cry series (2001) Bayonetta series (2009) Dante's Inferno (2010) The Lost (cancelled) Related Cultural references in the Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy in popular culture English translations Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli Botticelli Inferno (2016 documentary) Hell in popular culture Category v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acheron&oldid=1001984498" Categories: Potamoi Rivers of Greece Rivers of Hades Geography of ancient Epirus Epirotic mythology Landforms of Ioannina (regional unit) Rivers of Epirus (region) Landforms of Preveza (regional unit) Drainage basins of the Ionian Sea Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Português Română Русский Shqip Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 07:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7625	----	Creon of Corinth - Wikipedia Creon of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the mythological ruler of Corinth. For other uses, see Creon (mythology). In Greek mythology, Creon (/ˈkriːɒn/; Ancient Greek: Κρέων Kreōn means "ruler"[1]), son of Lycaethus,[2] was a king of Corinth and father of Hippotes and Creusa or Glauce, whom Jason would marry if not for the intervention of Medea. Mythology[edit] According to a lost play by Euripides summarized in the Bibliotheca, Alcmaeon entrusted to Creon's care his two children by Manto—a son Amphilochus and a daughter Tisiphone. The latter grew up to be so pretty that Creon's wife sold her away as a slave, fearing that Creon might abandon her in favor of the maiden. Tisiphone was bought by her own father Alcmaeon, who failed to recognize her and did not get to know the truth until he came to Corinth to fetch his children.[3] Creon is best known in connection with the myth of Jason and Medea mentioned above. He showed hospitality towards the couple, and later expressed consent for Jason to marry his daughter. Ultimately, he fell victim to Medea's subsequent revenge, getting burned to death as he was attempting to rescue his daughter from similar fate.[4][5][6] References[edit] ^ Robin Hard. The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (2004) ^ Scholia on Euripides, Medea, 20; Hyginus in Fab. 25 erroneously calls him a son of Menoeceus, apparently confounding him with Creon of Thebes. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 7. 7 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 9. 28 ^ Euripides, Medea passim ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 25 v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creon_of_Corinth&oldid=1001259569" Categories: Corinthian mythology Kings of Corinth Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2021, at 22:46 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7587	----	Franz Kafka - Wikipedia Franz Kafka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Kafkaesque) Jump to navigation Jump to search "Kafka" redirects here. For other uses, see Kafka (disambiguation). Bohemian novelist and short-story writer (1883–1924) Franz Kafka Kafka in 1923 Born (1883-07-03)3 July 1883 Prague, Kingdom of Bohemia, Austria-Hungary (present day Czech Republic) Died 3 June 1924(1924-06-03) (aged 40) Kierling, part of Klosterneuburg, Lower Austria, Austria Resting place New Jewish Cemetery, Prague-Žižkov Citizenship born with General Austrian citizenship based on Austro-Hungarian nationality law of 1867 Czechoslovakia (1918–1924)[1][2] Alma mater German Charles-Ferdinand University, Prague Occupation Novelist short story writer insurance officer Notable work "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis") Der Process (The Trial) "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment") Das Schloss (The Castle) Betrachtung (Contemplation) Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist) Briefe an Felice (Letters to Felice) Style Modernism Parent(s) Hermann Kafka Julie Kafka (née Löwy) Signature Franz Kafka[a] (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic.[4] It typically features isolated protagonists facing bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible socio-bureaucratic powers. It has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity.[5] His best known works include "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"), Der Process (The Trial), and Das Schloss (The Castle). The term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those found in his writing.[6] Kafka was born into a middle-class German-Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, today the capital of the Czech Republic.[7] He trained as a lawyer and after completing his legal education was employed full-time by an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship. He became engaged to several women but never married. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis. Few of Kafka's works were published during his lifetime: the story collections Betrachtung (Contemplation) and Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor), and individual stories (such as "Die Verwandlung") were published in literary magazines but received little public attention. In his will, Kafka instructed his executor and friend Max Brod to destroy his unfinished works, including his novels Der Prozess, Das Schloss and Der Verschollene (translated as both Amerika and The Man Who Disappeared), but Brod ignored these instructions. His work has influenced a vast range of writers, critics, artists, and philosophers during the 20th and 21st centuries. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early life 1.2 Education 1.3 Employment 1.4 Private life 1.5 Personality 1.6 Political views 1.7 Judaism and Zionism 2 Death 3 Works 3.1 Stories 3.2 Novels 3.3 Publishing history 3.3.1 Max Brod 3.3.2 Modern editions 3.3.3 Unpublished papers 4 Critical response 4.1 Critical interpretations 4.2 Translations 4.3 Translation problems to English 5 Legacy 5.1 Literary and cultural influence 5.2 "Kafkaesque" 5.3 Commemorations 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Life[edit] Early life[edit] Hermann and Julie Kafka Franz Kafka's sisters, from the left Valli, Elli, Ottla Kafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His family were German-speaking middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka (1854–1931), was the fourth child of Jakob Kafka,[8][9] a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek, a Czech village with a large Jewish population located near Strakonice in southern Bohemia.[10] Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague. After working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fashion retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw (kavka in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as kafka) as his business logo.[11] Kafka's mother, Julie (1856–1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous retail merchant in Poděbrady,[12] and was better educated than her husband.[8] Kafka's parents probably spoke a German influenced by Yiddish that was sometimes pejoratively called Mauscheldeutsch, but, as the German language was considered the vehicle of social mobility, they probably encouraged their children to speak Standard German.[13] Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest.[14] Franz's two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven; his three sisters were Gabriele ("Ellie") (1889–1944), Valerie ("Valli") (1890–1942) and Ottilie ("Ottla") (1892–1943). All three were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II. Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in occupied Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her. Ottilie was Kafka's favourite sister.[15] Hermann is described by the biographer Stanley Corngold as a "huge, selfish, overbearing businessman"[16] and by Franz Kafka as "a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, [and] knowledge of human nature".[17] On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business. Consequently, Kafka's childhood was somewhat lonely,[18] and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his Brief an den Vater (Letter to His Father) of more than 100 pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character;[19] his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy.[20] The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing.[21] The Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. Franz's room was often cold. In November 1913 the family moved into a bigger apartment, although Ellie and Valli had married and moved out of the first apartment. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, the sisters did not know where their husbands were in the military and moved back in with the family in this larger apartment. Both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Valli's former apartment, quiet by contrast, and lived by himself for the first time.[22] Education[edit] From 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the Deutsche Knabenschule German boys' elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt (meat market), now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his bar mitzvah celebration at the age of 13. Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year.[17][23][24] Kinský Palace where Kafka attended gymnasium and his father owned a shop After leaving elementary school in 1893, Kafka was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium, an academic secondary school at Old Town Square, within the Kinský Palace. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and wrote in Czech.[25][26] He studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades.[27] Although Kafka received compliments for his Czech, he never considered himself fluent in Czech, though he spoke German with a Czech accent.[1][26] He completed his Matura exams in 1901.[28] Admitted to the Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universität of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry, but switched to law after two weeks.[29] Although this field did not excite him, it offered a range of career possibilities which pleased his father. In addition, law required a longer course of study, giving Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history.[30] He also joined a student club, Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten (Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students), which organised literary events, readings and other activities.[31] Among Kafka's friends were the journalist Felix Weltsch, who studied philosophy, the actor Yitzchak Lowy who came from an orthodox Hasidic Warsaw family, and the writers Ludwig Winder, Oskar Baum and Franz Werfel.[32] At the end of his first year of studies, Kafka met Max Brod, a fellow law student who became a close friend for life.[31] Brod soon noticed that, although Kafka was shy and seldom spoke, what he said was usually profound.[33] Kafka was an avid reader throughout his life;[34] together he and Brod read Plato's Protagoras in the original Greek, on Brod's initiative, and Flaubert's L'éducation sentimentale and La Tentation de St. Antoine (The Temptation of Saint Anthony) in French, at his own suggestion.[35] Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gustav Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer,[36] and Heinrich von Kleist to be his "true blood brothers".[37] Besides these, he took an interest in Czech literature[25][26] and was also very fond of the works of Goethe.[38][39] Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 July 1906[b] and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.[6] Employment[edit] Former home of the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute On 1 November 1907, Kafka was hired at the Assicurazioni Generali, an insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. His correspondence during that period indicates that he was unhappy with a work schedule—from 08:00 until 18:00[42][43]—that made it extremely difficult to concentrate on writing, which was assuming increasing importance to him. On 15 July 1908, he resigned. Two weeks later, he found employment more amenable to writing when he joined the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. The job involved investigating and assessing compensation for personal injury to industrial workers; accidents such as lost fingers or limbs were commonplace, owing to poor work safety policies at the time. It was especially true of factories fitted with machine lathes, drills, planing machines and rotary saws, which were rarely fitted with safety guards.[44] The management professor Peter Drucker credits Kafka with developing the first civilian hard hat while employed at the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute, but this is not supported by any document from his employer.[45][46] His father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a Brotberuf, literally "bread job", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it. Kafka was rapidly promoted and his duties included processing and investigating compensation claims, writing reports, and handling appeals from businessmen who thought their firms had been placed in too high a risk category, which cost them more in insurance premiums.[47] He would compile and compose the annual report on the insurance institute for the several years he worked there. The reports were well received by his superiors.[48] Kafka usually got off work at 2 P.M., so that he had time to spend on his literary work, to which he was committed.[49] Kafka's father also expected him to help out at and take over the family fancy goods store.[50] In his later years, Kafka's illness often prevented him from working at the insurance bureau and at his writing. Years later, Brod coined the term Der enge Prager Kreis ("The Close Prague Circle") to describe the group of writers, which included Kafka, Felix Weltsch and him.[51][52] In late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka. Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business, but he later resented the encroachment of this work on his writing time.[53] During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre. After seeing a Yiddish theatre troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka "immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature".[54] This interest also served as a starting point for his growing exploration of Judaism.[55] It was at about this time that Kafka became a vegetarian.[56] Around 1915, Kafka received his draft notice for military service in World War I, but his employers at the insurance institute arranged for a deferment because his work was considered essential government service. He later attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis,[57] with which he was diagnosed in 1917.[58] In 1918, the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute put Kafka on a pension due to his illness, for which there was no cure at the time, and he spent most of the rest of his life in sanatoriums.[6] Private life[edit] Kafka never married. According to Brod, Kafka was "tortured" by sexual desire,[59] and Kafka's biographer Reiner Stach states that his life was full of "incessant womanising" and that he was filled with a fear of "sexual failure".[60] Kafka visited brothels for most of his adult life,[61][62][63] and was interested in pornography.[59] In addition, he had close relationships with several women during his lifetime. On 13 August 1912, Kafka met Felice Bauer, a relative of Brod, who worked in Berlin as a representative of a dictaphone company. A week after the meeting at Brod's home, Kafka wrote in his diary: Miss FB. When I arrived at Brod's on 13 August, she was sitting at the table. I was not at all curious about who she was, but rather took her for granted at once. Bony, empty face that wore its emptiness openly. Bare throat. A blouse thrown on. Looked very domestic in her dress although, as it turned out, she by no means was. (I alienate myself from her a little by inspecting her so closely ...) Almost broken nose. Blonde, somewhat straight, unattractive hair, strong chin. As I was taking my seat I looked at her closely for the first time, by the time I was seated I already had an unshakeable opinion.[64][65] Shortly after this meeting, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment") in only one night and worked in a productive period on Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared) and "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"). Kafka and Felice Bauer communicated mostly through letters over the next five years, met occasionally, and were engaged twice.[66] Kafka's extant letters to Bauer were published as Briefe an Felice (Letters to Felice); her letters do not survive.[64][67][68] According to the biographers Stach and James Hawes, Kafka became engaged a third time around 1920, to Julie Wohryzek, a poor and uneducated hotel chambermaid.[66][69] Although the two rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place. During this time, Kafka began a draft of Letter to His Father, who objected to Julie because of her Zionist beliefs. Before the date of the intended marriage, he took up with yet another woman.[70] While he needed women and sex in his life, he had low self-confidence, felt sex was dirty, and was cripplingly shy—especially about his body.[6] Stach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe "Grete" Bloch,[71] a Jewish woman from Berlin. Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child. The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921.[72][73] However, Kafka's biographer Peter-André Alt says that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father as the pair were never intimate.[74][75] Stach points out that there is a great deal of contradictory evidence around the claim that Kafka was the father.[76] Kafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in August 1917 and moved for a few months to the Bohemian village of Zürau (Siřem in the Czech language), where his sister Ottla worked on the farm of her brother-in-law Karl Hermann. He felt comfortable there and later described this time as perhaps the best period of his life, probably because he had no responsibilities. He kept diaries and Oktavhefte (octavo). From the notes in these books, Kafka extracted 109 numbered pieces of text on Zettel, single pieces of paper in no given order. They were later published as Die Zürauer Aphorismen oder Betrachtungen über Sünde, Hoffnung, Leid und den wahren Weg (The Zürau Aphorisms or Reflections on Sin, Hope, Suffering, and the True Way).[77] In 1920, Kafka began an intense relationship with Milena Jesenská, a Czech journalist and writer. His letters to her were later published as Briefe an Milena.[78] During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family. Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin (September 1923-March 1924) and lived with Diamant. She became his lover and sparked his interest in the Talmud.[79] He worked on four stories, all of which were intended for publication, including Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist).[78] Personality[edit] Kafka had a lifelong suspicion that people found him mentally and physically repulsive. However, those who met him invariably found him to possess a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence, and a dry sense of humour; they also found him boyishly handsome, although of austere appearance.[80][81][82] Kafka in 1906 Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details.[83] Brod thought Kafka was one of the most entertaining people he had met; Kafka enjoyed sharing humour with his friends, but also helped them in difficult situations with good advice.[84] According to Brod, he was a passionate reciter, able to phrase his speech as though it were music.[85] Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were "absolute truthfulness" (absolute Wahrhaftigkeit) and "precise conscientiousness" (präzise Gewissenhaftigkeit).[86][87] He explored details, the inconspicuous, in depth and with such love and precision that things surfaced that were unforeseen, seemingly strange, but absolutely true (nichts als wahr).[88] Although Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later developed a passion for games and physical activity,[34] and was an accomplished rider, swimmer, and rower.[86] On weekends, he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself.[89] His other interests included alternative medicine, modern education systems such as Montessori,[86] and technological novelties such as airplanes and film.[90] Writing was vitally important to Kafka; he considered it a "form of prayer".[91] He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred absolute quiet when writing.[92] Pérez-Álvarez has claimed that Kafka may have possessed a schizoid personality disorder.[93] His style, it is claimed, not only in "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis"), but in various other writings, appears to show low to medium-level schizoid traits, which Pérez-Álvarez claims to have influenced much of his work.[94] His anguish can be seen in this diary entry from 21 June 1913:[95] Die ungeheure Welt, die ich im Kopfe habe. Aber wie mich befreien und sie befreien, ohne zu zerreißen. Und tausendmal lieber zerreißen, als in mir sie zurückhalten oder begraben. Dazu bin ich ja hier, das ist mir ganz klar.[96] The tremendous world I have inside my head, but how to free myself and free it without being torn to pieces. And a thousand times rather be torn to pieces than retain it in me or bury it. That, indeed, is why I am here, that is quite clear to me.[97] and in Zürau Aphorism number 50: Man cannot live without a permanent trust in something indestructible within himself, though both that indestructible something and his own trust in it may remain permanently concealed from him.[98] Alessia Coralli and Antonio Perciaccante of San Giovanni di Dio Hospital have posited that Kafka may have had borderline personality disorder with co-occurring psychophysiological insomnia.[99] Joan Lachkar interpreted Die Verwandlung as "a vivid depiction of the borderline personality" and described the story as "model for Kafka's own abandonment fears, anxiety, depression, and parasitic dependency needs. Kafka illuminated the borderline's general confusion of normal and healthy desires, wishes, and needs with something ugly and disdainful."[100] Though Kafka never married, he held marriage and children in high esteem. He had several girlfriends and lovers across his life.[101] He may have suffered from an eating disorder. Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented "evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa",[102] and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also "occasionally suicidal".[81] In his 1995 book Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient, Sander Gilman investigated "why a Jew might have been considered 'hypochondriacal' or 'homosexual' and how Kafka incorporates aspects of these ways of understanding the Jewish male into his own self-image and writing".[103] Kafka considered suicide at least once, in late 1912.[104] Political views[edit] Prior to World War I,[105] Kafka attended several meetings of the Klub mladých, a Czech anarchist, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization.[106] Hugo Bergmann, who attended the same elementary and high schools as Kafka, fell out with Kafka during their last academic year (1900–1901) because "[Kafka's] socialism and my Zionism were much too strident".[107][108] "Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898. The synthesis of Zionism and socialism did not yet exist".[108] Bergmann claims that Kafka wore a red carnation to school to show his support for socialism.[108] In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: "Don't forget Kropotkin!"[109] During the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern bloc socialism was hotly debated. Opinions ranged from the notion that he satirised the bureaucratic bungling of a crumbling Austro-Hungarian Empire, to the belief that he embodied the rise of socialism.[110] A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation. While the orthodox position was that Kafka's depictions of alienation were no longer relevant for a society that had supposedly eliminated alienation, a 1963 conference held in Liblice, Czechoslovakia, on the eightieth anniversary of his birth, reassessed the importance of Kafka's portrayal of bureaucracy.[111] Whether or not Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.[112] Judaism and Zionism[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka and Judaism Kafka in 1910 Kafka grew up in Prague as a German-speaking Jew.[113] He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe, who he thought possessed an intensity of spiritual life that was absent from Jews in the West. His diary is full of references to Yiddish writers.[114] Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life. On 8 January 1914, he wrote in his diary: Was habe ich mit Juden gemeinsam? Ich habe kaum etwas mit mir gemeinsam und sollte mich ganz still, zufrieden damit daß ich atmen kann in einen Winkel stellen.[115] (What have I in common with Jews? I have hardly anything in common with myself and should stand very quietly in a corner, content that I can breathe.)[116][117] In his adolescent years, Kafka declared himself an atheist.[118] Hawes suggests that Kafka, though very aware of his own Jewishness, did not incorporate it into his work, which, according to Hawes, lacks Jewish characters, scenes or themes.[119][120][121] In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, although Kafka was uneasy with his Jewish heritage, he was the quintessential Jewish writer.[122] Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: "The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's oeuvre is no longer subject to doubt".[123] Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets Der Process (The Trial) as the embodiment of the "triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague ... his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer). He stands for the 'guiltless guilt' that imbues the Jew in the modern world, although there is no evidence that he himself is a Jew".[124] In his essay Sadness in Palestine?!, Dan Miron explores Kafka's connection to Zionism: "It seems that those who claim that there was such a connection and that Zionism played a central role in his life and literary work, and those who deny the connection altogether or dismiss its importance, are both wrong. The truth lies in some very elusive place between these two simplistic poles".[114] Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant. He studied Hebrew while living in Berlin, hiring a friend of Brod's from Palestine, Pua Bat-Tovim, to tutor him[114] and attending Rabbi Julius Grünthal's[125] and Rabbi Julius Guttmann's classes in the Berlin Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums (College for the Study of Judaism).[126] Livia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the "symbolic figure of his era".[124] His contemporaries included numerous Jewish, Czech, and German writers who were sensitive to Jewish, Czech, and German culture. According to Rothkirchen, "This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation. An illustrious example is Franz Kafka".[124] Towards the end of his life Kafka sent a postcard to his friend Hugo Bergman in Tel Aviv, announcing his intention to emigrate to Palestine. Bergman refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis.[127] Death[edit] Franz Kafka's grave in Prague-Žižkov designed by Leopold Ehrmann Kafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague,[66] where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla and Dora Diamant, took care of him. He went to Dr. Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling just outside Vienna for treatment on 10 April,[78] and died there on 3 June 1924. The cause of death seemed to be starvation: the condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him.[128][129] Kafka was editing "A Hunger Artist" on his deathbed, a story whose composition he had begun before his throat closed to the point that he could not take any nourishment.[130] His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-Žižkov.[62] Kafka was virtually unknown during his own lifetime, but he did not consider fame important. He rose to fame rapidly after his death,[91] particularly after World War II. The Kafka tombstone was designed by architect Leopold Ehrmann.[131] Works[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka bibliography First page of Kafka's Letter to His Father All of Kafka's published works, except some letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention. Kafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work,[132][133] much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts.[134] In his early years as a writer, he was influenced by von Kleist, whose work he described in a letter to Bauer as frightening, and whom he considered closer than his own family.[135] Stories[edit] Kafka's earliest published works were eight stories which appeared in 1908 in the first issue of the literary journal Hyperion under the title Betrachtung (Contemplation). He wrote the story "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Description of a Struggle")[c] in 1904; he showed it to Brod in 1905 who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to Hyperion. Kafka published a fragment in 1908[136] and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich.[137] In a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment", literally: "The Verdict") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer. Brod noted the similarity in names of the main character and his fictional fiancée, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer.[138] The story is often considered Kafka's breakthrough work. It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement.[139][140] Kafka later described writing it as "a complete opening of body and soul",[141] a story that "evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime".[142] The story was first published in Leipzig in 1912 and dedicated "to Miss Felice Bauer", and in subsequent editions "for F."[78] In 1912, Kafka wrote "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis", or "The Transformation"),[143] published in 1915 in Leipzig. The story begins with a travelling salesman waking to find himself transformed into an ungeheures Ungeziefer, a monstrous vermin, Ungeziefer being a general term for unwanted and unclean animals. Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century.[144][145][146] The story "In der Strafkolonie" ("In the Penal Colony"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914,[78] revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919. The story "Ein Hungerkünstler" ("A Hunger Artist"), published in the periodical Die neue Rundschau in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods.[147] His last story, "Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse" ("Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience.[148] Franz Kafka Notebook with words in German and Hebrew. from the Collection of the National Library of Israel. Novels[edit] Kafka began his first novel in 1912;[149] its first chapter is the story "Der Heizer" ("The Stoker"). He called the work, which remained unfinished, Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared or The Missing Man), but when Brod published it after Kafka's death he named it Amerika.[150] The inspiration for the novel was the time spent in the audience of Yiddish theatre the previous year, bringing him to a new awareness of his heritage, which led to the thought that an innate appreciation for one's heritage lives deep within each person.[151] More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, the novel shares the motif of an oppressive and intangible system putting the protagonist repeatedly in bizarre situations.[152] It uses many details of experiences of his relatives who had emigrated to America[153] and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending.[154] During 1914, Kafka began the novel Der Process (The Trial),[137] the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader. He did not complete the novel, although he finished the final chapter. According to Nobel Prize winner and Kafka scholar Elias Canetti, Felice is central to the plot of Der Process and Kafka said it was "her story".[155][156] Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice Kafka's Other Trial, in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel.[156] Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for The New York Times that Kafka's letters have the "earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocation—combined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardor and delight."[156] According to his diary, Kafka was already planning his novel Das Schloss (The Castle), by 11 June 1914; however, he did not begin writing it until 27 January 1922.[137] The protagonist is the Landvermesser (land surveyor) named K., who struggles for unknown reasons to gain access to the mysterious authorities of a castle who govern the village. Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his "legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there".[157] Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unobtainable goal. Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: "Like dreams, his texts combine precise 'realistic' detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness."[158] Publishing history[edit] First edition of Betrachtung, 1912 Kafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals. His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly Hyperion.[159] Franz Blei published two dialogues in 1909 which became part of "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Description of a Struggle").[159] A fragment of the story "Die Aeroplane in Brescia" ("The Aeroplanes at Brescia"), written on a trip to Italy with Brod, appeared in the daily Bohemia on 28 September 1909.[159][160] On 27 March 1910, several stories that later became part of the book Betrachtung were published in the Easter edition of Bohemia.[159][161] In Leipzig during 1913, Brod and publisher Kurt Wolff included "Das Urteil. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka." ("The Judgment. A Story by Franz Kafka.") in their literary yearbook for the art poetry Arkadia. In the same year, Wolff published "Der Heizer" ("The Stoker") in the Jüngste Tag series, where it enjoyed three printings.[162] The story "Vor dem Gesetz" ("Before the Law") was published in the 1915 New Year's edition of the independent Jewish weekly Selbstwehr; it was reprinted in 1919 as part of the story collection Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor) and became part of the novel Der Process. Other stories were published in various publications, including Martin Buber's Der Jude, the paper Prager Tagblatt, and the periodicals Die neue Rundschau, Genius, and Prager Presse.[159] Kafka's first published book, Betrachtung (Contemplation, or Meditation), was a collection of 18 stories written between 1904 and 1912. On a summer trip to Weimar, Brod initiated a meeting between Kafka and Kurt Wolff;[163] Wolff published Betrachtung in the Rowohlt Verlag at the end of 1912 (with the year given as 1913).[164] Kafka dedicated it to Brod, "Für M.B.", and added in the personal copy given to his friend "So wie es hier schon gedruckt ist, für meinen liebsten Max‍—‌Franz K." ("As it is already printed here, for my dearest Max").[165] Kafka's story "Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis") was first printed in the October 1915 issue of Die Weißen Blätter, a monthly edition of expressionist literature, edited by René Schickele.[164] Another story collection, Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor), was published by Kurt Wolff in 1919,[164] dedicated to Kafka's father.[166] Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist), which appeared in 1924 after his death, in Verlag Die Schmiede. On 20 April 1924, the Berliner Börsen-Courier published Kafka's essay on Adalbert Stifter.[167] Max Brod[edit] First edition of Der Prozess, 1925 Kafka left his work, both published and unpublished, to his friend and literary executor Max Brod with explicit instructions that it should be destroyed on Kafka's death; Kafka wrote: "Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me ... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread".[168][169] Brod ignored this request and published the novels and collected works between 1925 and 1935. He took many papers, which remain unpublished, with him in suitcases to Palestine when he fled there in 1939.[170] Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20 notebooks and 35 letters. These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them.[171] As Brod published the bulk of the writings in his possession,[172] Kafka's work began to attract wider attention and critical acclaim. Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order. One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end.[173][174] Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication. For example, Kafka left Der Process with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and Das Schloss with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content;[174] Brod rearranged chapters, copy-edited the text, and changed the punctuation. Der Process appeared in 1925 in Verlag Die Schmiede. Kurt Wolff published two other novels, Das Schloss in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. In 1931, Brod edited a collection of prose and unpublished stories as Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer (The Great Wall of China), including the story of the same name. The book appeared in the Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag. Brod's sets are usually called the "Definitive Editions".[175] Modern editions[edit] In 1961, Malcolm Pasley acquired most of Kafka's original handwritten work for the Oxford Bodleian Library.[176][177] The text for Der Process was later purchased through auction and is stored at the German Literary Archives in Marbach am Neckar, Germany.[177][178] Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit and Jürgen Born) which reconstructed the German novels; S. Fischer Verlag republished them.[179] Pasley was the editor for Das Schloss, published in 1982, and Der Process (The Trial), published in 1990. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of Der Verschollene (Amerika) published in 1983. These are called the "Critical Editions" or the "Fischer Editions".[180] Unpublished papers[edit] When Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe.[181] She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers. A court battle began in 2008 between the sisters and the National Library of Israel, which claimed these works became the property of the nation of Israel when Brod emigrated to British Palestine in 1939. Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of Der Process for US$2 million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar.[132][182] Only Eva was still alive as of 2012.[183] A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued.[184] The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library of Israel argues they are "cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people".[184] The National Library also suggests that Brod bequeathed the papers to them in his will. The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012 that the papers were the property of the National Library.[185] Critical response[edit] Critical interpretations[edit] The poet W. H. Auden called Kafka "the Dante of the twentieth century";[186] the novelist Vladimir Nabokov placed him among the greatest writers of the 20th century.[187] Gabriel García Márquez noted the reading of Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" showed him "that it was possible to write in a different way".[117][188] A prominent theme of Kafka's work, first established in the short story "Das Urteil",[189] is father–son conflict: the guilt induced in the son is resolved through suffering and atonement.[19][189] Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation.[190] Kafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of "Die Verwandlung" and "Der Heizer" by Oscar Walzel in Berliner Beiträge.[191] The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools.[112] Marxists, for example, have sharply disagreed over how to interpret Kafka's works.[106][112] Some accused him of distorting reality whereas others claimed he was critiquing capitalism.[112] The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism.[192] Some of Kafka's books are influenced by the expressionist movement, though the majority of his literary output was associated with the experimental modernist genre. Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy. William Burrows claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships.[193] Others, such as Thomas Mann, see Kafka's work as allegorical: a quest, metaphysical in nature, for God.[194][195] According to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the themes of alienation and persecution, although present in Kafka's work, have been over-emphasised by critics. They argue Kafka's work is more deliberate and subversive—and more joyful—than may first appear. They point out that reading the Kafka work while focusing on the futility of his characters' struggles reveals Kafka's play of humour; he is not necessarily commenting on his own problems, but rather pointing out how people tend to invent problems. In his work, Kafka often created malevolent, absurd worlds.[196][197] Kafka read drafts of his works to his friends, typically concentrating on his humorous prose. The writer Milan Kundera suggests that Kafka's surrealist humour may have been an inversion of Dostoyevsky's presentation of characters who are punished for a crime. In Kafka's work a character is punished although a crime has not been committed. Kundera believes that Kafka's inspirations for his characteristic situations came both from growing up in a patriarchal family and living in a totalitarian state.[198] Attempts have been made to identify the influence of Kafka's legal background and the role of law in his fiction.[199][200] Most interpretations identify aspects of law and legality as important in his work,[201] in which the legal system is often oppressive.[202] The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces. These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control.[201] Critics who support this absurdist interpretation cite instances where Kafka describes himself in conflict with an absurd universe, such as the following entry from his diary: Enclosed in my own four walls, I found myself as an immigrant imprisoned in a foreign country;... I saw my family as strange aliens whose foreign customs, rites, and very language defied comprehension;... though I did not want it, they forced me to participate in their bizarre rituals;... I could not resist.[203] However, James Hawes argues many of Kafka's descriptions of the legal proceedings in Der Process—metaphysical, absurd, bewildering and nightmarish as they might appear—are based on accurate and informed descriptions of German and Austrian criminal proceedings of the time, which were inquisitorial rather than adversarial.[204] Although he worked in insurance, as a trained lawyer Kafka was "keenly aware of the legal debates of his day".[200][205] In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure,[206] Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law "has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination".[207] Translations[edit] The earliest English translations of Kafka's works were by Edwin and Willa Muir, who in 1930 translated the first German edition of Das Schloss. This was published as The Castle by Secker & Warburg in England and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States.[208] A 1941 edition, including a homage by Thomas Mann, spurred a surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States during the late 1940s.[209] The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces,[210] including additionally The First Long Train Journey, written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's "A Novel about Youth", a review of Felix Sternheim's Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald, his essay on Kleist's "Anecdotes", his review of the literary magazine Hyperion, and an epilogue by Brod. Later editions, notably those of 1954 (Dearest Father. Stories and Other Writings), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser,[211] which had been deleted by earlier publishers.[179] Known as "Definitive Editions", they include translations of The Trial, Definitive, The Castle, Definitive, and other writings. These translations are generally accepted to have a number of biases and are considered to be dated in interpretation.[212] Published in 1961 by Schocken Books, Parables and Paradoxes presented in a bilingual edition by Nahum N. Glatzer selected writings,[213] drawn from notebooks, diaries, letters, short fictional works and the novel Der Process. New translations were completed and published based on the recompiled German text of Pasley and Schillemeit‍—‌The Castle, Critical by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998),[177] The Trial, Critical by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998),[214] and Amerika: The Man Who Disappeared by Michael Hofmann (New Directions Publishing, 2004).[215] Translation problems to English[edit] Further information: Franz Kafka bibliography § English translations Kafka often made extensive use of a characteristic particular to the German language which permits long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page. Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—this being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is due to the construction of subordinate clauses in German which require that the verb be positioned at the end of the sentence. Such constructions are difficult to duplicate in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same (or at least equivalent) effect found in the original text.[216] German's more flexible word order and syntactical differences provide for multiple ways in which the same German writing can be translated into English.[217] An example is the first sentence of Kafka's "The Metamorphosis", which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:[218] Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Träumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheuren Ungeziefer verwandelt. (original) As Gregor Samsa one morning from restless dreams awoke, found he himself in his bed into a monstrous vermin transformed. (literal word-for-word translation)[219] Another difficult problem facing translators is how to deal with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings which results in phrasing that is difficult to translate precisely.[220][221] One such instance is found in the first sentence of "The Metamorphosis". English translators often render the word Ungeziefer as "insect"; in Middle German, however, Ungeziefer literally means "an animal unclean for sacrifice";[222] in today's German it means vermin. It is sometimes used colloquially to mean "bug"—a very general term, unlike the scientific "insect". Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing, but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation.[144][145] Another example is Kafka's use of the German noun Verkehr in the final sentence of "Das Urteil". Literally, Verkehr means intercourse and, as in English, can have either a sexual or non-sexual meaning; in addition, it is used to mean transport or traffic. The sentence can be translated as: "At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge".[223] The double meaning of Verkehr is given added weight by Kafka's confession to Brod that when he wrote that final line, he was thinking of "a violent ejaculation".[142][224] Legacy[edit] Literary and cultural influence[edit] Jaroslav Róna's bronze Statue of Franz Kafka in Prague Unlike many famous writers, Kafka is rarely quoted by others. Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective.[225] Shimon Sandbank, a professor, literary critic, and writer, identifies Kafka as having influenced Jorge Luis Borges, Albert Camus, Eugène Ionesco, J. M. Coetzee and Jean-Paul Sartre.[226] A Financial Times literary critic credits Kafka with influencing José Saramago,[227] and Al Silverman, a writer and editor, states that J. D. Salinger loved to read Kafka's works.[228] In 1999 a committee of 99 authors, scholars, and literary critics ranked Der Process and Das Schloss the second and ninth most significant German-language novels of the 20th century.[229] Sandbank argues that despite Kafka's pervasiveness, his enigmatic style has yet to be emulated.[226] Neil Christian Pages, a professor of German Studies and Comparative Literature at Binghamton University who specialises in Kafka's works, says Kafka's influence transcends literature and literary scholarship; it impacts visual arts, music, and popular culture.[230] Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka "has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century".[6] Brod said that the 20th century will one day be known as the "century of Kafka".[6] Michel-André Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe. Kafka wrote in an aloof manner full of legal and scientific terms. Yet his serious universe also had insightful humour, all highlighting the "irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world".[190] His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world. Much of the post-Kafka fiction, especially science fiction, follow the themes and precepts of Kafka's universe. This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.[190] The following are examples of works across a range of dramatic, literary, and musical genres which demonstrate the extent of Kafka's cultural influence: Title Year Medium Remarks Ref Ein Landarzt 1951 opera by Hans Werner Henze, based on Kafka's story [231] "A Friend of Kafka" 1962 short story by Nobel Prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer, about a Yiddish actor called Jacques Kohn who said he knew Franz Kafka; in this story, according to Jacques Kohn, Kafka believed in the Golem, a legendary creature from Jewish folklore [232] The Trial 1962 film the film's director, Orson Welles, said, "Say what you like, but The Trial is my greatest work, even greater than Citizen Kane" [233][234] Watermelon Man 1970 film partly inspired by "The Metamorphosis", where a white bigot wakes up as a black man [235] Klassenverhältnisse 1984 film film adaptation of Amerika directed by Straub-Huillet Kafka-Fragmente, Op. 24 1985 music by Hungarian composer György Kurtág for soprano and violin, using fragments of Kafka's diary and letters [236] Kafka's Dick 1986 play by Alan Bennett, in which the ghosts of Kafka, his father Hermann and Brod arrive at the home of an English insurance clerk (and Kafka aficionado) and his wife [237] Better Morphosis 1991 short story parodic short story by Brian W. Aldiss, where a cockroach wakes up one morning to find out that it has turned into Franz Kafka [238] Northern Exposure 1992 television series episode in the season 3 episode "Cicely", Kafka finds himself in "The Paris of the North" to break his writer's block. He was invited to town by his letter correspondences' Roslyn and Cicely, who founded the town. In this story it is claimed that he had thought of the premise of The Metamorphosis here. Kafka's Hell-Paradise 2006 play by Milan Richter, in which Kafka re-tells his engagement stories with Felice Bauer and Julie Wohryzek, while all 5 persons use his aphorisms and Kafka tells his dreams; venues: Berlin, Marianske Lazne and Tatranske Matliary Kafka's Second Life 2007 play by Milan Richter, in which Kafka's life is prolonged by 41 years and Kafka experiences a happy life in Argentina, eventually to return to his Prague on the eve of WWII, with his fiancé and a servant Kafka 1991 film stars Jeremy Irons as the eponymous author; written by Lem Dobbs and directed by Steven Soderbergh, the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works; Kafka investigates the disappearance of one of his colleagues, taking Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably The Castle and The Trial [239] Das Schloß 1992 opera German-language opera by Aribert Reimann who wrote his own libretto based on Kafka's novel and its dramatization by Max Brod, premiered on 2 September 1992 at the Deutsche Oper Berlin, staged by Willy Decker and conducted by Michael Boder. [240] The Metamorphosis of Franz Kafka 1993 film film adaptation directed by Carlos Atanes. Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life 1993 film short comedy film made for BBC Scotland, won an Oscar, was written and directed by Peter Capaldi, and starred Richard E. Grant as Kafka [241] Bad Mojo 1996 computer game loosely based on The Metamorphosis, with characters named Franz and Roger Samms, alluding to Gregor Samsa [242] In the Penal Colony 2000 opera by Philip Glass [243] Kafka on the Shore 2002 novel by Japanese writer Haruki Murakami, on The New York Times 10 Best Books of 2005 list, World Fantasy Award recipient [244] Statue of Franz Kafka 2003 sculpture an outdoor sculpture on Vězeňská street in the Jewish Quarter of Prague, by artist Jaroslav Róna [245] Kafka's Trial 2005 opera by Danish composer Poul Ruders, based on the novel and parts of Kafka's life; first performed in 2005, released on CD [246] Kafka's Soup 2005 book by Mark Crick, is a literary pastiche in the form of a cookbook, with recipes written in the style of a famous author [247] Introducing Kafka 2007 graphic novel by Robert Crumb and David Zane Mairowitz, contains text and illustrations introducing Kafka's life and work A Country Doctor 2007 short film by Kōji Yamamura "Kafkaesque" 2010 TV series Breaking Bad Season 3 episode written by Peter Gould & George Mastras. Jesse Pinkman, at a group therapy meeting, describes his new workplace as a dreary, "totally corporate" laundromat mired in bureaucracy. He complains about his boss and that he's not worthy to meet the owner, whom everyone fears. "Sounds kind of Kafkaesque," responds the group leader. Kafka the Musical 2011 radio play by BBC Radio 3 produced as part of their Play of the Week programme. Franz Kafka was played by David Tennant [248] Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka 2012 music HAZE Netlabel released musical compilation Sound Interpretations – Dedication To Franz Kafka. In this release musicians rethink the literary heritage of Kafka [249] Google Doodle 2013 internet culture Google had a sepia-toned doodle of a roach in a hat opening a door, honoring Kafka's 130th birthday [250] The Metamorphosis 2013 dance Royal Ballet production of The Metamorphosis with Edward Watson [251] Café Kafka 2014 opera by Spanish composer Francisco Coll on a text by Meredith Oakes, built from texts and fragments by Franz Kafka; Commissioned by Aldeburgh Music, Opera North and Royal Opera Covent Garden [252] Head of Franz Kafka 2014 sculpture an outdoor sculpture in Prague by David Černý [253] VRwandlung 2018 virtual reality a virtual reality experience of the first part of The Metamorphosis directed by Mika Johnson [254] "Kafkaesque"[edit] "Kafkaesque" redirects here. For the Breaking Bad episode, see Kafkaesque (Breaking Bad). The term "Kafkaesque" is used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of his work, particularly Der Process (The Trial) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). Examples include instances in which bureaucracies overpower people, often in a surreal, nightmarish milieu which evokes feelings of senselessness, disorientation, and helplessness. Characters in a Kafkaesque setting often lack a clear course of action to escape a labyrinthine situation. Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical.[6][233][255][256] Numerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction. Works in this genre that have been thus described include Patrick Bokanowski's film The Angel (1982), Terry Gilliam's film Brazil (1985), and Alex Proyas' science fiction film noir, Dark City (1998). Films from other genres which have been similarly described include Roman Polanski's The Tenant (1976) and the Coen brothers' Barton Fink (1991).[257] The television series The Prisoner and The Twilight Zone are also frequently described as Kafkaesque.[258][259] However, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it is often misused.[260] More accurately then, according to author Ben Marcus, paraphrased in "What it Means to be Kafkaesque" by Joe Fassler in The Atlantic, "Kafka’s quintessential qualities are affecting use of language, a setting that straddles fantasy and reality, and a sense of striving even in the face of bleakness—hopelessly and full of hope." [261] Commemorations[edit] Plaque marking the birthplace of Franz Kafka in Prague, designed by Karel Hladík and Jan Kaplický, 1966 3412 Kafka is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 10 January 1983 by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States,[262] and named after Kafka by them.[263] Apache Kafka, an open-source stream processing platform originally released in January 2011, is named after Kafka.[264] The Franz Kafka Museum in Prague is dedicated to Kafka and his work. A major component of the museum is an exhibit, The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague, which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and finally established in Prague in Malá Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau, in 2005. The Franz Kafka Museum calls its display of original photos and documents Město K. Franz Kafka a Praha ("City K. Kafka and Prague") and aims to immerse the visitor into the world in which Kafka lived and about which he wrote.[265] The Franz Kafka Prize, established in 2001, is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague. It recognizes the merits of literature as "humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times".[266] The selection committee and recipients come from all over the world, but are limited to living authors who have had at least one work published in the Czech language.[266] The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall, on the Czech State Holiday in late October.[266] San Diego State University operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings.[171] Kafka Dome is an off-axis oceanic core complex in the central Atlantic named after Kafka. [267] See also[edit] Modernist literature Notes[edit] ^ UK: /ˈkæfkə/, US: /ˈkɑːf-/;[3] German: [ˈkafkaː]; Czech: [ˈkafka]; in Czech he was sometimes called František Kafka. ^ Some sources list June (Murray) as Kafka's graduation month and some list July (Brod).[40][41] ^ "Kampf" also translates to "fight". References[edit] Citations[edit] ^ a b Koelb 2010, p. 12. ^ Czech Embassy 2012. ^ "Kafka", Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary ^ Spindler, William (1993). "Magical Realism: A Typology". Forum for Modern Language Studies. XXIX (1): 90–93. doi:10.1093/fmls/XXIX.1.75. ^ Franz Kafka at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b c d e f g Steinhauer 1983, pp. 390–408. ^ "Heroes – Trailblazers of the Jewish People". Beit Hatfutsot. ^ a b Gilman 2005, pp. 20–21. ^ Northey 1997, pp. 8–10. ^ Kohoutikriz 2011. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 3–5. ^ Northey 1997, p. 92. ^ Gray 2005, pp. 147–148. ^ Hamalian 1974, p. 3. ^ Kafka, Franz (2009). The Metamorphosis. New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4165-9968-5. ^ Corngold 1972, pp. xii, 11. ^ a b Kafka-Franz, Father 2012. ^ Brod 1960, p. 9. ^ a b Brod 1960, pp. 15–16. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 19–20. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 15, 17, 22–23. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 390–391, 462–463. ^ Stach 2005, p. 13. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 26–27. ^ a b Hawes 2008, p. 29. ^ a b c Sayer 1996, pp. 164–210. ^ Kempf 2005, pp. 159–160. ^ Corngold 2004, p. xii. ^ Diamant 2003, pp. 36–38. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 40–41. ^ a b Gray 2005, p. 179. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 43–70. ^ Brod 1960, p. 40. ^ a b Brod 1960, p. 14. ^ Brod 1966, pp. 53–54. ^ Stach 2005, p. 362. ^ Gray 2005, pp. 74, 273. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 51, 122–124. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 80–83. ^ Murray 2004, p. 62. ^ Brod 1960, p. 78. ^ Karl 1991, p. 210. ^ Glen 2007, pp. 23–66. ^ Corngold et al. 2009, p. 28. ^ Drucker 2002, p. 24. ^ Corngold et al. 2009, pp. 250–254. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 26–30. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 81–84. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 23–25. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 25–27. ^ Spector 2000, p. 17. ^ Keren 1993, p. 3. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 34–39. ^ Koelb 2010, p. 32. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 56–58. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 29, 73–75, 109–110, 206. ^ Brod 1960, p. 154. ^ Corngold 2011, pp. 339–343. ^ a b Hawes 2008, p. 186. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 44, 207. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 186, 191. ^ a b European Graduate School 2012. ^ Stach 2005, p. 43. ^ a b Banville 2011. ^ Köhler 2012. ^ a b c Stach 2005, p. 1. ^ Seubert 2012. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 196–197. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 129, 198–199. ^ Murray 2004, pp. 276–279. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 379–389. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 240–242. ^ S. Fischer 2012. ^ Alt 2005, p. 303. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 180–181. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 1, 379–389, 434–436. ^ Apel 2012, p. 28. ^ a b c d e Brod 1966, p. 389. ^ Hempel 2002. ^ Janouch 1971, pp. 14, 17. ^ a b Fichter 1987, pp. 367–377. ^ Repertory 2005. ^ Brod 1966, p. 41. ^ Brod 1966, p. 42. ^ Brod 1966, p. 97. ^ a b c Brod 1966, p. 49. ^ Brod 1960, p. 47. ^ Brod 1966, p. 52. ^ Brod 1966, p. 90. ^ Brod 1966, p. 92. ^ a b Brod 1960, p. 214. ^ Brod 1960, p. 156. ^ Pérez-Álvarez 2003, pp. 181–194. ^ Miller 1984, pp. 242–306. ^ McElroy 1985, pp. 217–232. ^ Sokel 2001, pp. 67–68. ^ Kafka & Brod 1988, p. 222. ^ Gray 1973, p. 196. ^ Coralli, Alessia; Perciaccante, Antonio (12 April 2016). "Franz Kafka: An emblematic case of co-occurrence of sleep and psychiatryc disorders". Sleep Science. Sleep Sci. 9 (1): 5–6. doi:10.1016/j.slsci.2016.02.177. PMC 4866976. PMID 27217905. ^ Lachkar 1992, p. 30. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 139–140. ^ Fichter 1988, pp. 231–238. ^ Gilman 1995, pp. 63ff, 160–163. ^ Brod 1960, p. 128. ^ Brod 1960, p. 86. ^ a b Lib.com 2008. ^ Bergman 1969, p. 8. ^ a b c Bruce 2007, p. 17. ^ Preece 2001, p. 131. ^ Hughes 1986, pp. 248–249. ^ Bathrick 1995, pp. 67–70. ^ a b c d Socialist Worker 2007. ^ History Guide 2006. ^ a b c Haaretz 2008. ^ Alt 2005, p. 430. ^ Kafka & Brod 1988, p. 252. ^ a b Kafka-Franz 2012. ^ Gilman 2005, p. 31. ^ Connolly 2008. ^ Harper's 2008. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 119–126. ^ Bloom 1994, p. 428. ^ Kahn & Hook 1993, p. 191. ^ a b c Rothkirchen 2005, p. 23. ^ Tal, Josef. Tonspur – Auf Der Suche Nach Dem Klang Des Lebens. Berlin: Henschel, 2005. pp. 43–44 ^ Brod 1960, p. 196. ^ Bloom 2011. ^ Believer 2006. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 209–211. ^ Brod 1960, p. 211. ^ F. Kafka, New Jewish Cemetery, Prague: Marsyas 1991, p. 56 ^ a b New York Times 2010. ^ Stach 2005, p. 2. ^ Murray 2004, pp. 367. ^ Furst 1992, p. 84. ^ Pawel 1985, pp. 160–163. ^ a b c Brod 1966, p. 388. ^ Brod 1966114f ^ Ernst 2010. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 159, 192. ^ Stach 2005, p. 113. ^ a b Brod 1960, p. 129. ^ Brod 1966, p. 113. ^ a b Sokel 1956, pp. 203–214. ^ a b Luke 1951, pp. 232–245. ^ Dodd 1994, pp. 165–168. ^ Gray 2005, p. 131. ^ Horstkotte 2009. ^ Brod 1960, p. 113. ^ Brod 1960, pp. 128, 135, 218. ^ Koelb 2010, p. 34. ^ Sussman 1979, pp. 72–94. ^ Stach 2005, p. 79. ^ Brod 1960, p. 137. ^ Stach 2005, pp. 108–115, 147, 139, 232. ^ a b c Kakutani 1988. ^ Boyd 2004, p. 139. ^ Rastalsky 1997, p. 1. ^ a b c d e Itk 2008. ^ Brod 1966, p. 94. ^ Brod 1966, p. 61. ^ Stach 2005, p. 343. ^ Brod 1966, p. 110. ^ a b c European Graduate School, Articles 2012. ^ Brod 1966, p. 115. ^ Leiter 1958, pp. 337–347. ^ Krolop 1994, p. 103. ^ Kafka 1988, publisher's notes. ^ McCarthy 2009. ^ Butler 2011, pp. 3–8. ^ a b Kafka Project SDSU 2012. ^ Contijoch 2000. ^ Kafka 2009, p. xxvii. ^ a b Diamant 2003, p. 144. ^ Classe 2000, p. 749. ^ Jewish Heritage 2012. ^ a b c Kafka 1998, publisher's notes. ^ O'Neill 2004, p. 681. ^ a b Adler 1995. ^ Oxford Kafka Research Centre 2012. ^ Guardian 2010. ^ Buehrer 2011. ^ NPR 2012. ^ a b Lerman 2010. ^ Rudoren & Noveck 2012. ^ Bloom 2002, p. 206. ^ Durantaye 2007, pp. 315–317. ^ Paris Review 2012. ^ a b Gale Research 1979, pp. 288–311. ^ a b c Bossy 2001, p. 100. ^ Furst 1992, p. 83. ^ Sokel 2001, pp. 102–109. ^ Burrows 2011. ^ Panichas 2004, pp. 83–107. ^ Gray 1973, p. 3. ^ Kavanagh 1972, pp. 242–253. ^ Rahn 2011. ^ Kundera 1988, pp. 82–99. ^ Glen 2007. ^ a b Banakar 2010. ^ a b Glen 2011, pp. 47–94. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 216–218. ^ Preece 2001, pp. 15–31. ^ Hawes 2008, pp. 212–214. ^ Ziolkowski 2003, p. 224. ^ Corngold et al. 2009, pp. xi, 169, 188, 388. ^ Ghosh 2009. ^ Guardian 1930. ^ Koelb 2010, p. 69. ^ Kafka 1948, pp. 3–4. ^ Kafka 1954, publisher's notes. ^ Sokel 2001, p. 63. ^ Preece 2001, p. 167. ^ Preece 2001, pp. xv, 225. ^ Kirsch 2009. ^ Kafka 1996, p. xi. ^ Newmark 1991, pp. 63–64. ^ Bloom 2003, pp. 23–26. ^ Prinsky 2002. ^ Lawson 1960, pp. 216–219. ^ Rhine 1989, pp. 447–458. ^ Corngold 1973, p. 10. ^ Kafka 1996, p. 75. ^ Hawes 2008, p. 50. ^ Hawes 2008, p. 4. ^ a b Sandbank 1992, pp. 441–443. ^ Financial Times 2009. ^ Silverman 1986, pp. 129–130. ^ LiteraturHaus 1999. ^ Coker 2012. ^ Henze 1951. ^ Singer 1970, p. 311. ^ a b Adams 2002, pp. 140–157. ^ Welles Net 1962. ^ Elsaesser 2004, p. 117. ^ Opera Today 2010. ^ Times Literary Supplement 2005. ^ Aldiss, Brian W. (1991). Better Morphosis, in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, June, 1991. Subsequently re-printed in the Aldiss collections Bodily Functions and A Tupolev Too Far and Other Stories. ^ Writer's Institute 1992. ^ Herbort 1992. ^ New York Times 1993. ^ Dembo 1996, p. 106. ^ Akalaitis 2001. ^ Updike 2005. ^ Thomas, Alfred (2015). "Kafka's Statue : Memory and Forgetting in Postsocialist Prague". Revue des Études Slaves. 86 (1/2): 157–169. doi:10.4000/res.677. JSTOR 43493528. ^ Ruders 2005. ^ Milner 2005. ^ BBC 2012. ^ HAZE 2012. ^ Bury 2013. ^ Rizzulo 2013. ^ Jeal 2014. ^ "Statue of Kafka". Prague.eu. 2 March 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017. ^ "Is literature next in line for virtual-reality treatment?". The Economist. 8 March 2018. ^ Aizenberg 1986, pp. 11–19. ^ Strelka 1984, pp. 434–444. ^ Palmer 2004, pp. 159–192. ^ O'Connor 1987. ^ Los Angeles Times 2009. ^ "The Essence of 'Kafkaesque'". The New York Times. 29 December 1991. ^ Fassler, Joe (January 2014). "What It Really Means to Be 'Kafkaesque'". The Atlantic. ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). "(3412) Kafka". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 284. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_3412. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. ^ "3412 Kafka". Minor Planet Center. 1983. Retrieved 5 December 2016. ^ "What is the relation between Kafka, the writer, and Apache Kafka, the distributed messaging system?". Quora. Retrieved 12 June 2017. ^ Kafka Museum 2005. ^ a b c Kafka Society 2011. ^ Shinevar, William J.; Mark, Hannah F.; Clerc, Fiona; Codillo, Emmanuel A.; Gong, Jianhua; Olive, Jean‐Arthur; Brown, Stephanie M.; Smalls, Paris T.; Liao, Yang; Le Roux, Véronique; Behn, Mark D. (2019). "Causes of oceanic crustal thickness oscillations along a 74‐Myr Mid‐Atlantic Ridge flow line" (PDF). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 20 (12): 6123–6139. Bibcode:2019GGG....20.6123S. doi:10.1029/2019GC008711. hdl:1912/25465. ISSN 1525-2027. Sources[edit] Alt, Peter-André (2005). Franz Kafka: Der ewige Sohn. Eine Biographie (in German). München: Verlag C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-53441-6. Bathrick, David (1995). The Powers of Speech: The Politics of Culture in the GDR. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Bergman, Hugo (1969). Memories of Franz Kafka in Franz Kafka Exhibition (Catalogue) (PDF). The Jewish National and University Library – via The Anarchist Library. Bloom, Harold (2003). Franz Kafka. Bloom's Major Short Story Writers. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7910-6822-9. Bloom, Harold (Spring 2011). "Franz Kafka's Zionism". Midstream. 57 (2).-left Bloom, Harold (2002). Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 978-0-446-52717-0. Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Riverhead Books, Penguin Group. ISBN 978-1-57322-514-4. Bossy, Michel-André-left (2001). Artists, Writers, and Musicians: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World. 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Banakar, Reza (Fall 2010). "In Search of Heimat: A Note on Franz Kafka's Concept of Law". Law and Literature. Berkeley, California. 22 (2). doi:10.2139/ssrn.1574870. SSRN 1574870. Butler, Judith (3 March 2011). "Who Owns Kafka". London Review of Books. London. 33 (5). Retrieved 1 August 2012. Corngold, Stanley (Fall 2011). "Kafkas Spätstil/Kafka's Late Style: Introduction". Monatshefte. Madison, Wisconsin. 103 (3): 339–343. doi:10.1353/mon.2011.0069. S2CID 219195741. Dembo, Arinn (June 1996). "Twilight of the Cockroach: Bad Mojo Evokes Kafka So Well It'll Turn Your Stomach" (PDF). Computer Gaming World. New York (143). Dodd, W. J. (1994). "Kafka and Dostoyevsky: The Shaping of Influence". Comparative Literature Studies. State College, Pennsylvania. 31 (2): 165–168. JSTOR 40246931. Durantaye, Leland de la (2007). "Kafka's Reality and Nabokov's Fantasy: On Dwarves, Saints, Beetles, Symbolism and Genius" (PDF). Comparative Literature. 59 (4): 315. doi:10.1215/-59-4-315. 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Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012. "Who Is Citizen? Guide to Czech Citizenship in 1918–1949". Embassy of the Czech Republic in Tel Aviv. 25 October 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2013. Further reading[edit] Gray, Ronald (1962). Kafka: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-1-199-77830-7. Greenberg, Martin (1968). The Terror of Art: Kafka and Modern Literature. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08415-9. Deleuze, Gilles; Guattari, Félix (1986). Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature. Theory and History of Literature. 30. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1515-5. Glatzer, Nahum Norbert (1986). The Loves of Franz Kafka. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-8052-4001-6. Glasauer, Willi (1986). Exposición Kafka & CIA.: Hitos y Mitos de la Cultura Dibujos (in Spanish). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Glasauer, Willi (1986). Kafka Gesamtwerk. Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Citati, Pietro (1987). Kafka. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-56840-9. Montalbán, Manuel Vázquez; Glasauer, Willi (1988). Escenas de la Literatura Universal y Retratos de Grandes Autores (in Spanish). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. Heller, Paul (1989). Franz Kafka: Wissenschaft und Wissenschaftskritik (in German). Tübingen: Stauffenburg. ISBN 978-3-923721-40-5. Czech, Danuta (1992). Kalendarz wydarzeń w KL Auschwitz (in Polish). Oświęcim: Wydawn. Kopić, Mario (1995). "Franz Kafka and Nationalism". Erewhon: An International Quarterly. Amsterdam. 2 (2). Hayman, Ronald (2001). K: A Biography of Kafka. London: Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-84212-415-4. Coots, Steve (2002). Franz Kafka (Beginner's Guide). London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-84648-3. Calasso, Roberto (2005). K. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4189-3. Begley, Louis (2008). The Tremendous World I Have Inside My Head, Franz Kafka: A Biographical Essay. New York: Atlas & Co. ISBN 978-1-934633-06-9. Corngold, Stanley; Wagner, Benno (2011). Franz Kafka: The Ghosts in the Machine. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-2769-2. Corngold, Stanley; Gross, Ruth V. (2011). Kafka for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Camden House. ISBN 978-1-57113-482-0. Lundberg, Phillip (2011). Essential Kafka: Rendezvous with Otherness. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4389-9021-7. Major, Michael (2011). Kafka ... For Our Time. San Diego, [California: Harcourt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9567982-1-3. Suchoff, David (2012). Kafka's Jewish Languages: The Hidden Openness of Tradition. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4371-0. Thiher, Allen (2012). Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction. Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction. 12. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8057-8323-0. Baruffi, Alessandro (2016). The Tales of Franz Kafka: English Translation with Original Text in German. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: LiteraryJoint Press. ISBN 978-1-329-82109-5. Journals Ryan, Michael P. (1999). "Samsa and Samsara: Suffering, Death and Rebirth in 'The Metamorphosis'". German Quarterly. Durham, North Carolina. 72 (2): 133–152. doi:10.2307/408369. JSTOR 408369. S2CID 59481029. Kopić, Mario (2004). "Kafka and Nationalism". Odjek. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013. Danta, Chris (April 2008). "Sarah's Laughter: Kafka's Abraham". Modernism/Modernity. Baltimore, Maryland. 15 (2): 343–359. doi:10.1353/mod.2008.0048. S2CID 170492502. Jirsa, Tomáš (2015). "Reading Kafka Visually: Gothic Ornament and the Motion of Writing in Kafka's Der Process" (PDF). Central Europe. London. 13 (1–2): 36–50. doi:10.1080/14790963.2015.1107322. S2CID 159892429. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2020. McGee, Kyle. "Fear and Trembling in the Penal Colony". Kafka Project. External links[edit] Franz Kafkaat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Look up Kafkaesque in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. German Wikisource has original text related to this article: Franz Kafka Franz Kafka at the Encyclopædia Britannica Kafka Society of America Literature by and about Franz Kafka in the German National Library catalogue Works by Franz Kafka at Project Gutenberg Franz Kafka at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database Works by or about Franz Kafka at Internet Archive Franz Kafka at IMDb  Works by Franz Kafka at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Oxford Kafka Research Centre – information on ongoing international Kafka research Translated excerpts from Kafka's Diaries 1910–1923 Franz Kafka at Curlie The Album of Franz Kafka, Franz Kafka receives a tribute in this album of "recomposed photographs". Journeys of Franz Kafka Photographs of places where Kafka lived and worked Letters to Felice at Archive.org Společnost Franze Kafky a nakladatelství Franze Kafky Franz Kafka Society and Publishing House in Prague What makes something "Kafkaesque"? A Ted talk on Kafka, his works and his legacy, by Noah Tavlin Franz Kafka v t e Franz Kafka (works) Novels The Trial The Castle Amerika Short stories 1902–1912 "Shamefaced Lanky and Impure in Heart" "Description of a Struggle" "Wedding Preparations in the Country" "The Judgment" "The Stoker" The Metamorphosis "The Aeroplanes at Brescia" 1914–1917 "In the Penal Colony" "The Village Schoolmaster" "Before the Law" "Blumfeld, an Elderly Bachelor" "A Country Doctor" "The Hunter Gracchus" "The Great Wall of China" "A Message from the Emperor" "A Report to an Academy" "A Dream" "Up in the Gallery" "A Fratricide" "The Next Village" "A Visit to a Mine" "Jackals and Arabs" "The Bridge" "The Bucket Rider" "The New Advocate" "An Old Manuscript" "The Knock at the Manor Gate" "Eleven Sons" "My Neighbor" "A Crossbreed" "The Cares of a Family Man" 1917–1923 "The Refusal" "A Hunger Artist" "Investigations of a Dog" "A Little Woman" "The Burrow" "Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk" "A Common Confusion" "The Truth about Sancho Panza" "The Silence of the Sirens" "Prometheus" "The City Coat of Arms" "Poseidon" "Fellowship" "At Night" "The Problem of Our Laws" "The Conscription of Troops" "The Test" "The Vulture" "The Helmsman" "The Top" "A Little Fable" "Homecoming" "First Sorrow" "The Departure" "Advocates" "The Married Couple" "Give It Up!" "On Parables" Short story collections Contemplation A Country Doctor A Hunger Artist The Great Wall of China The Complete Stories The Sons The Penal Colony Parables and Paradoxes Dearest Father Description of a Struggle Diaries and notebooks The Diaries 1910–1923 The Blue Octavo Notebooks The Zürau Aphorisms Letters and essays Letter to His Father Letters to Felice Letters to Ottla Letters to Milena Letters to Family, Friends, and Editors The Office Writings Plays The Warden of the Tomb Related Ottla Kafka (sister) Franz Kafka and Judaism Richard and Samuel Franz Kafka Museum Franz Kafka Society Franz Kafka Prize Kafka Project Head of Franz Kafka statue Statue of Franz Kafka Kafka's Dick (1986 play) Kafka (1991 film) Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993 film) Category v t e Franz Kafka's The Trial Adaptations Der Prozeß (1953 opera) The Trial (1962 film) The Trial (1993 film) The Trial (2014 opera) Film variations Kafka (1991) Other Break-Up v t e Franz Kafka's The Castle Film The Castle (1968) The Castle (1994) The Castle (1997) Related Kafka The Prisoner v t e Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis Film adaptations Metamorphosis (2012) Film variations Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993) Rat (2000) Novel variations Insect Dreams: The Half Life of Gregor Samsa (2002) Kockroach (2007) Anxious Pleasures (2007) Other Solo Piano (album) Bad Mojo (video game) v t e Adaptations of works by Franz Kafka Films The Trial (1962) The Castle (1968) The Penal Colony (1970) Klassenverhältnisse (1984) Kafka (1991) The Trial (1993) Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life (1993) The Castle (1994) The Castle (1997) K (2002) Metamorphosis (2012) Literature Kafka Americana Comics Give It Up! The Metamorphosis Introducing Kafka Links to related articles v t e Modernism Milestones Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe (1862–1863) Olympia (1863) A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887) Don Juan (1888) The Starry Night (1889) Ubu Roi (1896) Verklärte Nacht (1899) Le bonheur de vivre (1905–1906) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907) The Dance (1909–1910) The Firebird (1910) Afternoon of a Faun (1912) Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912) The Rite of Spring (1913) In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) The Metamorphosis (1915) Black Square (1915) Fountain (1917) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) Ulysses (1922) The Waste Land (1922) The Magic Mountain (1924) Battleship Potemkin (1925) The Sun Also Rises (1926) The Threepenny Opera (1928) The Sound and the Fury (1929) Un Chien Andalou (1929) Villa Savoye (1931) The Blue Lotus (1936) Fallingwater (1936) Waiting for Godot (1953) Literature Guillaume Apollinaire Djuna Barnes Tadeusz Borowski André Breton Mikhail Bulgakov Anton Chekhov Joseph Conrad Alfred Döblin E. 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Soloveitchik Paul Tillich Rick Turner Miguel de Unamuno John Daniel Wild Colin Wilson Richard Wright Peter Wessel Zapffe Related Phenomenology (philosophy) Continental philosophy Transcendentalism German idealism Western Marxism Existentialist anarchism Existential nihilism Atheistic existentialism v t e German-language literature Related articles German language History of Germany History of Austria History of Switzerland History of Liechtenstein Old High German literature Middle High German literature Early New High German literature Sturm und Drang Weimar Classicism Romanticism Literary realism Weimar culture Exilliteratur Austrian literature Swiss literature German studies Related categories Austrian writers German writers Liechtenstein writers Swiss writers in German Reformation era literature Medieval literature Der von Kürenberg Dietmar von Aist Reinmar von Hagenau Hartmann von Aue Walther von der Vogelweide Wolfram von Eschenbach Albrecht von Johansdorf Heinrich von Morungen Gottfried von Strassburg Legends about Theoderic the Great Nibelungenlied Early modern literature Simon Dach Paul Fleming Hans Folz Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen Andreas Gryphius Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau Johann Michael Moscherosch Martin Opitz Hans Sachs Angelus Silesius Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Georg Wickram 18th century Barthold Heinrich Brockes Christian Gellert Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Johann Christoph Gottsched Johann Christian Günther Friedrich Hölderlin Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg) Jean Paul Friedrich Schiller Johann Gottfried Schnabel Christoph Martin Wieland 19th century Bettina von Arnim Ludwig Achim von Arnim Clemens Brentano Georg Büchner Adelbert von Chamisso Annette von Droste-Hülshoff Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach Joseph von Eichendorff Theodor Fontane Gustav Freytag Jeremias Gotthelf Franz Grillparzer Jacob Grimm Wilhelm Grimm Gerhart Hauptmann Christian Friedrich Hebbel Johann Peter Hebel Heinrich Heine Georg Herwegh Paul Heyse E. 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en-wikipedia-org-7648	----	International Standard Book Number - Wikipedia International Standard Book Number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from ISBN (identifier)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be confused with ICCU SBN. Unique numeric book identifier International Standard Book Number A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code Acronym ISBN Organisation International ISBN Agency Introduced 1970; 51 years ago (1970) No. of digits 13 (formerly 10) Check digit Weighted sum Example 978-3-16-148410-0 Website isbn-international.org The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique.[a][b] Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.[1] An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.[c] The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero digit '0'). Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.[3] Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores. Contents 1 History 2 Overview 2.1 How ISBNs are issued 2.2 Registration group identifier 2.3 Registrant element 2.3.1 Pattern for English language ISBNs 3 Check digits 3.1 ISBN-10 check digits 3.2 ISBN-10 check digit calculation 3.3 ISBN-13 check digit calculation 3.4 ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion 3.5 Errors in usage 3.6 eISBN 4 EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. It was created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,[4] for the booksellers and stationers WHSmith and others in 1965.[5] The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker[6][7] (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN")[8] and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay[6] (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).[8][9][10] The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.[5][6] The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974. ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.[11] An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0". For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8", where "340" indicates the publisher, "01381" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and "8" is the check digit. By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book;[12] for example, Woodstock Handmade Houses had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, ISBN: 0-345-24223-8),[13] and it cost US$5.95.[14] Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits.[2] Overview A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN assigned to it.[15]:12 The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007.[c][2] An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN). Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:11 describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows: The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code. for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1, the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),[d] the registrant element, the publication element, and a checksum character or check digit. A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.[e] How ISBNs are issued ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.[17] A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.[18] List for a few countries is given below: Australia – Thorpe-Bowker[19][20] Brazil – The National Library of Brazil;[21] (Up to 28 February 2020)[22] Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro[23] (From 1 March 2020)[22] Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec; Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries[24] India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development[25] Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland) Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries[26] Italy – EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association)[27][28] Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) Malta – The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb)[29][30][31] Morocco – The National Library of Morocco New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand[32] Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan Philippines – National Library of the Philippines[33] South Africa – National Library of South Africa Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture[34] United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V.[35] United States – R. R. Bowker[6][36] Registration group identifier The ISBN registration group identifier is a 1- to 5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979),[15]:11 and can be separated between hyphens, such as "978-1-...". Registration group identifiers have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element.[37] The single-digit group identifiers within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China. An example 5-digit group identifier is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated group IDs are: 0–5, 600–625, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9917–9989, and 99901–99983.[38] Books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.[39] Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group identifier 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.[40] The registration group identifiers within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.[41] The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero (0) to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. Registrant element The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.[42][43][44] A listing of more than 900,000 assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form. The web site of the ISBN agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[45] Partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the English-language groups: identifier 0 and identifier 1. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.[46] Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. ISBN Country or area Publisher 99921-58-10-7 Qatar NCCAH, Doha 9971-5-0210-0 Singapore World Scientific 960-425-059-0 Greece Sigma Publications 80-902734-1-6 Czech Republic; Slovakia Taita Publishers 85-359-0277-5 Brazil Companhia das Letras 1-84356-028-3 English-speaking area Simon Wallenberg Press 0-684-84328-5 English-speaking area Scribner 0-8044-2957-X English-speaking area Frederick Ungar 0-85131-041-9 English-speaking area J. A. Allen & Co. 93-86954-21-4 English-speaking area Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. 0-943396-04-2 English-speaking area Willmann–Bell 0-9752298-0-X English-speaking area KT Publishing Pattern for English language ISBNs English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:[47] Publication element length 0 – Registration group element 1 – Registration group element Total Registrants From To Registrants From To Registrants 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-01-xxxxxx-x 1-04-xxxxxx-x 1-02-xxxxxx-x 1-06-xxxxxx-x 5 25 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x 0-229-xxxxx-x 0-370-xxxxx-x 0-640-xxxxx-x 0-646-xxxxx-x 0-649-xxxxx-x 0-656-xxxxx-x 0-227-xxxxx-x 0-368-xxxxx-x 0-638-xxxxx-x 0-644-xxxxx-x 0-647-xxxxx-x 0-654-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x 494 1-000-xxxxx-x 1-030-xxxxx-x 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-714-xxxxx-x 1-009-xxxxx-x 1-034-xxxxx-x 1-397-xxxxx-x 1-716-xxxxx-x 316 810 4 digits 0-2280-xxxx-x 0-3690-xxxx-x 0-6390-xxxx-x 0-6550-xxxx-x 0-7000-xxxx-x 0-2289-xxxx-x 0-3699-xxxx-x 0-6397-xxxx-x 0-6559-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x 1,538 1-0350-xxxx-x 1-0700-xxxx-x 1-3980-xxxx-x 1-6500-xxxx-x 1-6860-xxxx-x 1-7170-xxxx-x 1-7900-xxxx-x 1-8672-xxxx-x 1-9730-xxxx-x 1-0399-xxxx-x 1-0999-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1-6799-xxxx-x 1-7139-xxxx-x 1-7319-xxxx-x 1-7999-xxxx-x 1-8675-xxxx-x 1-9877-xxxx-x 2,852 4,390 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5,000 1-55000-xxx-x 1-68000-xxx-x 1-74000-xxx-x 1-77540-xxx-x 1-77650-xxx-x 1-77770-xxx-x 1-80000-xxx-x 1-83850-xxx-x 1-86760-xxx-x 1-64999-xxx-x 1-68599-xxx-x 1-77499-xxx-x 1-77639-xxx-x 1-77699-xxx-x 1-78999-xxx-x 1-83799-xxx-x 1-86719-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x 22,370 27,370 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x 0-949999-xx-x 50,000 1-869800-xx-x 1-916506-xx-x 1-987800-xx-x 1-991200-xx-x 1-915999-xx-x 1-972999-xx-x 1-991149-xx-x 1-998989-xx-x 113,834 163,834 1 digit 0-6398000-x-x 0-6450000-x-x 0-6480000-x-x 0-9500000-x-x 0-6399999-x-x 0-6459999-x-x 0-6489999-x-x 0-9999999-x-x 522,000 1-7320000-x-x 1-7750000-x-x 1-7764000-x-x 1-7770000-x-x 1-8380000-x-x 1-9160000-x-x 1-9911500-x-x 1-9989900-x-x 1-7399999-x-x 1-7753999-x-x 1-7764999-x-x 1-7776999-x-x 1-8384999-x-x 1-9165059-x-x 1-9911999-x-x 1-9999999-x-x 112,660 634,660 Total 579,052 Total 252,037 831,089 Check digits A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero. The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'. The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'. ISBN-10 check digits According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual,[48] the ISBN-10 check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11. That is, if xi is the ith digit, then x10 must be chosen such that: ∑ i = 1 10 ( 11 − i ) x i ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{10}(11-i)x_{i}\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}} For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 1 ) = 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2 = 132 = 12 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)+(2\times 1)\\&=0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10+2\\&=132=12\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( 10 x 1 + 9 x 2 + 8 x 3 + 7 x 4 + 6 x 5 + 5 x 6 + 4 x 7 + 3 x 8 + 2 x 9 + x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (10x_{1}+9x_{2}+8x_{3}+7x_{4}+6x_{5}+5x_{6}+4x_{7}+3x_{8}+2x_{9}+x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: s = ( 0 × 1 ) + ( 3 × 2 ) + ( 0 × 3 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 5 ) + ( 0 × 6 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 1 × 8 ) + ( 5 × 9 ) + ( 2 × 10 ) = 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20 = 165 = 15 × 11 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 1)+(3\times 2)+(0\times 3)+(6\times 4)+(4\times 5)+(0\times 6)+(6\times 7)+(1\times 8)+(5\times 9)+(2\times 10)\\&=0+6+0+24+20+0+42+8+45+20\\&=165=15\times 11\end{aligned}}} Formally, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + 5 x 5 + 6 x 6 + 7 x 7 + 8 x 8 + 9 x 9 + 10 x 10 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 11 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3}+4x_{4}+5x_{5}+6x_{6}+7x_{7}+8x_{8}+9x_{9}+10x_{10})\equiv 0{\pmod {11}}.} The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid ISBN-10s differ in at least two digits. It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.[49] In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). ISBN-10 check digit calculation Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN—excluding the check digit itself—is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) = 130 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)\\&=130\end{aligned}}} Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. If the value of x 10 {\displaystyle x_{10}} required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of 11−0 = 11, which is invalid. (Strictly speaking, the first "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = ( 11 − ( ( ( 0 × 10 ) + ( 3 × 9 ) + ( 0 × 8 ) + ( 6 × 7 ) + ( 4 × 6 ) + ( 0 × 5 ) + ( 6 × 4 ) + ( 1 × 3 ) + ( 5 × 2 ) ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( ( 130 ) mod 11 ) ) mod 11 = ( 11 − ( 9 ) ) mod 11 = ( 2 ) mod 11 = 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=(11-(((0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2))\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((0+27+0+42+24+0+24+3+10)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-((130)\,{\bmod {\,}}11))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(11-(9))\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=(2)\,{\bmod {\,}}11\\&=2\end{aligned}}} Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between 0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % 11; } The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. ISBN-13 check digit calculation Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual[15]:33 describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10. As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + x 5 + 3 x 6 + x 7 + 3 x 8 + x 9 + 3 x 10 + x 11 + 3 x 12 + x 13 ) ≡ 0 ( mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle (x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+x_{5}+3x_{6}+x_{7}+3x_{8}+x_{9}+3x_{10}+x_{11}+3x_{12}+x_{13})\equiv 0{\pmod {10}}.} The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero (0) replaces a ten (10), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. In general, the ISBN-13 check digit is calculated as follows. Let r = ( 10 − ( x 1 + 3 x 2 + x 3 + 3 x 4 + ⋯ + x 11 + 3 x 12 ) mod 10 ) . {\displaystyle r={\big (}10-{\big (}x_{1}+3x_{2}+x_{3}+3x_{4}+\cdots +x_{11}+3x_{12}{\big )}\,{\bmod {\,}}10{\big )}.} Then x 13 = { r  ;  r < 10 0  ;  r = 10. {\displaystyle x_{13}={\begin{cases}r&{\text{ ; }}r<10\\0&{\text{ ; }}r=10.\end{cases}}} This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. The correct order contributes 3×6+1×1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3×1+1×6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit. Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0). ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 conversion An ISBN-10 is converted to ISBN-13 by prepending "978" to the ISBN-10 and recalculating the final checksum digit using the ISBN-13 algorithm. The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent. Errors in usage Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[50] For example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books – Ninja gaiden®: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".[51] However, book-ordering systems such as Amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.[citation needed] OCLC often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. eISBN Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.[52] EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading Currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price.[53] For 10-digit ISBNs, the number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1x and 3x weighting on alternating digits). Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007.[54] As of 2011[update], all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero (0), and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used by ISBN. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.[55] Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs. So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN-13 in North America. See also ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number) BICI (Book Item and Component Identifier) CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) CSBN (Chinese Standard Book Number, 10 digits from 1987 to 2007, 13 digits since 2008, includes the LSBN, by the China ISBN Centre)[56][57] DOI (Digital Object Identifier) ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue) ETTN (Electronic Textbook Track Number) ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number) ISMN (International Standard Music Number) ISRC (International Standard Recording Code) ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) ISTC (International Standard Text Code) ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code) ISWN (International Standard Wine Number) LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number) License number (East German books) [de] (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR) List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes List of ISBN identifier groups LSBN (Chinese book identification system since 1982, main part of CSBN)[56][57] OCLC number (Online Computer Library Center number)[58] Registration authority SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) VD 16 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century") VD 17 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts, "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century") Notes ^ Occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an ISBN to more than one title—the first edition of The Ultimate Alphabet and The Ultimate Alphabet Workbook have the same ISBN, 0-8050-0076-3. Conversely, books are published with several ISBNs: A German second-language edition of Emil und die Detektive has the ISBNs 87-23-90157-8 (Denmark), 0-8219-1069-8 (United States), 91-21-15628-X (Sweden), 0-85048-548-7 (United Kingdom) and 3-12-675495-3 (Germany). ^ In some cases, books sold only as sets share ISBNs. For example, the Vance Integral Edition used only two ISBNs for 44 books. ^ a b Publishers were required to convert existing ISBNs from the 10-digit format to the 13-digit format (in their publication records) by 1 January 2007. For existing publications, the new 13-digit ISBN would only need to be added if (and when) a publication was reprinted. During the transition period, publishers were recommended to print both the 10-digit and 13-digit ISBNs on the verso of a publication's title page, but they were required to print only the 13-digit ISBN after 1 January 2007.[2] ^ Some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. A. M. Yaglom's Correlation Theory..., published by Springer Verlag, has two ISBNs, 0-387-96331-6 and 3-540-96331-6. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit for both (6). Springer uses 431 as the publisher code for Japanese (4), and 4-431-96331-? also has a check digit of 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also have a check digit of 6. This suggests that special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.[original research?] ^ The International ISBN Agency's ISBN User's Manual says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed.[16] The actual definition for hyphenation contains more than 220 different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages. References ^ "The International ISBN Agency". Retrieved 20 February 2018. ^ a b c TC 46/SC 9. "Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO". lac-bac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. ^ Bradley, Philip (1992). "Book numbering: The importance of the ISBN" (PDF [245KB]). The Indexer. 18 (1): 25–26. ^ Foster, Gordon (1966). "International Standard Book Numbering (ISBN) System original 1966 report". informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b "ISBN History". isbn.org. 20 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014. ^ a b c d Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. p. 5. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "International Publishers Association—'It was an idea whose time had come.' David Whitaker on the birth of ISBN". International Publishers Association. Retrieved 6 August 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b "Emery Koltay, David Whitaker Named NISO Fellows" (PDF), Information Standards Quarterly, National Information Standards Organization, 8 (3): 12–13, July 1996, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2014 ^ US ISBN Agency. "Bowker.com – Products". Commerce.bowker.com. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ Gregory, Daniel. "ISBN". PrintRS. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2015. ^ ISO 2108:1978 (PDF), ISO ^ https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22SBN%20345%22&sin=TXT ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe/page/n3/mode/2up?q=SBN+345-24223-8-595 - by Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-24223-8 links to http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2057258 ^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad00robe - "Ballantine/Craft [...] 5.95" ^ a b c d ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (7th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95055-12-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". International ISBN Agency. 2014. ^ "ISBN Canada". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. LAC. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "Find an agency – International ISBN Agency". isbn-international.org. ^ "About the Australian ISBN Agency". THORPE-Bowker. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". Thorpe-Bowker. 5 January 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2012. ^ "Tabela de preços dos serviços" [Table of service prices] (in Portuguese). Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil. Retrieved 8 September 2015. ^ a b "Changes in arrangements for ISBN in Brazil". Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "ISBN Brasil" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 20 January 2020. ^ "Introduction to Books Registration". HKPL. Retrieved 12 January 2017. ^ "Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches ISBN Portal". MHRD. 7 April 2016. ^ "What is an ISBN ?". ICL – מרכז הספר והספריות. 7 April 2015. ^ "ISBN – Chi siamo e contatti" [ISBN – Who we are and contacts] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN – Tariffe Servizi ISBN" [ISBN Service Tariffs] (in Italian). EDISER srl. Retrieved 3 January 2015. ^ "ISBN". Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. ^ Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN (PDF) (in Maltese) (6th ed.). Malta: Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb. 2016. pp. 1–40. ISBN 978-99957-889-4-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2016. ^ "Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta" (PDF). Government Gazette. 23 January 2015. p. 582. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2016. ^ "ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs". National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 19 January 2016. ^ "International Standard Book Number". NLP. Retrieved 25 December 2017. ^ "ISBN – Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayımlar Genel Müdürlüğü OS". ekygm.gov.tr. ^ "Nielsen UK ISBN Agency". Nielsen UK ISBN Agency. Retrieved 2 January 2015. ^ "Bowker – ISBN". R. R. Bowker. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. 29 April 2014. Select the format you desire and click on the Generate button. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014. ^ See a complete list of group identifiers. ISBN.org sometimes calls them group numbers. Their table of identifiers now refers to ISBN prefix ranges, which must be assumed to be group identifier ranges. ^ Hailman, Jack Parker (2008). Coding and redundancy: man-made and animal-evolved signals. Harvard University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-674-02795-4. ^ ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition (PDF) (6th ed.). London: International ISBN Agency. 2012. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-95055-02-5. ^ International ISBN Agency (5 December 2014). "International ISBN Agency – Range Message (pdf sorted by prefix)" (PDF). isbn-international.org. p. 29. Retrieved 15 December 2014. ^ "Independent Publishers". Waterstones. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Before submitting any titles to our central buying team for consideration, your book must have the following: An ISBN... ^ "How to obtain an ISBN". Barnes & Noble. Retrieved 2 February 2020. We use ISBNs to track inventory and sales information. All books Barnes & Noble transacts on must have an ISBN. ^ "Product ID (GTIN) requirements for Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2 February 2020. Effective June 1, 2017, you must provide an ISBN, EAN, or JAN to list a book in the Amazon catalog, regardless of the book's publication date. ^ See Publisher's International ISBN Directory Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine ^ Splane, Lily (2002). The Book Book: A Complete Guide to Creating a Book on Your Computer. Anaphase II Publishing. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-945962-14-4. ^ "ISBN Ranges". isbn-international.org. International ISBN Agency. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014. ^ "ISBN Users' Manual (2001 edition) – 4. Structure of ISBN". International ISBN Agency. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. ^ For example, I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4". ^ Lorimer, Rowland; Shoichet, Jillian; Maxwell, John W. (2005). Book Publishing I. CCSP Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-9738727-0-5. ^ "020 – International Standard Book Number (R) – MARC 21 Bibliographic – Full". Library of Congress. September 2013. ^ "The Myth of the eISBN Why Every eBook Edition Needs a Unique Number – Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses". Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses. 28 June 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2017. ^ Frequently asked questions, US: ISBN, 12 March 2014, archived from the original on 16 April 2014 — including a detailed description of the EAN-13 format. ^ "ISBN", ISO TC49SC9 (FAQ), CA: Collections ^ "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?", Standards, ISBN ^ a b https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5187/a84a083ca7deb1408e4e7e06635bab7a0027.pdf ^ a b https://www.hicom-asia.com/how-to-register-isbn-in-china/ ^ "xISBN (Web service)". Xisbn.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2013. External links Wikidata has the properties: ISBN-10 (P957) (see uses) ISBN-13 (P212) (see uses) International Standard Book Numberat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Data from Wikidata Documentation from MediaWiki ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN) International ISBN Agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system Numerical List of Group Identifiers—List of language/region prefixes Free conversion tool: ISBN-10 to ISBN-13 & ISBN-13 to ISBN-10 from the ISBN agency. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not. "Guidelines for the Implementation of 13-Digit ISBNs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2004 "Are You Ready for ISBN-13?". R. R. Bowker LLC. RFC 3187—Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN) v t e International numbering standards Standards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) v t e ISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards / ISO romanizations / IEC standards 1–9999 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 269 302 306 361 428 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10005 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10487 10585 10589 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14644 14649 14651 14698 14750 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 16023 16262 16355-1 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17799 18000 18004 18014 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000+ 20000 20022 20121 20400 21000 21047 21500 21827 22000 22300 22395 23270 23271 23360 24517 24613 24617 24707 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 80000 -1 Category v t e Books Production Binding Covers dust jackets Design Editing Illustration Illuminated manuscripts Printing edition history incunabula limited edition Publishing advance copy hardcover paperback Size Typesetting Volume (bibliography) Collection (publishing) Book series Consumption Awards Bestsellers Bibliography Bibliomania (tsundoku) Bibliophilia Bibliotherapy Bookmarks Bookselling blurbs book towns used Censorship Clubs Collecting Digitizing Bookworm (insect) Furniture bookcases bookends Library Print culture Reading literacy Reviews By country Brazil France Germany Italy Japan Netherlands Pakistan Spain United Kingdom United States Other Genres fictional miniature pop-up textbook Grimoire Formats audiobooks E-books Coffee table book Related Book packaging History of books Outline Intellectual property ISBN List of best-selling books Preservation Dog ears Outline Category Portal Authority control BNE: XX535036 BNF: cb119466343 (data) GND: 4072934-5 LCCN: sh85067449 NDL: 00575287 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number&oldid=1002115104" Categories: International Standard Book Number Book publishing Bookselling Book terminology 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en-wikipedia-org-7658	----	Thoas (king of Corinth) - Wikipedia Thoas (king of Corinth) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Thoas of Corinth) Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the grandson of Sisyphus who was the king of Corinth. For other mythical figures of this name, see Thoas (mythology). In Greek mythology, Thoas (Ancient Greek: Θόας, "fleet, swift")[1] was a king of Corinth. Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 3 Notes 4 References Family[edit] Thoas and his brother Phocus, the eponymous founder of Phocis were the sons of Ornytion, who was the son of Sisyphus.[2][3] According to Corinthian tradition, Thoas and his descendants continued to rule Corinth until the coming of the Heraclids. Mythology[edit] According to the geographer Pausanias, Thoas remained in Corinth, succeeding his father as its ruler, while his brother Phocus led a colony to Tithorea. Thoas was the father of Damophon, Damophon of Propodas, and Propodas of Doridas and Hyanthidas. During the reign of the latter two, Corinth was seized by the Dorians under the command of Aletes, son of Hippotes. The brothers handed control of Corinth to him and were allowed to remain in the city, while the rest of the people were expelled.[3] Notes[edit] ^ LSJ, s.v. Θόας. ^ Hard, p. 434; Grimal, s.v. Thoas 5; Parada, s.v. 8 ^ a b Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 2.4.3. References[edit] Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, ISBN 9780415186360. Google Books. Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. ISBN 978-91-7081-062-6. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. ISBN 0-674-99328-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thoas_(king_of_Corinth)&oldid=1004693595" Categories: Corinthian mythology Greek mythology stubs Kings of Corinth Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Français Italiano Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 3 February 2021, at 22:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7671	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == Etymology == Linguistics Professor [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[pre-Greek]] origin and a connection with the root of the word ''{{transl|grc|sophos}}'' (σοφός, "wise").<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii.</ref> German [[mythographer]] [[Otto Gruppe]] thought that the name derived from ''{{transl|grc|sisys}}'' (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.<ref>Gruppe, O. ''Griechische Mythologie'' (1906), ii., p. 1021</ref> Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7760	----	Thessaly - Wikipedia Thessaly From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the historical and geographical region of Greece. For the ancient region, see Ancient Thessaly. For the Vertigo Comics character, see Thessaly (comics). "Thessalia" redirects here. For the namesake butterfly genus, see Chlosyne. "Thessalian" redirects here. For the ancient Thessalian dialect, see Aeolic Greek. administrative region of Greece Place in Thessaly and Central Greece, Greece Thessaly Θεσσαλία  (Greek) Administrative region of Greece Traditional region of Greece Thessaly within Greece Coordinates: 39°36′N 22°12′E / 39.6°N 22.2°E / 39.6; 22.2Coordinates: 39°36′N 22°12′E / 39.6°N 22.2°E / 39.6; 22.2 Country  Greece Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece Cession 1881 Capital Larissa Port city Volos Regional units List Karditsa Larissa Magnesia Trikala Sporades Government  • Regional governor Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (New Democracy) Area  • Total 14,036.64 km2 (5,419.58 sq mi) Population (2011)[1]  • Total 732,762  • Density 52/km2 (140/sq mi) Demonym(s) Thessalian Time zone UTC+2 (EET)  • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) ISO 3166 code GR-E HDI (2018) 0.850[2] very high · 9th Website www.pthes.gov.gr Thessaly (Greek: Θεσσαλία, romanized: Thessalía, [θesaˈli.a]; ancient Thessalian: Πετθαλία, Petthalía) is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia (Ancient Greek: Αἰολία, Aiolía), and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey. Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after four and a half centuries of Ottoman rule. Since 1987 it has formed one of the country's 13 regions[3] and is further (since the Kallikratis reform of 2011) sub-divided into five regional units and 25 municipalities. The capital of the region is Larissa. Thessaly lies in northern Greece and borders the regions of Macedonia on the north, Epirus on the west, Central Greece on the south, and the Aegean Sea on the east. The Thessaly region also includes the Sporades islands. Contents 1 Mythology 2 History 2.1 Ancient history 2.2 Byzantine period 2.3 Late Medieval and Ottoman period 2.4 Modern 2.5 Language 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 4 Demographics 5 Major communities 6 Economy 7 Transport 8 Administration 9 Ancient coinage 10 See also 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Mythology[edit] In Homer's epic, the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus visited the kingdom of Aeolus, which was the old name for Thessaly. The Plain of Thessaly, which lies between Mount Oeta/Othrys and Mount Olympus, was the site of the battle between the Titans and the Olympians. According to legend, Jason and the Argonauts launched their search for the Golden Fleece from the Magnesia Peninsula. History[edit] Main article: History of Thessaly Map of ancient Thessaly The first ancient theatre of Larissa. It was constructed inside the ancient city's centre during the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas towards the end of the 3rd century BC. The theatre was in use for six centuries, until the end of the 3rd century AD Ancient history[edit] Further information: Ancient Thessaly and Roman Greece Thessaly was home to extensive Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures around 6000–2500 BC (see Cardium pottery, Dimini and Sesklo). Mycenaean settlements have also been discovered, for example at the sites of Iolcos, Dimini and Sesklo (near Volos). In Archaic and Classical times, the lowlands of Thessaly became the home of baronial families, such as the Aleuadae of Larissa or the Scopads of Crannon. In the summer of 480 BC, the Persians invaded Thessaly. The Greek army that guarded the Vale of Tempe evacuated the road before the enemy arrived. Not much later, Thessaly surrendered to the Persians.[4] The Thessalian family of Aleuadae joined the Persians subsequently. In the 4th century BC, after the Greco-Persian Wars had long ended, Jason of Pherae transformed the region into a significant military power, recalling the glory of Early Archaic times. Shortly after, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of Thessaly, and Thessaly was thereafter associated with the Macedonian Kingdom for the next centuries. Thessaly later became part of the Roman Empire as part of the province of Macedonia; when that was broken up, the name resurfaced in two of its late Roman successor provinces: Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda. Byzantine period[edit] Further information: Byzantine Greece Part of the Byzantine castle of Trikala View of the Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery in Elassona Thessaly remained part of the East Roman "Byzantine" Empire after the collapse of Roman power in the west, and subsequently suffered many invasions, such as by the Slavic tribe of the Belegezites in the 7th century AD.[5] The Avars had arrived in Europe in the late 550s.[6]:29 They asserted their authority over many Slavs, who were divided into numerous petty tribes.[7] Many Slavs were galvanized into an effective infantry force, by the Avars. In the 7th century the Avar-Slav alliance began to raid the Byzantine Empire, laying siege to Thessalonica and even the imperial capital Constantinople itself. By the 8th century, Slavs had occupied most of the Balkans from Austria to the Peloponnese, and from the Adriatic to the Black seas, with the exception of the coastal areas and certain mountainous regions of the Greek peninsula.[8] Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from the (supposed) initial settlement and intermittent uprisings.[9] Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks inside towns.[10] It is likely that the re-Hellenization had already begun by way of this contact. This process would be completed by a newly reinvigorated Byzantine Empire. With the abatement of Arab-Byzantine Wars, the Byzantine Empire began to consolidate its power in those areas of mainland Greece occupied by Proto-Slavic tribes. Following the campaigns of the Byzantine general Staurakios in 782–783, the Byzantine Empire recovered Thessaly, taking many Slavs as prisoners.[11] Apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved (often forcible) transfer of peoples.[12] Many Slavs were moved to other parts of the empire such as Anatolia and made to serve in the military.[13] In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to the interior of Greece, to increase the number of defenders at the Emperor's disposal and dilute the concentration of Slavs.[14] Late Medieval and Ottoman period[edit] Further information: Great Vlachia, Duchy of Neopatria, and Ottoman Greece Coat of arms of the Duchy of Neopatras. In 977 Byzantine Thessaly was raided by the Bulgarian Empire. In 1066 dissatisfaction with the taxation policy led the Aromanian and Bulgarian population of Thessaly to revolt against the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of a local lord, Nikoulitzas Delphinas. The revolt, which began in Larissa, soon expanded to Trikala and later northwards to the Byzantine-Bulgarian border.[15] In 1199–1201 another unsuccessful revolt was led by Manuel Kamytzes, son-in-law of Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos, with the support of Dobromir Chrysos, the autonomous ruler of Prosek. Kamytzes managed to establish a short-lived principality in northern Thessaly, before he was overcome by an imperial expedition.[16] "The Hyperian Fountain at Pherae", during the Ottoman era, by Edward Dodwell. Following the siege of Constantinople and the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in April 1204, Thessaly passed to Boniface of Montferrat's Kingdom of Thessalonica in the wider context of the Frankokratia.[17][18] In 1212, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, ruler of Epirus, led his troops into Thessaly. Larissa and much of central Thessaly came under Epirote rule, thereby separating Thessalonica from the Crusader principalities in southern Greece.[19] Michael's work was completed by his half-brother and successor, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, who by 1220 completed the recovery of the entire region.[20] One of the flags used in Thessaly during the Greek War of Independence (designed by Anthimos Gazis). The Vlachs of Thessaly (originally a chiefly transhumant Romance-speaking population)[21][22] first appear in Byzantine sources in the 11th century, in the Strategikon of Kekaumenos and Anna Komnene's Alexiad).[21][22] In the 12th century, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela records the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros in eastern Thessaly, while the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates places "Great Vlachia" near Meteora. The term is also used by the 13th-century scholar George Pachymeres, and it appears as a distinct administrative unit in 1276, when the pinkernes Raoul Komnenos was its governor (kephale).[21] From 1271 to 1318 Thessaly was an independent despotate that extended to Acarnania and Aetolia, run by John I Doukas. In 1309 the Almogavars or Catalan Company of the East (Societas Catalanorum Magna), settled in Thessaly. In 1310, after lifting the siege of Thessalonica, the Almogavars withdrew as mercenaries in the pay of the sebastokrator John II Doukas and took over the country. From there they departed to the Duchy of Athens, called by the duke Walter I. In 1318, with the extinction of the Angelid dynasty, the Almogavars occupied Siderokastron and southern Thessaly (1319) and formed the Duchy of Neopatria. In 1348, Thessaly was invaded and occupied by the Serbs under Preljub. After the latter's death in 1356, the region was conquered by Nikephoros Orsini, and after his death three years later, it was taken over by the self-proclaimed Serbian emperor Simeon Uroš. Simeon's son John Uroš succeeded in 1370 but abdicated in 1373, and Thessaly was administered by the Greek Angeloi-Philanthropenoi clan until the Ottoman conquest c. 1393. Ottoman control was disputed by the Byzantines until the 1420s when it was consolidated by Turahan Bey, who settled Turkomans in the province and founded the town of Tyrnavos. The territory was ruled through the Sanjak of Tirhala administrative division during the Ottoman period. Modern[edit] The port of Volos In 1600, a short-lived rebellion broke out in the region. Rigas Feraios, the important Greek intellectual and forerunner of the Greek War of Independence was from the region. He was born in Velestino,[23] near the ancient town of Pherae. In 1821, parts of Thessaly and Magnesia participated in the initial uprisings in the Greek War of Independence, but these revolts were swiftly crushed. Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after the Convention of Constantinople except the area around the town of Elassona, which remained in Ottoman hands until 1912. It was briefly captured by Ottomans during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. After the Treaty of Constantinople (1897), Greece was forced to cede minor border areas and to pay heavy reparations. The remaining part of Thessaly held by the Ottomans was finally regained by the Greeks during the First Balkan War in 1912. During World War II, Thessaly was occupied by the Kingdom of Italy from April 1941 to September of 1943. After the Armistice of Cassibile, Germany occupied Thessaly until October 1944. Language[edit] The Aeolic dialect of Greek was spoken in Thessaly. This included several local varieties, in particular the variants of Pelasgiotis and Thessaliotis. The language was not written.[24] Geography[edit] Panoramic view of Meteora valley Vale of Tempe Volos view from Pelion mountain. Litheos river flowing through the city of Trikala Skiathos island Thessaly occupies the east side of the Pindus watershed, extending south from Macedonia to the Aegean Sea. The northern tier of Thessaly is defined by a generally southwest-northeast spur of the Pindus range that includes Mount Olympus, close to the Macedonian border. Within that broken spur of mountains are several basins and river valleys. The easternmost extremity of the spur extends southeastward from Mount Olympus along the Aegean coast, terminating in the Magnesia Peninsula that envelops the Pagasetic Gulf (also called the Gulf of Volos), and forms an inlet of the Aegean Sea. Thessaly's major river, the Pineios, flows eastward from the central Pindus Range just south of the spur, emptying into the Thermaic Gulf. The Trikala and Larissa lowlands form a central plain which is surrounded by a ring of mountains. It has distinct summer and winter seasons, with summer rains augmenting the fertility of the plains. This has led to Thessaly occasionally being called the "breadbasket of Greece". The region is well delineated by topographical boundaries. The Chasia and Kamvounia mountains lie to the north, the Mount Olympus massif to the northeast. To the west lies the Pindus mountain range, to the southeast the coastal mountains of Óssa and Pelion. Several tributaries of the Pineios flow through the region. Climate[edit] Most of the province has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), but also found is a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) including the capital Larissa (on its Mediterranean edge of category). Even in the north of Thessaly a rare humid subtropical climate (Cfa) can be found, although it is different from a climate typically below or above the tropics, it also marks the limit of this rare Cf subtype on the European continent (e. g. the small village of Kalvia).[25] Demographics[edit] According to the census conducted by ESYE in 2011, the population of the region of Thessaly is 732,762 and represents 6.8% of the total population of the country. A 2.8% decrease in the population since 2001 was noted, but Thessaly remains the third largest region in the country in terms of population. The population break-down is 44% urban, 40% agrarian, and 16% semi-urban. A decrease in the agrarian population has been accompanied by an increase in the semi-urban population. The metropolitan area of Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, is home to more than 230,000 people, making it the biggest city of the region. Major communities[edit] Kardítsa (Καρδίτσα) Lárisa (Λάρισα) Tríkala (Τρίκαλα) Vólos (Βόλος) Néa Ionía (Νέα Ιωνία) (Metropolitan area of Volos) Elassóna (Ελασσόνα) Fársala (Φάρσαλα) Economy[edit] The alluvial soils of the Pineios Basin and its tributaries make Thessaly a vital agricultural area, particularly for the production of grain, cattle, and sheep. Modernization of agricultural practices in the mid-20th century has controlled the chronic flooding that had restricted agricultural expansion and diversification in the low-lying plains. Thessaly is the leading cattle-raising area of Greece, and Vlach shepherds move large flocks of sheep and goats seasonally between higher and lower elevations. In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the cultivation of dried nuts such as almonds, pistachios, and walnuts, especially in the region of Almyros. An increase in the number of olive oil trees has been also observed. The nearly landlocked Gulf of Pagasai provides a natural harbor at Volos for shipping agricultural products from the plains and chromium from the mountains. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 9.7 billion € in 2018, accounting for 5.2% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 16,100 € or 53% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 65% of the EU average.[26] The unemployment rate stood at 20.6% in 2017.[27] Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 unemployment rate (in %) 8.2 7.8 8.3 9.2 12.1 16.8 22.6 25.4 25.4 26.9 25.5 20.6 Transport[edit] There are a number of highways such as E75, and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crosses Thessaly. The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through International Airport of Central Greece, which is located in Nea Anchialos, a small distance from Volos and Larisa. Charter flights link the region and bring tourists to the wider area, mainly in Pelion and Meteora. The new infrastructure includes a brand new terminal ready to serve 1500 passengers per hour and new airplanes. Administration[edit] Although the historical region of Thessaly extended south into Phthiotis and at times north into West Macedonia, today the term 'Thessaly' is identified with the modern Administrative Region which was established in the 1987 administrative reform. With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the powers and authority of the region were redefined and extended. Along with Central Greece, it is supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Thessaly and Central Greece, based at Larissa. The region of Thessaly is divided into five regional units (four were pre-Kallikratis prefectures), Karditsa, Larissa, Magnesia, the Sporades and Trikala, which are further subdivided into twenty-five municipalities. Municipal Populations in Thessaly Regional Unit Municipality Population (2011) Larissa Agia 11,470 Larissa Elassona 32,121 Larissa Farsala 18,545 Larissa Kileler 20,854 Larissa Larissa 162,591 Larissa Tempi 13,712 Larissa Tyrnavos 25,032 Sporades Skiathos 6,610 Sporades Skopelos 4,960 Sporades Alonnisos 2,750 Magnesia Almyros 18,614 Magnesia Rigas Feraios 10,922 Magnesia South Pelion 10,216 Magnesia Volos 144,449 Magnesia Zagora-Mouresi 5,809 Karditsa Argithea 3,450 Karditsa Karditsa 56,747 Karditsa Lake Plastiras 4,635 Karditsa Mouzaki 13,122 Karditsa Palamas 16,726 Karditsa Sofades 18,864 Trikala Farkadona 13,396 Trikala Kalampaka 21,991 Trikala Pyli 14,343 Trikala Trikala 81,355 The region's governor is Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (New Democracy), who was elected in the 2010 local elections and re-elected in 2014 and 2019. Ancient coinage[edit] Silver hemidrachm of Pharsalos struck 450-400 BC Silver hemidrachm of Trikka struck 440-400 BC Silver hemidrachm of Thessalian League struck 470-460 BC Bronze coin of Ekkarra struck 325-320 BC Bronze coin of Krannon struck 400-344 BC Hemidrachm coin of Pelinna struck 460-420 BC See also[edit] Vale of Tempe List of traditional Greek place names CERETETH, Center of Technology Thessaly References[edit] ^ "Demographic and social characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population" (PDF). Housing Census. Hellenic Statistical Authority. September 12, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 8, 2015. Retrieved March 20, 2014. ^ "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13. ^ Π.Δ. (March 6, 1987). Καθορισμός των Περιφερειών της Χώρας για το σχεδιασμό κ.λ.π. της Περιφερειακής Ανάπτυξης [Determination of the Regions of the Country for the planning etc. of the development of the regions]. ΦΕΚ. pp. 51/87. ^ Rhodes, P.J. (September 30, 2014). A Short History of Ancient Greece. I.B. Tauris. p. 59. ISBN 9781780765945. Retrieved December 24, 2014. ^ de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (January 1, 1996). "The Invasion of Slaves and Avars (c. 568 to 626)". In Tapkova-Zaimova, Vasilka (ed.). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. p. 252. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0. ^ Fine, John V. A., Jr. 1983, Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey From the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, University of Michigan Press ISBN 9780472100255 ^ Fine 1991, p. 30. ^ Fine 1991, p. 36. ^ Fine 1991, p. 63. ^ Fine 1991, p. 61. ^ Fine 1991, p. 79. ^ Fine 1991, p. 81. ^ Fine 1991, p. 66. ^ Fine 1991, p. 82. ^ Fine 1991, p. 216. ^ Fine 1994, p. 32. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 63. ^ Fine 1994, pp. 64. ^ Fine 1994, p. 68. ^ Fine 1994, p. 114. ^ a b c Kazhdan 1991, p. 2183. ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 2184. ^ Daskalov, Roumen Dontchev; Marinov, Tchavdar (June 13, 2013). Entangled Histories of the Balkans: National Ideologies and Language Policies. 1. Brill Publishers. p. 159. ISBN 978-9004250765. ^ Frits Waanders, “Thessalian”, in: Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and Linguistics, Managing Editors Online Edition: First Last. Consulted online on 31 August 2020 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-448X_eagll_COM_00000349> ^ "Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map of the world". people.eng.unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 2019-01-18. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018". Eurostat. ^ "Regional Unemployment by NUTS2 Region". Eurostat. Sources[edit] Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994) [1987]. The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Vlachia". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8. Smith, William, ed. (1857). "Thessalia". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. 2. Walton and Mayberly. pp. 1165–1170. Retrieved 12 October 2018. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thessalia. Official website (in Greek) Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 991374 (Thessalia)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v t e Administrative division of the Thessaly Region Area 14,037 km2 (5,420 sq mi) Population 732,762 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Larissa Regional unit of Karditsa Argithea Karditsa Lake Plastiras Mouzaki Palamas Sofades Regional unit of Larissa Agia Elassona Farsala Kileler Larissa Tempi Tyrnavos Regional unit of Magnesia Almyros Rigas Feraios South Pelion Volos Zagora-Mouresi Regional unit of the Sporades Alonnisos Skiathos Skopelos Regional unit of Trikala Farkadona Meteora Pyli Trikala Regional governor Konstantinos Agorastos [el] (reelected 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Administrative regions of Greece Attica Central Greece Central Macedonia Crete Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Epirus Ionian Islands Northern Aegean Peloponnese Southern Aegean Thessaly Western Greece Western Macedonia v t e Traditional geographic regions of Greece Aegean Islands Central Greece (Attica) Crete Epirus Ionian Islands Macedonia Peloponnese Thessaly Thrace Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thessaly&oldid=1002601337" Categories: Thessaly NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union Administrative regions of Greece Northern Greece Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Short description is different from Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with bad settlement type Articles containing Greek-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is locally defined Articles with Greek-language sources (el) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân-lâm-gú Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Føroyskt Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски მარგალური Nederlands 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2021, at 05:32 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7780	----	Iliad - Wikipedia Iliad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation). Epic poem attributed to Homer Trojan War Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC) The war Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194–1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260–1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy See also: Historicity of the Iliad Literary sources Iliad Epic Cycle Aeneid, Book 2 Iphigenia in Aulis Philoctetes Ajax The Trojan Women Posthomerica See also: Trojan War in popular culture Episodes Judgement of Paris Seduction of Helen Trojan Horse Sack of Troy The Returns Wanderings of Odysseus Aeneas and the Founding of Rome Greeks and allies Agamemnon Achilles Helen Menelaus Nestor Odysseus Ajax Diomedes Patroclus Thersites Achaeans Myrmidons See also: Catalogue of Ships Trojans and allies Priam Hecuba Hector Paris Cassandra Andromache Aeneas Memnon Troilus Penthesilea and the Amazons Sarpedon See also: Trojan Battle Order Participant gods Caused the war: Eris On the Greek side: Athena Hephaestus Hera Hermes Thetis Poseidon On the Trojan side: Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Leto Scamander Zeus Related topics Homeric Question Archaeology of Troy Mycenae Mycenaean warfare v t e The Iliad (/ˈɪliəd/;[1] Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς, Iliás, Attic Greek pronunciation: [iː.li.ás]; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Usually considered to have been written down circa the 8th century BC, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, along with the Odyssey, another epic poem attributed to Homer which tells of Odysseus's experiences after the events of the Iliad.[2] In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. It is usually grouped in the Epic Cycle. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Mycenean Greek states (Achaeans), it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles' imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War. Contents 1 Synopsis 2 Major characters 2.1 Achaeans 2.1.1 Achilles and Patroclus 2.2 Trojans 2.3 Gods 2.3.1 Divine intervention 3 Themes 3.1 Fate 3.2 Kleos 3.3 Nostos 3.4 Pride 3.5 Timē 3.6 Hybris (hubris) 3.7 Menis 4 Date and textual history 4.1 As oral tradition 4.2 Today 5 Depiction of warfare 5.1 Depiction of infantry combat 5.2 Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles 5.3 Influence on classical Greek warfare 6 Influence on arts and pop culture 6.1 20th-century arts 6.2 Contemporary popular culture 7 English translations 8 Manuscripts 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Citations 10.3 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Synopsis[edit] The first verses of the Iliad Note: Book numbers are in parentheses and come before the synopsis of the book. (1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive by Agamemnon, the Achaean leader. Although most of the Achaean army is in favour of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo causes a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' captive, Briseis, as compensation. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon and will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague. In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis.[3] Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to bring the Achaeans to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees. (2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale, by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war. After a meal, the Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each Achaean contingent. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. In a list similar to that for the Achaeans, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies. (3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. The initial cause of the entire war is alluded to here, when Helen is said to be "embroidering the struggles between Trojans and Achaeans, that Ares had made them fight for her sake." This allusion is then made definitive at the paragraph's close, when Helen is told that Paris and "Menelaus are going to fight about yourself, and you are to be the wife of him who is the victor." Both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him. (4) Pressured by Hera's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Achaeans, and battle is joined. (5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action. (6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Achaean Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground, and exchange unequal gifts, while Glaukos tells Diomedes the story of Bellerophon. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle. (7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Achaeans agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A day's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Achaeans also build their wall and a trench. (8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall, while Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars. Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–53, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD. (9) Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed. (10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy's. (11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor's. (12) The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. (13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored. (14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain. (15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Achaean-supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships. (16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles' glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector. (17) Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus' body. (18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus' death and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body but has no armour. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield. (19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Achaeans take their meal, straps on his new armor, and takes up his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle. (20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. (21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus' firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. (22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector's will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector's body and dishonours it by dragging it behind his chariot. (23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out his burial rites and to arrange for their bones to be entombed together. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes. (24) Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns. Major characters[edit] Main article: List of characters in the Iliad See also: Category: Deities in the Iliad Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC. The many characters of the Iliad are catalogued; the latter half of Book II, the "Catalogue of Ships", lists commanders and cohorts; battle scenes feature quickly slain minor characters. Achaeans[edit] The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί), Danaans (Δαναοί) or Argives (Ἀργεĩοι) Agamemnon – King of Mycenae, leader of the Achaeans. Menelaus – King of Sparta, husband of Helen and brother of Agamemnon. Achilles – Leader of the Myrmidons and King of Phthia.,[4] son of Peleus and divine Thetis, the foremost warrior. Odysseus – King of Ithaca, Greek commander, the smartest warrior. Nestor – King of Pylos and trusted advisor to Agamemnon, the wisest warrior. Ajax the Great – King of Salamis, son of Telamon. Diomedes – King of Argos, son of Tydeus . Ajax the Lesser – Commander of the Locrians, son of Oileus. Idomeneus – Commander of the Cretans Patroclus – Achilles' closest companion. Neoptolemus – Leader of the Myrmidons after Achilles death, killer of Priam. Achilles and Patroclus[edit] Main article: Achilles and Patroclus Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Some Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic,[i] while others perceived it as a platonic warrior-bond.[5] Achilles Lamenting the Death of Patroclus (1855) by the Russian history painter Nikolai Ge (Belarusian National Arts Museum, Minsk) Trojans[edit] The Trojan men Dardanos – First king of Troy, and he originally named the city Dardania.[6] Hector – Prince of Troy, son of King Priam, and the foremost Trojan warrior. Aeneas – son of Anchises and Aphrodite. Deiphobus – brother of Hector and Paris. Paris – Prince of Troy, son of King Priam, and Helen's lover/abductor. Priam – the aged King of Troy. Polydamas – a prudent commander whose advice is ignored; he is Hector's foil. Agenor – son of Antenor, a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles (Book XXI). Sarpedon, son of Zeus – killed by Patroclus. Was friend of Glaucus and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). Glaucus, son of Hippolochus – friend of Sarpedon and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). Euphorbus – first Trojan warrior to wound Patroclus. Dolon – a spy upon the Greek camp (Book X). Antenor – King Priam's advisor, who argues for returning Helen to end the war. Polydorus – son of Priam and Laothoe. Pandarus – famous archer and son of Lycaon. The Trojan women Hecuba (Ἑκάβη, Hekábe) – Priam's wife; mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris, and others. Helen (Ἑλένη) – daughter of Zeus; Menelaus's wife; espoused first to Paris, then to Deiphobus; her being taken by Paris back to Troy precipitated the war. Andromache – Princess of Troy, Hector's wife, mother of Astyanax. Cassandra – Priam's daughter. Briseis – a Trojan woman captured by Achilles from a previous siege, over whom Achilles's quarrel with Agamemnon began. Gods[edit] In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of fourth-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to us from Homer.[7] The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character.[8] Mary Lefkowitz (2003)[9] discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.[9][10] The religion had no founder and was not the creation of an inspired teacher which were popular origins of existing religions in the world.[11] The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard (2020/1998), agree with this by saying, “the early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one’s share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms.”[12] As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.[7] Psychologist Julian Jaynes (1976)[13] uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a far different mentality from present day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what we today call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.[13] Divine intervention[edit] Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level.[14] An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, “He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses.”[15] Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, “Hera’s and Athena’s disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy.”[14] Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of The Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. “Now he’d have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus’s daughter was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap.”[15] Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with.[14] This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.[citation needed] The major deities: Zeus (Neutral) Hera (Achaeans) Artemis (Trojans) Apollo (Trojans) Hades (Neutral) Aphrodite (Trojans) Ares (Achaeans, then Trojans) Athena (Achaeans) Hermes (Neutral/Achaeans) Poseidon (Achaeans) Hephaestus (Achaeans) The minor deities: Eris (Trojans) Iris (Neutral) Thetis (Achaeans) Leto (Trojans) Proteus (Achaeans) Scamander (Trojans) Phobos (Trojans) Deimos (Trojans) Hypnos (Achaeans) Themes[edit] Fate[edit] Fate (κήρ, kēr, 'fated death') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate.[16] Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat;[citation needed] Patroclus retorts: [17] No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me, and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you. You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already death and powerful destiny are standing beside you, to go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus.[18] Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector's hand, and Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no-one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says: Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon, must go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus.[19] About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus: Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[20] In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athene who challenges him: Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[21] Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks: But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die…[22] Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man. Kleos[edit] Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame") is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle.[23] Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos.[24] In Book IX (IX.410–16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon's envoys—Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax—begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).[25] The passage reads: μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410) διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ. εἰ μέν κ’ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι, ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ’ ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν, ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415) ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ’ ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.[26] For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either, if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans, my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting; but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers, the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.[27] —Translated by Richmond Lattimore In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable").[25] In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable") occurs five other times,[28] each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as forever immortal and as forever imperishable—connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy. Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned. Achilles' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos. Nostos[edit] Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming") occurs seven times in the poem,[29] making it a minor theme in the Iliad itself. Yet the concept of homecoming is much explored in other Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey). Pride[edit] Pride drives the plot of the Iliad. The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to Achilles. Achilles’ pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus’ death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.[ii][30] Timē[edit] Akin to kleos is timē (τιμή, "respect, honor"), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Achaean troubles begin with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause. Hybris (hubris)[edit] Hybris (Ὕβρις) plays a part similar to timê. The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. (footnote Thompson). Despite the epic's focus on Achilles’ rage, hybris plays a prominent role also, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events. Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of hybris and harms Achilles’ pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaean to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the Iliad focus on the Achilles’ rage and the destruction it brings on, hybris fuels and stokes them both.[31] Menis[edit] The Wrath of Achilles (1819), by Michel Drolling. The poem's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin; acc. μῆνις, mēnis, "wrath," "rage," "fury"), establishes the Iliad's principal theme: The "Wrath of Achilles".[32] His personal rage and wounded soldier's pride propel the story: the Achaeans' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count."[33] The insulted priest prays to Apollo for help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Achaeans. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men."[34] To that, Agamemnon replies: But here is my threat to you. Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis. I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis, your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back from likening himself to me and contending against me.[35] After that, only Athena stays Achilles's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus's divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Achaeans back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her: So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me. Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us. Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life, Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.[36] Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him 'round the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp. Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens (1630–35). Date and textual history[edit] Further information: Homeric question and Historicity of the Iliad The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date.[citation needed] In any case, the terminus ante quem for the dating of the Iliad is 630 BC, as evidenced by reflection in art and literature.[37] Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at c. 850 BC.[38] The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion. The title Ἰλιάς (Ilias; gen. Ἰλιάδος, Iliados) is an ellipsis of ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς, he poíesis Iliás, meaning "the Trojan poem". Ἰλιάς, 'of Troy', is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον, 'Troy'. The masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος.[39] It is used by Herodotus.[40] Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad.[41] The first edition of the "Iliad", editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488/89.[42] As oral tradition[edit] In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.[43] Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style—"stock epithets" and "reiteration" (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametric line. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus") reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of "original" formulaic text to complete his meaning.[44] In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy. In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Achaean Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns", that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"; thus, stock-phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme.[45] Likewise, James Armstrong (1958)[46] reports that the poem's formulae yield richer meaning because the "arming motif" diction—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to "heighten the importance of…an impressive moment," thus, "[reiteration] creates an atmosphere of smoothness," wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.[47][46] In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is "laughter-loving", despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150–800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.[48] Today[edit] In modern Greece children are educated by Iliad and Odyssey at school, as specific mandatory lessons. Through these, they learn mythology, history, ancient customs and ethics of their homeland and they analyze the poetry of Homer.[citation needed] Depiction of warfare[edit] Depiction of infantry combat[edit] Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles.[49] So, the Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, fights afoot, as an infantryman.[50] The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and a shoulder-borne hoplon (shield) fighting.[51] Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος, sakos) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother: Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow. He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon. As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside, Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow, hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back, crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother. Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.[52] Ajax's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin, Achilles, sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans: Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house, using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds, that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up, shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets, horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads. That's how close they were to one another.[53] In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation,[54] but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought.[55] In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them: In your eagerness to engage the Trojans, don't any of you charge ahead of others, trusting in your strength and horsemanship. And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge. Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's should thrust with his spear at him from there. That's the most effective tactic, the way men wiped out city strongholds long ago — their chests full of that style and spirit.[56] Although Homer's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other[citation needed] ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory. Modern reconstructions of armor, weapons and styles[edit] Few modern (archeologically, historically and Homerically accurate) reconstructions of arms, armor and motifs as described by Homer exist. Some historical reconstructions have been done by Salimbeti et al.[57] Influence on classical Greek warfare[edit] While the Homeric poems (particularly, the Iliad) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart."[58]:36 Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories. Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements.[58]:22–3 Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the Iliad: There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short-lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high-hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.[59] The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.[58]:51 One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.[60] In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax: I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching for my chance, but openly, so, if perhaps I might hit you.[61] However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Achaean guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Achaeans and the Trojans in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.[58]:240 Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.[58] Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.[62] Influence on arts and pop culture[edit] Main article: Trojan War in popular culture The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages. Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events. These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne. These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War. Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.[citation needed] William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc. William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013. Robert Browning's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship. According to Suleyman al-Boustani, a 19th-century poet who made the first Arabic translation of the Iliad to Arabic, the epic may have been widely circulated in Syriac and Pahlavi translations during the early Middle Ages. Al-Boustani credits Theophilus of Edessa with the Syriac translation, which was supposedly (along with the Greek original) widely read or heard by the scholars of Baghdad in the prime of the Abbasid Caliphate, although those scholars never took the effort to translate it to the official language of the empire; Arabic. The Iliad was also the first full epic poem to be translated to Arabic from a foreign language, upon the publication of Al-Boustani's complete work in 1904.[63] 20th-century arts[edit] Simone Weil wrote the essay "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" in 1939, shortly after the commencement of World War II. The essay describes how the Iliad demonstrates the way force, exercised to the extreme in war, reduces both victim and aggressor to the level of the slave and the unthinking automaton.[64] The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple, by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross, was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish–American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two. Christopher Logue's poem War Music, an "account", not a translation, of the Iliad, was begun in 1959 as a commission for radio. He continued working on it until his death in 2011. Described by Tom Holland as "one of the most remarkable works of post-war literature", it has been an influence on Kae Tempest and Alice Oswald, who says that it "unleashes a forgotten kind of theatrical energy into the world."[65] Christa Wolf's novel Cassandra (1983) is a critical engagement with the Iliad. Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts we hear at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece. David Melnick's Men in Aida (cf. μῆνιν ἄειδε) (1983) is a postmodern homophonic translation of Book One into a farcical bathhouse scenario, preserving the sounds but not the meaning of the original. Marion Zimmer Bradley's 1987 novel The Firebrand retells the story from the point of view of Kassandra, a princess of Troy and a prophetess who is cursed by Apollo. Contemporary popular culture[edit] Eric Shanower's Image Comics series Age of Bronze, which began in 1998, retells the legend of the Trojan War.[66][67][68] Dan Simmons' epic science fiction adaptation/tribute Ilium was released in 2003, receiving a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.[citation needed] Troy (2004), a loose film adaptation of the Iliad, received mixed reviews but was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, making it the 188th top-grossing movie of all time.[69] Madeline Miller's 2011 debut novel The Song of Achilles[70] tells the story of Achilles' and Patroclus' life together as children, lovers, and soldiers. The novel, which won the 2012 Women's Prize for Fiction, draws on the Iliad as well as the works of other classical authors such as Statius, Ovid, and Virgil.[71] Alice Oswald's sixth collection, Memorial (2011),[72] is based on but departs from the narrative form of the Iliad to focus on, and so commemorate, the individually-named characters whose deaths are mentioned in that poem.[73][74][75] Later in October 2011, Memorial was shortlisted for the T. S. Eliot Prize,[76] but in December 2011, Oswald withdrew the book from the shortlist,[77][78] citing concerns about the ethics of the prize's sponsors.[79] The Rage of Achilles, by American author and Yale Writers' Conference founder Terence Hawkins, recounts the Iliad as a novel in modern, sometimes graphic language. Informed by Julian Jaynes' theory of the bicameral mind and the historicity of the Trojan War, it depicts its characters as real men to whom the gods appear only as hallucinations or command voices during the sudden and painful transition to truly modern consciousness.[citation needed] English translations[edit] Wenceslas Hollar's engraved title page of a 1660 edition of the Iliad, translated by John Ogilby. Further information: English translations of Homer Sampling of translations and editions of Iliad in English George Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners", a long-line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power."[80]:351 It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit" of Chapman's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion." John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816). John Ogilby's mid-seventeenth-century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions,"[80]:352 and, like Chapman's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing," Cowper says in prefacing his translation. In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice: [i] that he is eminently rapid; [ii] that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; [iii] that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, [iv] that he is eminently noble. After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart [1862] in response to Arnold."[80]:354 In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful." An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating during 1859.[81] Since 1950, there have been several English translations. Richmond Lattimore's version (1951) is "a free six-beat" line-for-line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect" for "the plain English of today." It is literal, unlike older verse renderings. Robert Fitzgerald's version (Oxford World's Classics, 1974) strives to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry. His forceful version is freer, with shorter lines that increase the sense of swiftness and energy. Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding dramatic significance to Homer's conventional and formulaic language. Rodney Merrill's translation (University of Michigan Press, 2007) not only renders the work in English verse like the dactylic hexameter of the original, but also conveys the oral-formulaic nature of the epic song, to which that musical meter gives full value. Barry B. Powell's translation (Oxford University Press, 2014) renders the Homeric Greek with a simplicity and dignity reminiscent of the original. Caroline Alexander published the first full-length English translation by a woman in 2015.[82] Manuscripts[edit] There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer.[83][84] Some of the most notable manuscripts include: Rom. Bibl. Nat. gr. 6 + Matriti. Bibl. Nat. 4626 from 870–890 AD Venetus A = Venetus Marc. 822 from the 10th century Venetus B = Venetus Marc. 821 from the 11th century Ambrosian Iliad Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Codex Nitriensis (palimpsest) See also[edit]  Ancient Greece portal  Religion portal Mask of Agamemnon Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Heinrich Schliemann References[edit] Notes[edit] ^ Aeschylus does portray it so in Fragment 134a. ^ Frobish (2003:24) writes that the war "starts with his pride and immaturity, yet is finished with his skill and bravery on the battlefield.” Citations[edit] ^ "Iliad". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d'Homère (The World of Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19 ^ Homer. The Iliad. New York: Norton Books. p. 115. ^ Lattimore, Richmond (2011). The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Book 1, line 155, p. 79. ISBN 978-0-226-47049-8. ^ Hornblower, S. and A. Spawforth (1998). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. pp. 3, 347, 352. ^ Homer, Iliad (3:38, 7:89) ^ a b Mikalson, Jon (1991). Honor Thy Gods: Popular Religion in Greek Tragedy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ^ Homer's Iliad, Classical Technology Center. ^ a b Lefkowitz, Mary (2003). Greek Gods, Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ^ Taplin, Oliver (2003). "Bring Back the Gods." The New York Times (14 December). ^ Lawson, John (2012). Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion:A Study in Survivals. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ^ Adkins, A. W. H.; Pollard, John R. T. (Mar 2, 2020) [1998]. "Greek religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ a b Jaynes, Julian. (1976) The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. p. 221 ^ a b c Kullmann, Wolfgang (1985). "Gods and Men in the Iliad and the Odyssey". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 89: 1–23. doi:10.2307/311265. JSTOR 311265. ^ a b Homer (1998). The Iliad. Translated by Fagles, Robert; Knox, Bernard. New York: Penguin Books. p. 589. ^ Fate as presented in Homer's "The Iliad", Everything2 ^ Dunkle, Roger (1986). "ILIAD," in The Classical Origins of Western Culture, The Core Studies 1 Study Guide. Brooklyn College. Archived from the original December 5, 2007. ^ Homer, Iliad 16.849–54 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad. 16.433–34 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 16.440–43 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 22.178–81 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer. The Iliad 20.300–04 (Lattimore 1951). ^ "The Concept of the Hero in Greek Civilization". Athome.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2010-04-18. ^ "Heroes and the Homeric Iliad". Uh.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-18. ^ a b Volk, Katharina. "ΚΛΕΟΣ ΑΦΘΙΤΟΝ Revisited". Classical Philology, Vol. 97, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), pp. 61–68. ^ 9.410–416 ^ Homer. The Iliad (Lattimore 1951). ^ II.46, V.724, XIII.22, XIV.238, XVIII.370 ^ 2.155, 2.251, 9.413, 9.434, 9.622, 10.509, 16.82 ^ Frobish, T.S. (2003). “An Origin of a Theory: A Comparison of Ethos in the Homeric Iliad with That Found in Aristotle’s Rhetoric.” Rhetoric 22(1):16-30. ^ Thompson, Diane P. “Achilles’ Wrath and the Plan of Zeus.” ^ Rouse, W.H.D. (1938). The Iliad. p. 11. ^ Homer, Iliad 1.13 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 1.122 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 1.181–87 (Lattimore 1951). ^ Homer, Iliad 18.111–16 (Lattimore 1951). ^ West, M. L. (1999). "The Invention of Homer". The Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.364. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639863. ^ Herodotus (de Sélincourt 1954), p. 41. ^ Ἰλιάς, Ἰλιακός, Ἴλιος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project ^ Hist. 2.116 ^ Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2007). "Robot Scans Ancient Manuscript in 3-D." Wired.[unreliable source?] ^ "Homerus, [Τὰ σωζόμενα]". Onassis Library. Retrieved 2017-09-03. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia (5 ed.) (1994). p. 173. ^ Porter, John. The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry (8 May 2006) University of Saskatchewan. Retrieved 26 November 2007. ^ Lord, Albert (1960). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 190, 195. ^ a b Armstrong, James I. (1958). "The Arming Motif in the Iliad." American Journal of Philology 79(4):337–54. ^ Iliad, Book XVI, 130–54 ^ Toohey, Peter (1992). Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narrative. New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge. ^ Iliad 3.45–50 ^ Iliad 59–65 ^ Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. p. 248. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.267–72, translated by Ian Johnston. ^ Homer, Iliad 16.213–17 (translated by Ian Johnston). ^ Iliad 6.6 ^ Cahill, Tomas (2003). Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter. ^ Homer, Iliad 4.301–09 (translated by Ian Johnston). ^ http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm ^ a b c d e Lendon, J.E. (2005). Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ^ Homer, Iliad 4.473–83 (Lattimore 2011). ^ 5.17 ^ Homer, Iliad 7.237–43 (Lattimore 2011) ^ Van Wees, Hans. Greek Warfare: Myth and Realities. p. 249. ^ Al-Boustani, Suleyman (2012). الإلياذة (Iliad). Cairo, Egypt: Hindawi. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-977-719-184-5. ^ Bruce B. Lawrence and Aisha Karim (2008). On Violence: A Reader. Duke University Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-0-8223-3769-0. ^ Logue, Christopher (2015). "Introduction by Christopher Reid". War Music, an account of Homer's Iliad. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31449-2. ^ A Thousand Ships (2001, ISBN 1-58240-200-0) ^ Sacrifice (2004, ISBN 1-58240-360-0) ^ Betrayal, Part One (2008, ISBN 978-1-58240-845-3) ^ "All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses". Box Office Mojo. ^ Miller, Madeline. (2011). The song of Achilles. London: Bloomsbury Pub Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4088-1603-5. OCLC 740635377. ^ Ciabattari, Jane (March 21, 2012). "Madeline Miller Discusses 'The Song of Achilles'". The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 1, 2012. ^ Oswald, Alice (2011). Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-27416-1. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. ^ Holland, Tom (17 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller / Memorial by Alice Oswald. Surfing the rip tide of all things Homeric". The New Statesman. London: New Statesman. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Kellaway, Kate (2 October 2011). "Memorial by Alice Oswald – review". The Observer. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (28 October 2011). "The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller, and more – review". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Flood, Alison (20 October 2011). "TS Eliot prize 2011 shortlist revealed". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 1 June 2012. ^ Waters, Florence (6 December 2011). "Poet withdraws from TS Eliot prize over sponsorship". The Telegraph. London: Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ Flood, Alison (6 December 2011). "Alice Oswald withdraws from TS Eliot prize in protest at sponsor Aurum". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ Oswald, Alice (12 December 2011). "Why I pulled out of the TS Eliot poetry prize". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ a b c The Oxford Guide to English Literature in Translation. ^ St John's College – The Iliad (1898) Cambridge University [Retrieved 2016-06-16] ^ Wolff, Karl. "The Iliad: A New Translation by Caroline Alexander." New York Journal of Books. ^ OCLC 722287142 ^ Bird, Graeme D. (2010). Multitextuality in the Homeric Iliad: The Witness of the Ptolemaic Papyr. Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies. ISBN 978-0-674-05323-6. Bibliography[edit] Budimir, Milan (1940). On the Iliad and Its Poet. Herodotus (1975) [first published 1954]. Burn, A. R.; de Sélincourt, Aubrey (eds.). The Histories. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051260-8. Lattimore, Richmond, trans. (1951), The Iliad by Homer, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Mueller, Martin (1984). The Iliad. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-800027-2. Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2388-9. Powell, Barry B. (2004). Homer. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6. Seaford, Richard (1994). Reciprocity and Ritual. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815036-9. West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815221-3. Fox, Robin Lane (2008). Travelling Heroes: Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9980-8. Further reading[edit] De Jong, Irene (2012). Iliad. Book XXII, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521709774 Edwards, Mark W.; Janko, Richard; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume IV, Books 13–16, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-28171-7 Edwards, Mark W.; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume V, Books 17–20, Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-30959-X Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes, Iliad: Book VI, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780521878845 Hainsworth, Bryan; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume III, Books 9–12, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-23711-4] Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume I, Books 1–4, Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-23709-2 Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume II, Books 5–8, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-23710-6 Murray, A.T.; Wyatt, William F., Homer: The Iliad, Books I–XII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-674-99579-6 Richardson, Nicholas; Kirk, G.S., The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume VI, Books 21–24, Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-30960-3 West, Martin L., Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad, München : K.G. Saur, 2001. ISBN 3-598-73005-5 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iliad. Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Iliad Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ἰλιάς Library resources about Iliad Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries D. B. Monro, Homer: Iliad, Books I–XII, with an Introduction, a Brief Homeric Grammar, and Notes (3rd ed., 1890) D. B. Monro, Homer: Iliad, Books XIII–XXIV, with Notes (4th ed., 1903) D. B. Monro, A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect (2nd ed., 1891) Iliad : from the Perseus Project (PP), with the Murray and Butler translations and hyperlinks to mythological and grammatical commentary Gods, Achaeans and Troyans. An interactive visualization of The Iliad's characters flow and relations. The Iliad: A Study Guide Comments on background, plot, themes, authorship, and translation issues by 2008 translator Herbert Jordan. Flaxman illustrations of the Iliad The Iliad study guide, themes, quotes, teacher resources The Iliad, trans. by William Cullen Bryant at Standard Ebooks The Iliad of Homer, by George Chapman, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Alexander Pope, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by William Cowper, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Theodore Alois Buckley, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Edward, Earl of Derby, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Andrew Lang, Walter Leaf and Ernest Meyers, at Project Gutenberg The Iliad of Homer, by Samuel Butler, at Project Gutenberg The Opening to the Iliad (Proem), Read in Ancient Greek with a simultaneous translation. The Iliad Map, map of locations in The Iliad Published English translations of Homer, with samples and some reviews by translator and scholar Ian Johnston Digital facsimile of the first printed publication (editio princeps) of the Iliad in Homeric Greek by Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek The Iliad public domain audiobook at LibriVox v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams (Kiln) Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Kings of Thebes Kings Calydnus Ogyges Cadmus Pentheus Polydorus Nycteus (regent for Labdacus) and Lycus I (regent for Labdacus) Labdacus Lycus I (regent for Laius) Laius Amphion and Zethus Laius (second rule) Creon Oedipus Creon (second rule) (regent for Eteocles and Polynices) Polynices and Eteocles Creon (third rule) (regent for Laodamas) Lycus II (usurper) Laodamas Thersander Peneleos (regent for Tisamenus) Tisamenus Autesion Damasichthon Ptolemy Xanthos In literature Antigone (Sophocles) Antigone (Euripides play) The Bacchae Herakles Iliad Oedipus Oedipus at Colonus Oedipus Rex The Phoenician Women Seven Against Thebes The Thebans Related articles Thebes Necklace of Harmonia Book:Theban Kings Category:Theban kings Portal:Ancient Greece v t e Homer's Iliad (8th century BC) Characters Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon Major deities Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Hades Hephaestus Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus Minor deities Deimos Eris Iris Leto Phobos Proteus Scamander Thetis Sections Catalogue of Ships Deception of Zeus Trojan Battle Order Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Historicity of the Homeric epics "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" (1939 essay) Milawata letter Rediscovering Homer Dactylic hexameter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Manuscripts Ambrosian Iliad Codex Nitriensis Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Uncial 098 Venetus A Venetus B Alternate versions Ilias Latina (60–70 CE) Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani (4th century ?) 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en-wikipedia-org-7682	----	Plato - Wikipedia Plato From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Classical Greek Athenian philosopher, founder of Platonism Plato Roman copy of a portrait bust by Silanion for the Academia in Athens (c. 370 BC) Born 428/427 or 424/423 BC Athens, Greece Died 348/347 BC (age c. 80) Athens, Greece Notable work Apology Crito Euthyphro Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Republic Symposium Timaeus Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Platonism Notable students Aristotle Eudoxus of Cnidus Heraclides Ponticus Philip of Opus Speusippus Xenocrates Main interests Metaphysics Ethics Politics Epistemology Aesthetics Soul Love Mathematics Language Education Cosmology Eschatology Notable ideas Platonic philosophy Innatism Theory of forms Idealism Influences Socrates Pythagoras Parmenides Heraclitus the Sophists Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Diotima[1] Cratylus Theaetetus Theodorus Archytas Homer Hesiod Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy (and religion), especially Platonism, including Aristotelianism, Old Academy, Academic skepticism, Middle Platonism, Neoplatonism, Church Fathers and Christian Platonism, Chaldean Oracles, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Islamic Platonism, Byzantine philosophy, Florentine Academy and Renaissance Platonism, Cambridge Platonism, Modern Platonism Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/ PLAY-toe;[2] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn, pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle.[a] Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[4] The so-called Neoplatonism of philosophers like Plotinus and Porphyry greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[5] Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms known by pure reason, in which Plato presents a solution to the problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids. His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[b] Unlike the work of nearly all of his contemporaries, Plato's entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[7] Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, Plato's works have never been without readers since the time they were written.[8] Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 Birth and family 1.1.2 Name 1.1.3 Education 1.2 Later life and death 2 Influences 2.1 Pythagoras 2.1.1 Plato and mathematics 2.2 Heraclitus and Parmenides 2.3 Socrates 3 Philosophy 3.1 Metaphysics 3.1.1 The Forms 3.1.2 The soul 3.2 Epistemology 3.2.1 Recollection 3.2.2 Justified true belief 3.3 Ethics 3.3.1 Justice 3.4 Politics 3.5 Art and poetry 3.6 Unwritten doctrines 4 Themes of Plato's dialogues 4.1 Trial of Socrates 4.1.1 The trial in other dialogues 4.2 Allegories 4.2.1 The Cave 4.2.2 Ring of Gyges 4.2.3 Chariot 4.3 Dialectic 4.4 Family 4.5 Narration 5 History of Plato's dialogues 5.1 Chronology 5.1.1 Writings of doubted authenticity 5.1.2 Spurious writings 5.2 Textual sources and history 5.2.1 Modern editions 6 Criticism 7 Legacy 7.1 In the arts 7.2 In philosophy 8 See also 8.1 Philosophy 8.2 Ancient scholarship 8.3 Medieval scholarship 8.4 Modern scholarship 8.5 Other 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Works cited 11 Further reading 12 External links Biography Early life Main article: Early life of Plato Birth and family Diogenes Laertius is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Plato's early life and education. Plato belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, Plato's father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[9] According to the ancient Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the mythological deity Poseidon.[10][11] Through his mother, Plato was related to Solon. Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of Draco (except for the death penalty for homicide).[11] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).[12] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[13] The exact time and place of Plato's birth are unknown. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c] between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.[d] The traditional date of Plato's birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or 427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails argues, the text does not state that Plato left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and Hermogenes.[23] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[24] According to Neanthes, Plato was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC).[25] Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of Plato's birth.[21][22] The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[18] Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th Olympiad.[17][26] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[27] Speusippus was Plato's nephew. Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of the Academy).[12] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston,[28] and presumably brothers of Plato, though some have argued they were uncles.[e] In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[30] Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[31] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[32] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[33] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[34] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[35] In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras.[36] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also the happier days of his own family."[37] Name The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable, but the origin of this name remains mysterious. Platon is a nickname from the adjective platýs (πλατύς) 'broad'. Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone),[38] the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[39] The sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead.[40][41] While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."[42] Plato was a wrestler His true name was supposedly Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς), meaning 'best reputation'.[f] According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.[43] But there is only one inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to Plato's father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[44] However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was Plato's given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources.[39] Education Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[45] His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[46] Plato invokes Damon many times in the Republic. Plato was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[47] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines.[48] Ambrose believed that Plato met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "Plato was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied."[49][need quotation to verify] Later life and death Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom Plato may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene.[50]Plato's own statement was that he visited Italy and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the sensuality of life there. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[51] This land was named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations[52][53] The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus.[54] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[55][56] Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[57] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery.[g] Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher, subsequently bought Plato's freedom for twenty minas,[59] and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato. According to Seneca, Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[60] The Suda indicates that he lived to 82 years,[17] while Neanthes claims an age of 84.[18] A variety of sources have given accounts of his death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[61] suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[62] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[63] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.[63] Plato owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a younger relative, as Plato had an elder brother or uncle by this name. Influences Pythagoras Bust of Pythagoras in Rome. Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant. Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[64] and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say Plato learned all things Pythagorean."[65] It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.[66] George Karamanolis notes that Numenius accepted both Pythagoras and Plato as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded Plato's authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including Plato's own. For Numenius it is just that Plato wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally.[67] According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points: The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".[68][69] Plato and mathematics Plato may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, Plato was considered an accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece, who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and Plato. Plato helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic.[h] Assignment to the elements in Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum In the dialogue Timaeus Plato associated each of the four classical elements (earth, air, water, and fire) with a regular solid (cube, octahedron, icosahedron, and tetrahedron respectively) due to their shape, the so-called Platonic solids. The fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron, was supposed to be the element which made up the heavens. Heraclitus and Parmenides The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek philosophers like Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly influenced Plato and continues today.[66] Heraclitus (1628) by Hendrick ter Brugghen Bust of Parmenides from Velia The surviving fragments written by Heraclitus suggest the view that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. His image of the river, with ever-changing waters, is well known. According to some ancient traditions like that of Diogenes Laërtius, Plato received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who held the more radical view that continuous change warrants scepticism because we cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature.[71] Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Being and the view that change is an illusion.[66] John Palmer notes "Parmenides' distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology."[72] These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory of Forms.[71] Plato's most self-critical dialogue is called Parmenides, featuring Parmenides and his student Zeno, who following Parmenides' denial of change argued forcefully with his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion. Plato's Sophist dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments against Parmenides. In the dialogue Plato distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not. Socrates See also: Socratic problem Bust of Socrates at the Louvre. Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new";[73] if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.[74] Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.[75] Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of Plato though, Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[clarification needed][76] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates. In the Meno Plato refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is possible that Plato and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries.[77] Philosophy Metaphysics In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. The Forms The "windmill proof" of the Pythagorean theorem found in Euclid's Elements. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the Forms. According to this theory of Forms there are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason (λογική). which ground what is apparent. It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th-century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For Plato, though grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. Plato's Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of "the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For Plato this is because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate". As Plato's solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, Plato's philosophy is unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, Plato's best known argument in support of the Forms was the "one over many" argument.[78] What is justice? Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many, the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation. The soul Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel.[79][80] Epistemology Socrates, such as wisdom also discuss several aspects of epistemology. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion. Plato's epistemology involves Socrates arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are grasped by pure reason. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".[81] In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. In Plato's dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so called Socratic irony. Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position of its own, ending in aporia. Recollection In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the state before one is born, and not of observation or study.[82] Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[83] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[84] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[85] Justified true belief A Venn diagram illustrating the classical theory of knowledge. Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[86] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of their true belief.[87] And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so.[88][89] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[90] Plato himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular.[91][92] Ethics Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue is innate and cannot be learned. Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name: "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a) Justice As above, in the Republic, Plato asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune – a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and social obligation?” Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato further argues that such understanding of forms produces and ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three classes (philosophers kings, guardians and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul (reason, spirit and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.[93] Politics Oxyrhynchus Papyri, with fragment of Plato's Republic The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these doctrines are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views. Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.[94] Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race."[95] Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth"[96] and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[97] Socrates suggests the ship's crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[98] Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.[99] Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[100] In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.[101] Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[102][98][103] Art and poetry Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,[104] and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Unwritten doctrines Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri, possibly of Dionysus, Plato or Poseidon. For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines[105][106][107] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)."[108] The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."[109] The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."[110] In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."[111] Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".[112] It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[113] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[44] Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".[114] "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".[114] The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[i] or Ficino[j] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[115] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[116] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[k] Themes of Plato's dialogues Trial of Socrates The Death of Socrates (1787), by Jacques-Louis David The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.[117] Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.[118] In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill".[119] The trial in other dialogues See also: List of speakers in Plato's dialogues If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.[120][121] In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people.[122] In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.[123] In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.[124] Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.[125] In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Allegories Main article: Allegorical interpretations of Plato Mythos and logos are terms that evolved along classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.[126] It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use. Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.[l] First there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.[127] It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.[128] Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave. The Cave Plato's Allegory of the Cave by Jan Saenredam, according to Cornelis van Haarlem, 1604, Albertina, Vienna The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ('noeton') and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.[129] Ring of Gyges A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is proposed in the Republic by the character of Glaucon, and considered by the rest of characters for its ethical consequences, whether an individual possessing it would be most happy abstaining or doing injustice. Chariot He also compares the soul (psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul which composed of a charioteer and two horses. The charioteer is a symbol of intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon), and two horses represents the moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), respectively, to illustrate the conflict between them. Dialectic Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[130] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[130] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[131] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[132] Family Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,[133][134] and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone. Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, in the fourth book of the Republic the character of Socrates says this was only because of nomos or custom and not because of nature, and thus women needed paidia, rearing or education to be equal to men. In the "merely probable tale" of the eponymous character in the Timaeus, unjust men who live corrupted lives would be reincarnated as women or various animal kinds. Narration Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end. Painting of a scene from Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873) Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[m] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,[136] Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.[137] Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[138] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down. History of Plato's dialogues Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of Timaeus with the Latin translation and notes of Jean de Serres Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus pagination. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. Chronology No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[139][140] This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),[141] given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.[142] Chronology was not a consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[143] Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis.[144] Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[145] The following represents one relatively common division.[146] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are sceptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[147] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[6] Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.[145] A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational ... In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul ... Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[148] Lewis Campbell was the first[149] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove the great probability that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics[150] that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[144] Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).[151] Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[152] although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[151] While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[145] indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.[153] Writings of doubted authenticity Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.[154] For below: (*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work.[155] First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡) Spurious writings The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams, Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus. Textual sources and history First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. See also: List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[156] The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[157] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[158] In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[159] The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[160] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[161] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[162] A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.[163][164][165]A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century.[166] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[167] To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[168] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.[169][170] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. The 1578 edition[171] of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[172] Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900–1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[173][174] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[175][176] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[177][178] The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[179][180] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[181] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[182] Criticism The most famous criticism of the Theory of Forms is the Third Man Argument by Aristotle in the Metaphysics. Plato had actually already considered this objection with the idea of "large" rather than "man" in the dialogue Parmenides, using the elderly Elean philosophers Parmenides and Zeno characters anachronistically to criticize the character of the younger Socrates who proposed the idea. The dialogue ends in aporia. Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes Plato, stating that he was guilty of "constructing an imaginary nature by reasoning from preconceived principles and forcing reality more or less to adapt itself to this construction."[183] Dijksterhuis adds that one of the errors into which Plato had "fallen in an almost grotesque manner, consisted in an over-estimation of what unaided thought, i.e. without recourse to experience, could achieve in the field of natural science."[184] Legacy In the arts Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens. Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg Chronicle depicts Plato and other as anachronistic schoolmen. In philosophy Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453.[185] George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[186] Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[187] During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.[188] The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[189] "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929). The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.[citation needed] W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy[190].[relevant? – discuss] More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the truths of mathematics as the best support in favour of this view. Most mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered rather than invented.[citation needed] Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as unable to cause anything, but it is unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.[citation needed] See also Library resources about Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Plato Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Philosophy portal Philosophy Socratic Problem Platonic Academy Plato's unwritten doctrines List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Commentaries on Plato Neoplatonism Academic Skepticism Ancient scholarship Philip of Opus, Plato's amanuensis Speusippus, Plato's nephew and the second scholarch of the academy Menedemus of Pyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon Crates of Athens Arcesilaus Carneades Plotinus, founder of Neoplatonism, although he had no connection to the previous Academy of Plato Proclus Ammonius Saccas Medieval scholarship Yahya Ibn al-Batriq, Syrian scholar and associate of Al-Kindi who translated Timaeus into Arabic Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Arab scholar who either amended or surpassed the Timaeus of al-Batriq and translated Plato's Republic and Laws into Arabic Ishaq ibn Hunayn, translated Plato's Sophist with the commentary of Olympiodorus the Younger Yahya ibn Adi, translated Laws into Arabic Al-Farabi, author of a commentary on Plato's political philosophy Averroes, author of a commentary on the Republic Modern scholarship Marsilio Ficino, Italian scholar and first translator of Plato's complete works into Latin Stephanus pagination, the standard reference numbering in Platonic scholarship, based on the 1578 complete Latin translation by Jean de Serres, and published by Henri Estienne Johann Gottfried Stallbaum, major Plato scholar and commentator in Latin Eduard Zeller, scholar and classicist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato scholar and classicist John Alexander Stewart, major Plato scholar and classicist Victor Cousin, scholar and the first translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Saisset, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Émile Chambry, scholar and a translator Plato's complete works into French Pentti Saarikoski, translator into Finnish Friedrich Schleiermacher, philologist and the first to translate Plato's complete works into German Otto Apelt, scholar and translator Plato's complete works into German Benjamin Jowett, scholar and the first translated Plato's complete works into English Lewis Campbell, scholar and author of commentaries Martin Heidegger, philosopher and author of a commentary on Plato's Sophist James Adam, major Plato scholar and author of the authoritative critical edition of the Republic John Burnet, major Plato scholar and translator Francis Macdonald Cornford, translator of Republic and author of commentaries Reginald Hackforth, classical scholar and translator of Phaedrus William Keith Chambers Guthrie, classical scholar and historian E. R. Dodds, classical scholar and author of commentaries on Plato Thomas Taylor, classical scholar and translator Édouard des Places, classical philologist, and translator of Plato's Laws in French Allan Bloom, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic in English Myles Burnyeat, major Plato scholar Harold F. Cherniss, major Plato scholar Guy Cromwell Field, Plato scholar Paul Friedländer, Plato scholar Terence Irwin, major Plato scholar Richard Kraut, major Plato scholar Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato Eric Havelock, Plato scholar Debra Nails, Plato scholar Alexander Nehamas, major Plato scholar Thomas Pangle, major Plato scholar and translator of Laws in English Eugène Napoleon Tigerstedt , major Plato scholar Paul Shorey, major Plato scholar and translator of Republic John Madison Cooper, major Plato scholar and translator of several works of Plato, and editor of the Hackett edition of the complete works of Plato in English Leo Strauss, major Plato scholar and author of commentaries of Platonic political philosophy Jacob Klein, Plato scholar and author of commentaries on Meno Seth Benardete, major Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, major Plato scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer, major Plato scholar Paul Woodruff, major Plato scholar Gisela Striker, Plato scholar Heinrich Gomperz, Plato scholar David Sedley, Plato scholar Gábor Betegh, Plato scholar Karl Albert, Plato scholar Herwig Görgemanns, Plato scholar John M. Dillon, Plato scholar Catherine Zuckert, Plato scholar and political philosopher Julia Annas, Plato scholar and moral philosopher John McDowell, translated Theaetetus in English Robin Waterfield, Plato scholar and translator in English Léon Robin, scholar of Ancient Greek philosophy, translator of the complete works of Plato in French Alain Badiou, French philosopher, loosely translated Republic in French Chen Chung-hwan, scholar and commentator, translated Parmenides in Chinese Liu Xiaofeng, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Chinese Michitaro Tanaka and Norio Fujisawa, translators of the complete works of Plato in Japanese Joseph Gerhard Liebes, major scholar and commentator, the first to translate Plato's complete works in Hebrew Margalit Finkelberg, scholar and commentator, translated Symposium in Hebrew Virgilio S. Almario, translated Republic to Filipino Mahatma Gandhi, translated Apology in Gujarati Zakir Husain, Indian politician and academic, translated Republic in Urdu[191] Pierre Hadot, scholar and author of commentaries of Plato in French Luc Brisson, translator and author of commentaries on several works of Plato, and editor of the complete French translations; widely considered to be the most important contemporary scholar of Plato[192] Other Oxyrhynchus Papyri, including the Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228, containing the oldest fragment of the Laches, and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24, that of the Book X of the Republic Plato, a lunar impact crater on the Moon aged 3.8 billion years, named after the Greek philosopher Notes ^ "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention."[3] ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"[6] ^ Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades, the son of Thales." Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which the Spartans expelled them after Plato's birth there.[14] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[15] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[16] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth).[15] Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as well.[17] ^ Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[18] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[19] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[20] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC.[21][22] ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."[29] ^ From aristos and kleos ^ A scroll by Philodemus analysed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than was previously believed.[58] ^ He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."[70] ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147. ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997. ^ Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato. ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet".[135] References ^ Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie (Fall 1989). "Plato's Symposium and the Lacanian Theory of Transference: Or, What Is Love?". The South Atlantic Quarterly. Duke University Press. 88: 740. ^ Jones 2006. ^ Kraut 2013 ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, p. 17. ^ Whitehead 1978, p. 39. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith. ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction." ^ Cooper 1997, p. vii. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III • Nails 2002, p. 53 • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46 ^ The Great Books of the Western World: Plato, Biographical Note. ^ a b Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I ^ a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10 • Taylor 2001, p. xiv • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I • "Plato". Suda. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III ^ a b Nails 2002, p. 54. ^ Thucydides, 5.18 • Thucydides, 8.92 ^ a b c "Plato". Suda. ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, II ^ Nails 2006, p. 1. ^ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46. ^ a b Plato at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ a b "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952. ^ Nails 2002, p. 247. ^ Nails 2002, p. 246. ^ Nietzsche 1967, p. 32. ^ Browne 1672. ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 ^ Plato, Republic 368a • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 ^ "Plato, Republic, Book 2, page 368". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. 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Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005) [1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 978-960-382-664-4. Further reading Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9. Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4 Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9 Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (PDF). Nashville: Belmont University. Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6. Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5. Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2. Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0. Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., US Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7. Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8 Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3. Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1 Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1 Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-340-80385-1. Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1. Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6. LeMoine, Rebecca (2020). Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190936983. Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3. Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7 Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3. Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2 Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9 Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0. Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5. Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2. Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4 Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2 Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version. Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4 Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2 Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5 External links Platoat Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Platon Works available online: Works by Plato at Perseus Project – Greek & English hyperlinked text Works by Plato at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Plato at Internet Archive Works by Plato at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Other resources: Plato at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Plato at PhilPapers "Plato and Platonism" . 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en-wikipedia-org-7815	----	Pausanias (geographer) - Wikipedia Pausanias (geographer) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 2nd-century AD Greek geographer For the general, see Pausanias (general). Pausanias Manuscript (1485), Description of Greece by Pausanias at the Laurentian Library Born c. 110 AD Lydia, Asia Minor Died c. 180 AD (aged 70) Occupation Traveler and geographer Pausanias (/pɔːˈseɪniəs/; Greek: Παυσανίας Pausanías; c. 110 – c. 180)[1] was a Greek traveler and geographer of the second century AD who lived in the time of Roman emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his Description of Greece (Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάδος Περιήγησις, Hellados Periegesis),[2] a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from his firsthand observations. This work provides crucial information for making links between classical literature and modern archaeology. Andrew Stewart assesses him as: A careful, pedestrian writer ... interested not only in the grandiose or the exquisite but in unusual sights and obscure ritual. He is occasionally careless or makes unwarranted inferences, and his guides or even his own notes sometimes mislead him, yet his honesty is unquestionable, and his value without par.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Work 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Biography[edit] Pausanias was born c. 110 AD into a Greek family [4] and was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece, he had been to Antioch, Joppa, and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt, he had seen the pyramids. While at the temple of Ammon, he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia, he appears to have seen the tomb said to be that of Orpheus in Libethra (modern Leivithra).[5] Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first known to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae. Work[edit] Pausanias' Description of Greece is in ten books, each dedicated to some portion of Greece. He begins his tour in Attica (Ἀττικά), where the city of Athens and its demes dominate the discussion. Subsequent books describe Corinthia (Κορινθιακά) (second book), Laconia (Λακωνικά) (third), Messenia (Μεσσηνιακά) (fourth), Elis (Ἠλιακῶν) (fifth and sixth), Achaea (Ἀχαικά) (seventh), Arcadia (Ἀρκαδικά) (eighth), Boetia (Βοιωτικά) (ninth), Phocis (Φωκικά) and Ozolian Locris (Λοκρῶν Ὀζόλων) (tenth). The project is more than topographical; it is a cultural geography. Pausanias digresses from the description of architectural and artistic objects to review the mythological and historical underpinnings of the society that produced them. As a Greek writing under the auspices of the Roman empire, he was in an awkward cultural space, between the glories of the Greek past he was so keen to describe and the realities of a Greece beholden to Rome as a dominating imperial force. His work bears the marks of his attempt to navigate that space and establish an identity for Roman Greece.[citation needed] He is not a naturalist, although from time to time, he does comment on the physical realities of the Greek landscape. He notices the pine trees on the sandy coast of Elis, the deer and the wild boars in the oak woods of Phelloe, and the crows amid the giant oak trees of Alalcomenae. It is mainly in the last section that Pausanias touches on the products of nature, such as the wild strawberries of Helicon, the date palms of Aulis, and the olive oil of Tithorea, as well as the tortoises of Arcadia and the "white blackbirds" of Cyllene. Pausanias is most at home in describing the religious art and architecture of Olympia and of Delphi. Yet, even in the most secluded regions of Greece, he is fascinated by all kinds of depictions of deities, holy relics, and many other sacred and mysterious objects. At Thebes he views the shields of those who died at the Battle of Leuctra, the ruins of the house of Pindar, and the statues of Hesiod, Arion, Thamyris, and Orpheus in the grove of the Muses on Helicon, as well as the portraits of Corinna at Tanagra and of Polybius in the cities of Arcadia. Pausanias has the instincts of an antiquary. As his modern editor, Christian Habicht, has said, In general, he prefers the old to the new, the sacred to the profane; there is much more about classical than about contemporary Greek art, more about temples, altars and images of the gods, than about public buildings and statues of politicians. Some magnificent and dominating structures, such as the Stoa of King Attalus in the Athenian Agora (rebuilt by Homer Thompson) or the Exedra of Herodes Atticus at Olympia are not even mentioned.[6] Unlike a Baedeker guide, in Periegesis Pausanias stops for a brief excursus on a point of ancient ritual or to tell an apposite myth, in a genre that would not become popular again until the early nineteenth century. In the topographical part of his work, Pausanias is fond of digressions on the wonders of nature, the signs that herald the approach of an earthquake, the phenomena of the tides, the ice-bound seas of the north, and the noonday sun that at the summer solstice, casts no shadow at Syene (Aswan). While he never doubts the existence of the deities and heroes, he sometimes criticizes the myths and legends relating to them. His descriptions of monuments of art are plain and unadorned. They bear the impression of reality, and their accuracy is confirmed by the extant remains. He is perfectly frank in his confessions of ignorance. When he quotes a book at second hand he takes pains to say so. The work left faint traces in the known Greek corpus. "It was not read", Habicht relates; "there is not a single mention of the author, not a single quotation from it, not a whisper before Stephanus Byzantius in the sixth century, and only two or three references to it throughout the Middle Ages."[7] The only manuscripts of Pausanias are three fifteenth-century copies, full of errors and lacunae, which all appear to depend on a single manuscript that survived to be copied. Niccolò Niccoli had this archetype in Florence in 1418. At his death in 1437, it went to the library of San Marco, Florence, then it disappeared after 1500.[8] Until twentieth-century archaeologists concluded that Pausanias was a reliable guide to the sites they were excavating,[9] Pausanias was largely dismissed by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century classicists of a purely literary bent: they tended to follow the usually authoritative Wilamowitz in regarding him as little more than a purveyor of second-hand accounts, who, it was suggested, had not visited most of the places he described. Habicht (1985) describes an episode in which Wilamowitz was led astray by his misreading of Pausanias in front of an august party of travellers in 1873, and attributes to it Wilamowitz's lifelong antipathy and distrust of Pausanias. Modern archaeological research, however, has tended to vindicate Pausanias. See also[edit] Travel literature James George Frazer Notes[edit] ^ Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece, Aristéa Papanicolaou Christensen, The Panathenaic Stadium – Its History Over the Centuries (2003), p. 162 ^ Also known in Latin as Graecae descriptio; see Pereira, Maria Helena Rocha (ed.), Graecae descriptio, B. G. Teubner, 1829. ^ One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, introduction. ^ Howard, Michael C. (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. p. 178. ISBN 9780786490332. Pausanias was a 2nd century ethnic Greek geographer who wrote a description of Greece that is often described as being the world’s first travel guide. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece: Boeotia, 9.30.7: "Going from Dium along the road to the mountain, and advancing twenty stades, you come to a pillar on the right surmounted by a stone urn, which according to the natives contains the bones of Orpheus." ^ Christian Habicht, "An Ancient Baedeker and His Critics: Pausanias' 'Guide to Greece'" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 129.2 (June 1985:220–224) p. 220. ^ Habicht 1985:220. ^ Aubrey Diller, "The Manuscripts of Pausanias The Manuscripts of Pausanias" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 88 (1957):169–188. ^ In this, Heinrich Schliemann was a maverick and forerunner: a close reading of Pausanias guided him to the royal tombs at Mycenae. References[edit] Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918) Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project Bibliography (in French) "The Oldest Guide-Book in the World", Charles Whibley in Macmillan's Magazine, Vol. LXXVII, Nov. 1897 to Apr. 1898, pp. 415–421. Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors, Their Careers and Extant Works  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pausanias (traveller)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. G. Hawes, Rationalizing myth in antiquity. Oxford: OUP, 2013 ISBN 9780199672776 contains much discussion of Pausanias’ sceptical approaches to myth. Further reading[edit] Arafat, K.W. 1992. "Pausanias' Attitude to Antiquities." Annual of the British School at Athens 87: 387–409. Akujärvi, J. 2005. Researcher, Traveller, Narrator: Studies in Pausanias’ Periegesis. Studia graeca et latina lundensia 12. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. Alcock, S., J. Cherry, and J. Elsner, eds. 2001. Pausanias: Travel and Memory in Roman Greece. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Arafat, K. 1996. Pausanias’ Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Diller, A. 1957. "The Manuscripts of Pausanias." Transactions of the American Philological Association 88:169–188. Habicht, C. 1984. "Pausanias and the Evidence of Inscriptions." Classical Antiquity 3:40–56. Habicht, C. 1998. Pausanias’ Guide to Ancient Greece. 2d ed. Sather Classical Lectures 50. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Hutton, W. E. 2005. Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias. Greek Culture in the Roman World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Pirenne-Delforge, V. 2008. Retour à la Source: Pausanias et la Religion Grecque. Kernos Supplément 20. Liège, Belgium: Centre International d‘Étude de la Religion Grecque. Pretzler, Maria. 2005. "Pausanias and Oral Tradition." Classical Quarterly 55.1: 235–249. Pretzler, M. 2007. Pausanias: Travel Writing in Ancient Greece. Classical Literature and Society. London: Duckworth. Pretzler, Maria. 2004, "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at Work" Greece & Rome 51.2: 199–216. Sanchez Hernandez, Juan Pablo. 2016. "Pausanias and Rome's Eastern Trade." Mnemosyne 69.6: 955–977. External links[edit] Library resources about Pausanias Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Pausanias Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Description of Greece at Perseus Digital Library, (Jones trans. 1918) Listen to this article (7 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 14 May 2009 (2009-05-14), and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) New translation by Gregory Nagy of Harvard University's Center for Hellenic Studies (incomplete). Works written by or about Pausanias at Wikisource Quotations related to Pausanias (geographer) at Wikiquote Media related to Pausanias (geographer) at Wikimedia Commons Pausanias Description of Greece, tr. with a commentary by J.G. Frazer (1898) Volume 1 (also at the Internet Archive) Pausanias at the Perseus Project: Greek; English (Jones trans. 1918) Authority control BIBSYS: 90195412 BNE: XX1057261 BNF: cb11918834h (data) CANTIC: a10942786 CiNii: DA00689613 GND: 118592246 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\036955 ISNI: 0000 0003 7437 6038 LCCN: n93113203 NDL: 00472823 NKC: jn19990006407 NLG: 27507 NSK: 000181870 NTA: 069882142 RERO: 02-A003676253 SELIBR: 205306 SUDOC: 028159969 VcBA: 495/12738 VIAF: 77132959 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n93113203 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pausanias_(geographer)&oldid=1001514438" Categories: Ancient Greek geographers Ancient Greek travel writers Roman-era geographers 2nd-century writers Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Articles with hAudio microformats Spoken articles Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 01:19 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-7832	----	Ancient Greek - Wikipedia Ancient Greek From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the language. For ancient Greek population groups, see List of ancient Greek tribes. "Classical Greek" redirects here. For the culture, see Classical Greece. For other uses, see Greek (disambiguation). Forms of Greek used from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD This article needs additional citations for verification. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Ancient Greek" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ancient Greek Ἑλληνική Hellēnikḗ Inscription about the construction of the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, 440/439 BC Region eastern Mediterranean Language family Indo-European Hellenic Ancient Greek Writing system Greek alphabet Language codes ISO 639-2 grc ISO 639-3 grc (includes all pre-modern stages) Glottolog anci1242 Map of Ancient (Homeric) Greece This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Beginning of Homer's Odyssey Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (c. 1400–1200 BC), Dark Ages (c. 1200–800 BC), the Archaic period (c. 800–500 BC), and the Classical period (c. 500–300 BC).[1] Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language. From the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BC) Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, although its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek, of which Attic Greek developed into Koine. Contents 1 Dialects 1.1 History 1.2 Related languages 2 Phonology 2.1 Differences from Proto-Indo-European 2.2 Phonemic inventory 2.2.1 Consonants 2.2.2 Vowels 3 Morphology 3.1 Augment 3.2 Reduplication 4 Writing system 5 Sample texts 6 Modern use 6.1 In education 6.2 Modern real-world usage 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links 11.1 Grammar learning 11.2 Classical texts Dialects Main article: Ancient Greek dialects Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. History Ancient Greek language The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period[a] is Mycenaean Greek, but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions—and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is:[2] Distribution of Greek dialects in Greece in the classical period.[3] Western group:   Doric proper   Northwest Doric   Achaean Doric Central group:   Aeolic   Arcado-Cypriot Eastern group:   Attic   Ionic Distribution of Greek dialects in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily) in the classical period. Western group:   Doric proper   Northwest Doric   Achaean Doric Eastern group:   Attic-Ionic West Group Northwest Greek Doric Aeolic Group Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic Thessalian Boeotian Ionic-Attic Group Attic Ionic Euboean and colonies in Italy Cycladic Asiatic Ionic Arcadocypriot Greek Arcadian Cypriot West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek, spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian, such as the Pella curse tablet, as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note.[4][5]Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet, Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect,[6][7][5] which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly.[6][5] Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian). The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek. All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being: fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos, in Aeolian, and the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar and other lyric poets, usually in Doric. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek. Related languages Main article: Phrygian language Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia, which is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek.[8][9][10] Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian[11] (see also Graeco-Armenian) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).[12][13] Phonology Differences from Proto-Indo-European Main article: Proto-Greek language Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics, ancient Greek words could end only in a vowel or /n s r/; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes,[14] notably the following: PIE *s became /h/ at the beginning of a word (debuccalization): Latin sex, English six, ancient Greek ἕξ /héks/. PIE *s was elided between vowels after an intermediate step of debuccalization: Sanskrit janasas, Latin generis (where s > r by rhotacism), Greek *genesos > *genehos > ancient Greek γένεος (/géneos/), Attic γένους (/génoːs/) "of a kind". PIE *y /j/ became /h/ (debuccalization) or /(d)z/ (fortition): Sanskrit yas, ancient Greek ὅς /hós/ "who" (relative pronoun); Latin iugum, English yoke, ancient Greek ζυγός /zygós/. PIE *w, which occurred in Mycenaean and some non-Attic dialects, was lost: early Doric ϝέργον /wérgon/, English work, Attic Greek ἔργον /érgon/. PIE and Mycenaean labiovelars changed to plain stops (labials, dentals, and velars) in the later Greek dialects: for instance, PIE *kʷ became /p/ or /t/ in Attic: Attic Greek ποῦ /pôː/ "where?", Latin quō; Attic Greek τίς /tís/, Latin quis "who?". PIE "voiced aspirated" stops *bʰ dʰ ǵʰ gʰ gʷʰ were devoiced and became the aspirated stops φ θ χ /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ in ancient Greek. Phonemic inventory Main article: Ancient Greek phonology The pronunciation of ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek. Ancient Greek had long and short vowels; many diphthongs; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops; and a pitch accent. In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ (iotacism). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives, and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent. Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. Consonants Bilabial Dental Velar Glottal Nasal μ m ν n γ (ŋ) Plosive voiced β b δ d γ ɡ voiceless π p τ t κ k aspirated φ pʰ θ tʰ χ kʰ Fricative σ s h Trill ρ r Lateral λ l [ŋ] occurred as an allophone of /n/ that was used before velars and as an allophone of /ɡ/ before nasals. /r/ was probably voiceless when word-initial (written ῥ). /s/ was assimilated to [z] before voiced consonants. Vowels Front Back unrounded rounded Close ι i iː υ y yː Close-mid ε ει e eː ο ου o oː Open-mid η ɛː ω ɔː Open α a aː /oː/ raised to [uː], probably by the 4th century BC. Morphology Main article: Ancient Greek grammar Ostracon bearing the name of Cimon, Stoa of Attalos Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and three numbers (singular, dual, and plural). Verbs have four moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and optative) and three voices (active, middle, and passive), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"): the present, future, and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist, present perfect, pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. Augment The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least) a prefix /e-/, called the augment. This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r, however, add er). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: a, ā, e, ē → ē i, ī → ī o, ō → ō u, ū → ū ai → ēi ei → ēi or ei oi → ōi au → ēu or au eu → ēu or eu ou → ou Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei. The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w, which affected the augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσέβαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐτομόλησα in the aorist. Following Homer's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry, especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Reduplication Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (Note that a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Syllabic reduplication: Most verbs beginning with a single consonant, or a cluster of a stop with a sonorant, add a syllable consisting of the initial consonant followed by e. An aspirated consonant, however, reduplicates in its unaspirated equivalent (see Grassmann's law). Augment: Verbs beginning with a vowel, as well as those beginning with a cluster other than those indicated previously (and occasionally for a few other verbs) reduplicate in the same fashion as the augment. This remains in all forms of the perfect, not just the indicative. Attic reduplication: Some verbs beginning with an a, e or o, followed by a sonorant (or occasionally d or g), reduplicate by adding a syllable consisting of the initial vowel and following consonant, and lengthening the following vowel. Hence er → erēr, an → anēn, ol → olōl, ed → edēd. This is not actually specific to Attic Greek, despite its name, but it was generalized in Attic. This originally involved reduplicating a cluster consisting of a laryngeal and sonorant, hence h₃l → h₃leh₃l → olōl with normal Greek development of laryngeals. (Forms with a stop were analogous.) Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab) has the perfect stem eilēpha (not *lelēpha) because it was originally slambanō, with perfect seslēpha, becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i. A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs.[15] Writing system Greek alphabet Αα Alpha Νν Nu Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron Δδ Delta Ππ Pi Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma Ηη Eta Ττ Tau Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon Ιι Iota Φφ Phi Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi Λλ Lambda Ψψ Psi Μμ Mu Ωω Omega History Archaic local variants Diacritics Ligatures Numerals ϛ (6) ϟ (90) ϡ (900) Use in other languages Bactrian Coptic Albanian Related topics Use as scientific symbols Book Category v t e Main article: Greek orthography The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing (circa 1450 BC) are in the syllabic script Linear B. Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and sometimes mixed case, but these were all introduced later. Sample texts The beginning of Homer's Iliad exemplifies the Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from the Classical period of ancient Greek: Ὅτι μὲν ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων, οὐκ οἶδα· ἐγὼ δ' οὖν καὶ αὐτὸς ὑπ' αὐτῶν ὀλίγου ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπελαθόμην, οὕτω πιθανῶς ἔλεγον. Καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν. Using the IPA: [hóti men hyːmêːs | ɔ̂ː ándres atʰɛːnaî̯i̯oi | pepóntʰate | hypo tɔ̂ːn emɔ̂ːŋ katɛːɡórɔːn | oːk oî̯da ‖ éɡɔː dûːŋ kai̯ au̯tos | hyp au̯tɔ̂ːn olíɡoː emau̯tûː | epelatʰómɛːn | hǔːtɔː pitʰanɔ̂ːs éleɡon ‖ kaí̯toi̯ alɛːtʰéz ɡe | hɔːs épos eːpêːn | oːden eːrɛ̌ːkaːsin ‖] Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme: Hóti mèn hūmeîs, ô ándres Athēnaîoi, pepónthate hupò tôn emôn katēgórōn, ouk oîda: egṑ d' oûn kaì autòs hup' autōn olígou emautoû epelathómēn, hoútō pithanôs élegon. Kaítoi alēthés ge hōs épos eipeîn oudèn eirḗkāsin. Translated into English: How you, men of Athens, are feeling under the power of my accusers, I do not know: actually, even I myself almost forgot who I was because of them, they spoke so persuasively. And yet, loosely speaking, nothing they have said is true. Modern use See also: Classical compound In education The study of ancient Greek in European countries in addition to Latin occupied an important place in the syllabus from the Renaissance until the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient Greek is still taught as a compulsory or optional subject especially at traditional or elite schools throughout Europe, such as public schools and grammar schools in the United Kingdom. It is compulsory in the liceo classico in Italy, in the gymnasium in the Netherlands, in some classes in Austria, in klasična gimnazija (grammar school - orientation classical languages) in Croatia, in Classical Studies in ASO in Belgium and it is optional in the humanities-oriented gymnasium in Germany (usually as a third language after Latin and English, from the age of 14 to 18). In 2006/07, 15,000 pupils studied ancient Greek in Germany according to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, and 280,000 pupils studied it in Italy.[16] It is a compulsory subject alongside Latin in the humanities branch of the Spanish bachillerato. Ancient Greek is also taught at most major universities worldwide, often combined with Latin as part of the study of classics. It will also be taught in state primary schools in the UK, to boost children's language skills,[17][18] and will be offered as a foreign language to pupils in all primary schools from 2014 as part of a major drive to boost education standards, together with Latin, Mandarin, French, German, Spanish, and Italian.[19][needs update] Ancient Greek is also taught as a compulsory subject in all gymnasiums and lyceums in Greece.[20][21] Starting in 2001, an annual international competition "Exploring the Ancient Greek Language and Culture" (Greek: Διαγωνισμός στην Αρχαία Ελληνική Γλώσσα και Γραμματεία) was run for upper secondary students through the Greek Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs, with Greek language and cultural organisations as co-organisers.[22] It appears to have ceased in 2010, having failed to gain the recognition and acceptance of teachers.[23] Modern real-world usage Modern authors rarely write in ancient Greek, though Jan Křesadlo wrote some poetry and prose in the language, and Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone,[24] some volumes of Asterix,[25] and The Adventures of Alix have been translated into ancient Greek. Ὀνόματα Kεχιασμένα (Onomata Kechiasmena) is the first magazine of crosswords and puzzles in ancient Greek.[26] Its first issue appeared in April 2015 as an annex to Hebdomada Aenigmatum. Alfred Rahlfs included a preface, a short history of the Septuagint text, and other front matter translated into ancient Greek in his 1935 edition of the Septuagint; Robert Hanhart also included the introductory remarks to the 2006 revised Rahlfs–Hanhart edition in the language as well.[27] Akropolis World News reports weekly a summary of the most important news in ancient Greek.[28] Ancient Greek is also used by organizations and individuals, mainly Greek, who wish to denote their respect, admiration or preference for the use of this language. This use is sometimes considered graphical, nationalistic or humorous. In any case, the fact that modern Greeks can still wholly or partly understand texts written in non-archaic forms of ancient Greek shows the affinity of the modern Greek language to its ancestral predecessor.[28] An isolated community near Trabzon, Turkey, an area where Pontic Greek is spoken, has been found to speak a variety of Modern Greek, Ophitic, that has parallels, both structurally and in its vocabulary, to ancient Greek not present in other varieties (linguistic conservatism).[29] As few as 5,000 people speak the dialect, and linguists believe that it is the closest living language to ancient Greek.[30] Ancient Greek is often used in the coinage of modern technical terms in the European languages: see English words of Greek origin. Latinized forms of ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in scientific terminology. See also Ancient Greek dialects Ancient Greek grammar Ancient Greek accent Greek alphabet Greek diacritics Greek language Hellenic languages Katharevousa Koine Greek List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Greek phrases (mostly ancient Greek) Medieval Greek Modern Greek Mycenaean Greek Proto-Greek language Varieties of Modern Greek Notes ^ Mycenaean Greek is imprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to its being written in an ill-fitting syllabary (Linear B). References ^ Ralli, Angela (2012). "Greek". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire. 90 (3): 964. doi:10.3406/rbph.2012.8269. ^ Newton, Brian E.; Ruijgh, Cornelis Judd (13 April 2018). "Greek Language". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51. ^ Hornblower, Simon (2002). "Macedon, Thessaly and Boiotia". The Greek World, 479-323 BC (Third ed.). Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0-415-16326-9. ^ a b c Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (2018). "Recent Research in the Ancient Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 299-324. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ a b Crespo, Emilio (2018). "The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 329. ISBN 978-3-11-053081-0. ^ Dosuna, J. Méndez (2012). "Ancient Macedonian as a Greek dialect: A critical survey on recent work (Greek, English, French, German text)". In Giannakis, Georgios K. (ed.). Ancient Macedonia: Language, History, Culture. Centre for Greek Language. p. 145. ISBN 978-960-7779-52-6. ^ Brixhe, Cl. "Le Phrygien". In Fr. Bader (ed.), Langues indo-européennes, pp. 165-178, Paris: CNRS Editions. ^ Brixhe, Claude (2008). "Phrygian". In Woodard, Roger D (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–80. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5. "Unquestionably, however, Phrygian is most closely linked with Greek." (p. 72). ^ Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (1 December 2019). "On the place of Phrygian among the Indo-European languages". Journal of Language Relationship (in Russian). 17 (3–4): 243. doi:10.31826/jlr-2019-173-407. S2CID 215769896. "With the current state of our knowledge, we can affirm that Phrygian is closely related to Greek." ^ James Clackson. Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 11-12. ^ Benjamin W. Fortson. Indo-European Language and Culture. Blackwell, 2004, p. 181. ^ Henry M. Hoenigswald, "Greek," The Indo-European Languages, ed. Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (Routledge, 1998 pp. 228-260), p. 228. BBC: Languages across Europe: Greek ^ Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European language and culture: an introduction. Malden, Mass: Blackwell. pp. 226–231. ISBN 978-1405103152. OCLC 54529041. ^ Palmer, Leonard (1996). The Greek Language. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-8061-2844-3. ^ "Ministry publication" (PDF). www.edscuola.it. ^ "Ancient Greek 'to be taught in state schools'". The Daily Telegraph. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ "Now look, Latin's fine, but Greek might be even Beta" Archived 3 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine, TES Editorial, 2010 - TSL Education Ltd. ^ More primary schools to offer Latin and ancient Greek, The Telegraph, 26 November 2012 ^ "Ωρολόγιο Πρόγραμμα των μαθημάτων των Α, Β, Γ τάξεων του Hμερησίου Γυμνασίου". Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ "ΩΡΟΛΟΓΙΟ ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑ ΓΕΝΙΚΟΥ ΛΥΚΕΙΟΥ". Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ "Annex to 2012 Greek statistics" (PDF). UNESCO. 2012. p. 26. Retrieved 14 December 2018. ^ "Proceedings of the 2nd Pan-hellenic Congress for the Promotion of Innovation in Education". II. 2016: 548. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Areios Potēr kai ē tu philosophu lithos, Bloomsbury 2004, ISBN 1-58234-826-X ^ "Asterix speaks Attic (classical Greek) - Greece (ancient)". Asterix around the World - the many Languages of Asterix. 22 May 2011. ^ "Enigmistica: nasce prima rivista in greco antico 2015". 4 May 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2018. ^ Rahlfs, Alfred, and Hanhart, Robert (eds.), Septuaginta, editio altera (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006). ^ a b "Akropolis World News". www.akwn.net. Archived from the original on 22 September 2016. ^ Jason and the argot: land where Greek's ancient language survives, The Independent, 3 January 2011 ^ Sitaridou, Ioanna. "Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world". University of Cambridge. Video alone on YouTube Further reading Adams, Matthew. "The Introduction of Greek into English Schools." Greece and Rome 61.1: 102–13, 2014. Allan, Rutger J. "Changing the Topic: Topic Position in Ancient Greek Word Order." Mnemosyne: Bibliotheca Classica Batava 67.2: 181–213, 2014. Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek (Oxford University Press). [A series of textbooks on Ancient Greek published for school use.] Bakker, Egbert J., ed. A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Beekes, Robert S. P. Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010. Chantraine, Pierre. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, new and updated edn., edited by Jean Taillardat, Olivier Masson, & Jean-Louis Perpillou. 3 vols. Paris: Klincksieck, 2009 (1st edn. 1968-1980). Christidis, Anastasios-Phoibos, ed. A History of Ancient Greek: from the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Easterling, P and Handley, C. Greek Scripts: An Illustrated Introduction. London: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 2001. ISBN 0-902984-17-9 Fortson, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. 2d ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Hansen, Hardy and Quinn, Gerald M. (1992) Greek: An Intensive Course, Fordham University Press Horrocks, Geoffrey. Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers. 2d ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Janko, Richard. "The Origins and Evolution of the Epic Diction." In The Iliad: A Commentary. Vol. 4, Books 13–16. Edited by Richard Janko, 8–19. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992. Jeffery, Lilian Hamilton. The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece: Revised Edition with a Supplement by A. W. Johnston. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990. Morpurgo Davies, Anna, and Yves Duhoux, eds. A Companion to Linear B: Mycenaean Greek Texts and their World. Vol. 1. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2008. Swiggers, Pierre and Alfons Wouters. "Description of the Constituent Elements of the (Greek) Language." In Brill’s Companion to Ancient Greek Scholarship. Edited by Franco Montanari and Stephanos Matthaios, 757–797. Leiden : Brill, 2015. External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Ancient Greek Ancient Greek test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Ancient Greek repository of Wikisource, the free library For a list of words relating to Ancient Greek, see the Ancient Greek language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Texts in Ancient Greek Library resources about Ancient Greek Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Classical Greek Online by Winfred P. 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Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline v t e Greek language Origin and genealogy Proto-Greek Pre-Greek substrate Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Hellenic languages Periods Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330) Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453) Modern Greek (since 1453) Varieties Ancient Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Homeric Locrian Pamphylian Macedonian Koine Jewish Koine Greek Modern Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Istanbul Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Phonology Ancient (accent/teaching) Koine Standard Modern Grammar Ancient Koine Standard Modern Writing systems Cypriot syllabary Linear B Greek alphabet History Archaic forms Attic numerals Greek numerals Orthography Diacritics Braille Cyrillization and Romanization Greeklish Literature Ancient Byzantine Modern Promotion and study Hellenic Foundation for Culture Center for the Greek Language Other Greek language question Exonyms Morphemes in English Terms of endearment Place names Proverbs Greek Language Day Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries v t e Ages of Greek C. 3rd millennium BC C. 1600–1100 BC C. 800–300 BC C. 300 BC – AD 330 C. 330–1453 Since 1453 Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Authority control GND: 4113791-7 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek&oldid=1003104242" Categories: Ancient Greek language Ancient Greece Languages attested from the 9th century BC 9th-century BC establishments in Greece Languages of Sicily Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors: missing periodical Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2019 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from February 2020 Language articles without speaker estimate Languages with ISO 639-2 code Articles containing Latin-language text Wikipedia articles in need of updating from December 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with 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en-wikipedia-org-783	----	Category:Aeolides - Wikipedia Help Category:Aeolides From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Aeolides (Ancient Greek: Αἰολίδης) is a patronymic given to sons and descendants of Aeolus. The feminine form Aeolis (Αἰολίς) is given to the daughters and the female descendants of Aeolus. Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. F ► Family of Athamas‎ (26 P) ► Family of Calyce‎ (24 P) ► Family of Canace‎ (6 P) ► Family of Salmoneus‎ (3 P) Pages in category "Aeolides" The following 20 pages are in this category, out of 20 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Alcyone (mythology) Alcyone and Ceyx Amphissa of Locris Athamas C Calyce (mythology) Canace Cephalus Cretheus D Deioneus M Macar Macareus (son of Aeolus) Magnes (son of Aeolus) Misenus O Odysseus P Perieres of Messenia Perimede (mythology) Pisidice S Salmoneus Sisyphus T Triopas Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Aeolides&oldid=774928489" Categories: Patronymics from Greek mythology Thessalian mythology Deucalionids Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Esperanto 한국어 Tagalog Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2017, at 15:26 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-785	----	Moirai - Wikipedia Moirai From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Archetypical characters in Greek mythology Moirai Goddesses of Fate Symbol Thread, dove, spindle, scissors Personal information Parents Chronos and Ananke Ouranos Nyx Zeus and Themis Siblings Horae Late second-century Greek mosaic from the House of Theseus (at Paphos Archaeological Park, Cyprus), showing the three Moirai: Klotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, standing behind Peleus and Thetis, the parents of Achilles Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Other deities Personified concepts Achlys Adikia Alala Algos Amphillogiai Androktasiai Angelia Apate Atë Bia Charites Dike Dysnomia Epiales Eris Eros Harmonia Hedone Homados Horae Horkos Hypnos Hysminai Kratos Kydoimos Lampetia Limos Machai Metis Mnemosyne Moirai Neikea Nemesis Nike Palioxis Phaethusa Phonoi Polemos Ponos Proioxis Thanatos Themis Zelus v t e In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the Moirai (/ˈmɔɪraɪ, -riː/, also spelled Moirae or Mœræ;[1][2] Ancient Greek: Μοῖραι, "lots, destinies, apportioners"), often known in English as the Fates (Latin: Fata), were the incarnations of destiny; their Roman equivalent was the Parcae (euphemistically the "sparing ones"), and there are other equivalents in cultures that descend from the Proto-Indo-European culture. Their number became fixed at three: Clotho ("spinner"), Lachesis ("allotter") and Atropos ("the unturnable", a metaphor for death). They controlled the mother thread of life of every mortal from birth to death. They were independent, at the helm of necessity, directed fate, and watched that the fate assigned to every being by eternal laws might take its course without obstruction. Both gods and men had to submit to them, although Zeus's relationship with them is a matter of debate: some sources say he can command them (as Zeus Moiragetes "leader of the Fates"), while others suggest he was also bound to the Moirai's dictates.[3] In the Homeric poems Moira or Aisa are related to the limit and end of life, and Zeus appears as the guider of destiny. In the Theogony of Hesiod, the three Moirai are personified, daughters of Nyx and are acting over the gods.[4] Later they are daughters of Zeus and Themis, who was the embodiment of divine order and law. In Plato's Republic the Three Fates are daughters of Ananke (necessity).[5] It seems that Moira is related with Tekmor ("proof, ordinance") and with Ananke ("destiny, necessity"), who were primordial goddesses in mythical cosmogonies. The ancient Greek writers might call this power Moira or Ananke, and even the gods could not alter what was ordained: To the Moirai (Moirae, Fates) the might of Zeus must bow; and by the Immortals' purpose all these things had come to pass, or by the Moirai's ordinance.[6][7] The concept of a universal principle of natural order and balance has been compared to similar concepts in other cultures such as the Vedic Ṛta, the Avestan Asha (Arta) and the Egyptian Maat. In earliest Greek philosophy, the cosmogony of Anaximander is based on these mythical beliefs. The goddess Dike ("justice, divine retribution"), keeps the order and sets a limit to any actions.[8] The feminine name Moira is derived from it.[citation needed] Contents 1 Etymology 2 The three Moirai 3 Origins 4 The Homeric Moira 5 Mythical cosmogonies 6 Mythology 7 Zeus and the Moirai 8 Cult and temples 9 Cross-cultural parallels 9.1 Europe 9.2 Outside of Europe 10 Astronomical objects 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links Etymology[edit] The Three Fates, tondo by Hans Vischer, c. 1530 (Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin) The ancient Greek word moira (μοῖρα) means a portion or lot of the whole, and is related to meros, "part, lot" and moros, "fate, doom",[9] Latin meritum, "reward", English merit, derived from the PIE root *(s)mer, "to allot, assign".[10] Moira may mean portion or share in the distribution of booty (ίση μοῖρα, ísē moîra, "equal booty"),[11] portion in life, lot, destiny, (μοῖραv ἔθηκαν ἀθάνατοι, moîran éthēken athánatoi, "the immortals fixed the destiny"),[12] death (μοῖρα θανάτοιο, moîra thanátoio, "destiny of death"), portion of the distributed land.[13] The word is also used for something which is meet and right (κατὰ μοῖραν, kata moîran, "according to fate, in order, rightly").[14] It seems that originally the word moira did not indicate destiny but included ascertainment or proof, a non-abstract certainty. The word daemon, which was an agent related to unexpected events, came to be similar to the word moira.[15] This agent or cause against human control might be also called tyche (chance, fate): "You mistress moira, and tyche, and my daemon."[16] The word nomos, "law", may have meant originally a portion or lot, as in the verb nemein, "to distribute", and thus "natural lot" came to mean "natural law".[17] The word dike, "justice", conveyed the notion that someone should stay within his own specified boundaries, respecting the ones of his neighbour. If someone broke his boundaries, thus getting more than his ordained part, then he would be punished by law. By extension, moira was one's portion or part in destiny which consisted of good and bad moments as was predetermined by the Moirai (Fates), and it was impossible for anyone to get more than his ordained part. In modern Greek the word came to mean "destiny" (μοίρα or ειμαρμένη). Kismet, the predetermined course of events in the Muslim traditions, seems to have a similar etymology and function: Arabic qismat "lot" qasama, "to divide, allot" developed to mean Fate or destiny. As a loanword, qesmat 'fate' appears in Persian, whence in Urdu language, and eventually in English Kismet. The three Moirai[edit] The Three Fates by Paul Thumann, 19th century When they were three,[18] the Moirai were: Clotho (/ˈkloʊθoʊ/, Greek Κλωθώ, [klɔːtʰɔ̌ː], "spinner") spun the thread of life from her distaff onto her spindle. Her Roman equivalent was Nona ("the ninth"), who was originally a goddess called upon in the ninth month of pregnancy. Lachesis (/ˈlækɪsɪs/, Greek Λάχεσις, [lákʰesis], "allotter" or drawer of lots) measured the thread of life allotted to each person with her measuring rod. Her Roman equivalent was Decima ("the Tenth"). Atropos (/ˈætrəpɒs/, Greek Ἄτροπος, [átropos], "inexorable" or "inevitable", literally "unturning",[19] sometimes called Aisa) was the cutter of the thread of life. She chose the manner of each person's death; and when their time was come, she cut their life-thread with "her abhorred shears".[20] Her Roman equivalent was Morta ("the dead one"). In the Republic of Plato, the three Moirai sing in unison with the music of the Seirenes. Lachesis sings the things that were, Clotho the things that are, and Atropos the things that are to be.[21] Pindar in his Hymn to the Fates, holds them in high honour. He calls them to send their sisters, the Hours Eunomia ("lawfulness"), Dike ("right"), and Eirene ("peace"), to stop the internal civil strife: Listen Fates, who sit nearest of gods to the throne of Zeus, and weave with shuttles of adamant, inescapable devices for councels of every kind beyond counting, Aisa, Clotho and Lachesis, fine-armed daughters of Night, hearken to our prayers, all-terrible goddesses, of sky and earth. Send us rose-bosomed Lawfulness, and her sisters on glittering thrones, Right and crowned Peace, and make this city forget the misfortunes which lie heavily on her heart.[22] Origins[edit] The three Moirai, or the Triumph of death, Flemish tapestry, c. 1520 (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) In ancient times caves were used for burial purposes in eastern Mediterranean, along with underground shrines or temples. The priests and the priestesses had considerable influence upon the world of the living. Births are recorded in such shrines, and the Greek legend of conception and birth in the tomb—as in the story of Danae—is based on the ancient belief that the dead know the future. Such caves were the caves of Ida and Dikte mountains in Crete, where myth situates the birth of Zeus and other gods, and the cave of Eileithyia near Knossos.[23] The relative Minoan goddesses were named Diktynna (later identified with Artemis), who was a mountain nymph of hunting, and Eileithyia who was the goddess of childbirth.[24] It seems that in Pre-Greek religion Aisa was a daemon. In Mycenaean religion Aisa or Moira was originally a living power related with the limit and end of life. At the moment of birth she spins the destiny, because birth ordains death.[25] Later Aisa is not alone, but she is accompanied by the "Spinners", who are the personifications of Fate.[26] The act of spinning is also associated with the gods, who at birth and at marriage do not spin the thread of life, but individual events like destruction, return or good fortune. Everything which has been spun must be wound on the spindle, and this was considered a cloth, like a net or loop which captured man.[27] Invisible bonds and knots could be controlled from a loom, and twining was a magic art used by the magicians to harm a person and control his individual fate.[28] Similar ideas appear in Norse mythology,[29] and in Greek folklore. The appearance of the gods and the Moirai may be related to the fairy tale motif, which is common in many Indo-European sagas and also in Greek folklore. The fairies appear beside the cradle of the newborn child and bring gifts to him.[30] Temple attendants may be considered representations of the Moirai, who belonged to the underworld, but secretly guided the lives of those in the upperworld. Their power could be sustained by witchcraft and oracles.[23] In Greek mythology the Moirai at birth are accompanied by Eileithyia. At the birth of Hercules they use together a magic art, to free the newborn from any "bonds" and "knots".[28] The Homeric Moira[edit] An 1886 bas-relief figure of Dike Astraea in the Old Supreme Court Chamber at the Vermont State House Much of the Mycenaean religion survived into classical Greece, but it is not known to what extent classical religious belief is Mycenaean, nor how much is a product of the Greek Dark Ages or later. Moses I. Finley detected only few authentic Mycenaean beliefs in the 8th-century Homeric world.[31] The religion which later the Greeks considered Hellenic embodies a paradox. Though the world is dominated by a divine power bestowed in different ways on men, nothing but "darkness" lay ahead. Life was frail and unsubstantial, and man was like "a shadow in a dream".[32] In the Homeric poems the words moira, aisa, moros mean "portion, part". Originally they did not indicate a power which led destiny, and must be considered to include the "ascertainment" or "proof". By extension Moira is the portion in glory, happiness, mishappenings, death (μοίρα θανάτοιο "destiny of death") which are unexpected events. The unexpected events were usually attributed to daemons, who appeared in special occurrences. In that regard Moira was later considered an agent; Martin P. Nilsson associated these daemons to a supposed "Pre-Greek religion".[33] People believed that their portion in destiny was something similar with their portion in booty, which was distributed according to their descent, and traditional rules. It was possible to get more than their ordained portion (moira), but they had to face severe consequences because their action was "over moira" (υπέρ μοίραν "over the portion"). It may be considered that they "broke the order". The most certain order in human lives is that every human should die, and this was determined by Aisa or Moira at the moment of birth.[25] The Mycenaeans believed that what comes should come (fatalism), and this was considered rightly offered (according to fate: in order). If someone died in battle, he would exist like a shadow in the gloomy space of the underworld.[33] The kingdom of Moira is the kingdom of the limit and the end. In a passage in Iliad, Apollo tries three times to stop Patroclus in front of the walls of Troy, warning him that it is "over his portion" to sack the city. Aisa (moira) seems to set a limit on the most vigorous men's actions.[34] Moira is a power acting in parallel with the gods, and even they could not change the destiny which was predetermined. In the Iliad, Zeus knows that his dearest Sarpedon will be killed by Patroclus, but he cannot save him.[35] In the famous scene of Kerostasia, Zeus appears as the guider of destiny. Using a pair of scales he decides that Hector must die, according to his aisa (destiny).[36] His decision seems to be independent from his will, and is not related with any "moral purpose". His attitude is explained by Achilleus to Priam, in a parable of two jars at the door of Zeus, one of which contains good things, and the other evil. Zeus gives a mixture to some men, to others only evil and such are driven by hunger over the earth. This was the old "heroic outlook".[37] The personification of Moira appears in the newer parts of the epos. In the Odyssey, she is accompanied by the "Spinners", the personifications of Fate, who do not have separate names.[26] Moira seems to spin the predetermined course of events. Agamemnon claims that he is not responsible for his arrogance. He took the prize of Achilleus, because Zeus and Moira predetermined his decision.[38] In the last section of the Iliad, Moira is the "mighty fate" (μοίρα κραταιά moíra krataiá) who leads destiny and the course of events. Thetis the mother of Achilleus warns him that he will not live long because mighty fate stands hard by him, therefore he must give to Priam the corpse of Hector.[39] At Hector's birth mighty fate predetermined that his corpse would be devoured by dogs after his death, and Hecabe is crying desperately asking for revenge.[40] Mythical cosmogonies[edit] The Night of Enitharmon's Joy, showing Hekate and the Moirai, by William Blake, 1795 (Tate Gallery, London) The three Moirai are daughters of the primeval goddess Nyx ("night"), and sisters of Keres ("the black fates"), Thanatos ("death") and Nemesis ("retribution").[4] Later they are daughters of Zeus and the Titaness Themis ("the Institutor"),[41] who was the embodiment of divine order and law.[42][43] and sisters of Eunomia ("lawfulness, order"), Dike ("justice"), and Eirene ("peace").[41] Hesiod introduces a moral purpose which is absent in the Homeric poems. The Moirai represent a power to which even the gods have to conform. They give men at birth both evil and good moments, and they punish not only men but also gods for their sins.[4] In the cosmogony of Alcman (7th century BC), first came Thetis ("disposer, creation"), and then simultaneously Poros ("path") and Tekmor ("end post, ordinance").[44][45] Poros is related with the beginning of all things, and Tekmor is related with the end of all things.[46] Later in the Orphic cosmogony, first came Thesis ("disposer"), whose ineffable nature is unexpressed. Ananke ("necessity") is the primeval goddess of inevitability who is entwined with the time-god Chronos, at the very beginning of time. They represented the cosmic forces of Fate and Time, and they were called sometimes to control the fates of the gods. The three Moirai are daughters of Ananke.[47] Mythology[edit] Prometheus creates man: Clotho and Lachesis besides Poseidon (with his trident), and presumably Atropos besides Artemis (with the moon crescent) are seen, Roman sarcophagus (Louvre). The Moirai were supposed to appear three nights after a child's birth to determine the course of its life, as in the story of Meleager and the firebrand taken from the hearth and preserved by his mother to extend his life.[48] Bruce Karl Braswell from readings in the lexicon of Hesychius, associates the appearance of the Moirai at the family hearth on the seventh day with the ancient Greek custom of waiting seven days after birth to decide whether to accept the infant into the Gens and to give it a name, cemented with a ritual at the hearth.[49] At Sparta the temple to the Moirai stood near the communal hearth of the polis, as Pausanias observed.[50] As goddesses of birth who even prophesied the fate of the newly born, Eileithyia, the ancient Minoan goddess of childbirth and divine midwifery, was their companion. Pausanias mentions an ancient role of Eileythia as "the clever spinner", relating her with destiny too.[51] Their appearance indicate the Greek desire for health which was connected with the Greek cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity.[52] The Moirai assigned to the terrible chthonic goddesses Erinyes who inflicted the punishment for evil deeds their proper functions, and with them directed fate according to necessity. As goddesses of death they appeared together with the daemons of death Keres and the infernal Erinyes.[53] Bas relief of Clotho, lampstand at the Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D.C. In earlier times they were represented as only a few—perhaps only one—individual goddess. Homer's Iliad (xxiv.209) speaks generally of the Moira, who spins the thread of life for men at their birth; she is Moira Krataia "powerful Moira" (xvi.334) or there are several Moirai (xxiv.49). In the Odyssey (vii.197) there is a reference to the Klôthes, or Spinners. At Delphi, only the Fates of Birth and Death were revered.[54] In Athens, Aphrodite, who had an earlier, pre-Olympic existence, was called Aphrodite Urania the "eldest of the Fates" according to Pausanias (x.24.4). Some Greek mythographers went so far as to claim that the Moirai were the daughters of Zeus—paired with Themis ("fundament"), as Hesiod had it in one passage.[55] In the older myths they are daughters of primeval beings like Nyx ("night") in Theogony, or Ananke ("necessity") in Orphic cosmogony. Whether or not providing a father even for the Moirai was a symptom of how far Greek mythographers were willing to go, in order to modify the old myths to suit the patrilineal Olympic order,[56] the claim of a paternity was certainly not acceptable to Aeschylus, Herodotus, or Plato. Despite their forbidding reputation, the Moirai could be placated as goddesses. Brides in Athens offered them locks of hair, and women swore by them. They may have originated as birth goddesses and only later acquired their reputation as the agents of destiny. According to the mythographer Apollodorus, in the Gigantomachy, the war between the Giants and Olympians, the Moirai killed the Giants Agrios and Thoon with their bronze clubs.[57] Zeus and the Moirai[edit] Bas relief of Lachesis, lampstand at the Supreme Court, Washington, D.C.. Bas relief of Atropos cutting the thread of life In the Homeric poems Moira, who is almost always one, is acting independently from the gods. Only Zeus, the chief sky-deity of the Mycenaeans is close to Moira, and in a passage he is the being of this power.[33] Using a weighing scale (balance) Zeus weighs Hector's "lot of death" (Ker) against the one of Achilleus. Hector's lot weighs down, and he dies according to Fate. Zeus appears as the guider of destiny, who gives everyone the right portion.[58][59] In a Mycenaean vase, Zeus holds a weighing scale (balance) in front of two warriors, indicating that he is measuring their destiny before the battle. The belief (fatalism) was that if they die in battle, they must die, and this was rightly offered (according to fate).[60] In Theogony, the three Moirai are daughters of the primeval goddess, Nyx ("Night"),[61] representing a power acting over the gods.[4] Later they are daughters of Zeus who gives them the greatest honour, and Themis, the ancient goddess of law and divine order.[42][43] Even the gods feared the Moirai or Fates, which according to Herodotus a god could not escape.[62] The Pythian priestess at Delphi once admitted that Zeus was also subject to their power, though no recorded classical writing clarifies to what exact extent the lives of immortals were affected by the whims of the Fates. It is to be expected that the relationship of Zeus and the Moirai was not immutable over the centuries. In either case in antiquity we can see a feeling towards a notion of an order to which even the gods have to conform. Simonides names this power Ananke (necessity) (the mother of the Moirai in Orphic cosmogony) and says that even the gods don't fight against it.[63] Aeschylus combines Fate and necessity in a scheme, and claims that even Zeus cannot alter which is ordained.[7] A supposed epithet Zeus Moiragetes, meaning "Zeus Leader of the Moirai" was inferred by Pausanias from an inscription he saw in the 2nd century AD at Olympia: "As you go to the starting-point for the chariot-race there is an altar with an inscription to the Bringer of Fate.[64] This is plainly a surname of Zeus, who knows the affairs of men, all that the Fates give them, and all that is not destined for them."[65] At the Temple of Zeus at Megara, Pausanias inferred from the relief sculptures he saw "Above the head of Zeus are the Horai and Moirai, and all may see that he is the only god obeyed by Moira." Pausanias' inferred assertion is unsupported in cult practice, though he noted a sanctuary of the Moirai there at Olympia (v.15.4), and also at Corinth (ii.4.7) and Sparta (iii.11.8), and adjoining the sanctuary of Themis outside a city gate of Thebes.[66] Cult and temples[edit] The three Moirai, relief, grave of Alexander von der Mark [de] by Johann Gottfried Schadow (Old National Gallery, Berlin) The fates had at least three known temples, in Ancient Corinth, Sparta and Thebes. At least the temple of Corinth contained statues of them: "[On the Akropolis (Acropolis) of Korinthos (Corinth) :] The temple of the Moirai (Moirae, Fates) and that of Demeter and Kore (Core) [Persephone] have images that are not exposed to view."[67] The temple in Thebes was explicitly imageless: "Along the road from the Neistan gate [at Thebes in Boiotia (Boeotia)] are three sanctuaries. There is a sanctuary of Themis, with an image of white marble; adjoining it is a sanctuary of the Moirai (Moirae, Fates), while the third is of Agoraios (Agoreus, of the Market) Zeus. Zeus is made of stone; the Moirai (Moirae, Fates) have no images."[68] The temple in Sparta was situated next to the grave of Orestes.[69] Aside from actual temples, there was also altars to the Moirai. Among them was notably the altar in Olympia near the altar of Zeus Moiragetes,[70] a connection to Zeus which was also repeated in the images of the Moirai in the temple of Despoine in Arkadia[71] as well as in Delphi, where they were depicted with Zeus Moiragetes (Guide of Fate) as well as with Apollon Moiragetes (Guide of Fate).[72] On Korkyra, the shrine of Apollo, which according to legend was founded by Medea was also a place where offerings were made to the Moirai and the nymphs.[73] The worship of the Moirai are described by Pausanias for their altar near Sicyon: "On the direct road from Sikyon (Sicyon) to Phlios (Phlius) ... At a distance along it, in my opinion, of twenty stades, to the left on the other side of the Asopos [river], is a grove of holm oaks and a temple of the goddesses named by the Athenians the Semnai (August), and by the Sikyonians the Eumenides (Kindly Ones). On one day in each year they celebrate a festival to them and offer sheep big with young as a burnt offering, and they are accustomed to use a libation of honey and water, and flowers instead of garlands. They practise similar rites at the altar of the Moirai (Moirae, Fates); it is in an open space in the grove."[74] Cross-cultural parallels[edit] Europe[edit] The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree of the world. In Hurrian mythology the three goddesses of fate, the Hutena, was believed to dispense good and evil, life and death to humans. In Roman mythology the three Moirai are the Parcae or Fata, plural of "fatum" meaning prophetic declaration, oracle, or destiny. The English words fate (native wyrd) and fairy ("magic, enchantment"), are both derived from "fata", "fatum".[75] In Norse mythology the Norns are female beings who rule the destiny of gods and men, twining the thread of life. They set up the laws and decided on the lives of the children of men.[76] Their names were Urðr, related with Old English wyrd, modern weird ("fate, destiny, luck"), Verðandi, and Skuld, and it has often been inferred that they ruled over the past, present and future respectively, based on the sequence and partly the etymology of the names, of which the first two (literally 'Fate' and 'Becoming') are derived from the past and present stems of the verb verða, "to be", respectively,[77] and the name of the third one means "debt" or "guilt", originally "that which must happen".[78] In younger legendary sagas, the Norns appear to have been synonymous with witches (völvas), and they arrive at the birth of the hero to shape his destiny. It seems that originally all of them were Disir, ghosts or deities associated with destruction and destiny. The notion that they were three may be due to a late influence from Greek and Roman mythology.[79] The same applies to their (disputed) association with the past, present and future. The Valkyries (choosers of the slain), were originally daemons of death. They were female figures who decided who will die in battle, and brought their chosen to the afterlife hall of the slain. They were also related with spinning, and one of them was named Skuld ("debt, guilt").[80] They may be related to Keres, the daemons of death in Greek mythology, who accompanied the dead to the entrance of Hades. In the scene of Kerostasia, Keres are the "lots of death", and in some cases Ker ("destruction") has the same meaning, with Moira interpreted as "destiny of death" (moira thanatoio: μοίρα θανάτοιο).[4][81] The Celtic Matres and Matrones, female deities almost entirely in a group of three, have been proposed as connected to the Norns and the Valkyries.[82] In Lithuanian mythology Laima is the personification of destiny, and her most important duty was to prophecy how the life of a newborn will take place. She may be related to the Hindu goddess Laksmi, who was the personification of wealth and prosperity, and associated with good fortune.[83][84] In Latvian mythology, Laima and her sisters were a trinity of fate deities.[85] In Anglo-Saxon culture Wyrd (Weird) is a concept corresponding to fate or personal destiny (literally: "what befalls one"). Its Norse cognate is Urðr, and both names are derived from the PIE root wert, "to turn, wind",[86] related with "spindle, distaff".[87] In Old English literature Wyrd goes ever as she shall, and remains wholly inevitable.[88][89] In Dante's Divine Comedy, the Fates are mentioned in both Inferno (XXXIII.126) and Purgatorio (XXI.25-27, XXV.79-81) by their Greek names and their traditional role in measuring out and determining the length of human life is assumed by the narrator. Macbeth and Banquo meeting the three weird sisters in a woodcut from Holinshed's Chronicles. In Shakespeare's Macbeth, the Weird sisters (or Three Witches), are prophetesses, who are deeply entrenched in both worlds of reality and supernatural. Their creation was influenced by British folklore, witchcraft, and the legends of the Norns and the Moirai.[90] Hecate, the chthonic Greek goddess associated with magic, witchcraft, necromancy, and three-way crossroads,[91] appears as the master of the "Three witches". In ancient Greek religion, Hecate as goddess of childbirth is identified with Artemis,[92] who was the leader (ηγεμόνη: hegemone ) of the nymphs.[93] The Moirai were usually described as cold, remorseless and unfeeling, and depicted as old crones or hags. The independent spinster has always inspired fear rather than matrimony: "this sinister connotation we inherit from the spinning goddess," write Ruck and Staples (Ruck and Staples 1994). See Weaving (mythology). The Three Fates continue as common characters in modern literature. Allen Ginsberg described them as: the three old shrews of fate the one eyed shrew of the heterosexual dollar the one eyed shrew that winks out of the womb and the one eyed shrew that does nothing but sit on her ass and snip the intellectual golden threads of the craftsman’s loom. Outside of Europe[edit] A section of the Egyptian Book of the Dead written on papyrus showing the "Weighing of the Heart" in the Duat using the feather of Maat as the measure in balance. The notion of a universal principle of natural order has been compared to similar ideas in other cultures, such as aša (Asha) in Avestan religion, Rta in Vedic religion, and Maat in ancient Egyptian religion.[94] In the Avestan religion and Zoroastrianism, aša, is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of "truth", "right(eousness)", "order". Aša and its Vedic equivalent, Rta, are both derived from a PIE root meaning "properly joined, right, true". The word is the proper name of the divinity Asha, the personification of "Truth" and "Righteousness". Aša corresponds to an objective, material reality which embraces all of existence.[95] This cosmic force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order.[96] In the literature of the Mandeans, an angelic being has the responsibility of weighing the souls of the deceased to determine their worthiness, using a set of scales.[97] In the Vedic religion, Rta is an ontological principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe. The term is now interpreted abstractly as "cosmic order", or simply as "truth",[98] although it was never abstract at the time.[99] It seems that this idea originally arose in the Indo-Aryan period, from a consideration (so denoted to indicate the original meaning of communing with the star beings) of the qualities of nature which either remain constant or which occur on a regular basis.[100] The individuals fulfill their true natures when they follow the path set for them by the ordinances of Rta, acting according to the Dharma, which is related to social and moral spheres.[101] The god of the waters Varuna was probably originally conceived as the personalized aspect of the otherwise impersonal Ṛta.[102] The gods are never portrayed as having command over Ṛta, but instead they remain subject to it like all created beings.[101] In Egyptian religion, maat was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. The word is the proper name of the divinity Maat, who was the goddess of harmony, justice, and truth represented as a young woman. It was considered that she set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation.[103] Maat was the norm and basic values that formed the backdrop for the application of justice that had to be carried out in the spirit of truth and fairness.[104] In Egyptian mythology, Maat dealt with the weighing of souls that took place in the underworld. Her feather was the measure that determined whether the souls (considered to reside in the heart) of the departed would reach the paradise of afterlife successfully. In the famous scene of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Anubis, using a scale, weighs the sins of a man's heart against the feather of truth, which represents maat. If man's heart weighs down, then he is devoured by a monster.[105] Astronomical objects[edit] The asteroids (97) Klotho, (120) Lachesis, and (273) Atropos are named for the Three Fates. See also[edit] Ananke Asha Deities and fairies of fate in Slavic mythology Istustaya and Papaya Kallone Enchanted Moura Laima Matrones Norns Parcae Rta Three Witches Trimurti/Tridevi Notes[edit] ^ Moirai in Oxford Living Dictionary ^ Moirai in Collins English Dictionary ^ "Theoi project: Moirae and the Throne of Zeus". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24. ^ a b c d e Hesiod, Theogony 221–225. "Also Night (Nyx) bare the destinies (Moirai), and ruthless avenging Fates (Keres), who give men at their birth both evil and good to have, and they pursue the transgressions of men and gods... until they punish the sinner with a sore penalty." online The Theogony of Hesiod. Transl. Hugh Evelyn White (1914) 221–225. ^ Plato, Republic 617c (trans. Shorey) (Greek philosopher 4th century BC): Theoi Project – Ananke. ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus. The Fall of Troy. 13. 545 ff.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ a b Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, 510–518: "Not in this way is Moira (Fate) who brings all to fulfillment, destined to complete this course. Skill is weaker far than Ananke (necessity). Yes in that even he (Zeus) cannot escape what is foretold." Theoi Project – Ananke ^ Simplicius, In Physica 24.13. The Greek peers of Anaximander echoed his sentiment with the belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate: Bertrand Russell (1946). A history of Western Philosophy, and its connections with Political and Social Circumstances from the earliest times to the Present Day. New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 148. ^ Moira, Online Etymology Dictionary ^ merit, Online Etymology Dictionary ^ Iliad, 9.318:Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα, ^ Odyssey 19.152: :Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα ^ The citizents of Sparta were called omoioi (equals), indicating that they had equal parts ("isomoiria" ἰσομοιρία) of the allotted land ^ Iliad 16.367: :Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: μοῖρα ^ M.Nillson, Vol I, p.217 ^ Euripides, Iph.Aul. V 113: " ΄'ω πότνια μοίρα καί τύχη, δαίμων τ΄εμός "Lidell,Scott A Greek English Lexicon: τύχη. ^ L.H.Jeffery (1976) Archaic Greece. The City-States c. 700–500 BC . Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge p. 42 ISBN 0-510-03271-0 ^ The expectation that there would be three was strong by the 2nd century CE: when Pausanias visited the temple of Apollo at Delphi, with Apollo and Zeus each accompanied by a Fate, he remarked "There are also images of two Moirai; but in place of the third Moira there stand by their side Zeus Moiragetes and Apollon Moiragetes." ^ Compare the ancient goddess Adrasteia, the "inescapable". ^ "Comes the blind Fury with th'abhorred shears, / And slits the thin spun life." John Milton, Lycidas, l. 75. Works related to Lycidas at Wikisource ^ Plato (1992). Republic. Translated by Sorrey (Second ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. p. 617c. ISBN 978-0872201361. ^ Pindar, Fragmenta Chorica Adespota 5 (ed. Diehl). ^ a b R. G. Wunderlich (1994). The secret of Crete. Efstathiadis group, Athens pp. 290–291, 295–296. (British Edition, Souvenir Press Ltd. London 1975) ISBN 960-226-261-3 ^ Burkert, Walter. (1985). The Greek Religion, Harvard University Press. pp 32–47 ^ a b "Not yet is thy fate (moira) to die and meet thy doom" (Ilias 7.52), "But thereafter he (Achilleus) shall suffer whatever Fate (Aisa) spun for him at his birth, when his mother bore him": (Ilias 20.128 ): M. Nilsson. (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion Vol I, C.F.Beck Verlag., Műnchen pp. 363–364 ^ a b "But thereafter he shall suffer whatever Fate (Aisa) and the dread Spinners spun with her thread for him at his birth, when his mother bore him." (Odyssey 7.198) ^ "Easily known is the seed of that man for whom the son of Cronos spins the seed of good fortune at marriage and at birth." (Odyssey, 4.208 ): M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 363–364 ^ a b M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 114, 200 ^ "If a lady loosened a knot in the woof, she could liberate the leg of her hero. But if she tied a knot, she could stop the enemy from moving. ":Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007): Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. P. 72 ISBN 978-91-27-35725-9 ^ M.Nilsson. (1967). "Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion". C.F.Beck Verlag., München pp. 363–364 ^ M. I. Finley (2002). The world of Odysseus. New York Review Books, New York, p. 39 f. (PDF file). ^ "Man's life is a day. What is he, what is he not? A shadow in a dream is man": Pindar, Pythionikos VIII, 95-7. Cf. C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience. The World publishing company, Cleveland and New York, p. 64. ^ a b c Martin P. Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der griechischen Religion. Vol. 1. C. F. Beck, Munich, pp. 361–368. ^ Iliad 16.705: "Draw back noble Patrolos, it is not your lot (aisa) to sack the city of the Trojan chieftains, nor yet it will be that of Achilleus, who is far better than you are": C. Castoriades (2004). Ce qui fait la Grèce. 1, D'Homère a Héraclite. Séminaires 1982–1983 (= La creation humaine, 2). Éditions du Seuil, Paris, p. 300. ^ Iliad 16.433: "Ah, woe is me, for that it is fated that Sarpedon, dearest of men to me, be slain by Patroclus, son of Menoetius! And in twofold wise is my heart divided in counsel as I ponder in my thought whether I shall snatch him up while yet he liveth and set him afar from the tearful war in the rich land of Lycia, or whether I shall slay him now beneath the hands of the son of Menoetius." ^ Morrison, J. V. (1997). "Kerostasia, the Dictates of Fate, and the Will of Zeus in the Iliad". Arethusa. 30 (2): 276–296. doi:10.1353/are.1997.0008. ^ Iliad 24.527–33; cf. C. M. Bowra (1957). The Greek experience. The World publishing company, Cleveland and New York, p. 53. ^ Iliad 19.87: "Howbeit it is not I that am at fault, but Zeus and Fate (Moira) and Erinys, that walketh in darkness, seeing that in the midst of the place of gathering they cast upon my soul fierce blindness on that day, when of mine own arrogance I took from Achilles his prize." ^ Iliad 24.131: "For I tell thee, thou shall not thyself be long in life, but even nowdoth death stand hard by thee and mighty fate (moíra krataiá)". ^ Iliad 24.209: "On this wise for him did mighty fate spin with her thread at his birth, when myself did bear him, that he should glut swift-footed dogs far from his parents, in the abode of a violent man." ^ a b Theogony 901; The Theogony of Hesiod. Translated by Hugh Evelyn White (1914), 901–906 (online text). ^ a b M. I. Finley (1978) The world of Odysseus rev.ed. New York Viking Press p.78 Note. ^ a b In the Odyssey, Themistes: "dooms, things laid down originally by divine authority", the themistes of Zeus. Body: council of elders who stored in the collective memory. Thesmos: unwritten law, based on precedent. Cf. L. H. Jeffery (1976). Archaic Greece. The City-States c. 700–500 BC. Ernest Benn Ltd., London & Tonbridge, p. 42. ISBN 0-510-03271-0. ^ Τέκμωρ (Τekmor): fixed mark or boundary, end post, purpose (τέκμαρ). ^ Old English: takn "sign, mark"; English: token "sign, omen". Compare Sanskrit, Laksmi. Entry "token", in Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Alcman, frag. 5 (from Scholia), translated by Campbell, Greek Lyric, vol. 2; cf. entry "Ananke" in the Theoi Project. ^ Orphica. Theogonies, frag. 54 (from Damascius). Greek hymns 3rd to 2nd centuries BC; cf. entry "Ananke" in the Theoi Project. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, story of Meleager in Bibliotheke 1.65. ^ Braswell, Bruce Karl (1991). "Meleager and the Moirai: A Note on Ps.-Apollodorus 1. 65". Hermes. 119 (4): 488–489. JSTOR 4476850. ^ Pausanias, 3.11. 10–11. ^ Pausanias, 8.21.3. ^ Pindar, Nemean VII 1–4 ^ "Theoi Project Moirai". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24. ^ Kerenyi 1951:32. ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 904. ^ "Zeus obviously had to assimilate this spinning Goddess, and he made them into his daughters, too, although not by all accounts, for even he was bound ultimately by Fate", observe Ruck and Staples (1994:57). ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1–2. ^ Ilias X 209 ff. O.Crusius Rl, Harisson Prolegomena 5.43 ff: M. Nillson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I . C.F.Beck Verlag. München pp. 217, 222 ^ This is similar to the famous scene in the Egyptian book of the dead, although the conception is different. Anubis weighs the sins of a man's heart against the feather of truth. If man's heart weighs down, then he is devoured by a monster: Taylor, John H. (Editor- 2009), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife. British Museum Press, London, 2010. pp. 209, 215 ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9 ^ M.P.Nilsson, "Zeus-Schiksalwaage ". Homer and Mycenea D 56. The same belief in Kismet. Also the soldiers in the World-War believed that they wouldn't die by a bullet, unless their name was written on the bullet: M. Nillson (1967). Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I . C.F.Beck Verlag. München pp. 366, 367 ^ H.J. Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology, p.24 ^ Herodotus, Histories I 91 ^ Diels-Kranz. Fr.420 ^ The Greek is Moiragetes (Pausanias, 5.15.5). ^ Pausanias, v.15.5. ^ "There is a sanctuary of Themis, with an image of white marble; adjoining it is a sanctuary of the Fates, while the third is of Zeus of the Market. Zeus is made of stone; the Fates have no images." (Pausanias, ix.25.4). ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 4. 7 (trans. Jones). ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9. 25. 4. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 3. 11. 10. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 15. 5. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 8. 37. 1 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 10. 24. 4 ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4. 1216 ff (trans. Rieu) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 11. 3 - 4 ^ Online Etymology Dictionary, s.v. "fate", "fairy". ^ Völuspá 20; cf. Henry Adams Bellows' translation for The American-Scandinavian Foundation with clickable names (online text). Archived 2007-07-18 at the Wayback Machine ^ Swedish Etymological dictionary ^ Online Etymology Dictionary, s. v. "shall". ^ Nordisk familjebook (1913). Uggleupplagan. 19. Mykenai-Newpada. (online text). ^ Davidson H. R. Ellis (1988). Myths and symbols in Pagan Europe. Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Manchester University Press, p. 58–61. ISBN 0-7190-2579-6. ^ Keres, derived from the Greek verb kērainein (κηραίνειν) meaning "to be destroyed". Compare Kēr (κηρ), "candle". M. Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 218, 366. ^ Landow, John (2001). Norse Mythology, a guide to the ghosts, heroes, rituals and beliefs. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0. ^ Greimas Algirdas Julien (1992). Of gods and men. Studies in Lithuanian Mythology. Indiana University Press, p. 111. ISBN 0-253-32652-4. ^ Related to "Iaksmlka", "mark, sign or token" (Rigveda X, 71,2): Monier Williams. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. ^ Bojtar Endre (1999). Forward to the past. A cultural history of Baltic people. CEU Press, p. 301. ISBN 963-9116-42-4. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary, s. v. "wyrd". ^ Latin vertere and Russian vreteno; cf. Online Etymology Dictionary, s. v. "versus". ^ Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Translated by Heaney, Seamus (2001 ed.). New York City: W.W. Norton. 2001. ISBN 0-393-32097-9. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. ^ The Wanderer Archived 2012-04-02 at the Wayback Machine. Alternative translation by Clifford A. Truesdell IV ^ Coddon, Karin S. (Oct 1989). "'Unreal Mockery': Unreason and the Problem of Spectacle in Macbeth". ELH. Johns Hopkins University Press. 56 (3): 485–501. doi:10.2307/2873194. ^ "Theoi project Hecate". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2013-01-24. ^ William Arthur Heidel (1929). The Day of Yahweh: A Study of Sacred Days and Ritual Forms in the Ancient Near East, p. 514. American Historical Association. ^ Martin Nilsson (1967). Die Geschichte der griechischen Religion. Vol. 1. C. F. Beck, Munich, p. 499 f. ^ Cf. Ramakrishna (1965:153–168), James (1969:35–36) ^ Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1963), "Heraclitus and Iran", History of Religions, 3 (1): 34–49, doi:10.1086/462470 ^ Boyce, Mary (1970). "Zoroaster the Priest". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. London, England: University of London. 33 (1): 22–38. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00145100. ^ Bunson, Matthew (1996). Angels A to Z. New York City: Crown Publishing. ISBN 978-0517885376. ^ Mahony (1998:3). ^ See the philological work of Own Barfield, e.g Poetic Diction or Speaker's Meaning ^ Hermann Oldenberg (1894). Die Religion des Veda. Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, pp. 30, 195–198. ^ a b Brown, W. N. (1992). "Some Ethical Concepts for the Modern World from Hindu and Indian Buddhist Tradition" in: Radhakrishnan, S. (Ed.) Rabindranath Tagore: A Centenary Volume 1861 – 1961. Calcutta: Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-7201-332-9. ^ Ramakrishna, G. (1965). "Origin and Growth of the Concept of Ṛta in Vedic Literature". Doctoral Dissertation: University of Mysore Cf. ^ Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt, Robert A. Armour, American Univ in Cairo Press, p167, 2001, ISBN 977-424-669-1 ^ Morenz, Siegfried (1992). Egyptian Religion. Translated by Keep, Ann E. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 117–125. ISBN 0-8014-8029-9. ^ Taylor, John H., ed. (2010). Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife. London, England: British Museum Press. pp. 209, 215. ISBN 978-0-7141-1989-2. References[edit] Armour, Robert A, 2001, Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt, American Univ. in Cairo Press, ISBN 977-424-669-1. Homer. The Iliad with an English translation. A. T. Murray, Ph.D. (1924), in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. Homer. The Odyssey with an English translation. A. T. Murray, Ph.D. (1919), in two volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. Thomas Blisniewski, 1992. Kinder der dunkelen Nacht: Die Ikonographie der Parzen vom späten Mittelalter bis zum späten 18. Jahrhundert. (Cologne) Iconography of the Fates from the late Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century. Markos Giannoulis, 2010. Die Moiren. Tradition und Wandel des Motivs der Schicksalsgöttinnen in der antiken und byzantinischen Kunst, Ergänzungsband zu Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum, Kleine Reihe 6 (F. J. Dölger Institut). Aschendorff Verlag, Münster, ISBN 978-3-402-10913-7. Robert Graves, Greek Myths. Jane Ellen Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion 1903. Chapter VI, "The Maiden-Trinities". L. H. Jeffery, 1976. Archaic Greece. The City-States c. 700–500 BC . Ernest Benn Ltd. London & Tonbridge, ISBN 0-510-03271-0. Karl Kerenyi, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks (Thames and Hudson). Martin P. Nilsson,1967. Die Geschichte der Griechischen Religion. Vol I, C.F. Beck Verlag., München. Bertrand Russell, 1946. A history of Western Philosophy, and its connections with Political and Social Circumstances from the earliest times to the Present Day. New York. Simon & Schuster p. 148 Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 1898. perseus.tufts.edu Herbert Jennings Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology, 1928. Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth, 1994. William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, article on Moira, ancientlibrary.com R. G. Wunderlich (1994). The secret of Crete. Efstathiadis group, Athens pp. 290–291, 295–296. (British Edition, Souvenir Press Ltd. London 1975) ISBN 960-226-261-3 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moirai. The Theogony of Hesiod.Transl.H.E.White (1914) v t e Time in religion and mythology Calendar Deities Destiny Divination Eschatology Eternity Golden Age Prophecy Wheel of the Year Yuga v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos 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en-wikipedia-org-7873	----	Erinyes - Wikipedia Erinyes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Female chthonic deities of vengeance "Furies" redirects here. For other uses, see Furies (disambiguation). Clytemnestra tries to awaken the sleeping Erinyes. Detail from an Apulian red-figure bell-krater, 380–370 BC. Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Twelve Olympians Mycenaean deities Aquatic deities Personified concepts Other deities Chthonic deities Angelos Demeter Erinyes Gaia Hades Hecate Melinoë Persephone Triptolemus Trophonius v t e This article contains Linear B Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Linear B. The Erinyes (/ɪˈrɪniˌiːz/; sing. Erinys /ɪˈrɪnɪs/, /ɪˈraɪnɪs/;[1] Greek: Ἐρινύες, pl. of Ἐρινύς, Erinys),[2] also known as the Furies, were female chthonic deities of vengeance in ancient Greek religion and mythology. A formulaic oath in the Iliad invokes them as "the Erinyes, that under earth take vengeance on men, whosoever hath sworn a false oath".[3] Walter Burkert suggests they are "an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath".[4] They correspond to the Dirae in Roman mythology.[5] The Roman writer Maurus Servius Honoratus wrote (ca. 600 AD) that they are called "Eumenides" in hell, "Furiae" on earth, and "Dirae" in heaven.[6][7] According to Hesiod's Theogony, when the Titan Cronus castrated his father, Uranus, and threw his genitalia into the sea, the Erinyes (along with the Giants and the Meliae) emerged from the drops of blood which fell on the earth (Gaia), while Aphrodite was born from the crests of sea foam.[8] According to variant accounts,[9] they emerged from an even more primordial level—from Nyx ("Night"), or from a union between air and mother earth,[10] in Virgil's Aeneid, they are daughters of Pluto (Hades)[11] and Nox (Nyx). [12] Their number is usually left indeterminate. Virgil, probably working from an Alexandrian source, recognized three: Alecto or Alekto ("endless anger"), Megaera ("jealous rage"), and Tisiphone or Tilphousia ("vengeful destruction"), all of whom appear in the Aeneid. Dante Alighieri followed Virgil in depicting the same three-character triptych of Erinyes; in Canto IX of the Inferno they confront the poets at the gates of the city of Dis. Whilst the Erinyes were usually described as three maiden goddesses, the Erinys Telphousia was usually a by-name for the wrathful goddess Demeter, who was worshipped under the title of Erinys in the Arkadian town of Thelpousa. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description 3 Three sisters 4 Cult 5 In ancient Greek literature 5.1 Aeschylus 5.2 Euripides 5.3 Sophocles 6 Modern references and literature 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Etymology[edit] The word Erinyes is of uncertain etymology; connections with the verb ὀρίνειν orinein, "to raise, stir, excite", and the noun ἔρις eris, "strife" have been suggested; Beekes, pp. 458–459, has proposed a Pre-Greek origin. The word Erinys in the singular and as a theonym is first attested in Mycenaean Greek, written in Linear B, in the following forms: 𐀁𐀪𐀝, e-ri-nu, and 𐀁𐀪𐀝𐀸, e-ri-nu-we. These words are found on the KN Fp 1, KN V 52,[13] and KN Fh 390 tablets.[14] Description[edit] The Erinyes live in Erebus and are more ancient than any of the Olympian deities. Their task is to hear complaints brought by mortals against the insolence of the young to the aged, of children to parents, of hosts to guests, and of householders or city councils to suppliants—and to punish such crimes by hounding culprits relentlessly. The Erinyes are crones and, depending upon authors, described as having snakes for hair, dog's heads, coal black bodies, bat's wings, and blood-shot eyes. In their hands they carry brass-studded scourges, and their victims die in torment.[15] Three sisters[edit] According to Hesiod, the Furies sprang forth from the spilled blood of Uranus when he was castrated by his son Cronus. According to Aeschylus' Oresteia, they are the daughters of Nyx,in Virgil's version, they are daughters of Pluto and Nox.[16] The sisters are: Alecto – Punisher of moral crimes (anger, etc.) Megaera – Punisher of infidelity, oath breakers, and theft Tisiphone – Punisher of murderers Cult[edit] Pausanias describe a sanctuary in Athens dedicated to the Erinyes under the name Semnai: Hard by [the Areopagos the murder court of Athens] is a sanctuary of the goddesses which the Athenians call the August, but Hesiod in the Theogony calls them Erinyes (Furies). It was Aeschylus who first represented them with snakes in their hair. But on the images neither of these nor of any of the under-world deities is there anything terrible. There are images of Pluto, Hermes, and Earth, by which sacrifice those who have received an acquittal on the Hill of Ares; sacrifices are also offered on other occasions by both citizens and aliens.[17] In ancient Greek literature[edit] Orestes at Delphi, flanked by Athena and Pylades, among the Erinyes and priestesses of the oracle. Paestan red-figure bell-krater, c. 330 BC. Myth fragments dealing with the Erinyes are found among the earliest extant records of ancient Greek culture. The Erinyes are featured prominently in the myth of Orestes, which recurs frequently throughout many works of ancient Greek literature. Aeschylus[edit] Featured in ancient Greek literature, from poems to plays, the Erinyes form the Chorus and play a major role in the conclusion of Aeschylus's dramatic trilogy the Oresteia. In the first play, Agamemnon, King Agamemnon returns home from the Trojan War, where he is slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, who wants vengeance for her daughter Iphigenia, who was sacrificed by Agamemnon in order to obtain favorable winds to sail to Troy. In the second play, The Libation Bearers, their son Orestes has reached manhood and has been commanded by Apollo's oracle to avenge his father's murder at his mother's hand. Returning home and revealing himself to his sister Electra, Orestes pretends to be a messenger bringing the news of his own death to Clytemnestra. He then slays his mother and her lover Aegisthus. Although Orestes' actions were what Apollo had commanded him to do, Orestes has still committed matricide, a grave sacrilege.[18] Because of this, he is pursued and tormented by the terrible Erinyes, who demand yet further blood vengeance.[19] Two Furies, from a nineteenth-century book reproducing an image from an ancient vase. In The Eumenides, Orestes is told by Apollo at Delphi that he should go to Athens to seek the aid of the goddess Athena. In Athens, Athena arranges for Orestes to be tried by a jury of Athenian citizens, with her presiding. The Erinyes appear as Orestes' accusers, while Apollo speaks in his defense. The trial becomes a debate about the necessity of blood vengeance, the honor that is due to a mother compared to that due to a father, and the respect that must be paid to ancient deities such as the Erinyes compared to the newer generation of Apollo and Athena. The jury vote is evenly split. Athena participates in the vote and chooses for acquittal. Athena declares Orestes acquitted because of the rules she established for the trial.[20] Despite the verdict, the Erinyes threaten to torment all inhabitants of Athens and to poison the surrounding countryside. Athena, however, offers the ancient goddesses a new role, as protectors of justice, rather than vengeance, and of the city. She persuades them to break the cycle of blood for blood (except in the case of war, which is fought for glory, not vengeance). While promising that the goddesses will receive due honor from the Athenians and Athena, she also reminds them that she possesses the key to the storehouse where Zeus keeps the thunderbolts that defeated the other older deities. This mixture of bribes and veiled threats satisfies the Erinyes, who are then led by Athena in a procession to their new abode. In the play, the "Furies" are thereafter addressed as "Semnai" (Venerable Ones), as they will now be honored by the citizens of Athens and ensure the city's prosperity.[21] Euripides[edit] In Euripides' Orestes the Erinyes are for the first time "equated" with the Eumenides[22] (Εὐμενίδες, pl. of Εὐμενίς; literally "the gracious ones", but also translated as "Kindly Ones").[23] This is because it was considered unwise to mention them by name (for fear of attracting their attention), the ironic name is similar to how Hades, god of the dead is styled Pluton, or Pluto, "the Rich One".[15] Using euphemisms for the names of deities serves many religious purposes. Sophocles[edit] In Sophocles's play, Oedipus at Colonus, it is significant that Oedipus comes to his final resting place in the grove dedicated to the Erinyes. It shows that he has paid his penance for his blood crime, as well as come to integrate the balancing powers to his early over-reliance upon Apollo, the god of the individual, the sun, and reason. He is asked to make an offering to the Erinyes and complies, having made his peace.[original research?] Modern references and literature[edit] The Remorse of Orestes, where he is surrounded by the Erinyes, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1862 The Erinyes persist as a theme that appears in modern literature. They are mentioned in the poem "To Brooklyn Bridge" by Hart Crane. The Eumenides are also featured in T. S. Eliot's play, The Family Reunion, Neil Gaiman's comic book series, The Sandman, and Rick Riordan's book series, Percy Jackson and the Olympians. In the 1875 comic opera Trial by Jury by W.S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, the Learned Judge describes himself as having once "danced a dance like a semi-despondent fury" while in Westminster Hall. The movie franchise Alien is said to be inspired by the Erinyes.[24] The Kindly Ones, the sixth novel in the Anthony Powell sequence A Dance to the Music of Time is set before and at the beginning of Britain's entrance to World War II. [25] The Kindly Ones (original French title Les Bienveillantes), a 2006 Holocaust novel by Johnathan Littell, draws not only its title, but also many of its themes and its structure from Aeschylus's Oresteia trilogy. Notes[edit] ^ "Erinyes". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. Retrieved 12 September 2013. ^ Lidell and Scott, s.v. Ἐρινύς ^ Homer, Iliad 19.259–260; see also Iliad 3.278–279. ^ Burkert, p. 198 ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Furies" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ^ Servius, Commentary on Virgil, Aeneid 4.609. ^ John Lemprière (1832). Lemprière's Classical Dictionary for Schools and Academies: Containing Every Name That Is Either Important or Useful in the Original Work, p. 150. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 173–206. ^ Aeschylus Eumenides 321; Lycophron 432; Virgil, Aeneid 6.250; Ovid Metamorphoses 4.453. ^ Graves, pp. 33–34. ^ When she had spoken these words, fearsome, she sought the earth: and summoned Allecto, the grief-bringer, from the house of the Fatal Furies, from the infernal shadows: in whose mind are sad wars, angers and deceits, and guilty crimes. A monster, hated by her own father Pluto, hateful to her Tartarean sisters: she assumes so many forms, her features are so savage, she sports so many black vipers. Juno roused her with these words, saying: ‘Grant me a favour of my own, virgin daughter of Night, this service, so that my honour and glory are not weakened, and give way, and the people of Aeneas cannot woo Latinus with intermarriage, or fill the bounds of Italy (Aeneid 7.323 - Verg. A. 7.334 ). ^ Men speak of twin plagues, named the Dread Ones, whom Night bore untimely, in one birth with Tartarean Megaera, wreathing them equally in snaky coils, and adding wings swift as the wind (Aeneid 12.845-12, 848ff.). ^ Chadwick, p. 98: "Then comes a surprising figure: Erinus, the later name, usually in the plural, for the Furies or avenging spirits believed to pursue murderers. The same name has now been deciphered on the edge of the famous list of Greek gods at Knossos (V 52) with which I began this chapter." ^ Chadwick, p. 98: "Here we have another reference to Erinus (Fh 390)..." ^ a b Graves, pp. 122–123. ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Aabo%3Aphi%2C0690%2C003%3A7%3A339 ^ Pausanias, 1.28.6 (trans. Jones) ^ Trousdell, Richard (2008). "Tragedy and Transformation: The Oresteia of Aeschylus". Jung Journal. 2 (3): 5–38. doi:10.1525/jung.2008.2.3.5. JSTOR 10.1525/jung.2008.2.3.5. ^ Henrichs, Albert (1994). "Anonymity and Polarity: Unknown Gods and Nameless Altars at the Areopagos". Illinois Classical Studies. 19: 27–58. JSTOR 23065418. ^ Hester, D. A. (1981). "The Casting Vote". The American Journal of Philology. 102 (3): 265–274. JSTOR 294130. ^ Mace, Sarah (2004). "Why the Oresteia's Sleeping Dead Won't Lie, Part II: "Choephoroi" and "Eumenides"". The Classical Journal. 100 (1): 39–60. JSTOR 4133005. ^ Gantz, p. 832. ^ Suid. s.v. Ἄλλα δ' ἀλλαχοῦ καλά ^ Hoad, Phil (30 August 2019). "Memory: The Origins of Alien review – inside the secret psyche of a monster". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 1 October 2019. ^ Powell, Anthony. The Kindly Ones. London: Heinemann, 1962. References[edit] Aeschylus, "Oresteia". Trans. Lloyd-Jones. Lines 788–1047. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Leiden: E.J. Brill. Burkert, Walter, 1977 (tr. 1985). Greek Religion (Harvard University Press). Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29037-1. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Graves, Robert; The Greek Myths, Moyer Bell Ltd; Unabridged edition (December 1988), ISBN 0-918825-80-6. Hesiod, Theogony. trans. Hugh G. Evelyn-White. 1914. Lines 176–206. Online Text: Perseus Project. Tufts University. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A. T. Murray, PhD in Two Volumes. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Littleton, Scott. Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4. Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2005. Google Book Search. Web. 24 October 2011. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Scull, S. A. Greek Mythology Systematized. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, 1880. Print. Virgil, Aeneid vii, 324, 341, 415, 476. Wilk, Stephen R. Medusa: Solving the Mystery of the Gorgon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Google Book Search. Web. 24 October 2011. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Erinyes. 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en-wikipedia-org-7901	----	Otto Gruppe - Wikipedia Otto Gruppe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For his father, see Otto Friedrich Gruppe. For the German military term Gruppe, see Glossary of German military terms. Otto Gruppe (18 July 1851, Berlin – 27 November 1921, Berlin) was a German mythographer, remembered for his Griechische Mythologie und Religion-Geschichte (1906), in which used surviving texts to survey the historical development of Greek mythology and religion. He was also the author of Geschichte der Klassischen Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte während des Mittelalters in Abendland und während der Neuzeit (History of Classical Mythology and History of Religion in Medieval Western Europe and the Modern Age). Otto Gruppe was the son of the philosopher, scholar-poet and philologist Otto Friedrich Gruppe (1804–1876). References[edit] Ludwig Bernays (ed.), Otto Friedrich Gruppe 1804-1876: Philosoph, Dichter, Philologe. (Paradeigmata 3) (Freiburg-in-Breisgau: Rombach Verlag) 2004. ISBN 3-7930-9377-8 External links[edit] Works by or about Otto Gruppe at Internet Archive Works by or about Otto Gruppe in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Otto Gruppe de.Wikisource Authority control BNE: XX1291563 BNF: cb13164613z (data) GND: 116901632 ISNI: 0000 0000 8146 320X LCCN: no2002018299 NLG: 138483 NLP: A23132115 NTA: 068117760 PLWABN: 9810700360005606 SUDOC: 034964878 VcBA: 495/154855 VIAF: 66603923 WorldCat Identities: lccn-no2002018299 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otto_Gruppe&oldid=988065998" Categories: 1851 births 1921 deaths Mythographers Writers from Berlin German classical philologists Hidden categories: Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Ελληνικά Edit links This page was last edited on 10 November 2020, at 21:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-7983	----	Pluto (mythology) - Wikipedia Pluto (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search God in Greek mythology For the dwarf planet, see Pluto. For other uses, see Pluto (disambiguation). Ploutos with the horn of abundance, in the company of Dionysos (4th century BC) Pluto (Latin: Plūtō; Greek: Πλούτων, Ploútōn) was the ruler of the underworld in classical mythology. The earlier name for the god was Hades, which became more common as the name of the underworld itself. In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pluto represents a more positive concept of the god who presides over the afterlife. Ploutōn was frequently conflated with Ploutos, the Greek god of wealth, because mineral wealth was found underground, and because as a chthonic god Pluto ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.[1] The name Ploutōn came into widespread usage with the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which Pluto was venerated as both a stern ruler and a loving husband to Persephone. The couple received souls in the afterlife and are invoked together in religious inscriptions, being referred to as Plouton and as Kore respectively. Hades, by contrast, had few temples and religious practices associated with him, and he is portrayed as the dark and violent abductor of Persephone. Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share two dominant myths. In Greek cosmogony, the god received the rule of the underworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brother Zeus ruling the sky and his other brother Poseidon sovereign over the sea. His central narrative in myth is of him abducting Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.[2] Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in Greek literature of the Classical period, in the works of the Athenian playwrights and of the philosopher Plato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of a quest-object, and especially in the descent of Orpheus or other heroes to the underworld.[3] Plūtō ([ˈpluːtoː]; genitive Plūtōnis) is the Latinized form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto's Roman equivalent is Dis Pater, whose name is most often taken to mean "Rich Father" and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman Orcus, like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the dead in Latin literature, leading some mythology handbooks to assert misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades.[4][citation needed] Pluto (Pluton in French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for the classical ruler of the underworld in subsequent Western literature and other art forms. Contents 1 Hesiod 2 Plouton and Ploutos 2.1 Other identifications 3 Mythology 3.1 Offspring 3.2 Pluto and Orpheus 4 Mysteries and cult 4.1 Orphic Hymn to Pluto 4.2 Magic invocations 4.3 Sanctuaries of Pluto 5 Iconography and attributes 5.1 In Eleusinian scenes 5.2 The keys of Pluto 5.3 Vegetation and color 5.4 The helmet of invisibility 5.5 Bident 6 In Greek literature and philosophy 7 Theogonies and cosmology 7.1 Euhemerism and Latinization 7.2 Orphic and philosophical systems 7.2.1 Plouton Helios 7.2.2 Plutonius 7.2.3 Neoplatonic demiurge 8 In Western art and literature 8.1 Christianization 8.2 Medieval mythography 8.3 Medieval and Renaissance literature 8.4 Opera and ballet 8.5 Fine art 8.6 Modern literature 9 Scientific terms 10 Notes 11 External links Hesiod[edit] A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC The name Plouton does not appear in Greek literature of the Archaic period.[5] In Hesiod's Theogony, the six children of Cronus and Rhea are Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. The male children divide the world into three realms. Hades takes Persephone by force from her mother Demeter, with the consent of Zeus. Ploutos, "Wealth," appears in the Theogony as the child of Demeter and Iasion: "fine Plutus, who goes upon the whole earth and the broad back of the sea, and whoever meets him and comes into his hands, that man he makes rich, and he bestows much wealth upon him." The union of Demeter and Iasion, described also in the Odyssey,[6] took place in a fallow field that had been ploughed three times, in what seems to be a reference to a ritual copulation or sympathetic magic to ensure the earth's fertility.[7] "The resemblance of the name Ploutos to Plouton ...," it has been noted, "cannot be accidental. Plouton is lord of the dead, but as Persephone's husband he has serious claims to the powers of fertility."[8] Demeter's son Plutus merges in the narrative tradition with her son-in-law Pluto, redefining the implacable chariot-driver Hades whose horses trample the flowering earth.[9] That the underworld god was associated early on with success in agricultural activity is already evident in Hesiod's Works and Days, line 465-469: "Pray to Zeus of the Earth and to pure Demeter to make Demeter's holy grain sound and heavy, when first you begin ploughing, when you hold in your hand the end of the plough-tail and bring down your stick on the backs of the oxen as they draw on the pole-bar by the yoke-straps."[10] Plouton and Ploutos[edit] Plouton was one of several euphemistic names for Hades, described in the Iliad as the god most hateful to mortals.[11] Plato says that people prefer the name Plouton, "giver of wealth," because the name of Hades is fear-provoking.[12] The name was understood as referring to "the boundless riches of the earth, both the crops on its surface—he was originally a god of the land—and the mines hidden within it."[13] What is sometimes taken as "confusion" of the two gods Plouton and Ploutos ("Wealth") held or acquired a theological significance in antiquity. As a lord of abundance or riches, Pluto expresses the aspect of the underworld god that was positive, symbolized in art by the "horn of plenty" (cornucopia),[14] by means of which Plouton is distinguished from the gloomier Hades.[15] The Roman poet Ennius (ca. 239–169 BC), the leading figure in the Hellenization of Latin literature, considered Pluto a Greek god to be explained in terms of the Roman equivalents Dis Pater and Orcus.[16] It is unclear whether Pluto had a literary presence in Rome before Ennius. Some scholars think that rituals and beliefs pertaining to Pluto entered Roman culture with the establishment of the Saecular Games in 249 BC, and that Dis pater was only a translation of Plouton.[17] In the mid-1st century BC, Cicero identifies Pluto with Dis, explaining that "The earth in all its power and plenty is sacred to Father Dis, a name which is the same as Dives, 'The Wealthy One,' as is the Greek Plouton. This is because everything is born of the earth and returns to it again."[18] During the Roman Imperial era, the Greek geographer Strabo (1st century AD) makes a distinction between Pluto and Hades. In writing of the mineral wealth of ancient Iberia (Roman Spain), he says that among the Turdetani, it is "Pluto, and not Hades, who inhabits the region down below."[19] In the discourse On Mourning by the Greek author Lucian (2nd century AD), Pluto's "wealth" is the dead he rules over in the abyss (chasma); the name Hades is reserved for the underworld itself.[20] Other identifications[edit] In Greek religious practice, Pluto is sometimes seen as the "chthonic Zeus" (Zeus Chthonios[21] or Zeus Catachthonios[22]), or at least as having functions or significance equivalent to those of Zeus but pertaining to the earth or underworld.[23] In ancient Roman and Hellenistic religion, Pluto was identified with a number of other deities, including Summanus, the Roman god of nocturnal thunder;[24] Februus, the Roman god from whose purification rites the month of February takes its name;[25] the syncretic god Serapis, regarded as Pluto's Egyptian equivalent;[26] and the Semitic god Muth (Μούθ). Muth was described by Philo of Byblos as the equivalent of both Thanatos (Death personified) and Pluto.[27] The ancient Greeks did not regard Pluto as "death" per se.[28] Mythology[edit] See also: Abduction of Persephone Pluton (1884–86) by Henri Chapu, part of a pair with a standing Persephone gathering flowers The best-known myth involving Pluto or Hades is the abduction of Persephone, also known as Kore ("the Maiden"). The earliest literary versions of the myth are a brief mention in Hesiod's Theogony and the extended narrative of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter; in both these works, the ruler of the underworld is named as Hades ("the Hidden One"). Hades is an unsympathetic figure, and Persephone's unwillingness is emphasized.[29] Increased usage of the name Plouton in religious inscriptions and literary texts reflects the influence of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which treated Pluto and Persephone as a divine couple who received initiates in the afterlife; as such, Pluto was disassociated from the "violent abductor" of Kore.[30] Two early works that give the abductor god's name as Pluto are the Greek mythography traditionally known as the Library of "Apollodorus" (1st century BC)[31] and the Latin Fables of Hyginus (ca. 64 BC–AD 17).[32] The most influential version of the abduction myth is that of Ovid (d. 17 or 18 AD), who tells the story in both the Metamorphoses (Book 5) and the Fasti (Book 4).[33] Another major retelling, also in Latin, is the long unfinished poem De raptu Proserpinae ("On the Abduction of Proserpina") by Claudian (d. 404 AD). Ovid uses the name Dis, not Pluto in these two passages,[34] and Claudian uses Pluto only once; translators and editors, however, sometimes supply the more familiar "Pluto" when other epithets appear in the source text.[35] The abduction myth was a popular subject for Greek and Roman art, and recurs throughout Western art and literature, where the name "Pluto" becomes common (see Pluto in Western art and literature below). Narrative details from Ovid and Claudian influence these later versions in which the abductor is named as Pluto, especially the role of Venus and Cupid in manipulating Pluto with love and desire.[36] Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and certainly by the time of Natale Conti's influential Mythologiae (1567), the traditions pertaining to the various rulers of the classical underworld coalesced into a single mythology that made few if any distinctions among Hades, Pluto, Dis, and Orcus. Offspring[edit] Unlike his freely procreating brothers Zeus and Poseidon, Pluto is monogamous, and is rarely said to have children.[37] In Orphic texts,[38] the chthonic nymph Melinoe is the daughter of Persephone by Zeus disguised as Pluto,[39] and the Eumenides ("The Kindly Ones") are the offspring of Persephone and Zeus Chthonios, often identified as Pluto.[40] The Augustan poet Vergil says that Pluto is the father of Allecto the Fury, whom he hates.[41] The lack of a clear distinction between Pluto and "chthonic Zeus" confuses the question of whether in some traditions, now obscure, Persephone bore children to her husband. In the late 4th century AD, Claudian's epic on the abduction motivates Pluto with a desire for children. The poem is unfinished, however, and anything Claudian may have known of these traditions is lost.[42] Justin Martyr (2nd century AD) alludes to children of Pluto, but neither names nor enumerates them.[43] Hesychius (5th century AD) mentions a "son of Pluto."[44] In his 14th-century mythography, Boccaccio records a tradition in which Pluto was the father of the divine personification Veneratio ("Reverence"), noting that she had no mother because Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) was sterile.[45] In The Faerie Queene (1590s), Edmund Spenser invents a daughter for Pluto whom he calls Lucifera.[46] The character's name was taken from the 16th-century mythography of Natale Conti, who used it as the Latin translation of Greek phosphor, "light-bearer," a regular epithet of Hecate.[47] Spenser incorporated aspects of the mysteries into The Faerie Queene.[48] Pluto and Orpheus[edit] Orpheus before Pluto and Proserpina (1605), by Jan Brueghel the Elder Orpheus was regarded as a founder and prophet of the mysteries called "Orphic," "Dionysiac," or "Bacchic." Mythologized for his ability to entrance even animals and trees with his music, he was also credited in antiquity with the authorship of the lyrics that have survived as the Orphic Hymns, among them a hymn to Pluto. Orpheus's voice and lyre-playing represented a medium of revelation or higher knowledge for the mystery cults.[49] In his central myth, Orpheus visits the underworld in the hope of retrieving his bride, Eurydice, relying on the power of his music to charm the king and queen of Hades. Greek narratives of Orpheus's descent and performance typically name the ruler of the underworld as Plouton, as for instance in the Bibliotheca.[50] The myth demonstrates the importance of Pluto "the Rich" as the possessor of a quest-object. Orpheus performing before Pluto and Persephone was a common subject of ancient and later Western literature and art, and one of the most significant mythological themes of the classical tradition.[51] The demonstration of Orpheus's power depends on the normal obduracy of Pluto; the Augustan poet Horace describes him as incapable of tears.[52] Claudian, however, portrays the steely god as succumbing to Orpheus's song so that "with iron cloak he wipes his tears" (ferrugineo lacrimas deterget amictu), an image renewed by Milton in Il Penseroso (106–107): "Such notes ... / Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek."[53] The Greek writer Lucian (ca. 125–after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto's love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death.[54] In one of Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead, Pluto questions Protesilaus, the first Greek hero killed in the Trojan War, who wishes to return to the world of the living. "You are then in love with life?" Pluto asks. "Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain." Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even the Lethe's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and to Alcestis, who took her husband's place in death and then was permitted at the insistence of Heracles to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.[55] Mysteries and cult[edit] Hydria (ca. 340 BC) depicting figures from the Eleusinian Mysteries As Pluto gained importance as an embodiment of agricultural wealth within the Eleusinian Mysteries, from the 5th century BC onward the name Hades was increasingly reserved for the underworld as a place.[56] Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditional Twelve Olympians, and Hades seems to have received limited cult,[57] perhaps only at Elis, where the temple was opened once a year.[58] During the time of Plato, the Athenians periodically honored the god called Plouton with the "strewing of a couch" (tên klinên strôsai).[59] At Eleusis, Plouton had his own priestess.[60] Pluto was worshipped with Persephone as a divine couple at Knidos, Ephesos, Mytilene, and Sparta as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God (Theos) and Goddess (Thea).[61] In the ritual texts of the mystery religions preserved by the so-called Orphic or Bacchic gold tablets, from the late 5th century BC onward[62] the name Hades appears more frequently than Plouton, but in reference to the underground place:[63] Plouton is the ruler who presides over it in a harmonious partnership[64] with Persephone.[65] By the end of the 4th century BC, the name Plouton appears in Greek metrical inscriptions.[66] Two fragmentary tablets greet Pluto and Persephone jointly,[67] and the divine couple appear as welcoming figures in a metrical epitaph: I know that even below the earth, if there is indeed a reward for the worthy ones, the first and foremost honors, nurse,[68] shall be yours, next to Persephone and Pluto.[69] Hesychius identifies Pluto with Eubouleus,[70] but other ancient sources distinguish between these two underworld deities. In the Mysteries Eubouleus plays the role of a torchbearer, possibly a guide for the initiate's return.[71] In the view of Lewis Richard Farnell, Eubouleus was originally a title referring to the "good counsel" the ruler of the underworld was able to give and which was sought at Pluto's dream oracles; by the 2nd century BC, however, he had acquired a separate identity.[72] Orphic Hymn to Pluto[edit] The Orphic Hymn to Pluto addresses the god as "strong-spirited" and the "All-Receiver" who commands death and is the master of mortals. His titles are given as Zeus Chthonios and Euboulos ("Good Counsel").[73] In the hymn's topography, Pluto's dwelling is in Tartarus, simultaneously a "meadow" and "thick-shaded and dark," where the Acheron encircles "the roots of the earth." Hades is again the name of the place, here described as "windless," and its gates, through which Pluto carried "pure Demeter's daughter" as his bride, are located in an Attic cave within the district of Eleusis. The route from Persephone's meadow to Hades crosses the sea. The hymn concludes: You alone were born to judge deeds obscure and conspicuous. Holiest and illustrious ruler of all, frenzied god, You delight in the worshiper's respect and reverence. Come with favor and joy to the initiates. I summon you.[74] The hymn is one of several examples of Greco-Roman prayer that express a desire for the presence of a deity, and has been compared to a similar epiclesis in the Acts of Thomas.[75] Magic invocations[edit] The names of both Hades and Pluto appear also in the Greek Magical Papyri and curse tablets, with Hades typically referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto regularly invoked as the partner of Persephone.[76] Five Latin curse tablets from Rome, dating to the mid-1st century BC, promise Persephone and Pluto an offering of "dates, figs, and a black pig" if the curse is fulfilled by the desired deadline. The pig was a characteristic animal sacrifice to chthonic deities, whose victims were almost always black or dark in color.[77] A set of curse tablets written in Doric Greek and found in a tomb addresses a Pasianax, "Lord to All,"[78] sometimes taken as a title of Pluto,[79] but more recently thought to be a magical name for the corpse.[80] Pasianax is found elsewhere as an epithet of Zeus, or in the tablets may invoke a daimon like Abrasax.[81] Sanctuaries of Pluto[edit] Main article: Ploutonion A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called a ploutonion (Latin plutonium). The complex at Eleusis for the mysteries had a ploutonion regarded as the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos, in another instance of conflation or close association of the two gods.[82] Greek inscriptions record an altar of Pluto, which was to be "plastered", that is, resurfaced for a new round of sacrifices at Eleusis.[83] One of the known ploutonia was in the sacred grove between Tralleis and Nysa, where a temple of Pluto and Persephone was located. Visitors sought healing and dream oracles.[84] The ploutonion at Hierapolis, Phrygia, was connected to the rites of Cybele, but during the Roman Imperial era was subsumed by the cult of Apollo, as confirmed by archaeological investigations during the 1960s. It too was a dream oracle.[85] The sites often seem to have been chosen because the presence of naturally occurring mephitic vapors was thought to indicate an opening to the underworld.[86] In Italy, Avernus was considered an entrance to the underworld that produced toxic vapors, but Strabo seems not to think that it was a ploutonion.[87] Iconography and attributes[edit] Plouton with cornucopia (Attic red-figure amphora, ca. 470 BC) In Eleusinian scenes[edit] Kevin Clinton attempted to distinguish the iconography of Hades, Plouton, Ploutos, and the Eleusinian Theos in 5th-century vase painting that depicts scenes from or relating to the mysteries. In Clinton's schema, Plouton is a mature man, sometimes even white-haired; Hades is also usually bearded and mature, but his darkness is emphasized in literary descriptions, represented in art by dark hair. Plouton's most common attribute is a sceptre, but he also often holds a full or overflowing cornucopia; Hades sometimes holds a horn, but it is depicted with no contents and should be understood as a drinking horn. Unlike Plouton, Hades never holds agrarian attributes such as stalks of grain. His chest is usually bare or only partly covered, whereas Plouton is fully robed (exceptions, however, are admitted by the author). Plouton stands, often in the company of both Demeter and Kore, or sometimes one of the goddesses, but Hades almost always sits or reclines, usually with Persephone facing him.[88] "Confusion and disagreement" about the interpretation of these images remain.[89] The keys of Pluto[edit] Pluto (1592) by Agostino Carracci, probably influenced by the description in Vincenzo Cartari's mythography,[90] with the god holding his scepter and key, Cerberus at his side Attributes of Pluto mentioned in the Orphic Hymn to Pluto are his scepter, keys, throne, and horses. In the hymn, the keys are connected to his capacity for giving wealth to humanity, specifically the agricultural wealth of "the year's fruits." Pausanias explains the significance of Pluto's key in describing a wondrously carved cedar chest at the Temple of Hera in Elis. Numerous deities are depicted, with one panel grouping Dionysus, Persephone, the nymphs and Pluto. Pluto holds a key because "they say that what is called Hades has been locked up by Pluto, and that nobody will return back again therefrom."[91] Natale Conti cites Pausanias in noting that keys are an attribute of Pluto as the scepter is of Jove (Greek Zeus) and the trident of Neptune (Poseidon).[92] A golden key (chrusea klês) was laid on the tongue of initiates by priests at Eleusis[93] and was a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret.[94] A key is among the attributes of other infernal deities such as Hecate, Anubis, and Persephone, and those who act as guardians or timekeepers, such as Janus and Aion.[95] Aeacus (Aiakos), one of the three mortal kings who became judges in the afterlife, is also a kleidouchos (κλειδοῦχος), "holder of the keys," and a priestly doorkeeper in the court of Pluto and Persephone.[96] Vegetation and color[edit] According to the Stoic philosopher Cornutus (1st century AD), Pluto wore a wreath of phasganion, more often called xiphion,[97] traditionally identified as a type of gladiolus.[98] Dioscorides recorded medical uses for the plant. For extracting stings and thorns, xiphion was mixed with wine and frankincense to make a cataplasm. The plant was also used as an aphrodisiac[99] and contraceptive.[100] It grew in humid places. In an obscure passage, Cornutus seems to connect Pluto's wearing of phasganion to an etymology for Avernus, which he derives from the word for "air," perhaps through some association with the color glaukos, "bluish grey," "greenish" or "sea-colored," which might describe the plant's leaves. Because the color could describe the sky, Cornutus regularly gives it divine connotations.[101] Pluto's twin sister was named Glauca. Ambiguity of color is characteristic of Pluto. Although both he and his realm are regularly described as dark, black, or gloomy, the god himself is sometimes seen as pale or having a pallor. Martianus Capella (5th century) describes him as both "growing pale in shadow, a fugitive from light" and actively "shedding darkness in the gloom of Tartarean night," crowned with a wreath made of ebony as suitable for the kingdom he governs.[102] The horses of Pluto are usually black, but Ovid describes them as "sky-colored" (caeruleus, from caelum, "sky"), which might be blue, greenish-blue, or dark blue.[103] The Renaissance mythographer Natale Conti says wreaths of narcissus, maidenhair fern (adianthus), and cypress were given to Pluto.[104] In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Gaia (Earth) produced the narcissus at Zeus's request as a snare for Persephone; when she grasps it, a chasm opens up and the "Host to Many" (Hades) seizes her.[105] Narcissus wreaths were used in early times to crown Demeter and Persephone, as well as the Furies (Eumenides).[106] The flower was associated with narcotic drugginess (narkê, "torpor"),[107] erotic fascination,[108] and imminent death;[109] to dream of crowning oneself with narcissus was a bad sign.[110] In the myth of Narcissus, the flower is created when a beautiful, self-absorbed youth rejects sexuality and is condemned to perpetual self-love along the Styx.[111] Conti's inclusion of adianthus (Adiantum in modern nomenclature) is less straightforward. The name, meaning "unmoistened" (Greek adianton), was taken in antiquity to refer to the fern's ability to repel water. The plant, which grew in wet places, was also called capillus veneris, "hair of Venus," divinely dry when she emerged from the sea.[112] Historian of medicine John M. Riddle has suggested that the adianthus was one of the ferns Dioscorides called asplenon and prescribed as a contraceptive (atokios).[113] The associations of Proserpine (Persephone) and the maidenhair are alluded to by Samuel Beckett in a 1946 poem, in which the self is a Platonic cave with capillaires, in French both "maidenhair fern" and "blood vessels".[114] An ageing specimen of Mediterranean cypress The cypress (Greek cyparissus, Latin cupressus) has traditional associations with mourning.[115] In ancient Attica, households in mourning were garlanded with cypress,[116] and it was used to fumigate the air during cremations.[117] In the myth of Cyparissus, a youth was transformed into a cypress, consumed by grief over the accidental death of a pet stag.[118] A "white cypress" is part of the topography of the underworld that recurs in the Orphic gold tablets as a kind of beacon near the entrance, perhaps to be compared with the Tree of Life in various world mythologies. The description of the cypress as "white" (Greek leukē), since the botanical tree is dark, is symbolic, evoking the white garments worn by initiates or the clothing of a corpse, or the pallor of the dead. In Orphic funeral rites, it was forbidden to make coffins of cypress.[119] The tradition of the mystery religions favors Pluto as a loving and faithful partner to Persephone, in contrast to the violence of Hades in early myths, but one ancient myth that preserves a lover for him parallels the abduction and also has a vegetative aspect.[120] A Roman source says that Pluto fell in love with Leuca (Greek Leukē, "White"), the most beautiful of the nymphs, and abducted her to live with him in his realm. After the long span of her life came to its end, he memorialized their love by creating a white tree in the Elysian Fields. The tree was the white poplar (Greek leukē), the leaves of which are white on one side and dark on the other, representing the duality of upper and underworld.[121] A wreath of white poplar leaves was fashioned by Heracles to mark his ascent from the underworld, an aition for why it was worn by initiates[122] and by champion athletes participating in funeral games.[123] Like other plants associated with Pluto, white poplar was regarded as a contraceptive in antiquity.[124] The relation of this tree to the white cypress of the mysteries is debated.[125] The helmet of invisibility[edit] The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus uses the name Plouton instead of Hades in relating the tripartite division of sovereignty, the abduction of Persephone, and the visit of Orpheus to the underworld. This version of the theogony for the most part follows Hesiod (see above), but adds that the three brothers were each given a gift by the Cyclopes to use in their battle against the Titans: Zeus thunder and lightning; Poseidon a trident; and Pluto a helmet (kyneê).[126] The helmet Pluto receives is presumably the magical Cap of Invisibility (aidos kyneê), but the Bibliotheca is the only ancient source that explicitly says it belonged to Pluto.[127] The verbal play of aidos, "invisible," and Hades is thought to account for this attribution of the helmet to the ruler of the underworld, since no ancient narratives record his use or possession of it. Later authors such as Rabelais (16th century) do attribute the helmet to Pluto.[128] Erasmus calls it the "helmet of Orcus"[129] and gives it as a figure of speech referring to those who conceal their true nature by a cunning device. Francis Bacon notes the proverbial usage: "the helmet of Pluto, which maketh the politic man go invisible, is secrecy in the counsel, and celerity in the execution."[130] Bident[edit] Pluto (1588–89) with bident, chiaroscuro woodcut from a series on gods and goddesses by Hendrik Goltzius No ancient image of the ruler of the underworld can be said with certainty to show him with a bident,[131] though the ornamented tip of his scepter may have been misunderstood at times as a bident.[132] In the Roman world, the bident (from bi-, "two" + dent-, "teeth") was an agricultural implement. It may also represent one of the three types of lightning wielded by Jupiter, the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and the Etruscan Tinia. The later notion that the ruler of the underworld wielded a trident or bident can perhaps be traced to a line in Seneca's Hercules Furens ("Hercules Enraged"), in which Father Dis, the Roman counterpart of Pluto, uses a three-pronged spear to drive off Hercules as he attempts to invade the underworld. Seneca calls Dis the "Infernal Jove"[133] or the "dire Jove"[134] (the Jove who gives dire or ill omens, dirae), just as in the Greek tradition, Plouton is sometimes identified as a "chthonic Zeus." That the trident and bident might be somewhat interchangeable is suggested by a Byzantine scholiast, who mentions Poseidon being armed with a bident.[135] In the Middle Ages, classical underworld figures began to be depicted with a pitchfork.[136] Early Christian writers had identified the classical underworld with Hell, and its denizens as demons or devils.[137] In the Renaissance, the bident became a conventional attribute of Pluto. In an influential ceiling mural depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche, painted by Raphael's workshop for the Villa Farnesina in 1517, Pluto is shown holding the bident, with Cerberus at his side, while Neptune holds the trident.[138] Perhaps influenced by this work, Agostino Carracci originally depicted Pluto with a bident in a preparatory drawing for his painting Pluto (1592), in which the god ended up holding his characteristic key.[139] In Caravaggio's Giove, Nettuno e Plutone (ca. 1597), a ceiling mural based on alchemical allegory, it is Neptune who holds the bident.[140] In Greek literature and philosophy[edit] Persephone and Pluto[141] or Hades[142] on a pinax from Locri The name Plouton is first used in Greek literature by Athenian playwrights.[58] In Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs (Batrachoi, 405 BC), in which "the Eleusinian colouring is in fact so pervasive,"[143] the ruler of the underworld is one of the characters, under the name of Plouton. The play depicts a mock descent to the underworld by the god Dionysus to bring back one of the dead tragic playwrights in the hope of restoring Athenian theater to its former glory. Pluto is a silent presence onstage for about 600 lines presiding over a contest among the tragedians, then announces that the winner has the privilege of returning to the upper world.[144] The play also draws on beliefs and imagery from Orphic and Dionysiac cult, and rituals pertaining to Ploutos (Plutus, "wealth").[145] In a fragment from another play by Aristophanes, a character "is comically singing of the excellent aspects of being dead", asking in reference to the tripartition of sovereignty over the world: And where do you think Pluto gets his name [i.e. "rich"], if not because he took the best portion? ... How much better are things below than what Zeus possesses! [146] To Plato, the god of the underworld was "an agent in [the] beneficent cycle of death and rebirth" meriting worship under the name of Plouton, a giver of spiritual wealth.[147] In the dialogue Cratylus, Plato has Socrates explain the etymology of Plouton, saying that Pluto gives wealth (ploutos), and his name means "giver of wealth, which comes out of the earth beneath". Because the name Hades is taken to mean "the invisible", people fear what they cannot see; although they are in error about the nature of this deity's power, Socrates says, "the office and name of the God really correspond": He is the perfect and accomplished Sophist, and the great benefactor of the inhabitants of the other world; and even to us who are upon earth he sends from below exceeding blessings. For he has much more than he wants down there; wherefore he is called Pluto (or the rich). Note also, that he will have nothing to do with men while they are in the body, but only when the soul is liberated from the desires and evils of the body. Now there is a great deal of philosophy and reflection in that; for in their liberated state he can bind them with the desire of virtue, but while they are flustered and maddened by the body, not even father Cronos himself would suffice to keep them with him in his own far-famed chains.[148] Since "the union of body and soul is not better than the loosing,"[149] death is not an evil. Walter Burkert thus sees Pluto as a "god of dissolution."[150] Among the titles of Pluto was Isodaitēs, "divider into equal portions," a title that connects him to the fate goddesses the Moirai.[151] Isodaitēs was also a cult title for Dionysus and Helios.[152] In ordering his ideal city, Plato proposed a calendar in which Pluto was honored as a benefactor in the twelfth month, implicitly ranking him as one of the twelve principal deities.[153] In the Attic calendar, the twelfth month, more or less equivalent to June, was Skirophorion; the name may be connected to the rape of Persephone.[154] Theogonies and cosmology[edit] Euhemerism and Latinization[edit] In the theogony of Euhemerus (4th century BC), the gods were treated as mortal rulers whose deeds were immortalized by tradition. Ennius translated Euhemerus into Latin about a hundred years later, and a passage from his version was in turn preserved by the early Christian writer Lactantius.[155] Here the union of Saturn (the Roman equivalent of Cronus) and Ops, an Italic goddess of abundance, produces Jupiter (Greek Zeus), Juno (Hera), Neptune, Pluto, and Glauca: Then Saturn took Ops to wife. Titan, the elder brother, demanded the kingship for himself. Vesta their mother, with their sisters Ceres [Demeter] and Ops, persuaded Saturn not to give way to his brother in the matter. Titan was less good-looking than Saturn; for that reason, and also because he could see his mother and sisters working to have it so, he conceded the kingship to Saturn, and came to terms with him: if Saturn had a male child born to him, it would not be reared. This was done to secure reversion of the kingship to Titan's children. They then killed the first son that was born to Saturn. Next came twin children, Jupiter and Juno. Juno was given to Saturn to see while Jupiter was secretly removed and given to Vesta to be brought up without Saturn's knowledge. In the same way without Saturn knowing, Ops bore Neptune and hid him away. In her third labor Ops bore another set of twins, Pluto and Glauce. (Pluto in Latin is Dis pater;[156] some call him Orcus.) Saturn was shown his daughter Glauce but his son Pluto was hidden and removed. Glauce then died young. That is the pedigree, as written, of Jupiter and his brothers; that is how it has been passed down to us in holy scripture. In this theogony, which Ennius introduced into Latin literature, Saturn, "Titan,"[157] Vesta, Ceres, and Ops are siblings; Glauca is the twin of Pluto and dies mysteriously young. There are several mythological figures named Glauca; the sister of Pluto may be the Glauca who in Cicero's account of the three aspects of Diana conceived the third with the equally mysterious Upis.[158] This is the genealogy for Pluto that Boccaccio used in his Genealogia Deorum Gentilium and in his lectures explicating the Divine Comedy of Dante.[159] In Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles, dating mostly to the 2nd century AD, Rhea gives birth to Pluto as she passes by Dodona, "where the watery paths of the River Europus flowed, and the water ran into the sea, merged with the Peneius. This is also called the Stygian river."[160] Orphic and philosophical systems[edit] The Orphic theogonies are notoriously varied,[161] and Orphic cosmology influenced the varying Gnostic theogonies of late antiquity.[162] Clementine literature (4th century AD) preserves a theogony with explicit Orphic influence that also draws on Hesiod, yielding a distinctive role for Pluto. When the primordial elements came together by orderly cyclonic force, they produced a generative sphere, the "egg" from which the primeval Orphic entity Phanes is born and the world is formed. The release of Phanes and his ascent to the heavenly top of the world-egg causes the matter left in the sphere to settle in relation to weight, creating the tripartite world of the traditional theogonies:[163] Its lower part, the heaviest element, sinks downwards, and is called Pluto because of its gravity, weight, and great quantity (plêthos) of matter. After the separation of this heavy element in the middle part of the egg the waters flow together, which they call Poseidon. The purest and noblest element, the fire, is called Zeus, because its nature is glowing (ζέουσα, zeousa). It flies right up into the air, and draws up the spirit, now called Metis, that was left in the underlying moisture. And when this spirit has reached the summit of the ether, it is devoured by Zeus, who in his turn begets the intelligence (σύνεσις, sunesis), also called Pallas. And by this artistic intelligence the etherial artificer creates the whole world. This world is surrounded by the air, which extends from Zeus, the very hot ether, to the earth; this air is called Hera.[164] This cosmogony interprets Hesiod allegorically, and so the heaviest element is identified not as the Earth, but as the netherworld of Pluto.[165] (In modern geochemistry, plutonium is the heaviest primordial element.) Supposed etymologies are used to make sense of the relation of physical process to divine name; Plouton is here connected to plêthos (abundance).[166] In the Stoic system, Pluto represented the lower region of the air, where according to Seneca (1st century AD) the soul underwent a kind of purgatory before ascending to the ether.[167] Seneca's contemporary Cornutus made use of the traditional etymology of Pluto's name for Stoic theology. The Stoics believed that the form of a word contained the original truth of its meaning, which over time could become corrupted or obscured.[168] Plouton derived from ploutein, "to be wealthy," Cornutus said, because "all things are corruptible and therefore are 'ultimately consigned to him as his property.'"[169] Within the Pythagorean and Neoplatonic traditions, Pluto was allegorized as the region where souls are purified, located between the moon (as represented by Persephone) and the sun.[170] Neoplatonists sometimes interpreted the Eleusinian Mysteries as a fabula of celestial phenomena: Authors tell the fable that Ceres was Proserpina's mother, and that Proserpina while playing one day was kidnapped by Pluto. Her mother searched for her with lighted torches; and it was decreed by Jupiter that the mother should have her daughter for fifteen days in the month, but Pluto for the rest, the other fifteen. This is nothing but that the name Ceres is used to mean the earth, called Ceres on analogy with crees ('you may create'), for all things are created from her. By Proserpina is meant the moon, and her name is on analogy with prope serpens ('creeping near'), for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets. She is called earth's daughter, because her substance has more of earth in it than of the other elements. By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon.[171] Plouton Helios[edit] Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, ceiling mural (ca. 1597) by Caravaggio (see description under Fine art below) A dedicatory inscription from Smyrna describes a 1st–2nd century sanctuary to "God Himself" as the most exalted of a group of six deities, including clothed statues of Plouton Helios and Koure Selene, "Pluto the Sun" and "Kore the Moon."[172] The status of Pluto and Kore as a divine couple is marked by what the text describes as a "linen embroidered bridal curtain."[173] The two are placed as bride and groom within an enclosed temple, separately from the other deities cultivated at the sanctuary. Plouton Helios is mentioned in other literary sources in connection with Koure Selene and Helios Apollon; the sun on its nighttime course was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the underworld on its return to the east. Apuleius describes a rite in which the sun appears at midnight to the initiate at the gates of Proserpina; it has been suggested that this midnight sun could be Plouton Helios.[174] The Smyrna inscription also records the presence of Helios Apollon at the sanctuary. As two forms of Helios, Apollo and Pluto pose a dichotomy: Helios Apollon Plouton Helios One Many clarity invisibility bright dark memory oblivion[175] It has been argued that the sanctuary was in the keeping of a Pythagorean sodality or "brotherhood". The relation of Orphic beliefs to the mystic strand of Pythagoreanism, or of these to Platonism and Neoplatonism, is complex and much debated.[176] Plutonius[edit] Serapis with moon and sun on oil lamp In the Hellenistic era, the title or epithet Plutonius is sometimes affixed to the names of other deities. In the Hermetic Corpus,[177] Jupiter Plutonius "rules over earth and sea, and it is he who nourishes mortal things that have soul and bear fruit."[178] In Ptolemaic Alexandria, at the site of a dream oracle, Serapis was identified with Aion Plutonius.[179] Gilles Quispel conjectured that this figure results from the integration of the Orphic Phanes into Mithraic religion at Alexandria, and that he "assures the eternity of the city," where the birth of Aion was celebrated at the sanctuary of Kore on 6 January.[180] In Latin, Plutonius can be an adjective that simply means "of or pertaining to Pluto."[181] Neoplatonic demiurge[edit] The Neoplatonist Proclus (5th century AD) considered Pluto the third demiurge, a sublunar demiurge who was also identified variously with Poseidon or Hephaestus. This idea is present in Renaissance Neoplatonism, as for instance in the cosmology of Marsilio Ficino (1433–99),[182] who translated Orphic texts into Latin for his own use.[183] Ficino saw the sublunar demiurge as "a daemonic 'many-headed' sophist, a magus, an enchanter, a fashioner of images and reflections, a shape-changer of himself and of others, a poet in a way of being and of not-being, a royal Pluto." This demiurgic figure identified with Pluto is also "'a purifier of souls' who presides over the magic of love and generation and who uses a fantastic counter-art to mock, but also ... to supplement, the divine icastic or truly imitative art of the sublime translunar Demiurge."[184] In Western art and literature[edit] Etruscan Charun presiding over an execution Christianization[edit] Christian writers of late antiquity sought to discredit the competing gods of Roman and Hellenistic religions, often adopting the euhemerizing approach in regarding them not as divinities, but as people glorified through stories and cultic practices and thus not true deities worthy of worship. The infernal gods, however, retained their potency, becoming identified with the Devil and treated as demonic forces by Christian apologists.[185] One source of Christian revulsion toward the chthonic gods was the arena. Attendants in divine costume, among them a "Pluto" who escorted corpses out, were part of the ceremonies of the gladiatorial games.[186] Tertullian calls the mallet-wielding figure usually identified as the Etruscan Charun the "brother of Jove,"[187] that is, Hades/Pluto/Dis, an indication that the distinctions among these denizens of the underworld were becoming blurred in a Christian context.[188] Prudentius, in his poetic polemic against the religious traditionalist Symmachus, describes the arena as a place where savage vows were fulfilled on an altar to Pluto (solvit ad aram / Plutonis fera vota), where fallen gladiators were human sacrifices to Dis and Charon received their souls as his payment, to the delight of the underworld Jove (Iovis infernalis).[189] Medieval mythography[edit] Medieval mythographies, written in Latin, continue the conflation of Greek and Roman deities begun by the ancient Romans themselves. Perhaps because the name Pluto was used in both traditions, it appears widely in these Latin sources for the classical ruler of the underworld, who is also seen as the double, ally, or adjunct to the figure in Christian mythology known variously as the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer. The classical underworld deities became casually interchangeable with Satan as an embodiment of Hell.[190] For instance, in the 9th century, Abbo Cernuus, the only witness whose account of the Siege of Paris survives, called the invading Vikings the "spawn of Pluto."[191] In the Little Book on Images of the Gods, Pluto is described as an intimidating personage sitting on a throne of sulphur, holding the scepter of his realm in his right hand, and with his left strangling a soul. Under his feet three-headed Cerberus held a position, and beside him he had three Harpies. From his golden throne of sulphur flowed four rivers, which were called, as is known, Lethe, Cocytus, Phlegethon and Acheron, tributaries of the Stygian swamp.[192] This work derives from that of the Third Vatican Mythographer, possibly one Albricus or Alberic, who presents often extensive allegories and devotes his longest chapter, including an excursus on the nature of the soul, to Pluto.[193] Medieval and Renaissance literature[edit] Albrecht Dürer, Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516) In Dante's Divine Comedy (written 1308–1321), Pluto presides over the fourth circle of Hell, to which the greedy are condemned.[194] The Italian form of the name is Pluto, taken by some commentators[195] to refer specifically to Plutus as the god of wealth who would preside over the torment of those who hoarded or squandered it in life.[196] Dante's Pluto is greeted as "the great enemy"[197] and utters the famously impenetrable line Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe. Much of this Canto is devoted to the power of Fortuna to give and take away. Entrance into the fourth circle has marked a downward turn in the poet's journey, and the next landmark after he and his guide cross from the circle is the Stygian swamp, through which they pass on their way to the city of Dis (Italian Dite). Dante's clear distinction between Pluto and Dis suggests that he had Plutus in mind in naming the former. The city of Dis is the "citadel of Lower Hell" where the walls are garrisoned by fallen angels and Furies.[198] Pluto is treated likewise as a purely Satanic figure by the 16th-century Italian poet Tasso throughout his epic Jerusalem Delivered,[199] in which "great Dis, great Pluto" is invoked in the company of "all ye devils that lie in deepest hell."[200] Influenced by Ovid and Claudian, Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400)[201] developed the myth of Pluto and Proserpina (the Latin name of Persephone) in English literature. Like earlier medieval writers, Chaucer identifies Pluto's realm with Hell as a place of condemnation and torment,[202] and describes it as "derk and lowe" ("dark and low").[203] But Pluto's major appearance in the works of Chaucer comes as a character in "The Merchant's Tale," where Pluto is identified as the "Kyng of Fayerye" (Fairy King).[204] As in the anonymous romance Sir Orfeo (ca. 1300), Pluto and Proserpina rule over a fantastical world that melds classical myth and fairyland.[205] Chaucer has the couple engage in a comic battle of the sexes that undermines the Christian imagery in the tale, which is Chaucer's most sexually explicit.[206] The Scottish poet William Dunbar ca. 1503 also described Pluto as a folkloric supernatural being, "the elrich incubus / in cloke of grene" ("the eldritch incubus in cloak of green"), who appears among the courtiers of Cupid.[207] The name Pluto for the classical ruler of the underworld was further established in English literature by Arthur Golding, whose translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses (1565) was of great influence on William Shakespeare,[208] Christopher Marlowe,[209] and Edmund Spenser.[210][211] Golding translates Ovid's Dis as Pluto,[212] a practice that prevails among English translators, despite John Milton's use of the Latin Dis in Paradise Lost.[213] The Christian perception of the classical underworld as Hell influenced Golding's translation practices; for instance, Ovid's tenebrosa sede tyrannus / exierat ("the tyrant [Dis] had gone out of his shadowy realm") becomes "the prince of fiends forsook his darksome hole".[214] Pluto's court as a literary setting could bring together a motley assortment of characters. In Huon de Méry's 13th-century poem "The Tournament of the Antichrist", Pluto rules over a congregation of "classical gods and demigods, biblical devils, and evil Christians."[215] In the 15th-century dream allegory The Assembly of Gods, the deities and personifications are "apparelled as medieval nobility"[216] basking in the "magnyfycence" of their "lord Pluto," who is clad in a "smoky net" and reeking of sulphur.[217] Throughout the Renaissance, images and ideas from classical antiquity entered popular culture through the new medium of print and through pageants and other public performances at festivals. The Fête-Dieu at Aix-en-Provence in 1462 featured characters costumed as a number of classical deities, including Pluto,[218] and Pluto was the subject of one of seven pageants presented as part of the 1521 Midsummer Eve festival in London.[219] During the 15th century, no mythological theme was brought to the stage more often than Orpheus's descent, with the court of Pluto inspiring fantastical stagecraft.[220] Leonardo da Vinci designed a set with a rotating mountain that opened up to reveal Pluto emerging from the underworld; the drawing survives and was the basis for a modern recreation.[221] Opera and ballet[edit] The tragic descent of the hero-musician Orpheus to the underworld to retrieve his bride, and his performance at the court of Pluto and Proserpina, offered compelling material for librettists and composers of opera (see List of Orphean operas) and ballet. Pluto also appears in works based on other classical myths of the underworld. As a singing role, Pluto is almost always written for a bass voice, with the low vocal range representing the depths and weight of the underworld, as in Monteverdi and Rinuccini's L'Orfeo (1607) and Il ballo delle ingrate (1608). In their ballo, a form of ballet with vocal numbers, Cupid invokes Pluto from the underworld to lay claim to "ungrateful" women who were immune to love. Pluto's part is considered particularly virtuosic,[222] and a reviewer at the première described the character, who appeared as if from a blazing Inferno, as "formidable and awesome in sight, with garments as given him by poets, but burdened with gold and jewels."[223] Jean Raoux's Orpheus and Eurydice (1718–20), with Pluto and Proserpina releasing the couple The role of Pluto is written for a bass in Peri's Euridice (1600);[224] Caccini's Euridice (1602); Rossi's Orfeo (1647); Cesti's Il pomo d'oro (1668);[225] Sartoris's Orfeo (1672); Lully's Alceste, a tragédie en musique (1674);[226] Charpentier's chamber opera La descente d'Orphée aux enfers (1686);[227] Telemann's Orpheus (1726); and Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie (1733).[228] Pluto was a baritone in Lully's Proserpine (1680), which includes a duo dramatizing the conflict between the royal underworld couple that is notable for its early use of musical characterization.[229] Perhaps the most famous of the Orpheus operas is Offenbach's satiric Orpheus in the Underworld (1858),[230] in which a tenor sings the role of Pluton, disguised in the giddily convoluted plotting as Aristée (Aristaeus), a farmer. Scenes set in Pluto's realm were orchestrated with instrumentation that became conventionally "hellish", established in Monteverdi's L'Orfeo as two cornets, three trombones, a bassoon, and a régale.[231] Pluto has also been featured as a role in ballet. In Lully's "Ballet of Seven Planets'" interlude from Cavalli's opera Ercole amante ("Hercules in Love"), Louis XIV himself danced as Pluto and other characters; it was a spectacular flop.[232] Pluto appeared in Noverre's lost La descente d'Orphée aux Enfers (1760s). Gaétan Vestris danced the role of the god in Florian Deller's Orefeo ed Euridice (1763).[233] The Persephone choreographed by Robert Joffrey (1952) was based on André Gide's line "king of winters, the infernal Pluto."[234] Fine art[edit] Rembrandt's Abduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631) The abduction of Proserpina by Pluto was the scene from the myth most often depicted by artists, who usually follow Ovid's version. The influential emblem book Iconologia of Cesare Ripa (1593, second edition 1603) presents the allegorical figure of Rape with a shield on which the abduction is painted.[235] Jacob Isaacsz. van Swanenburg, the first teacher of Rembrandt, echoed Ovid in showing Pluto as the target of Cupid's arrow while Venus watches her plan carried out (location of painting unknown). The treatment of the scene by Rubens is similar. Rembrandt incorporates Claudian's more passionate characterizations.[236] The performance of Orpheus in the court of Pluto and Proserpina was also a popular subject. Major artists who produced works depicting Pluto include: Dürer, Abduction of Proserpine on a Unicorn (1516), etching (pictured under Medieval and Renaissance literature above). Dürer's first English biographer called this work "a wild, weird conception" that "produces a most uncomfortable, shuddering impression on the beholder."[237] The source or significance of the unicorn as the form of transport is unclear; Dürer's preparatory drawing showed a conventional horse. Pluto seems to be presented in a manner that recalls the leader of the Wild Hunt.[238] Caravaggio, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto (Italian Giove, Nettuno e Plutone, ca. 1597), a ceiling mural (pictured under Theogonies and cosmology above) intended for viewing from below, hence the unusual perspective. Caravaggio created the work for a room adjacent to the alchemical distillery of Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte, his most important patron. The three gods hover around a translucent globe that represents the world: Jupiter with his eagle, Neptune holding a bident, and Pluto accompanied by a bluish-gray horse and a Cerberus who resembles a three-headed border collie more than a hellhound. In addition to personifying the classical elements air, water, and earth, the three figures represent "an allegory of the applied science of alchemy".[140] Jan Brueghel the Elder, Orpheus before Pluto and Proserpina (1604), painting.[239] Bernini, Pluto and Proserpina (1621–22), also known as The Rape of Proserpina, sculpture with a Cerberus looking in three different directions.[240] Rembrandt, Abduction of Proserpina (ca. 1631), painting influenced by Rubens (via the engraving of his student Pieter Soutman).[241] Rembrandt's leonine Pluto draws on Claudian's description of the god as like a ravening lion.[242] Modern literature[edit] After the Renaissance, literary interest in the abduction myth waned until the revival of classical myth among the Romantics. The work of mythographers such as J.G. Frazer and Jane Ellen Harrison helped inspire the recasting of myths in modern terms by Victorian and Modernist writers. In Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), Thomas Hardy portrays Alec d'Urberville as "a grotesque parody of Pluto/Dis" exemplifying the late-Victorian culture of male domination, in which women were consigned to "an endless breaking ... on the wheel of biological reproduction."[243] A similar figure is found in The Lost Girl (1920) by D.H. Lawrence, where the character Ciccio[244] acts as Pluto to Alvina's Persephone, "the deathly-lost bride ... paradoxically obliterated and vitalised at the same time by contact with Pluto/Dis" in "a prelude to the grand design of rebirth." The darkness of Pluto is both a source of regeneration, and of "merciless annihilation."[245] Lawrence takes up the theme elsewhere in his work; in The First Lady Chatterley (1926, an early version of Lady Chatterley's Lover), Connie Chatterley sees herself as a Persephone and declares "she'd rather be married to Pluto than Plato," casting her earthy gamekeeper lover as the former and her philosophy-spouting husband as the latter.[246] In Rick Riordan's young adult fantasy series The Heroes of Olympus, the character Hazel Levesque is the daughter of Pluto, god of riches. She is one of seven characters with a parent from classical mythology.[247] Scientific terms[edit] Scientific terms derived from the name of Pluto include: Pluto, the planetoid, with related terms plutoid and plutino plutonium, the heaviest primordial element, named after the planetoid pluton, a geologic term of plutonism, a geologic theory Notes[edit] ^ William Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 182. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology,, p. 180. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 180–181. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182, makes the distinction. ^ Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States (Clarendon Press, 1907), vol. 3, p. 281. ^ Odyssey 5.125–128: And so it was when Demeter of the lovely hair, yielding / to her desire, lay down with Iasion and loved him / in a thrice-turned field (translation of Richmond Lattimore). ^ Hesiod, Theogony 969–74; Apostolos N. Athanassakis, Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days, Shield (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983, 2004), p. 56. ^ Athanassakis, Hesiod, p. 56. ^ Emily Vermeule, Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry (University of California Press, 1979), pp. 37, 219; Hendrik Wagenvoort, "The Origin of the Ludi Saeculares," in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), p. 198. ^ Hesiod. "Works and Days". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 19 February 2015. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, pp. 162 and 182, citing Homer, Iliad 9.158–159. Euphemism is a characteristic way of speaking of divine figures associated with the dead and the underworld; Joseph William Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 19 (1908), p. 66, considers euphemism a form of propitiation. ^ Plato, Cratylus 403a; Glenn R. Morrow, Plato's Cretan City: A Historical Interpretation of the Laws (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 452–453. ^ Fernando Navarro Antolin, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 145–146. ^ Charlotte R. Long, The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), p. 179; Phyllis Fray Bober, "Cernunnos: Origin and Transformation of a Celtic Divinity," American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951), p. 28, examples in Greek and Roman art in note 98; Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 65. ^ Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 101–102; Morrow, Plato's Cretan City, pp. 452–453; John J. Hermann, Jr., "Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter? A Graeco-Roman Sculpture from an Egyptian Workshop in Boston" in Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 114 (1999), p. 88. ^ Pluto Latine est Dis pater, alii Orcum vocant ("In Latin, Pluto is Dis Pater; others call him Orcus"): Ennius, Euhemerus frg. 7 in the edition of Vahlen = Var. 78 = E.H. Warmington, Remains of Old Latin (Heinemann, 1940), vol. 1, p. 421. The Augustan poet Horace retains the Greek accusative form of the noun (Plutona instead of Latin Plutonem) at Carmen 2.14.7, as noted by John Conington, P. Vergili Maronis Opera (London, 1883), vol. 3, p. 36. ^ H.D. Jocelyn, The Tragedies of Ennius (Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 331, with reference to Kurt Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte (C.H. Beck, 1967, 1992), p. 246ff. ^ Cicero, De natura deorum 2.66, translation of John MacDonald Ross (Penguin Books, 1972): Terrena autem vis omnis atque natura Diti patri dedicata est, qui dives, ut apud Graecos Πλούτων quia et recidunt omnia in terras et oriuntur e terris. ^ Strabo 3.2.9, citing Poseidonius as his source, who in turn cites Demetrius of Phalerum on the silver mines of Attica, where "the people dig as strenuously as if they expected to bring up Pluto himself" (Loeb Classical Library translation, in the LacusCurtius edition). The 16th-century mythographer Natale Conti describes Pluto's imperium as "the Spains and all the places bordering the setting sun" (Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, p. 173; cf. Strabo 3.12). ^ Lucian, On Mourning (see Greek text); Peter Bolt, Jesus' Defeat of Death: Persuading Mark's Early Readers (Cambridge University Press, 2003) discusses this passage (pp. 126–127) and Greco-Roman concepts of the underworld as a context for Christian eschatology passim. ^ Noel Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities: The Sacred Laws of Selinus and Cyrene (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 102, citing passages from the Orphic Hymns, throughout which Plouton is the ruler of the underworld, and Hades is the name of the place itself. ^ Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 74, asserts that "Zeus Catachthonius seems certainly to be Pluto." Other deities to whom the title Katachthonios was affixed include Demeter, Persephone, and the Furies; Eugene Lane, "The Epithets of Men," Corpus monumentorum religionis dei Menis: Interpretation and Testimonia (Brill, 1976), vol. 3, p. 77, citing the entry on Katachthonioi in Roscher, Lexikon II, i, col. 998ff. ^ Zeus Chthonius and Pluto are seen as having "the same significance" in the Orphic Hymns and in the Dionysiaca of Nonnus (6.156ff.), by Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 74, note 7. Overlapping functions are also suggested when Hesiod advises farmers to pray to "Zeus Chthonius and to holy Demeter that they may cause the holy corn of Demeter to teem in full perfection." This form of Zeus receives the black victims typically offered to underworld deities. ^ Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis 2.161. ^ Martianus Capella, De nuptiis 2.149; Isidore of Seville, Etymologies 5.33.4; Servius, note to Vergil's Georgics 1.43 (Vergil refrains from naming the god); John Lydus, De mensibus 4.25. ^ Plutarch, De Iside 27 (361e): "In fact, men assert that Pluto is none other than Serapis and that Persephone is Isis, even as Archemachus of Euboea has said, and also Heracleides Ponticus who holds the oracle in Canopus to be an oracle of Pluto" (Loeb Classical Library translation of 1936, LacusCurtius edition). Also spelled Sarapis. See Jaime Alvar, Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation, and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras, translated by Richard Gordon (Brill, 2008), pp. 53 online and 58; Hermann, "Demeter-Isis or the Egyptian Demeter?", p. 84. ^ Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 1.10.34, attributing this view to the semi-legendary Phoenician author Sanchuniathon via Philo of Byblos. In addition to asserting that Muth was equivalent to both Thanatos (Death personified) and Pluto, Philo said he was the son of Cronus and Rhea. See entry on "Mot," Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, edited by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter Willem van der Horst (William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999, 2nd ed.), p. 598, and Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, edited by Sarah Iles Johnston (Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 479. Philo's cosmogony as summarized by Eusebius bears some similarities to that of Hesiod and the Orphics; see Sanchuniathon's history of the gods and "Theogonies and cosmology" below. Philo said that these were reinterpretations of "Phoenician" beliefs by the Greeks. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. ^ Diane Rayor, The Homeric Hymns (University of California Press, 2004), pp. 107–109. ^ Christos Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow: Fourth-century Attic Funerary Epigrams (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008), pp. 101–102. ^ Sources used to prepare this article uniformly refer to the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus as the Library of Apollodorus. Recent scholarship prefers to view the authorship of this work as anonymous; see Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus). ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 146. The late-antique mythographer Fulgentius also names the ruler of the underworld as Pluto, a practice continued by medieval mythographers. ^ Andrew D. Radford, The Lost Girls: Demeter-Persephone and the Literary Imagination, 1850–1930 (Editions Rodopi, 2007), p. 24. For an extensive comparison of Ovid's two treatments of the myth, with reference to versions such as the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, see Stephen Hinds, The Metamorphosis of Persephone: Ovid and the Self-Conscious Muse (Cambridge University Press, 1987), limited preview online. ^ In Book 6 of the Aeneid (the catabasis of Aeneas), Vergil also names the ruler of the underworld more often as Dis than Pluto. ^ See also, for instance, J.J.L. Smolenaars, Statius. Thebaid VII: A Commentary (Brill, 1994), passim, or John G. Fitch, Seneca's 'Hercules Furens' (Cornell University Press, 1987), passim, where the ruler of the underworld is referred to as "Pluto" in the English commentary, but as "Dis" or with other epithets in the Latin text. ^ Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 22 et passim. ^ Natale Conti observes (Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, p. 174) that before the abduction, Pluto was the only childless bachelor among the gods (solus omnium deorum coelibem et filiis carentem vitam traduceret). The nymph Minthē was the concubine (pallakis, Strabo 8.3.14) of the ruler of the underworld under the name of Hades, but no ancient source records Pluto in this role; Conti, however, describes Minthē (Menthe) as the pellex of Pluto. ^ Orphic fragments 197 and 360 (edition of Kern) and Orphic Hymn 70, as cited by Helene P. Foley, Hymn to Demeter (Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 110, note 97. ^ Orphic Hymn 71. ^ Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities, p. 102. Robertson holds that in the Orphic tradition, the Eumenides are distinguished from the Furies (Greek Erinyes). Vergil conflates the Eumenides and the Furies, and elsewhere says that Night (Nox) is their mother. Proclus, in his commentary on the Cratylus of Plato, provides passages from the Orphic Rhapsodies that give two different genealogies of the Eumenides, one making them the offspring of Persephone and Pluto (or Hades) and the other reporting a prophecy that they were to be born to Persephone and Apollo (Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation, p. 101). ^ Vergil, Aeneid 7.327: odit et ipse pater Pluton ... monstrum. ^ Foley, Hymn to Demeter, p. 110. ^ Justin Martyr, Apology 2.5; see discussion of the context by David Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), pp. 193–194. ^ Hesychius, lexicon entry on Ἰσοδαίτης (Isodaitês), 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt. ^ David Scott Wilson-Okamura, Virgil in the Renaissance (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 169, citing Boccaccio, Genealogia deorum gentilium 8.6; see also the Italian translation of 1644, p. 130. Boccaccio cites Servius as his source, adding that Theodontius names the daughter of Pluto as Reverentia and says she was married to Honos ("Honor"). Makaria, "Blessedness," was a daughter of Hades, according to the Suda. ^ "Of griesly Pluto she the daughter was": Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene, I.iv.11.1, as noted by G.W. Kitchin, Book I of The Faery Queene (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, 9th ed.), p. 180. In the 15th-century allegory The Assembly of Gods (lines 601–602), the figure of Vice personified is the bastard son of Pluto. ^ A.C. Hamilton, The Spenser Encyclopedia (University of Toronto Press, 1990, 1997), p. 351, noting that Hecate is called a "phosphor", bringer of light, by Euripides, Helen 569. The title Phosphoros is a common one for Hecate; Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece (University of California Press, 1999), p. 206. ^ Douglas Brooks-Davies, entry on "Mysteries" in The Spenser Encyclopedia, pp. 486–487. ^ Claude Calame, "The Authority of Orpheus, Poet and Bard: Between Tradition and Written Practice," in Allusion, Authority, and Truth: Critical Perspectives on Greek Poetic and Rhetorical Praxis (De Gruyter, 2010), p. 16. ^ As accurately reflected by the translation of Michael Simpson, Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus (University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), pp. 13–15. Apollodorus consistently names the ruler of the underworld Plouton throughout, including the myths of his birth, tripartite division of sovereignty over the world, and the abduction. ^ Geoffrey Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology (Routledge, 1999), p. 54ff. ^ Horace, Carmen 2.14.6–7, inlacrimabilem Plutona (Greek accusative instead of Latin Plutonem). ^ A.S.P. Woodhouse et al., A Variorum Commentary on the Poems of John Milton (Columbia University Press, 1972), p. 327. ^ In the dialogue Amatorius (Ἐρωτικός) 20, Plutarch says that the only god Hades listens to is Eros; the 17th-century classicist Daniel Clasen, translating the Moralia into Latin, gives the god's name as Pluto, and in his mythographical work Theologia gentilis 2.4.6 includes this quality in his chapter on Pluto; see Thesaurus graecarum antiquitatum (Leiden, 1699), vol. 7, 104. ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead 23 (English translation from the 1820 edition of William Tooke; Jan Kott, The Eating of the Gods (Northwestern University Press, 1987), pp. 95–97. Lucian's dialogue has sometimes been referenced as a model for the premature loss of love between an active man carried suddenly into death and his young wife; see for instance Alfred Woltmann, Holbein and His Times (London, 1872), p. 280, and A.P. Russell, In a Club Corner: The Monologue of a Man Who Might Have Been Sociable (Houghton, Mifflin, 1890), pp. 78–79. The dialogue has also been seen as a burlesque of domesticity; Betrand A. Goldgar, Henry Fielding: Miscellanies (Wesleyan University Press, 1993), vol. 2, p. xxxviii. ^ Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, p. 102. The shift may have begun as early as the 6th century. The earliest evidence of the assimilation of Hades and Ploutos/Plouton is a phiale by the Douris painter, dating to ca. 490 BC, according to Jan N. Bremmer, "W. Brede Kristensen and the Religions of Greece and Rome," in Man, Meaning, and Mystery: Hundred Years of History of Religions in Norway. The Heritage of W. Brede Kristensen (Brill, 2000), pp. 125–126. A point of varying emphasis is whether the idea of Plouton as a god of wealth was a later development, or an inherent part of his nature, owing to the underground storage of grain in the pithoi that were also used for burial. For a summary of these issues, see Cora Angier Sowa, Traditional Themes and the Homeric Hymns (Bolchazy-Carducci, 1984, 2005), p. 356, note 105. ^ Morrow, Plato's Cretan City, p. 452; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 154. ^ a b Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, p. 281. ^ Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179. See lectisternium for the "strewing of couches" in ancient Rome. Two inscriptions from Attica record the names of individuals who participated in the ritual at different times: IG II21933 and 1934, as cited by Robert Develin, Athenian Officials, 684–321 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2003), p. 417. ^ Nicholas F. Jones, The Associations of Classical Athens: The Response to Democracy (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 125, citing IG II21363, dating ca. 330–270; Karl Kerényi, Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter (Princeton University Press, 1967), pp. 110–111. ^ Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 101–102. ^ Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, Ritual Texts and the Afterlife (Routledge, 2007), first page (not numbered). ^ The recurring phrase "house of Hades" (῾Αΐδαο δόμος) can be read ambiguously as either the divine being or the place, or both. In the numbering of Graf and Johnston, Ritual Texts and the Afterlife, "house of Hades" appears in Tablet 1, line 2 (Hipponion, Calabria, Magna Graecia, ca. 400 BC), which refers again to Hades as a place ("what you are seeking in the darkness of murky Hades", line 9), with the king of the underworld (ὑποχθονίοι βασιλεϊ, hypochthonioi basilei) alluded to in line 13; Tablet 2, line 1 (Petelia, present-day Strongoli, Magna Graecia, 4th century BC); and Tablet 25 (Pharsalos, Thessaly, 350–300 BC). Hades is also discernible on the "carelessly inscribed" Tablet 38 from a Hellenistic-era grave in Hagios Athanasios, near Thessalonike. ^ Kevin Clinton, Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), p. 111, observing that this presentation in art contrasts with the earliest literary sources. ^ Giovanni Casadio and Patricia A. Johnston, "Introduction", Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia (University of Texas Press, 2009), p. 21. ^ Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, p. 101. ^ Tablets 15 (Eleuthera 6, 2nd/1st century BC) and 17 (Rethymnon 1, from the early Roman Empire, 25–40 AD), from Crete, in the numbering of Graf and Johnston. ^ Sometimes read as "father," as in the translation given by Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets (Brill, 2008), p. 84. ^ Παρὰ Φερσεφόνει Πλούτωνί τε: Tsagalis, Inscribing Sorrow, pp. 100–101. Tsagalis discusses this inscription in light of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and the Thesmophoria. ^ The entry in Hesychius reads: Εὐβουλεύς (sch. Nic. Al. 14) · ὁ Πλούτων. παρὰ δὲ τοῖς πολλοῖς ὁ Ζεὺς ἐν Κυρήνη (Eubouleus: ho Ploutôn. para de toîs polloîs ho Zeus en Kyrene), 643 (Schmidt). ^ Kevin Clinton, "The Mysteries of Demeter and Kore," in A Companion to Greek Religion (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 347–353. ^ Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. 3, p. 145. ^ Euboulos may be a cult title here and not the name of the god Eubuleus; elsewhere it is an epithet of the sea god Nereus, perfect in his knowledge of truth and justice, and in his own Orphic hymn the guardian of the "roots" of the sea. See Pindar, Pythian Ode 3.93; Hesiod, Theogony 233–236; Orphic Hymn 23; Athanassakis, Hesiod, p. 52; Pierre Bonnechere, "Trophonius of Lebadea: Mystery Aspects of an Oracular Cult in Boeotia," in Greek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Ancient Greek Secret Cults (Routledge, 2003, 2005), p. 188. ^ The translations of the Orphic Hymn to Pluto are from Apostolos N. Athanassakis, The Orphic Hymns (Scholars Press, 1977). ^ Act of Thomas 50, as cited and discussed by Susan E. Myers, Spirit Epicleses in the Acts of Thomas (Mohr Siebeck, 2010), p. 174. ^ Hans Dieter Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1992), passim; John G. Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 12 (examples invoking Pluto pp. 99, 135, 143–144, 207–209) and passim on Hades. ^ Bolt, Jesus' Defeat of Death, p. 152; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 264. ^ Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 212, with English translation of the curse. ^ Gager, Curse Tablets, p. 131, with translations of both tablets, and note 35. ^ Derek Collins, Magic in the Ancient Greek World (Blackwell, 2008), p. 73. ^ Esther Eidinow, "Why the Athenians Began to Curse," in Debating the Athenian Cultural Revolution: Art, Literature, Philosophy and Politics 430–380 BC (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 50; Ogden, Magic, Withcraft, and Ghosts, p. 212. ^ Bernard Dietrich, "The Religious Prehistory of Demeter's Eleusinian Mysteries," in La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' Impero Romano (Brill, 1982), p. 454. ^ Robertson, Religion and Reconciliation, p. 163 online, citing IG 13356.155 and IG 221672.140; see also The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Topography and Architecture (American School of Classical Studies, 1997), p. 76, note 31. ^ Strabo 14.1.44; "Summaries of Periodicals," American Journal of Archaeology 7 (1891), p. 209; Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 93. ^ Frederick E. Brenk, "Jerusalem-Hierapolis. The Revolt under Antiochos IV Epiphanes in the Light of Evidence for Hierapolis of Phrygia, Babylon, and Other Cities," in Relighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy, and in the New Testament Background (Franz Steiner, 1998), pp. 382–384, citing Photius, Life of Isidoros 131 on the dream. ^ Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Reconstructing Change: Ideology and the Eleusinian Mysteries," in Inventing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Periodization and the Ancient World (Routledge, 1997), p. 137; Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 505. ^ Strabo C244–6, as cited by Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 190 –191. ^ Kevin Clinton, Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries (Stockholm, 1992), pp. 105. As Clinton notes (p. 107), the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae does not distinguish between Hades and Plouton, and combines evidence for either in a single entry. The only vase to label the Eleusinian Theos with an inscription is a red-figured footed dinos in the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum, attributed to the Syleus Painter. The main scene is the departure of Triptolemos, with Demeter on the left and Persephone as Pherephata ([Φε]ρ[ε]φάτα) on the right. Theos wears a himation over a spangled tunic with decorated hem (Clinton, p. 106). ^ Catherine M. Keesling, "Endoios's Painting from the Themistoklean Wall: A Reconstruction," Hesperia 68.4 (1999), p. 544, note 160. ^ Clare Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 35. ^ Pausanias 5.20. ^ Natale Conti, Mythologiae 2.9, edition of 1651, pp. 173–174. ^ Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1051 ("Rites they to none betray, / Ere on his lips is laid / Secrecy's golden key / By their own acolytes, / Priestly Eumolpidae," in the 1912 translation of F. Storr), as cited by Jane Ellen Harrison, introduction to Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, a translation of Pausanias by Margaret de G. Verrall (London, 1890), pp. liv–lv. It is unclear whether a literal key is meant, or a golden lamella (Totenpass). ^ Robert Turcan, Les religions de l'Asie dans la vallée du Rhône (Brill, 1972), p. 26. ^ Turcan, Les religions de l'Asie, pp. 23–26. Both Persephone (as Persephassa and "Kore out of Tartaros") and Anubis are key-holders throughout the Greek Magical Papyri. Jesus Christ, as the conqueror of death and Hades, holds keys in the Book of Revelation 1:18; see Walter A. Elwell and Philip W. Comfort, Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Tyndale, 2001), p. 561. ^ For extensive notes on Aiakos, see Radcliffe Guest Edmonds, Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the 'Orphic' Gold Tablets (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 148, note 116. As a possessor of keys, he appears in Apollodorus 3.12.6, PGM IV.1264, and inscriptions. ^ Ancient sources on phasganion, xiphion and gladiolus, generally called "corn-flag" by historical botanists, include Theophrastus, Historia Plantarum 7.12.3; Dioscorides, De Materia Medica E 2.101; Pliny, Natural History 21.107–115; Pseudo-Apuleius, Herbarius 79, as cited by Andrew Dalby, Food in the Ancient World from A to Z (Routledge, 2003), p. 105, characterizing Pliny's entry on the plant as "confused." The correspondence of ancient plant names to modern species is always uncertain. Both the Greek xiphion and the Latin word gladiolus ("little sword") come from a word meaning "sword." ^ Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle (Paris, 1819), pp. 315–316; Julius Billerbeck, Flora classica (Leipzig, 1824), p. 13; "L'origine dei maccheroni," Archivo per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari 17 (1898), vol. 36, p. 428. ^ Francis Adams, The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta (London, 1847), p. 270; Dalby, Food in the Ancient World, p. 105; Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315. ^ John M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 42; Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, p. 315. ^ P.G. Maxwell-Stuart, Studies in Greek Colour Terminology: ΓΛΑΥΚΟΣ (Brill, 1981), vol. 1, pp. 40, 42, citing Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium 9, 20, 35. The word γλαυκότης (glaukotēs), however, is a textual crux in the passage pertaining to Pluto. ^ Lucifuga inumbratione pallescens and Tartareae noctis obscuritate furvescens, Martianus Capella, De nuptiis 1.79–80; Danuta Shanzer, A Philosophical and Literary Commentary on Martianus Capella's De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii Book 1 (University of California Press, 1986), p. 171. ^ Ovid, Fasti 4.446, as cited John G. Fitch, Seneca's Hercules furens: A Critical Text with Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 166, note to Seneca's identical description of the horses of the Sun (line 132). Ovid describes the horses as black (ater) in his version of the abduction myth in the Metamorphoses, 5.310. On the color caeruleus, see also Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Caerimonia," in Studies, pp. 98–101. ^ Natale Conti, Mythologiae 2.9. Conti's sources on this point are unclear, and he thoroughly conflates traditions pertaining to the various classical rulers of the underworld. ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, lines 7–9, as cited by Radford, Lost Girls, p. 145; Clayton Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus: A Study of the First Idyll of Theocritus (Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 2. ^ Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 681, and scholion, on Demeter and Persephone (the two "Great Goddesses"); Euphorion, fragment 94, on the Eumenides; Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Jan Coenradd Kamerbeek, The Plays of Sophocles, Commentaries: The Oedipus Colonus (Brill, 1984), vol. 7, p. 106, noting that garlands of flowers were expressly forbidden at the Thesmophoria; James C. Hogan, A Commentary on the Plays of Sophocles (Southern Illinois University Press, 1991), p. 99. ^ "Death and Greek Myths," in Greek and Egyptian Mythologies, edited by Yves Bonnefoy (University of Chicago Press, 1991, 1992), p. 110. ^ Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 2; Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 92. The phallus as a magic charm was the remedy for invidia or the evil eye, a self-induced form of which was the ruin of the mythological figure Narcissus. ^ On the difficulty of identifying precisely which flower the ancients meant by "narcissus," see R.C. Jebb, Sophocles: The Plays and Fragments (Cambridge University Press, 1900, 3rd edition), p. 115. ^ Artemidorus, Oneirocritica 1.77, as noted by Jebb, Sophocles, p. 115. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.505; Zimmerman, The Pastoral Narcissus, p. 48. The Styx here is a pool. ^ Theophrastus, Historia plantarum 7.13–14; Nicander, Theriaca 846; Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel 4.24; Adams, The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta, pp. 22–23; Richard Hunter, Theocritus: A Selection (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 277, noting that "the association of lush vegetation ... with female 'otherness' and sexuality has a long history." ^ Riddle, Contraception and Abortion, pp. 31, 82, 180 (note 5). ^ Samuel Beckett, "Jusque dans la caverne ciel et sol", the last of twelve poems in the cycle Poèmes 38–39 (1946); C.J. Ackerley and S.E. Gontarski, The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett (Grove Press, 2004), pp. 293, 443, 599. ^ Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 25. ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 3.680. ^ Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 17.7.34. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.106ff.; Servius, note to Vergil's Georgics 1.20. ^ Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–28. ^ The nymph Minthē, a rival for the attentions of Hades (not named as Pluto), was transformed by Persephone into the mint plant, a major ingredient in the ritual drink of the mysteries (Strabo 8.3.14). ^ Servius, note to Vergil's Eclogue 7.61. Persephone is not mentioned. ^ Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 93 and 124–125, citing Harpocration. ^ Arthur Calvert, P. Vergili Maronis. Aeneidos Liber V (Cambridge University Press, 1879), p. 48. This was a particular custom of the Rhodians; the heroine Polyxo awarded white poplar wreaths to child athletes at the games she presented in honor of her husband; Pierre Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology (Blackwell, 1986, 1996), p. 385. ^ Riddle, Contraception and Abortion, p. 33. ^ Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), pp. 420–422; Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 25–26; W.K.C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion (Princeton University Press, 1952, 1993), p. 182. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.1–2, 1911 Loeb Classical Library edition, translation and notes by J.G. Frazer. ^ Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 182. Apparent references to the "helmet of Pluto" in other authors, such as Irenaeus (Against Heresies), are misleading; "Pluto" is substituted by the English translator for "Hades." ^ Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel Book 5, Chapter 8. ^ Erasmus, Adagia 2.10.74 (Orci galea). ^ Francis Bacon, Essays Civil and Moral 21, "Of Delays." ^ A.L. Millin, "Mythologie," in Magasin Encyclopédique (Paris, 1808), p. 283; G.T. Villenave, Les métamorphoses d'Ovide (Paris, 1806), p. 307; Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Oxford University Press, 1924), vol. 2, p. 798 ff.; John G. Fitch, Seneca's Hercules Furens: A Critical Text With Introduction and Commentary (Cornell University Press, 1987), p. ^ Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 801. ^ Inferni Iovis (genitive case), Hercules Furens line 47, in the prologue spoken by Juno. ^ Diro Iovi, line 608 of Hercules Furens; compare Vergil, Aeneid 4.638, Iove Stygio, the "Jove of the Styx". Fitch, Seneca's Hercules Furens, p. 156. ^ Codex Augustanus, note to Euripides' Phoenician Women, line 188, as cited by Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 806, note 6. ^ Cook, Zeus, vol. 2, p. 803. ^ Friedrich Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius' Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination," Vigiliae Christianae 19.4 (1965), pp. 238, 240–248 et passim. ^ Richard Stemp, The Secret Language of the Renaissance: Decoding the Hidden Symbolism of Italian Art (Duncan Baird, 2006), p. 114; Clare Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections (Ashmolean Museum, 1996), p. 78. ^ Robertson et al., Drawings by the Carracci from British Collections, pp. 78–79. ^ a b Creighton Gilbert, Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals (Penn State University Press, 1995), pp. 124–125. ^ Identified as Pluto by Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, p. 275. ^ Identified as Hades by Hansen, Classical Mythology, p. 181. ^ A.M. Bowie, Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy (Cambridge University Press, 1993, 1996), p. 229. ^ As summarized by Benjamin Bickley Rogers, The Comedies of Aristophanes (London, 1902), pp. xvii and 214 (note to line 1414). ^ Bowie, Aristophanes, pp. 231–233, 269–271. ^ Bernabé and Jiménez San Cristóbal, Instructions for the Netherworld, pp. 127–128. ^ Morrow, Plato's Cretan City, pp. 452–453. ^ Translation by Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (London, 1873), vol. 1. ^ Plato, Laws 828d, translation from Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 69. ^ Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Harvard University Press, 1985, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 231, 336. See also Homo Necans (University of California Press, 1983, originally published 1972 in German), p. 143. ^ Hesychius, entry on Ἰσοδαίτης, 778 in the 1867 edition of Schmidt, as translated and discussed by Richard Seaford, Money and the Early Greek Mind: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 51. Hesychius notes that Isodaites may alternatively refer to a son of Pluto as well as Pluto himself. ^ H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 119, especially note 93. ^ Plato, Laws 828 B-D; Morrow, Plato's Cretan City p. 452; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179. ^ Morrow, Plato's Cretan City, p. 453; Long, The Twelve Gods, p. 179. ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.14; Brian P. Copenhaver, Polydore Vergil: On Discovery (Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 564. ^ This parenthetical remark is part of the original text. Several manuscripts of Lactantius read Diespiter, which is usually a title of Jupiter, but Dis pater is regarded as the more likely reading. See Katherine Nell MacFarlane, "Isidore of Seville on the Pagan Gods (Origines VIII. 11)," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 70 (1980), p. 20, citing Migne, Patrologia Latina vol. VI, col. 190. The relation of the title Dis Pater to Diespiter in Latin is debated. ^ "Titan" usually refers to a class or race of deities, but sometimes means Helios or other divine personifications of the Sun. ^ Cicero, De natura deorum 3.58: "Likewise, there are multiple Dianas. The first is said to have been born as a winged Cupid, with Jove and Proserpina [as parents]. The second, whom we regard as the daughter of the third Jove and Latona, is better known. A tradition holds that Upis is the father and Glauca the mother of the third [Diana]" (Dianae item plures: prima Iovis et Proserpinae, quae pinnatum Cupidinem genuisse dicitur; secunda notior, quam Iove tertio et Latona natam accepimus; tertiae pater Upis traditur, Glauce mater: eam saepe Graeci Upim paterno nomine appellant); Copenhaver, Polydore Vergil: On Discovery, p. 564. ^ Boccaccio's Expositions on Dante's Comedy, translated by Michael Papio (University of Toronto Press, 2009), pp. 332–333, 355. ^ Rieuwerd Buitenwerf, Book III of the Sibylline Oracles and Its Social Setting (Brill, 2003), p. 157. ^ Gábor Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretations (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 151, has noted that "one cannot establish a linear descent between the different versions"; though efforts to do so have been made, "we cannot find a single mytheme which would occur invariably in all the accounts and could thus create the core of all Orphic theogonies." ^ J. van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony in the Pseudo-Clementines," in Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions, Presented to Gilles Quispel on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday (Brill, 1981), p. 13. ^ Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," pp. 16–17. ^ Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," pp. 17–18. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, p. 151, summarizes this version as follows: "The story starts with Chaos; then comes the egg; the bottom part of the egg submerges and becomes Pluton, and Kronos — not a separate god but identified with Chronos — swallows this heavy matter. The middle part, covering the first sediment, becomes Poseidon. The upper part of the egg, being purer and lighter, fiery in nature, goes upward and is called Zeus, and so forth." ^ Van Amersfoort, "Traces of an Alexandrian Orphic Theogony," p. 23; Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, p. 150. ^ Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (Cambridge University Press, 1925), p. 746. ^ Cornutus 5; Varro, De lingua latina 5.66 (on Dis); Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 25; all as cited by Joseph B. Mayor, De natura deorum libri tres (Cambridge University Press, 1883), vol. 2, p. 175, note to 2.26.66. ^ R.M. van den Berg, Proclus' Commentary on the Cratylus in Context: Ancient Theories of Language and Naming (Brill, 2008), pp. 34–35. ^ David Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (University of California Press, 1992), p. 33, citing Epidrome 5.5.7–9. ^ Plutarch, The Face of the Moon, LacusCurtius edition of the Loeb Classical Library translation online, as discussed by Leonard L. Thompson, "ISmyrna 753: Gods and the One God," in Reading Religions in the Ancient World: Essays Presented to Robert McQueen Grant on His 90th Birthday (Brill, 2007), p. 113, with reference also to Iamblichus. See also Van den Berg, Proclus' Commentary, p. 49, with reference to Plutarch, On the E at Delphi. ^ This interpretation is attributed to the Greek Neoplatonist Numenius (2nd century AD), by the French scholastic William of Conches, as cited and translated by Peter Dronke, Fabula: Explorations into the Uses of Myth in Medieval Platonism (Brill, 1985), p. 54. ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," p. 101ff. The other deities are Helios Apollon, who is paired with Artemis (p. 106); Zeus, who is subordinated to "God Himself"; and Mēn, an Anatolian moon deity sometimes identified with Attis, who had a table before him for ceremonial dining (pp. 106, 109). ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 104–105. ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," p. 111. ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 110–111, 114, with reference to the teachings of Ammonius as recorded by Plutarch, The E at Delphi. The relevant passage (21) is: "This appears from the names, in themselves opposite and contradictory. He is called Apollo, another is called Pluto; he is Delius (apparent), the other Aidoneus (invisible); he is Phoebus (bright), the other Skotios (full of darkness); by his side are the Muses, and Memory, with the other are Oblivion and Silence; he is Theorius and Phanæus, the other is 'King of dim Night and ineffectual Sleep'." See also Frederick E. Brenk, "Plutarch's Middle Platonic God," Gott und die Götter bei Plutarch (Walter de Gruyter, 2005), pp. 37–43, on Plutarch's etymological plays that produce these antitheses. ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," passim, conclusion presented on p. 119. Thompson bases his argument on the particular collocation of deities at the sanctuary, and explicating theological details in the inscription through comparative material. See also Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. ^ In the Latin dialogue Asclepius sometimes attributed to Apuleius; see B.L. Hijmans, "Apuleius, Philosophus Platonicus," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.36.1 (1987), p. 441, et passim on the question of authorship. ^ Baal-Hammon Terrae vero et mari dominatur Iupiter Plutonius, et hic nutritor est animantium mortalium et fructiferarum (Asclepius 27), noted by G.F. Hildebrand, L. Apuleii Opera Omnia (Leipzig, 1842), p. 314, as equivalent to the Pluto described by Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 1.780, where, however, the god is called Dis and not Pluto. Translation from Brian P. Copenhaver, Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius (Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2002), p. 83; see also note to the passage p. 245. Influence from Roman Africa, particularly the figure of Baal-Hammon, may explain this particular syncretism; Jean-Pierre Mahé, Le fragment du "Discours parfait" dans la Bibliothèque de Nag Hammadi, Colloque International sur les textes de Nag hammadi (Québec, 22–25 août 1978) (Éditions Peeters, 1981), p. 310. ^ Pseudo-Callisthenes, I.30–33, as cited by Jarl Fossum, "The Myth of the Eternal Rebirth: Critical Notes on G.W. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity," Vigiliae Christianae 53.3 (1999), p. 309, note 15. On the oracle and for the passage in which Aion Plutonius is named, see Irad Malkin, Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece (Brill, 1987), p. 107, especially note 87. ^ "On this day and at this hour the Virgin gave birth to Aion": Gilles Quispel, "Hermann Hesse and Gnosis," in Gnostica, Judaica, Catholica: Collected Essays (Brill, 2008), p. 258, noting that this date coincided with Epiphany and was a new year's celebration. ^ As at Horace, Carmen 1.4.17, where the domus ... Plutonia renders in Latin the Greek phrase "house of Hades." ^ Entry on "Demiurge," The Classical Tradition (Harvard University Press, 2010), p. 256. ^ Entry on "Orpheus," The Classical Tradition, p. 665. It was even said that the soul of Orpheus had been reborn into Ficino. ^ Entry on "Demiurge," in The Classical Tradition p. 256. ^ Friedrich Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius' Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination," Vigiliae Christianae 19 (1965) 237–257; Margaret English Frazer, "Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ," Metropolitan Museum Journal 9 (1974) 153–161. ^ K.M. Coleman, "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments," Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), p. 67. ^ Tertullian, Ad nationes 1.10. Augustine regularly calls the Roman ruler of the underworld Pluto in De civitate Dei; see 2.15, where Pluto and Neptune are described as the brothers of Jove; 4.10, in noting their three-way division of sovereignty over the earth and with Proserpina as Pluto's spouse (coniunx); 4.11, in deriding the allegorizing of divinity in physical cosmogony; and 6.7, in denouncing the mysteries (sacra) as obscene. ^ Daniel P. Harmon, "The Religious Significance of Games in the Roman Age," in The Archaeology of the Olympics: The Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity (University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 242; Paul-Marie Duval, "Sucellus, the God with a Hammer," in American, African, and Old European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 222. ^ Prudentius, Contra Symmachum 1.379–398; Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (Routledge, 1998, 2001), p. 59. ^ Solmsen, "The Powers of Darkness," pp. 237–257; Frazer, "Hades Stabbed by the Cross of Christ,", pp. 153–161. ^ Dic igitur, praepulchra polis, quod Danea munus / Libavit tibimet soboles Plutonis amica, Bella Parisiacae urbis 1.21, as noted by Nirmal Dass, "Temporary Otherness and Homiletic History in the Late Carolingian Age: A Reading of the Bella Parisiacae urbis of Abbo of Stain-Germain-des-Prés," in Difference and Identity in Francia and Medieval France (Ashgate Publishing, 2010), p. 106. In his earlier edition, translation, and commentary of the work, Dass gives "Speak, most wondrous of cities, of the gift the Danes brought for you, / Those friends of Pluto", in Viking Attacks on Paris: The 'Bella Parisiacae Urbis' of Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Peeters, 2007), pp. 28–29, but soboles (classical Latin suboles) means "progeny, offspring," modified by amica, "dear, beloved." ^ De deorum imaginibus libellus, chapter 6, "De Plutone": homo terribilis in solio sulphureo sedens, sceptrum regni in manu tenens dextra: sinistra, animam constringes, cui tricipitem Cerberum sub pedibus collocabant, & iuxta se tres Harpyias habebat. De throno aurê eius sulphureo quatuor flumina manabunt, quae scilicet Lethum, Cocytû, Phlegethontem, & Acherontem appellabant, & Stygem paludem iuxta flumina assignabant. ^ The questions of authorship involving the De deorum imaginibus libellus and the Liber Ymaginum deorum ("Book of Images of the Gods") are vexed; Ronald E. Pepin, The Vatican Mythographers (Fordham University Press, 2008), pp. 7–9. ^ Dante, Inferno, Canto VII. ^ For instance, Peter Bondanella in his note to the translation of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, The Inferno: Dante Alighieri (Barnes & Noble Classics, 2003), pp. 202–203. Dante may simply be preserving the longstanding conflation of Greek Plouton and Ploutos; see Allen Mandelbaum, note to his translation of The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno (Bantam Dell, 2004, originally published 1980), p. 357. In modern Italian, the name of the classical ruler of the underworld is Plutone. ^ The tormented souls wail "Perché tieni? e "Perché burli?" ("'Why do you hoard?' 'Why do you squander?'"): Inferno, Canto VII, line 30. ^ Il gran nemico, Inferno, Canto VI, line 115. ^ Bondanella, The Inferno p. 206; Mandelbaum, Inferno p. 69. ^ Ralph Nash, Jerusalem Delivered: An English Prose Version (Wayne State University Press, 1987), pp. xi and 475. ^ Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, Canto 13.7, translated by Edward Fairfax (1907). ^ In The House of Fame (lines 1510–1511), Chaucer explicitly acknowledges his debt to Claudian "That bar up al the fame of helle, / Of Pluto, and of Proserpyne," as noted by Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25. ^ In Troilus and Criseyde (lines 590–503), as noted by Rosalyn Rossignol, Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work (Facts on File, 2006), p. 540. ^ Chaucer, "The Knight's Tale" 2082 and 2299. ^ Rossignol, Critical Companion pp. 432, 540. ^ John M. Fyler, "Pagan Survivals," in A Companion to Chaucer (Blackwell, 2000, 2002), p. 351. ^ Seth Lerer, "The Canterbury Tales," in The Yale Companion to Chaucer (Yale University Press, 2006), p. 270. Pluto and Proserpina in The Merchant's Tale have been seen as Shakespeare's model for Titania and Oberon in A Midsummer Night's Dream, a view at least as old as Chaucer's editor Thomas Tyrwhitt (see 1798 edition) and reiterated by Walter William Skeat in his edition of The Canterbury Tales (1894 edition). ^ William Dunbar, The Goldyn Targe (1503), lines 126–7, as cited by Ian Simpson Ross, William Dunbar (Brill, 1981), p. 252. Compare also Arthur Golding's "elves of hell" to translate Ovid's Avernales ... nymphas, "nymphs of Avernus" (Metamorphoses 5.670, in his account of the abduction). ^ Shakespeare's references to Pluto are conventional. Pluto is associated with Hell in the "Roman" plays Coriolanus (I.iv, "Pluto and Hell!" as an exclamation) and Titus Andronicus (IV.iii, "Pluto's region," and "Pluto sends you word, / If you will have Revenge from hell, you shall"), as also in Henry IV, Part 2 (II.iv): "I'll see her damn'd first; — to Pluto's damned lake, by this hand, to th' infernal deep, with Erebus and tortures vile also." Pluto's gates are a metaphor for strength in Troilus and Cressida (V.ii), where Pluto is also sworn by (III.iv and V.ii). The performance of Orpheus is referenced in The Rape of Lucrece (line 553): "And moody Pluto winks while Orpheus plays." Shakespeare also uses the name of Roman Dis, as in Perdita's catalogue of flowers in A Winter's Tale (IV.iii): "O Proserpina, / For the flowers now, that, frighted, thou lett'st fall / From Dis's waggon!" ^ In Doctor Faustus (III.ii, 1616 quarto), Mephistopheles invokes "Pluto's blue fire" in casting a spell of invisibility on the protagonist. In his translation of Lucan's epic, Marlowe uses Pluto for Dis (First Book of Lucan, lines 449, where "Pluto" refers to the druidic god Julius Caesar identified with Dis, and 576), but uses both names in the mythological narrative Hero and Leander. ^ Spenser plays on the conflation of Pluto and Plutus: "but a little stride ... did the house of Richesse from hell-mouth divide" and "Here Sleep, there Richesse, and Hel-gate them both betwext" (24.5), as noted by Thomas E. Maresca, entry on "Hell", The Spencer Encyclopedia, p. 352. See Offspring of Pluto (above) on the daughter Spenser invents for Pluto. His favored epithet for Pluto is griesly, an archaism for "grisly" (FG I.iv.11.1, II.vii.24.1, IV.iii.13.2, VI.xii.35.6, applied to Proserpina at I.i.37.4; Pluto named also at FG I.v.14.8, II.viii.24.1, VI.xii.35.6, VII.vii.5.9, and The Shepheardes Calender "October" 29). ^ Robert DeMaria Jr. and Robert D. Brown, Classical Literature and Its Reception: An Anthology (Blackwell, 2007), p. 453. Both Dis and Pluto appear in the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe, but Pluto with greater frequency; Spenser prefers the name Pluto. ^ Arthur Golding, Ovid's Metamorphoses (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001) passim, with a few instances of Dis; Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25. ^ For instance, at Paradise Lost 4.270, as cited by Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 25, where Proserpine is described as a flower fairer than those she was gathering and "by gloomy Dis / was gathered." ^ Ovid's Metamorphosis Translated by Arthur Golding, edited by Madeleine Forey, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 164. Pluto rules over Hell throughout Spenser's Faerie Queene, as noted by Maresca, The Spenser Encyclopedia, p. 352. ^ John Block Friedman, Orpheus in the Middle Ages (Syracuse University Press, 2000), p. 238; Li Tournoiemenz Anticrit (Le tornoiement de l'Antéchrist) text. ^ Theresa Lynn Tinkle, Medieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry (Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 132. ^ The Assembly of Gods, lines 82, 51, 311, 314, in the edition of Oscar Lovell Triggs (London, 1896). ^ Entry on "Popular Culture," The Classical Tradition, p. 766. ^ Sheila Lindenbaum, "Ceremony and Oligarchy: The London Midsummer Watch," in City and Spectacle in Medieval Europe, (University of Minnesota Press, 1994), p. 171; Maria Hayward, Rich Apparel: Clothing and the Law in Henry VIII's England (Ashgate, 2009), p. 290. The court of Pluto continued to inspire public pageantry into the late 19th century, when floats such as the "blazing 'Palace of Pluto'" were part of the Mardi Gras parades in New Orleans; Henri Schindler, Mardi Gras Treasures: Costume Designs of the Golden Age (Pelican, 2002), p. 15. ^ Nino Pirrotta, Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi (Cambridge University Press, 1992, originally published in Italian 1969), passim, especially p. ix. ^ Pirrotta, Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi, with Leonardo's drawing (n.p.); Carlo Pedretti, Leonardo: The Machines (Giunti, 1999), p. 72. ^ Mark Ringer, Opera's First Master: The Musical Dramas of Claudio Monteverdi (Amadeus Press, 2006), pp. 34, 75, 103–104; Tim Carter, Monteverdi's Musical Theatre (Yale University Press, 2002), p. 95; Enid Welsford, The Court Masque (Cambridge University Press, 1927), pp. 112–113. ^ Tim Carter, Monteverdi's Musical Theatre p. 81, quoting Follino, Compendio delle sontuose feste (1608), and p. 152. ^ George J. Buelow, A History of Baroque Music (Indiana University Press, 2004), p. 37. ^ Kristiaan Aercke, Gods of Play: Baroque Festive Performances as Rhetorical Discourse (SUNY Press, 1994), p. 230. ^ Piero Gelli and Filippo Poletti, Dizionario dell'opera 2008 (Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2005, 2007), p. 36. ^ Charpentier's Pluto is a bass-baritone. ^ Gelli and Poletti, Dizionario dell'opera 2008, p. 625. ^ James R. Anthony, French Baroque Music from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau (Amadeus Press, 1997), p. 115. ^ Pluto does not have a singing role in Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice (1762). ^ Aercke, Gods of Play, p. 250; Ringer, Opera's First Master, p. 71. ^ Andrew Trout, City on the Seine: Paris in the Time of Richelieu and Louis XIV (St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 189–190; Buelow, A History of Baroque Music, p. 160. ^ Daniel Heartz, Music in European Capitals: The Galant Style, 1720–1780 (W.W. Norton, 2003), pp. 488–492. ^ Sasha Anawalt, The Joffrey Ballet: Robert Joffrey and the Making of an American Dance Company (University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 66. ^ Frederick Kiefer, Shakespeare's Visual Theatre: Staging the Personified Characters (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 60–61. ^ Amy Golahney, "Rembrandt's Abduction of Proserpina," in The Age of Rembrandt: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Painting (Penn State University Press, 1988), p. 30; Eric Jan Sluijter, Rembrandt and the Female Nude (Amsterdam University Press, 2006), pp. 109–111. ^ Mary Margaret Heaton, The History of the Life of Albrecht Dürer of Nürnberg (London, 1870), p. 187; Walter L. Strauss, The Complete Engravings, Etchings, and Drypoints of Albrecht Dürer (Dover, 1973), p. 178. ^ Strauss, The Complete Engravings, p. 178. ^ Entry on "Orpheus," The Classical Tradition p. 665. ^ Entry on "Sculpture," The Classical Tradition, p. 870. ^ Golahny, "Rembrandt's Abduction of Proserpina," p. 30ff. ^ Amy Golahny, Rembrandt's Reading: The Artist's Bookshelf of Ancient Poetry and History (Amsterdam University Press, 2003), pp. 102–103. ^ Radford, The Lost Girls, pp. 85, 98, 114, citing Chelser, Women and Madness, pp. 240, 266. ^ Perhaps a play on the Italian verb chioccia used by Dante to describe Pluto's manner of speaking in Inferno, Canto VII, line 2. ^ Radford, The Lost Girls, pp. 247, 252, 254, et passim. ^ Radford, The Lost Girls, p. 254. ^ Rick Riordan, The Son of Neptune (Disney-Hyperion Books, 2011), p. 111 (vol. 2 of The Heroes of Olympus series). 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en-wikipedia-org-8050	----	Sisyphus (disambiguation) - Wikipedia Sisyphus (disambiguation) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Look up Sisyphus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Sisyphus was the king of Corinth, punished in Tartarus by being cursed to roll a huge boulder up a hill in Greek mythology. Sisyphus may also refer to: Contents 1 Places 2 People 3 Arts, entertainment, and media 3.1 Literature 3.2 Music 3.3 Other arts, entertainment, and media 4 Other uses Places[edit] 1866 Sisyphus, an Apollo asteroid People[edit] Sisyphus of Pharsalus, a contemporary of Plato Arts, entertainment, and media[edit] Literature[edit] Sisyphus (dialogue), a dialogue between Socrates and Sisyphus of Pharsalus, attributed to Plato The Myth of Sisyphus, an essay by Albert Camus Music[edit] Sisyphus (hip hop group), a musical collaboration formerly known as S / S / S featuring Serengeti, Son Lux, and Sufjan Stevens Sisyphus (album), their 2014 debut album Sisyphus, a 1971 album by Cold Blood Stone Of Sisyphus, an album by the American rock band Chicago "Sysyphus", an avant-garde piece of music from the Pink Floyd album Ummagumma "Sisyphus", a song by American singer-songwriter Andrew Bird from his album My Finest Work Yet Other arts, entertainment, and media[edit] Sisyphus (film), a 1974 animated short film by Marcell Jankovics Sisyphus: The Myth, a 2021 South Korean television series Other uses[edit] Sisyphus (beetle), a genus of dung beetles Český klub skeptiků Sisyfos, Czech Skeptics' Club Sisyphus effect, a method of cooling below temperatures predicted by Doppler Cooling in Atomic Physics Disambiguation page providing links to topics that could be referred to by the same search term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sisyphus. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus_(disambiguation)&oldid=994740089" Categories: Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Disambiguation pages with short descriptions Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Čeština Deutsch Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 08:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8053	----	Charon - Wikipedia Charon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Ferryman of Hades in Greek-Roman mythology This article is about the mythological figure. For the moon of Pluto, see Charon (moon). For other uses, see Charon (disambiguation). Attic red-figure lekythos attributed to the Tymbos painter showing Charon welcoming a soul into his boat, c. 500–450 BC In Greek mythology and Roman mythology, Charon or Kharon (/ˈkɛərɒn, -ən/; Greek Χάρων) is a psychopomp, the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the river Styx that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on the mouth of a dead person.[1] Some authors say that those who could not pay the fee, or those whose bodies were left unburied, had to wander the shores for one hundred years, until they were allowed to cross the river.[2] In the catabasis mytheme, heroes – such as Aeneas, Dionysus, Heracles, Hermes, Odysseus, Orpheus, Pirithous, Psyche, Theseus and Sisyphus – journey to the underworld and return, still alive, conveyed by the boat of Charon. Contents 1 Genealogy 2 Etymology of name 3 Appearance and demeanor 4 Underworld geography 5 In astronomy 6 In paleontology 7 Modern usage as Haros 8 See also 9 References 10 Relevant literature 11 External links Genealogy[edit] Charon is the son of Nyx.[3] He was also the brother of, among many others, Thanatos and Hypnos. Etymology of name[edit] The name Charon is most often explained as a proper noun from χάρων (charon), a poetic form of χαρωπός (charopós), "of keen gaze", referring either to fierce, flashing, or feverish eyes, or to eyes of a bluish-gray color. The word may be a euphemism for death.[4] Flashing eyes may indicate the anger or irascibility of Charon as he is often characterized in literature, but the etymology is not certain. The ancient historian Diodorus Siculus thought that the ferryman and his name had been imported from Egypt.[5] Appearance and demeanor[edit] Charon as depicted by Michelangelo in his fresco The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel Charon is depicted frequently in the art of ancient Greece. Attic funerary vases of the 5th and 4th centuries BC are often decorated with scenes of the dead boarding Charon's boat. On the earlier such vases, he looks like a rough, unkempt Athenian seaman dressed in reddish-brown, holding his ferryman's pole in his right hand and using his left hand to receive the deceased. Hermes sometimes stands by in his role as psychopomp. On later vases, Charon is given a more "kindly and refined" demeanor.[6] In the 1st century BC, the Roman poet Virgil describes Charon, manning his rust-colored skiff, in the course of Aeneas's descent to the underworld (Aeneid, Book 6), after the Cumaean Sibyl has directed the hero to the golden bough that will allow him to return to the world of the living: There Charon stands, who rules the dreary coast – A sordid god: down from his hairy chin A length of beard descends, uncombed, unclean; His eyes, like hollow furnaces on fire; A girdle, foul with grease, binds his obscene attire.[7] Other Latin authors also describe Charon, among them Seneca in his tragedy Hercules Furens, where Charon is described in verses 762–777 as an old man clad in foul garb, with haggard cheeks and an unkempt beard, a fierce ferryman who guides his craft with a long pole. When the boatman tells Heracles to halt, the Greek hero uses his strength to gain passage, overpowering Charon with the boatman's own pole.[8] In the second century, Lucian employed Charon as a figure in his Dialogues of the Dead, most notably in Parts 4 and 10 ("Hermes and Charon" and "Charon and Hermes").[9] In the Divine Comedy, Charon forces reluctant sinners onto his boat by beating them with his oar. (Gustave Doré, 1857). In the 14th century, Dante Alighieri described Charon in his Divine Comedy, drawing from Virgil's depiction in Aeneid 6. Charon is the first named mythological character Dante meets in the underworld, in Canto III of the Inferno. Dante depicts him as having eyes of fire. Elsewhere, Charon appears as a mean-spirited and gaunt old man or as a winged demon wielding a double hammer, although Michelangelo's interpretation, influenced by Dante's depiction in the Inferno, shows him with an oar over his shoulder, ready to beat those who delay (“batte col remo qualunque s'adagia”, Inferno 3, verse 111).[10] In modern times, he is commonly depicted as a living skeleton in a cowl, much like the Grim Reaper. The French artist, Gustave Dore, depicted Charon in two of his illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy. The Flemish painter, Joachim Patinir, depicted Charon in his Crossing the River Styx. And the Spanish painter, Jose Benlliure y Gil, portrayed Charon in his La Barca de Caronte. Underworld geography[edit] A 19th-century interpretation of Charon's crossing by Alexander Litovchenko Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Most accounts, including Pausanias (10.28) and later Dante's Inferno (3.78), associate Charon with the swamps of the river Acheron. Ancient Greek literary sources – such as Pindar, Aeschylus, Euripides, Plato, and Callimachus – also place Charon on the Acheron. Roman poets, including Propertius, Ovid, and Statius, name the river as the Styx, perhaps following the geography of Virgil's underworld in the Aeneid, where Charon is associated with both rivers.[11] In astronomy[edit] Charon, the largest moon of the dwarf planet Pluto, is named after him.[12] In paleontology[edit] The hadrosaurid Charonosaurus is named in Charon's honor because it was found along the banks of the Amur River in the Far East.[13] Modern usage as Haros[edit] Haros or Charos (Greek: Χάρος) is the modern Greek equivalent of Charon. It is used in common phrases such as "from the teeth of Haros" (Greek: από του Χάρου τα δόντια) meaning to come close to death or "you will be eaten (i.e. taken) by Haros". During the Korean War, the Greek Expeditionary Force defended an outpost called Outpost Harry.[14] The Greek soldiers referred to it as "Outpost Haros".[15] See also[edit] Charon's obol – a coin placed in the mouth of the dead Charun – an Etruscan counterpart to Charon Isle of the Dead – a painting Manannán mac Lir – Ferryman from Irish mythology Manunggul Jar – Early depiction similar figure on burial jar from Tabon Caves on Palawan Phlegyas – another god often associated with ferrying the dead Psychopomp – the general word for a guide of the dead Urshanabi – Ferryman from Mesopotamian mythology References[edit] ^ Not on the eyes; all literary sources specify the mouth. Callimachus, Hecale fragment 278 in R. Pfeiffer's text Callimachus (Oxford UP, 1949), vol.2, p. 262; now ordered as fragment 99 by A.S.D. Hollis, in his edition, Callimachus: Hecale (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990), pp. 284f., from the Suidas, English translation online, specifying the mouth, also Etymologicum Graecum ("Danakes"). See also Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, entry on "Charon" online for placement in the mouth, though archaeology disproves Smith's statement that every corpse was given a coin; see article on Charon's obol. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6, 324–330. ^ Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. ^ Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1843, 1985 printing), entries on χαροπός and χάρων, pp. 1980–1981; Brill's New Pauly (Leiden and Boston 2003), vol. 3, entry on “Charon,” pp. 202–203. ^ Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Reading" Greek Death (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 359 online and p. 390 online. ^ Grinsell, L. V. (1957). "The Ferryman and His Fee: A Study in Ethnology, Archaeology, and Tradition". Folklore. 68 (1): 257–269 [p. 261]. doi:10.1080/0015587x.1957.9717576. JSTOR 1258157. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.298–301, as translated by John Dryden. ^ See Ronnie H. Terpening, Charon and the Crossing: Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance Transformations of a Myth (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1985 and London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1985), pp. 97–98. ^ For an analysis of these dialogues, ss Terpening, pp. 107–116. ^ For an analysis of Dante's depiction of Charon and other appearances in literature from antiquity through the 17th century in Italy, see Terpening, Charon and the Crossing. ^ See Kharon at theoi.com for collected source passages with work and line annotations, as well as images from vase paintings. ^ Dennis, Overbye (2 July 2013). "Two of Pluto's Moons Get Names From Greek Mythology's Underworld". The New. The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2015. ^ Godefroit, Pascal; Shuqin Zan; Liyong Jin (2000). "Charonosaurus jiayinensis n. g., n. sp., a lambeosaurine dinosaur from the Late Maastrichtian of northeastern China". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA. 330: 875–882. Bibcode:2000CRASE.330..875G. doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(00)00214-7. ^ War History Compilation Committee (1977), The History of the United Nations Forces in the Korean War, 6, Seoul: Republic of Korea Ministry of National Defense, OCLC 769331231 ^ "The soldiers of the Greek Expeditionary Forces called it Outpost "Haros" the Greek name for Death. It was classic wartime humor, a dark pun borne of a hopeless mission". outpostharry.org. Relevant literature[edit] Bzinkowski, Michal. 2017. Masks of Charos in Modern Greek Demotic Songs: Sources, Representations, and Context. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press. ISBN 978-83-233-4330-1 Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Charon" External links[edit] Media related to Charon at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of Charon at Wiktionary The Theoi Project, "KHARON" Images of Charon in the Warburg Institute Iconographic Database v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books 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en-wikipedia-org-808	----	Oracle - Wikipedia Oracle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the classical concept. For the software company, see Oracle Corporation. For other uses, see Oracle (disambiguation). Part of a series on Anthropology of religion Consulting the Oracle by John William Waterhouse, showing eight priestesses in a temple of prophecy Basic concepts Afterlife Animism Augur Augury Communitas Comparative religion Divination Greek divination Methods of divination Divine language Evolutionary origin of religions Fetishism Great Spirit Haruspex Henotheism Initiation Liminality Magic (supernatural) Apotropaic magic Mana Monotheism Necromancy Nympholepsy Oracle Ornithomancy Polytheism Pythia Rite of passage Ritual Revitalization movement Sacred dance Sacred language Sacred–profane dichotomy Shamanism Soul dualism Superstition Theories about religions Totem Transtheism Veneration of the dead Case studies Magic Coral Gardens and Their Magic Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants Neo-Paganism Ritual Angakkuq Babaylan Bobohizan Bomoh Bora Dukun Miko Jhākri Pawang Slametan Wu Revitalization movement Cargo cult Ghost Dance Handsome Lake Related articles The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life Purity and Danger Myth and ritual Archaeology of religion and ritual Poles in mythology Major theorists Augustin Calmet Akbar S. Ahmed Talal Asad Joseph Campbell Mary Douglas Émile Durkheim Arnold van Gennep E. E. Evans-Pritchard James Frazer Clifford Geertz Robin Horton Claude Lévi-Strauss Robert Marett Roy Rappaport Saba Mahmood Marshall Sahlins Melford Spiro Stanley Tambiah Victor Turner Edward Burnett Tylor Daniel Martin Varisco Anthony F. C. Wallace Journals Anthropological Perspectives on Religion Folklore The Hibbert Journal The Journal of Religion Oceania Religions Ethnic and folk religions Afro-American religion Alaska Native religion Anito Atua Böö mörgöl Chinese folk religion Hanitu Hausa Kejawèn Native American religion Noaidi Shindo Shamanism in Siberia Shinto Traditional African religions Buddhism Mahayana Nichiren Pure Land Shingon Theravada Tiantai Tibetan Vajrayana Zen Christianity Adventism Anglicanism Armenian Apostolic Church Baptists Calvinism Catholic Church Coptic Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy Ethiopian Orthodoxy Greek Orthodoxy Lutheranism Methodism Nestorianism Oriental Orthodoxy Pentecostalism Protestantism Quakers Russian Orthodoxy Hinduism Hindu denominations Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Vaishnavism Islam Ahmadiyya Ibadi Mahdavia Non-denominational Quranists Shia Sufism Sunni Yazdânism Judaism Conservative Hasidic Karaite Orthodox Reform Jainism Sikhism Social and cultural anthropology v t e An oracle is a person or agency considered to provide wise and insightful counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. As such, it is a form of divination. Contents 1 Description 2 Origins 3 In classical antiquity 3.1 Pythia (Delphi) 3.2 Dodona 3.3 Trophonius 3.4 Oracle of Menestheus 4 In other cultures 4.1 Celtic polytheism 4.2 China 4.3 Hawaii 4.4 India 4.5 Nigeria 4.6 Norse mythology 4.7 Pre-Columbian Americas 4.8 Tibetan 5 In modern usage 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Description[edit] The word oracle comes from the Latin verb ōrāre, "to speak" and properly refers to the priest or priestess uttering the prediction. In extended use, oracle may also refer to the site of the oracle, and to the oracular utterances themselves, called khrēsmē 'tresme' (χρησμοί) in Greek. Oracles were thought to be portals through which the gods spoke directly to people. In this sense they were different from seers (manteis, μάντεις) who interpreted signs sent by the gods through bird signs, animal entrails, and other various methods.[1] The most important oracles of Greek antiquity were Pythia (priestess to Apollo at Delphi), and the oracle of Dione and Zeus at Dodona in Epirus. Other oracles of Apollo were located at Didyma and Mallus on the coast of Anatolia, at Corinth and Bassae in the Peloponnese, and at the islands of Delos and Aegina in the Aegean Sea. The Sibylline Oracles are a collection of oracular utterances written in Greek hexameters ascribed to the Sibyls, prophetesses who uttered divine revelations in frenzied states. Origins[edit] Walter Burkert observes that "Frenzied women from whose lips the god speaks" are recorded in the Near East as in Mari in the second millennium BC and in Assyria in the first millennium BC.[2] In Egypt the goddess Wadjet (eye of the moon) was depicted as a snake-headed woman or a woman with two snake-heads. Her oracle was in the renowned temple in Per-Wadjet (Greek name Buto). The oracle of Wadjet may have been the source for the oracular tradition which spread from Egypt to Greece.[3] Evans linked Wadjet with the "Minoan Snake Goddess".[4] At the oracle of Dodona she is called Diōnē (the feminine form of Diós, genitive of Zeus; or of dīos, "godly", literally "heavenly"), who represents the earth-fertile soil, probably the chief female goddess of the proto-Indo-European pantheon[citation needed]. Python, daughter (or son) of Gaia was the earth dragon of Delphi represented as a serpent and became the chthonic deity, enemy of Apollo, who slew her and possessed the oracle.[5] In classical antiquity[edit] Pythia (Delphi)[edit] When the Prytanies' seat shines white in the island of Siphnos, White-browed all the forum—need then of a true seer's wisdom— Danger will threat from a wooden boat, and a herald in scarlet. — The Pythoness, in The Histories, Herodotus.[6] The Pythia was the mouthpiece of the oracles of the god Apollo, and was also known as the Oracle of Delphi.[7] The Delphic Oracle exerted considerable influence throughout Hellenic culture. Distinctively, this woman was essentially the highest authority both civilly and religiously in male-dominated ancient Greece. She responded to the questions of citizens, foreigners, kings, and philosophers on issues of political impact, war, duty, crime, family, laws—even personal issues.[8] The semi-Hellenic countries around the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt also respected her and came to Delphi as supplicants. Croesus, king of Lydia beginning in 560 B.C., tested the oracles of the world to discover which gave the most accurate prophecies. He sent out emissaries to seven sites who were all to ask the oracles on the same day what the king was doing at that very moment. Croesus proclaimed the oracle at Delphi to be the most accurate, who correctly reported that the king was making a lamb-and-tortoise stew, and so he graced her with a magnitude of precious gifts.[9] He then consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to Herodotus was advised: "If you cross the river, a great empire will be destroyed". Believing the response favourable, Croesus attacked, but it was his own empire that ultimately was destroyed by the Persians. She allegedly also proclaimed that there was no man wiser than Socrates, to which Socrates said that, if so, this was because he alone was aware of his own ignorance. After this confrontation, Socrates dedicated his life to a search for knowledge that was one of the founding events of western philosophy. He claimed that she was "an essential guide to personal and state development."[10] This oracle's last recorded response was given in 362 AD, to Julian the Apostate.[11] The oracle's powers were highly sought after and never doubted. Any inconsistencies between prophecies and events were dismissed as failure to correctly interpret the responses, not an error of the oracle.[12] Very often prophecies were worded ambiguously, so as to cover all contingencies – especially so ex post facto. One famous such response to a query about participation in a military campaign was "You will go you will return never in war will you perish". This gives the recipient liberty to place a comma before or after the word "never", thus covering both possible outcomes. Another was the response to the Athenians when the vast army of king Xerxes I was approaching Athens with the intent of razing the city to the ground. "Only the wooden palisades may save you"[citation needed], answered the oracle, probably aware that there was sentiment for sailing to the safety of southern Italy and re-establishing Athens there. Some thought that it was a recommendation to fortify the Acropolis with a wooden fence and make a stand there. Others, Themistocles among them, said the oracle was clearly for fighting at sea, the metaphor intended to mean war ships. Others still insisted that their case was so hopeless that they should board every ship available and flee to Italy, where they would be safe beyond any doubt. In the event, variations of all three interpretations were attempted: some barricaded the Acropolis, the civilian population was evacuated over sea to nearby Salamis Island and to Troizen, and the war fleet fought victoriously at Salamis Bay. Should utter destruction have happened, it could always be claimed that the oracle had called for fleeing to Italy after all. Dodona[edit] Dodona was another oracle devoted to the Mother Goddess identified at other sites with Rhea or Gaia, but here called Dione. The shrine of Dodona was the oldest Hellenic oracle, according to the fifth-century historian Herodotus and in fact dates to pre-Hellenic times, perhaps as early as the second millennium BC when the tradition probably spread from Egypt. Zeus displaced the Mother goddess and assimilated her as Aphrodite. It became the second most important oracle in ancient Greece, which later was dedicated to Zeus and to Heracles during the classical period of Greece. At Dodona Zeus was worshipped as Zeus Naios or Naos (god of springs Naiads, from a spring which existed under the oak), and Zeus Bouleos (cancellor). Priestesses and priests interpreted the rustling of the oak leaves to determine the correct actions to be taken. The oracle was shared by Dione and Zeus. Trophonius[edit] Trophonius was an oracle at Lebadea of Boeotia devoted to the chthonian Zeus Trophonius. Trophonius is derived from the Greek word "trepho" (nourish) and he was a Greek hero, or demon or god. Demeter-Europa was his nurse.[13] Europa (in Greek: broad-eyes) was a Phoenician princess whom Zeus, having transformed himself into a white bull, abducted and carried to Creta, and is equated with Astarte as a moon goddess by ancient sources.[14] Some scholars connect Astarte with the Minoan snake goddess, whose cult as Aphrodite spread from Creta to Greece.[15] Oracle of Menestheus[edit] Near the Menestheus's port or Menesthei Portus (Greek: Μενεσθέως λιμήν), modern El Puerto de Santa María, Spain, was the Oracle of Menestheus (Greek: Μαντεῖον τοῦ Μενεσθέως), to whom also the inhabitants of Gades offered sacrifices.[16][17] In other cultures[edit] Main article: Divination The term "oracle" is also applied in modern English to parallel institutions of divination in other cultures. Specifically, it is used in the context of Christianity for the concept of divine revelation, and in the context of Judaism for the Urim and Thummim breastplate, and in general any utterance considered prophetic.[18] Celtic polytheism[edit] In Celtic polytheism, divination was performed by the priestly caste, either the druids or the vates. This is reflected in the role of "seers" in Dark Age Wales (dryw) and Ireland (fáith). China[edit] Main articles: Oracle bone and I Ching Oracle bone of the Shang dynasty, ancient China In China, oracle bones were used for divination in the late Shang dynasty, (c. 1600–1046 BC). Diviners applied heat to these bones, usually ox scapulae or tortoise plastrons, and interpreted the resulting cracks. A different divining method, using the stalks of the yarrow plant, was practiced in the subsequent Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). Around the late 9th century BC, the divination system was recorded in the I Ching, or "Book of Changes", a collection of linear signs used as oracles. In addition to its oracular power, the I Ching has had a major influence on the philosophy, literature and statecraft of China since the Zhou period. Hawaii[edit] In Hawaii, oracles were found at certain heiau, Hawaiian temples. These oracles were found in towers covered in white kapa cloth made from plant fibres. In here, priests received the will of gods. These towers were called 'Anu'u. An example of this can be found at Ahu'ena heiau in Kona.[19] India[edit] In ancient India, the oracle was known as akashwani or Ashareera vani (a voice without body or unseen) or asariri (Tamil), literally meaning "voice from the sky" and was related to the message of a god. Oracles played key roles in many of the major incidents of the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. An example is that Kamsa (or Kansa), the evil uncle of Krishna, was informed by an oracle that the eighth son of his sister Devaki would kill him. However, there are no references in any Indian literature of the oracle being a specific person. Nigeria[edit] The Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria in Africa have a long tradition of using oracles. In Igbo villages, oracles were usually female priestesses to a particular deity, usually dwelling in a cave or other secluded location away from urban areas, and, much as the oracles of ancient Greece, would deliver prophecies in an ecstatic state to visitors seeking advice. Two of their ancient oracles became especially famous during the pre-colonial period: the Agbala oracle at Awka and the Chukwu oracle at Arochukwu.[20] Though the vast majority of Igbos today are Christian, many of them still use oracles. Among the related Yoruba peoples of the same country, the Babalawos (and their female counterparts, the Iyanifas) serve collectively as the principal aspects of the tribe's World-famous Ifa divination system. Due to this, they customarily officiate at a great many of its traditional and religious ceremonies. Norse mythology[edit] In Norse mythology, Odin took the severed head of the god Mimir to Asgard for consultation as an oracle. The Havamal and other sources relate the sacrifice of Odin for the oracular Runes whereby he lost an eye (external sight) and won wisdom (internal sight; insight). Pre-Columbian Americas[edit] In the migration myth of the Mexitin, i.e., the early Aztecs, a mummy-bundle (perhaps an effigy) carried by four priests directed the trek away from the cave of origins by giving oracles. An oracle led to the foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The Yucatec Mayas knew oracle priests or chilanes, literally 'mouthpieces' of the deity. Their written repositories of traditional knowledge, the Books of Chilam Balam, were all ascribed to one famous oracle priest who correctly had predicted the coming of the Spaniards and its associated disasters. Tibetan[edit] In Tibet, oracles have played, and continue to play, an important part in religion and government. The word "oracle" is used by Tibetans to refer to the spirit that enters those men and women who act as media between the natural and the spiritual realms. The media are, therefore, known as kuten, which literally means, "the physical basis". The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar.[21] Nechung and Gadhong are the primary oracles currently consulted; former oracles such as Karmashar and Darpoling are no longer active in exile. The Gadhong oracle has died leaving Nechung to be the only primary oracle. Another oracle the Dalai Lama consults is the Tenma Oracle, for which a young Tibetan woman by the name of Khandro La is the medium for the mountain goddesses Tseringma along with the other 11 goddesses. The Dalai Lama gives a complete description of the process of trance and spirit possession in his book Freedom in Exile.[22] Dorje Shugden oracles were once consulted by the Dalai Lamas until the 14th Dalai Lama banned the practice, even though he consulted Dorje Shugden for advice to escape and was successful in it. Due to the ban, many of the abbots that were worshippers of Dorje Shugden have been forced to go against the Dalai Lama. In modern usage[edit] In computer science an oracle is a black box that is always able to provide correct answers. It is the component of an oracle machine after which the machine is named. See also[edit] Futomani Jiaobei Kau Cim Lingqijing Prophet Tung Shing References[edit] ^ Flower, Michael Attyah. The Seer in Ancient Greece. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008. ^ Walter Burkert.Greek Religion. Harvard University Press.1985.p 116-118 ^ Herodotus, The Histories, ii 55, and vii 134. ^ Cristopher L.C. Whitcomp.Minoan Snake goddess.8.Snakes, Egypt, Magic and wome ^ Hymn to Pythian Apollo.363,369 ^ Herodotus, The Histories, as translated in: Rawlinson, George; Rawlinson, Henry Creswicke; Wilkinson, John Gardner (1862). The History of Herodotus: A New English Version. II. London: John Murray. p. 376. Retrieved 3 August 2015. ^ Plato, G.M.A. Grube, J.M. Cooper - The Trial and Death of Socrates (Third Edition): "Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Death Scene from Phaedo" (page 24 - footnote 7) Hackett Publishing, 2000; ISBN 1603846476 [Retrieved 2015-04-25] ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.43 ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.51-53 ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.63. Socrates also argued that the oracle's effectiveness was rooted in her ability to abandon herself completely to a higher power by way of insanity or "sacred madness." ^ Thomas, Carol G. (1988). Paths from Ancient Greece. Brill Publishers. p. 47. ISBN 9004088466. ^ Broad, W. J. (2007), p.15 ^ Pausanias.Guide to Greece 9.39.2–5. ^ Lucian of Samosata.De Dea Syria.4 ^ R.Wunderlich.The secret of Creta.Efstathiadis Group.Athens 1987.p 134 ^ "LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book III Chapter 1". penelope.uchicago.edu. ^ "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), MENESTHEI PORTUS". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ OED s.v. "oracle n." ^ John Fischer. "'Anu'u (oracle tower) and Ki'i Akua (temple images) at 'Ahu'ena Heiau in Kailua-Kona on Hawaii's Big Island". About.com Travel. ^ Webster J.B. and Boahen A.A., The Revolutionary Years, West Africa since 1800, Longman, London, p. 107–108. ^ Gyatso, Tenzin (1988). Freedom in Exile: the Autobiography of the Dalai Lama of Tibet. Fully revised and updated. Lancaster Place, London, UK: Abacus Books (A Division of Little, Brown and Company UK). ISBN 0-349-11111-1. p.233 ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2007-01-23.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Further reading[edit] Broad, William J. 2007. The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets. New York: Penguin Press. Broad, William J. 2006. The Oracle: The Lost Secrets and Hidden Message of Ancient Delphi. New York: Penguin Press. Curnow, T. 1995. The Oracles of the Ancient World: A Comprehensive Guide. London: Duckworth – ISBN 0-7156-3194-2 Evans-Pritchard, E. 1976. Witchcraft, oracle, and magic among the Azande. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fontenrose, J. 1981. The Delphic Oracle. Its responses and operations with a catalogue of responses. Berkeley: University of California Press (main page) Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. Columbia University Press, USA. ISBN 0-231-13748-6. Stoneman, Richard (2011). The Ancient Oracles: Making the Gods Speak. Yale University Press, USA Garoi Ashram, (2004–2015). The copper oracle of Sri Achyuta: answers as instantaneous inscription. External links[edit] Look up oracle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Oracle Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oracles. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Oracle" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Authority control GND: 4043694-9 NDL: 00572627 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle&oldid=1002106105" Categories: Divination Prophecy Hidden categories: CS1 maint: archived copy as title All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 Articles containing Greek-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Frysk 한국어 हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Winaray ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2021, at 22:05 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8232	----	Alexander of Corinth - Wikipedia Alexander of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 3rd-century BC tyrant of Corinth This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Alexander (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος) (died 247 BC) was a Macedonian governor and tyrant of Corinth. He was the son of Craterus who had faithfully governed Corinth and Chalcis for his half-brother Antigonus II Gonatas. His grandmother was Phila, the celebrated daughter of Antipater and first wife of Demetrius Poliorcetes. According to a note in Livy (XXXV, 26), his mother's name may have been Nicaea and this was also the name of his wife. At his father's death around 263 Alexander inherited his position, which went then far beyond that of a mere Macedonian garrison commander and resembled more a dynastic regency in Greece. For some years Alexander remained loyal to Antigonus, but by 253 he accepted subsidies from the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus and resolved to challenge the Macedonian supremacy seeking independence as a tyrant. The loss of Corinth and Euboea was an almost irreparable blow to the Macedonian hegemony over Greece. Antigonus tried to recover, building an alliance with Athens, Argos and Sicyon, but Alexander managed to pull Sicyon over to his side and subsequently allied himself with the Achaean League. Challenged by a contemporary offensive of his Ptolemaic rival in the Cyclades, Antigonus was unable to protect his allies. In 249 Alexander carried victories over Athens and Argos and the following year he possibly forced his enemies to accept a truce. At the height of his power, Alexander died in 247 under circumstances which led his contemporaries to believe that he had been poisoned by Antigonus Gonatas. Alexander's widow Nicaea assumed control of his possessions, but after the death of her protector Ptolemy Philadelphus in 246 her position was weakened. When Antigonus carried a naval victory over his enemies and an Aetolian raid into Boeotia threatened Chalcis, Attica and Corinth, she accepted to marry Antigonus' son and heir Demetrius II Aetolicus. During the marriage celebrations in the winter of 245/44 Antigonus took in the garrison of the Acrocorinth and regained control of his former possessions. References[edit]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Nicaea 2". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Aratos of Sicyon by F. W. Walbank, Cambridge University Press, 1933, pp. 29–45 and 203f. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_of_Corinth&oldid=987032302" Categories: Ancient Greek rulers Ancient Greek generals 3rd-century BC Macedonians Ancient Greeks who were murdered 247 BC deaths Soldiers of Ancient Corinth Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from May 2013 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the DGRBM with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the DGRBM AC with 0 elements Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 November 2020, at 13:18 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8237	----	Aegina (mythology) - Wikipedia Aegina (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Look up Aegina in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Aegina Awaiting the Arrival of Zeus. Painting by Ferdinand Bol. Greek deities series Primordial deities Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Nymphs Alseid Auloniad Aurai Crinaeae Dryads Eleionomae Hamadryads Hesperides Hyades Lampads Leuce Limnades Meliae Melinoë Minthe Naiads Napaeae Nephele Nereids Oceanids Oreads Pegaeae Pegasides Pleiades Potamides Semystra Thriae v t e Aegina (/iˈdʒaɪnə/; Ancient Greek: Αἴγινα) was a figure of Greek mythology, the nymph of the island that bears her name, Aegina, lying in the Saronic Gulf between Attica and the Peloponnesos. The archaic Temple of Aphaea, the "Invisible Goddess", on the island was later subsumed by the cult of Athena. Aphaia (Ἀφαῖα) may be read as an attribute of Aegina that provides an epithet, or as a doublet of the goddess. Contents 1 Family 2 Mythology 2.1 The Abduction of Aegina 2.2 Myrmidons 3 In popular culture 4 Notes 5 References Family[edit] Though the name Aegina betokens a goat-nymph,[1] such as was Cretan Amalthea, she was given a mainland identity as the daughter of the river-god Asopus and the nymph Metope; of their twelve or twenty daughters, many were ravished by Apollo or Zeus. Aegina bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by Zeus, both of whom became kings. A certain Damocrateia, who married Menoetius, was also called her daughter by an unknown consort.[2] The mortal son Menoetius was king of Opus, and was counted among the Argonauts. His son was Patroclus, Achilles' first cousin once removed through their paternal family connection to Aegina, and his intimate companion. The son made immortal, Aeacus, was the king of Aegina, and was known to have contributed help to Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy. Through him Aegina was the great-grandmother of Achilles, who was son of Peleus, son of Aeacus. Attic red-figure pyxis showing Zeus chasing Aegina Mythology[edit] Jean-Baptiste Greuze - Aegina Visited by Jupiter, 1767-69 The Abduction of Aegina[edit] Legend has it that Zeus took the form of an eagle (or a great flame in Ovid's telling) and abducted Aegina,[3] taking her to an island near Attica,[4] then called Oenone;[5] henceforth known by her name. Aegina's father Asopus chased after them; his search took him to Corinth, where Sisyphus was king. Sisyphus, having chanced to see a great bird bearing a maiden away to a nearby island, informed Asopus. Though Asopus pursued them, Zeus threw down his thunderbolts sending Asopus back to his own waters. Aegina eventually gave birth to her son Aeacus, who became king of the island. Myrmidons[edit] When the city of Aegina was depopulated by a plague sent by Hera in jealous reprisal for Zeus's love of Aegina, the king Aeacus prayed to Zeus for the ants that were currently infesting an oak tree to morph into humans to repopulate his kingdom. Thus the myrmidons were created. In popular culture[edit] Aegina is one of the "follower" cards in Collectible Card Game Shadowverse, able to reduce any damage dealt to the player's leader by 3. Aegina was the name of a slave caught by Hera who Hercules rescued in the Pilot episode The Wrong Path of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys and she was played by Clare Carey. Notes[edit] ^ Compare Aegis, Aegeus, Aigai "place of goats", etc. ^ Scholia on Pindar, Olympian Ode 9, 107 ^ Bibliotheke 3.11.2; Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii and Nemean Odes viii; Ovid, Metamorphoses vi.3. ^ A mythic inversion, as Aegina simply was the nymph of the island, whose culture, continuous from an early date, long preceded the introduction of the Olympian gods. Ceramic fragments at Aegina attest to trade with Minoan Crete and with the Cyclades. ^ "Wine Island", thus not an indigenous name after all: the introduction of viticulture provides many mythemes for the Hellenes. References[edit] Robert Graves, The Greek Myths (1955) 1960, 66.b.1; 67.f; 138.b. Edith Hamilton, Mythology (1940) 1942 Mentor Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aegina_(mythology)&oldid=1000375648" Categories: Nymphs Divine women of Zeus Aeginetan mythology Children of Asopus Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 January 2021, at 21:06 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8334	----	Minyas (mythology) - Wikipedia Minyas (mythology) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Minyas (/ˈmɪniəs, ˈmɪnjəs/; Ancient Greek: Μινύας) was the founder of Orchomenus, Boeotia.[1] Contents 1 Family 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References Family[edit] As the ancestor of the Minyans, a number of Boeotian genealogies lead back to him, according to the classicist H.J. Rose. Accounts vary as to his own parentage: one source states that he was thought to be the son of Orchomenus and Hermippe, his real father being Poseidon;[2] in another account he is called son of Poseidon and Callirhoe;[3] yet others variously give his father as Chryses (son of Poseidon and Chrysogeneia, daughter of Almus),[4] Eteocles,[5] Aeolus,[1] Ares, Aleus, Sisyphus and Halmus (Almus). Minyas was married to either Euryanassa, Euryale, Tritogeneia (daughter of Aeolus), Clytodora, or Phanosyra (daughter of Paeon). Of them, either Euryanassa or Clytodora bore him a daughter Clymene (also called Periclymene,[6][7] mother of Iphiclus and Alcimede by Phylacus or Cephalus). Clytodora is also given as the mother by Minyas of Orchomenus, Presbon, Athamas,[2] Diochthondas[8] and Eteoclymene.[9] Minyas' other children include Cyparissus, the founder of Anticyra,[10] and three daughters known as the Minyades who were turned into bats.[11][12][13] In some accounts, he was also said to be the father of Persephone who married Amphion and by him became the mother of Chloris, wife of Neleus.[14] Also, Elara, the mother of the giant Tityus was also described sometimes as Minyas' daughter.[15][16] According to Apollonius Rhodius[17] and Pausanias,[18] he was the first king to have made a treasury, of which the ruins were still extant in Pausanias' times. Comparative table of Minyas' family Relation Name Sources Homer Pindar Apollon. Ovid Apollod. Plutarch Hyg. Paus. Anton. Aelian Steph. Eusta. Tzet. W. Smith Sch. Ody. Sch. Isth. Argo Sch. Meta. Gk. Ques. Fabulae Odys. Lyco. Parentage Eteocles ✓ Aeolus ✓[19] Poseidon and Hermippe ✓ Poseidon and Chrysogone ✓ Chryses ✓ Orchomenus ✓ Poseidon and Callirhoe ✓ Ares ✓ Aleus ✓ Sisyphus ✓ Halmus ✓ Wife Euryanassa ✓ Euryale ✓ Tritogeneia ✓ Clytodora ✓ Phanosyra ✓ Children Clymene ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Elara ✓ ✓ Eteoclymene ✓ Diochthondas ✓ Orchomenus ✓ ✓ Athamas ✓ Presbon ✓ Leuconoe or ✓ Leucippe ✓ ✓ ✓ Alcithoe or ✓ ✓ Alcathoe ✓ ✓ Arsinoe or ✓ Arsippe or ✓ Aristippe ✓ Periclymene ✓ ✓ Cyparissus ✓ Persephone ✓ See also[edit] Minyans Boeotia Graïke Graia Persephone Chloris Notes[edit] ^ a b Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.1093 ff ^ a b Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.230 ^ Tzetzes on Lycophron, 875 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9. 36. 4; in scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 3. 1094, Minyas himself is the son of Poseidon and "Chrysogone", daughter of Almus. ^ Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Ode 1. 79 ^ Hyginus Fabulae 14 ^ Tzetzes ad Lycophron. Alexandra, 875 ^ Scholia ad Pindar, Olympian Odes 14.5 ^ Scholia ad Pindar, Pythian Odes 4.120 ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad, 2. 159; on Odyssey, 11. 362 ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, 4. 1 - 168 ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 10 ^ Plutarch, Quaestiones Graecae, 38 ^ Scholia on Odyssey, 11. 281, citing Pherecydes (fr. 117 Fowler) ^ Scholiast on Homer, Odyssey 7.324 ^ Eustathius on Homer, Odyssey 7.324, p. 1581 ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1.229 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 9.38.2 ^ Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553: "He (i.e. Minyas) is called Aeolian, not as being the immediate offspring of Aeolus, but as being descended from his stocks. Sisyphus, the son of Aeolus, had two sons, Almus and Porphyrion. Minyas, the builder of Orchomenus, was the son of Neptune, by Chrysogone, the daughter of Almus thus he was a descendant of Aeolus by the mother's side." References[edit] Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0198147404. Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, v. 2, page 1092 Thirlwall, Connop (1895). A History of Greece. Original from the University of Virginia: Longmans. p. 92. This article relating to Greek mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minyas_(mythology)&oldid=994562625" Categories: Boeotian mythology Greek mythology stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Беларуская Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Français Italiano Lietuvių 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2020, at 10:40 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8346	----	The Myth of Sisyphus - Wikipedia The Myth of Sisyphus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For mythology regarding the Greek character Sisyphus, see Sisyphus. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 1942 book by Albert Camus The Myth of Sisyphus Cover of the first edition Author Albert Camus Original title Le Mythe de Sisyphe Translator Justin O'Brien Country France Language French Subjects Existentialism Absurdism Published 1942 (Éditions Gallimard, in French) 1955 (Hamish Hamilton, in English) Media type Print ISBN 0-679-73373-6 The Myth of Sisyphus (French: Le Mythe de Sisyphe) is a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus. The English translation by Justin O'Brien was first published in 1955. Influenced by philosophers such as Søren Kierkegaard, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Friedrich Nietzsche, Camus introduces his philosophy of the absurd. Absurdism lies in the juxtaposition between the fundamental human need to attribute meaning to life and the "unreasonable silence" of the universe in response.[1] Camus compares the absurdity of man's life with the situation of Sisyphus, a figure of Greek mythology who was condemned to repeat forever the same meaningless task of pushing a boulder up a mountain, only to see it roll down again. The work can be seen in relation to other absurdist works by Camus: the novel The Stranger (1942), the plays The Misunderstanding (1942) and Caligula (1944), and especially the essay The Rebel (1951). Contents 1 History 2 Summary 2.1 Chapter 1: An Absurd Reasoning 2.2 Chapter 2: The Absurd Man 2.3 Chapter 3: Absurd Creation 2.4 Chapter 4: The Myth of Sisyphus 2.5 Appendix 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 External links History[edit] Camus began work in 1940, during the fall of France, when millions of refugees fled from advancing German armies. This helped him in understanding the absurd, although the essay rarely refers to this event.[2] He then wrote a preface for the essay while in Paris in 1955, which is included in the translated version by Justin O'Brien. Camus states that "even if one does not believe in God, suicide is not legitimate."[3] Summary[edit] The essay is dedicated to Pascal Pia and is organized in four chapters and one appendix. Chapter 1: An Absurd Reasoning[edit] Camus undertakes the task of answering what he considers to be the only question of philosophy that matters: Does the realization of the meaninglessness and absurdity of life necessarily require suicide? He begins by describing the absurd condition: we build our life on the hope for tomorrow, yet tomorrow brings us closer to death and is the ultimate enemy; people live their lives as if they were not aware of the certainty of death. Once stripped of its common romanticism, the world is a foreign, strange and inhuman place; true knowledge is impossible and rationality and science cannot explain the world: their stories ultimately end in meaningless abstractions, in metaphors. This is the absurd condition and "from the moment absurdity is recognized, it becomes a passion, the most harrowing of all." It is not the world that is absurd, nor human thought: the absurd arises when the human need to understand meets the unreasonableness of the world, when the "appetite for the absolute and for unity" meets "the impossibility of reducing this world to a rational and reasonable principle." He then characterizes several philosophies that describe and attempt to deal with this feeling of the absurd, by Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, Lev Shestov, Søren Kierkegaard, and Edmund Husserl. All of these, he claims, commit "philosophical suicide" by reaching conclusions that contradict the original absurd position, either by abandoning reason and turning to God, as in the case of Kierkegaard and Shestov, or by elevating reason and ultimately arriving at ubiquitous Platonic forms and an abstract god, as in the case of Husserl. For Camus, who sets out to take the absurd seriously and follow it to its final conclusions, these "leaps" cannot convince. Taking the absurd seriously means acknowledging the contradiction between the desire of human reason and the unreasonable world. Suicide, then, also must be rejected: without man, the absurd cannot exist. The contradiction must be lived; reason and its limits must be acknowledged, without false hope. However, the absurd can never be permanently accepted: it requires constant confrontation, constant revolt. While the question of human freedom in the metaphysical sense loses interest to the absurd man, he gains freedom in a very concrete sense: no longer bound by hope for a better future or eternity, without a need to pursue life's purpose or to create meaning, "he enjoys a freedom with regard to common rules". To embrace the absurd implies embracing all that the unreasonable world has to offer. Without meaning in life, there is no scale of values. "What counts is not the best living but the most living." Thus, Camus arrives at three consequences from fully acknowledging the absurd: revolt, freedom, and passion. Chapter 2: The Absurd Man[edit] How should the absurd man live? Clearly, no ethical rules apply, as they are all based on higher powers or on justification. "Integrity has no need of rules. 'Everything is permitted' is not an outburst of relief or of joy, but rather a bitter acknowledgement of a fact." Camus then goes on to present examples of the absurd life. He begins with Don Juan, the serial seducer who lives the passionate life to the fullest. "There is no noble love but that which recognizes itself to be both short-lived and exceptional." The next example is the actor, who depicts ephemeral lives for ephemeral fame. "He demonstrates to what degree appearing creates being. In those three hours, he travels the whole course of the dead-end path that the man in the audience takes a lifetime to cover." Camus's third example of the absurd man is the conqueror, the warrior who forgoes all promises of eternity to affect and engage fully in human history. He chooses action over contemplation, aware of the fact that nothing can last and no victory is final. Chapter 3: Absurd Creation[edit] Here Camus explores the absurd creator or artist. Since explanation is impossible, absurd art is restricted to a description of the myriad experiences in the world. "If the world were clear, art would not exist." Absurd creation, of course, also must refrain from judging and from alluding to even the slightest shadow of hope. He then analyzes the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky in this light, especially The Diary of a Writer, The Possessed and The Brothers Karamazov. All these works start from the absurd position, and the first two explore the theme of philosophical suicide. However, both The Diary and his last novel, The Brothers Karamazov, ultimately find a path to hope and faith and thus fail as truly absurd creations. Sisyphus by Titian, 1549 Chapter 4: The Myth of Sisyphus[edit] In the last chapter, Camus outlines the legend of Sisyphus who defied the gods and put Death in chains so that no human needed to die. When Death was eventually liberated and it came time for Sisyphus himself to die, he concocted a deceit which let him escape from the underworld. After finally capturing Sisyphus, the gods decided that his punishment would last for all eternity. He would have to push a rock up a mountain; upon reaching the top, the rock would roll down again, leaving Sisyphus to start over. Camus sees Sisyphus as the absurd hero who lives life to the fullest, hates death, and is condemned to a meaningless task.[4] Camus presents Sisyphus's ceaseless and pointless toil as a metaphor for modern lives spent working at futile jobs in factories and offices. "The workman of today works every day in his life at the same tasks, and this fate is no less absurd. But it is tragic only at the rare moments when it becomes conscious." Camus is interested in Sisyphus's thoughts when marching down the mountain, to start anew. After the stone falls back down the mountain Camus states that "It is during that return, that pause, that Sisyphus interests me. A face that toils so close to stones is already stone itself! I see that man going back down with a heavy yet measured step toward the torment of which he will never know the end." This is the truly tragic moment when the hero becomes conscious of his wretched condition. He does not have hope, but "there is no fate that cannot be surmounted by scorn." Acknowledging the truth will conquer it; Sisyphus, just like the absurd man, keeps pushing. Camus claims that when Sisyphus acknowledges the futility of his task and the certainty of his fate, he is freed to realize the absurdity of his situation and to reach a state of contented acceptance. With a nod to the similarly cursed Greek hero Oedipus, Camus concludes that "all is well," indeed, that "one must imagine Sisyphus happy."[5] Appendix[edit] The essay contains an appendix titled "Hope and the Absurd in the work of Franz Kafka". While Camus acknowledges that Kafka's work represents an exquisite description of the absurd condition, he maintains that Kafka fails as an absurd writer because his work retains a glimmer of hope.[6] See also[edit] Eternal return Theatre of the Absurd The Sickness Unto Death by Søren Kierkegaard References[edit] ^ Kuiper, Kathleen. "The Myth of Sisyphus". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 November 2019. ^ Kirsch, Adam (20 October 2013). "Why Albert Camus Remains Controversial". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 29 November 2019. ^ Camus, Albert (1955). The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-73373-6. ^ "The Myth of Sisyphus". Sparknotes. Retrieved 9 December 2019. ^ "The Myth of Sisyphus". Britannica. Retrieved 9 December 2019. ^ Sleasman, Brent (2011). Albert Camus and the Metaphor of Absurdity. Salem Press. ISBN 9781587658259. Sources[edit] The Plague, The Fall, Exile and the Kingdom, and Selected Essays, Albert Camus, Alfred A. Knopf 2004, ISBN 1-4000-4255-0 Camus, Albert (1955). The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-73373-6. Sagi, Avi (2011). Is the Absurd the Problem or the Solution?. Salem Press. ISBN 9781587658259. External links[edit] Complete original text (French) English text Chapter 4 of the essay The Myth of Sisyphus, by Albert Camus SparkNotes on The Myth of Sisyphus Suicide and Atheism: Camus and The Myth of Sisyphus at the Wayback Machine (archived 12 October 2007) by Richard Barnett v t e Albert Camus (works) Novels The Stranger The Plague The Fall A Happy Death The First Man Short stories Exile and the Kingdom "The Adulterous Woman" "The Renegade" "The Silent Men" "The Guest" "The Artist at Work" "The Growing Stone" Plays Caligula The Misunderstanding The State of Siege The Just Assassins The Possessed Requiem for a Nun Essays The Myth of Sisyphus The Rebel "Reflections on the Guillotine" Resistance, Rebellion, and Death Non-fiction Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism Betwixt and Between Neither Victims nor Executioners Notebooks 1935–1942 Notebooks 1942–1951 Notebooks 1951–1959 Nuptials Correspondance (1944-1959) Algerian Chronicles American Journals Related Francine Faure (second wife) Authority control BNF: cb12006961k (data) GND: 4236810-8 VIAF: 198822860 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 198822860 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Myth_of_Sisyphus&oldid=1000013968" Categories: 1942 non-fiction books 1942 essays Books about metaphors Éditions Gallimard books Essays by Albert Camus French non-fiction books Hamish Hamilton books Philosophy essays Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles lacking reliable references from February 2017 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2017 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing French-language text Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français ગુજરાતી 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latviešu Македонски മലയാളം Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 January 2021, at 02:33 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8373	----	Category:Condemned souls into Tartarus - Wikipedia Help Category:Condemned souls into Tartarus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Condemned souls into Tartarus. The following were spirits of people in Greek mythology who were condemned into Tartarus for their evil or blasphemous behaviour in life. Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. T ► Titans (mythology)‎ (3 C, 36 P) Pages in category "Condemned souls into Tartarus" The following 13 pages are in this category, out of 13 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). A Aloadae Arke C Cronus D Danaïdes I Ixion O Ocnus P Phlegyas S Salmoneus Side (mythology) Sisyphus T Tantalus Titans Tityos Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Condemned_souls_into_Tartarus&oldid=981759688" Categories: Characters in Greek mythology Greek underworld Hidden categories: Commons link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Español Esperanto Српски / srpski Edit links This page was last edited on 4 October 2020, at 08:22 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-839	----	View source for Sisyphus - Wikipedia View source for Sisyphus ← Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by Jon Kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). The reason given is Open Proxy: Webhost: Contact stewards if you are affected . Start of block: 20:12, 23 July 2019 Expiry of block: 20:12, 23 January 2022 Your current IP address is 40.76.139.33 and the blocked range is 40.76.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki or send an email to the stewards OTRS queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia due to a block affecting your IP address. This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages. Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. See below if you do not believe you have done anything wrong. Editing from 40.76.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪SQL‬ for the following reason(s): The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia. You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN. We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: === Reign === Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]).<ref name=":0" /> King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of ''[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]'', which fell under [[Zeus]]' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. Return to Sisyphus. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8437	----	The Hill (film) - Wikipedia The Hill (film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search The Hill original film poster Directed by Sidney Lumet Produced by Kenneth Hyman Written by R.S. Allen (play) Ray Rigby (screenplay) Based on The Hill 1965 play by Ray Rigby Starring Sean Connery Harry Andrews Ian Bannen Alfred Lynch Ossie Davis Roy Kinnear Jack Watson Ian Hendry Michael Redgrave Cinematography Oswald Morris Edited by Thelma Connell Production company Seven Arts Productions Distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Release date May 1965 (Cannes Film Festival) 11 June 1965 (France) Running time 123 min. Country United Kingdom United States Language English Budget $2.5 million Box office $4.3 million The Hill is a 1965 British-American prison drama film directed by Sidney Lumet, set in an army prison in North Africa at the end of the Second World War. It stars Sean Connery, Harry Andrews, Ian Bannen, Ossie Davis, Ian Hendry, Alfred Lynch, Roy Kinnear and Michael Redgrave. It includes focus upon pointless punishment simply to break the human spirit and in particular echoes the punishments of Mauthausen concentration camp of WW2. There is only one line in the film which indicates that the war is on: where the commandant suggests that Roberts wishes to stay in prison "for the rest of the war". Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Awards 4.1 BAFTA Awards 4.2 Cannes Film Festival 4.3 National Board of Review 4.4 Writers' Guild of Great Britain 5 DVD 6 References 7 External links Plot[edit] In a British Army "glasshouse" (military prison) in the Libyan desert, prisoners convicted of service offences such as insubordination, being drunk while on duty, going AWOL or petty theft are subjected to repetitive drill routines as a punishment in the blazing desert heat. The arrival of five new prisoners slowly leads to a clash with the camp authorities. One new NCO guard (Williams) who has also just arrived employs excessive punishments, which include forcing the five newcomers to repeatedly climb a man-made hill in the centre of the camp. When one dies, a power struggle erupts between brutal ex-civilian prison guard Staff Sergeant Williams (Ian Hendry), humane Staff Sergeant Harris (Ian Bannen), Regimental Sergeant Major Wilson (Harry Andrews), and the camp's medical officer (Michael Redgrave) as they struggle to run the camp in conflicting styles. Roberts (Sean Connery) is a former squadron sergeant major from the Royal Tank Regiment, convicted of assaulting his commanding officer – which he explains to his fellow inmates was because he was ordered to lead his men in a senseless suicidal attack. Roberts openly scorns Williams' brutality and serves as a challenge to his authority. Like Roberts, the RSM is a career soldier and commands authority within the prison in which he is working. However, he is realistic about his role stating, "No one's going to pin a medal on us". He sees his duty to be as important as any other – that of breaking down failed soldiers, then building them back up again, in his words, "Into men!" The other members of Roberts' group are McGrath, a hard Yorkshireman serving a sentence for drunkenness, fighting and assaulting members of the Military Police. Army office clerk Stevens, a timid and naive man jailed for going AWOL. Bartlett, a spiv who shirks active service and has been jailed for selling Army vehicle tyres to the Arabs, and the light-hearted King, a West Indian soldier serving a sentence for stealing three bottles of whisky from the sergeants' mess, and being drunk and disorderly. Staff Sergeant Williams' ambition is matched only by his cruel treatment of the prisoners; he seeks to use their suffering as a means for promotion. When Roberts is accused of cowardice, he asks Staff Sergeant Williams, "And what are you supposed to be – a brave man in a permanent base job?" The RSM also questions Staff Sergeant Williams's motives for getting out of London, as in another scene, he slyly mentions the fact that the Germans were bombing the UK (including the civilian prison Williams worked at) just as Williams was volunteering for prison duty in Africa. Staff Sergeant Williams openly admits that he is trying to impress the RSM by showing that he has got what it takes to do the job, and attempts to undermine the RSM with a late-night drinking contest. Staff Sergeant Harris is the conscience of the prison who sympathises with the men and really wants no part of his being there. The RSM believes that Harris is far too lenient. The officers, both the CO (Norman Bird) and the medical officer, take their duties casually and, as Roberts points out, "everyone is doing time here, even the screws" (prison officers). When the medical officer confronts the RSM with the claim that Stevens' punishment is too severe, the RSM turns this around and blames the MO as it was he who passed Stevens as "fit for punishment". Williams is a bully and a coward and singles out Bartlett and Stevens who are the two weakest members of the group, particularly Stevens. Stevens finally loses his mind and dies of heat exhaustion after repeated and unwarranted punishments by Williams, and the whole prison rises in protest. Roberts openly accuses Staff Sergeant Williams of murdering Stevens. King corroborates the story. However, this results in both being punished. The RSM faces down the general prison population, ultimately raising a cheer by offering cheese with their lunch. Meanwhile, with the help of two prison guard corporals, Staff Williams beats up Roberts in an empty solitary cell. Roberts suffers a broken foot and Harris gets him carried to see the medical officer. The RSM intervenes and orders Roberts to march despite his injury. King again protests, and after being subjected to racial abuse by the RSM refuses to wear the uniform or acknowledge any form of army discipline. The MO and Staff Sergeant Harris insist on reporting the abuses at the camp whilst the RSM and Williams join forces in an attempt to intimidate them into backing down. The injured Roberts is left alone in the cell and Williams remains behind. He then prepares to administer one final, perhaps fatal, beating to Roberts, when King and McGrath enter the cell, proceed to attack Williams, and are heard to severely beat him (off-camera). Roberts pleads with them to stop, knowing that if prisoners beat up a prison officer, any case they may have had against him is lost. Cast[edit] Sean Connery as (ex-Sergeant Major) Trooper Joe Roberts (Royal Tank Regiment) Harry Andrews as Regimental Sergeant Major Bert Wilson (Scots Guards) Ian Bannen as Staff Sergeant Charlie Harris (Royal East Kent Regiment) Ian Hendry as Staff Sergeant Williams (East Surrey Regiment) Alfred Lynch as Private George Stevens (Royal West Kent Regiment) Ossie Davis as Private Jacko King (Royal Pioneer Corps) Roy Kinnear as Private Monty Bartlett (Royal Fusiliers) Jack Watson as Private Jock McGrath (Lancashire Fusiliers) Sir Michael Redgrave as the Medical Officer (a captain) Norman Bird as the Commandant (a major) Neil McCarthy as Staff Sergeant Burton Howard Goorney as Trooper Walters (Royal Tank Regiment) Tony Caunter as Trooper Martin (Royal Tank Regiment) Production[edit] The film was based on a screenplay by Ray Rigby, who wrote for TV and had spent time in military prison. Movie rights were bought by Seven Arts Productions, which had a production deal with MGM. Producer Kenneth Hyman arranged for Rigby's script to be rewritten by other people, but when Sidney Lumet came on board as director, Lumet went back to Rigby's original draft. He and Rigby did cut out around 100 pages of material before filming.[1] "There really isn't a lot of story", said Lumet. "It's all character – a group of men, prisoners and jailers alike, driven by the same motive force, fear."[1] Sean Connery agreed to play the lead because it represented such a change of pace from James Bond. "It is only because of my reputation as Bond that the backers put up the money for The Hill", he said.[2] Lumet says he told Connery before filming began that, "'I'm going to make brutal demands of you, physically and emotionally', and he knew I'm not a director who has too much respect for 'stars' as such. The result is beyond my hopes. He is real and tough and not at all smooth or nice. In a way he's a 'heavy' but the real heavy is the Army."[1] Filming took place in Almería, Spain starting 8 September 1964. An old Spanish fort in Málaga was used for the prison.[3] Many people associated with the production had regarded the filming as pleasant, despite difficult conditions: Temperatures went above 46 °C (114 °F) and nearly all the cast and crew became ill, even though thousands of gallons of fresh water were brought in.[4] The Hill did not perform well in cinemas, although it received excellent reviews [4] and Ray Rigby's screenplay won at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival. Rigby published a novel of the story in 1965.[5] Awards[edit] BAFTA Awards[edit] Winner Best British Cinematography (Oswald Morris) Nominee Best Film (Kenneth Hyman) Nominee Best British Film (Kenneth Hyman) Nominee Best British Actor (Harry Andrews) Nominee Best British Screenplay (Ray Rigby) Nominee Best British Art Direction (Herbert Smith) Cannes Film Festival[edit] The film screened at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival.[6] Winner Best Screenplay at the 1965 Festival[7] (Ray Rigby) National Board of Review[edit] Winner Best Supporting Actor (Harry Andrews) Writers' Guild of Great Britain[edit] Winner Best British Dramatic Screenplay Award (Ray Rigby) DVD[edit] The Hill was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on 5 June 2007 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD. References[edit] ^ a b c "War Is 'Hill,' Mate!". New York Times. 10 January 1965. p. X9. ^ London. (22 November 1964). "Mr. Kisskiss Bangbang: Mr. Kisskiss Bangbang". New York Times. p. SM38. ^ EUGENE ARCHER (26 July 1964). "GLOBAL FILMMAKING: Americans Find New Movie Terrain In Brazil, Norway and Spain". New York Times. p. X5. ^ a b Ben Mankiewicz on Turner Classic Movies ^ J.D. SCOTT. (11 July 1965). "Desert Belsen: THE HILL. By Ray Rigby. 256 pp. New York: The John Day Company. $4.50". New York Times. p. BR39. ^ Special to The (24 May 1965). "New Connery Film, 'The Hill,' Is Shown At Cannes Festival". New York Times. p. 37. ^ "Festival de Cannes: The Hill". festival-cannes.com. Retrieved 4 March 2009. External links[edit] The Hill at IMDb The Hill at Rotten Tomatoes The Hill at the TCM Movie Database The Hill at AllMovie The Hill at the American Film Institute Catalog[dead link] v t e Films directed by Sidney Lumet Feature films 12 Angry Men (1957) Stage Struck (1958) That Kind of Woman (1959) The Fugitive Kind (1960) A View from the Bridge (1962) Long Day's Journey into Night (1962) The Pawnbroker (1964) Fail Safe (1964) The Hill (1965) The Group (1966) The Deadly Affair (1966) Bye Bye Braverman (1968) The Sea Gull (1968) The Appointment (1969) King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis (1970) Last of the Mobile Hot Shots (1970) The Anderson Tapes (1971) Child's Play (1972) The Offence (1973) Serpico (1973) Lovin' Molly (1974) Murder on the Orient Express (1974) Dog Day Afternoon (1975) Network (1976) Equus (1977) The Wiz (1978) Just Tell Me What You Want (1980) Prince of the City (1981) Deathtrap (1982) The Verdict (1982) Daniel (1983) Garbo Talks (1984) Power (1986) The Morning After (1986) Running on Empty (1988) Family Business (1989) Q & A (1990) A Stranger Among Us (1992) Guilty as Sin (1993) Night Falls on Manhattan (1996) Critical Care (1997) Gloria (1999) Find Me Guilty (2006) Before the Devil Knows You're Dead (2007) Television Beyond This Place (1957) Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates (1958) All the King's Men (1958) The Dybbuk (1960) The Iceman Cometh (1960) 100 Centre Street (2001–02) Strip Search (2004) Authority control BNF: cb164574684 (data) GND: 7530314-0 VIAF: 201891980 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 201891980 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Hill_(film)&oldid=1003928174" Categories: English-language films 1965 films 1965 drama films 1960s war films 1960s prison films American black-and-white films American films British prison films British war drama films British films British films based on plays Films directed by Sidney Lumet Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films North African campaign films Films shot in Almería Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from June 2015 Use British English from June 2015 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2020 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano ქართული Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 31 January 2021, at 10:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-847	----	Robert S. P. Beekes - Wikipedia Robert S. P. Beekes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dutch linguist Robert S. P. Beekes Born Robert Stephen Paul Beekes (1937-09-02)2 September 1937 Haarlem, Netherlands Died 21 September 2017(2017-09-21) (aged 80) Oegstgeest, Netherlands Nationality Dutch Education Ph.D., 1969 Known for Contributions to Indo-European studies Reconstructing Pre-Greek phonology Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Etymological Dictionary of Greek Scientific career Fields Indo-European linguistics Institutions Leiden University Robert Stephen Paul Beekes (Dutch: [ˈbeːkəs]; 2 September 1937 – 21 September 2017)[1] was a Dutch linguist who was emeritus professor of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University and an author of many monographs on the Proto-Indo-European language. Contents 1 Scholarly work 2 Publications (selection) 2.1 Monographs 2.2 Edited volumes 2.3 Articles 3 References 4 External links Scholarly work[edit] One of his most well-known books is Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction, a standard handbook on Proto-Indo-European that treats the area of linguistic reconstruction thoroughly but also features cultural reconstruction and comparative linguistic methods in general. Beekes was also a co-author, with L. Bouke van der Meer, of De Etrusken spreken (1991). He advocated the Asia Minor theory to explain the Etruscans' origin.[2] In 1993, he was elected member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[3] He also did work on Pre-Greek, the (non-Indo-European) language that was spoken in Greece before Greek, possibly around 2000 BC. Since this language was not written, Beekes obtained his information from many words in Classical Greek that show a non-Greek structure and development.[4] Publications (selection)[edit] Monographs[edit] The Development of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Greek. The Hague–Paris: Mouton, 1969. The Origins of the Indo-European Nominal Inflection. Innsbruck: IBS, 1985. A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden: Brill, 1988. Vergelijkende taalwetenschap. Een inleiding in de vergelijkende Indo-europese taalwetenschap. Amsterdam: Het Spectrum, 1990. English translation: Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction, trans. UvA Vertalers & Paul Gabriner. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1995; second edition revised and corrected by Michiel de Vaan, 2011. with L. Bouke van der Meer, De Etrusken spreken. Muiderberg: Coutinho, 1991. The Origin of the Etruscans. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 2003. Etymological Dictionary of Greek, 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Pre-Greek: Phonology, Morphology, Lexicon, Leiden: Brill, 2014. (Edited by Stefan Norbruis.) Edited volumes[edit] Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie. Akten der VIII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31. August – 4. September 1987, ed. Robert S. P. Beekes. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, 1992.[citation needed] Articles[edit] "Mṓnukhes híppoi", Orbis 20 (1971): 138–142. "H2O", Die Sprache 18 (1972): 11–31. "The nominative of the hysterodynamic noun-inflection", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 86 (1972): 30–63. "The proterodynamic perfect", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 87 (1973): 86–98. "Two notes on PIE stems in dentals", Historische Grammatik des Griechischen: Laut- und Formenlehre, ed. Helmut Rix. Darmstadt: 1975, pp. 9–14. "Intervocalic laryngeal in Gatha-Avestan", Bono Homini Donum: Essays in Historical Linguistics, in Memory of J. Alexander Kerns, eds. Yoël L. Arbeitman & Allan R. Bomhard. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1981, pp. 47–64. "The disyllabic reduplication of the Sanskrit intensives", Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 40 (1981): 19–25. "The subjunctive endings of Indo-Iranian", Indo-Iranian Journal 23 (1981): 21–27 "GAv. må, the PIE word for 'moon, month', and the perfect participle", Journal of Indo-European Studies 10 (1982): 53–64. "On laryngeals and pronouns", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung 96 (1983): 200–232. "PIE 'sun'", Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 43 (1984): 5–8. "On Indo-European 'wine'", Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 80 (1987): 21–6. "The origin of the PIE pronominal inflection", A Festschrift in honour of E. C. Polomé, eds. M. A. Jazayery & W. Winter. NY: de Gruyter, 1987, pp. 73–88. "The word for 'four' in PIE", Journal of Indo-European Studies 15 (1987): 215–19. "Laryngeal developments: A survey", Die Laryngaltheorie und die Rekonstruktion des indogermanischen Laut- und Formensystems, ed. Alfred Bammesberger. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1988, pp. 59–105. "PIE RHC – in Greek and other languages", Indogermanische Forschungen 93 (1988): 22–45. "The genitive singular of the pronoun in Germanic and Indo-European", Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 110 (1988): 1–5. "The nature of the PIE laryngeals", The New Sound of Indo-European: Essays in Phonological Reconstruction, ed. Theo Vennemann. Berlin/NY: de Gruyter, 1989, pp. 23–33. "Bloem en blad", 100 jaar etymologisch woordenboek van het Nederlands, eds. A. Moerdijk et al. The Hague: 1990, pp. 375–382. "De verwantschap van het Etruskisch", Lampas 23 (1990): 5–18. "The genitive in *-osio", Folia linguistica historica 11 (1990): 21–6. "The historical grammar of Greek", Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology, ed. P. Baldi. Berlin–NY: de Gruyter, 1990, pp. 305–329. "Wackernagel's explanation of the lengthened grade", Sprachwissenschaft und Philologie, eds. H. Eichner & Helmut Rix. Wiesbaden: 1990, pp. 33–53 "Who were the laryngeals?", In honorem Holger Pedersen: Kolloquium der indogermanischen Gesellschaft vom 25. bis 28. März 1993 in Kopenhagen, ed. J. Rasmussen. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag 1994, pp. 449–454. "Hades and Elysion", Mír Curad. Studies in honor of Calvert Watkins, ed. Jay Jasanoff. Innsbruck: 1998, pp. 17–28. "European substratum words in Greek", 125 Jahre Indogermanistik in Graz, eds. Michaela Ofitsch & Christian Zinko. Graz: 2000, pp. 21–31. “Indo-European or substrate? φάτνη and κῆρυξ”, Languages in Prehistoric Europe, eds. Alfred Bammesberger & Theo Vennemann. Heidelberg: 2003, pp. 109–116. “Armenian gišer and the Indo-European word for ‘evening’”, Per aspera ad asteriscos: Studia Indogermanica in honorem Iens Elmegård Rasmussen sexagenarii. Idibus Martiis anno MMIV, eds. Adam Hyllested et al. Innsbruck: 2004, pp. 59–61. “Palatalized consonants in Pre-Greek”, Evidence and counter-evidence: essays in honour of Frederik Kortlandt, eds. Alexander Lubotsky et al. Amsterdam: 2008, pp. 45–56. Supervisor with Alexander Lubotsky of the Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, 1991 ff. References[edit] ^ NRC Handelsblad, 23 September 2017. ^ The Origin of the Etruscans ^ "R.S.P. Beekes". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2015. ^ Etymological Dictionary of Greek – Pre-Greek Loanwords in Greek Archived 2 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine External links[edit] Robert S. P. Beekes Memorial website Authority control BNF: cb12053917d (data) CANTIC: a1179124x ISNI: 0000 0001 1685 0091 LCCN: n85215908 NKC: jx20100813001 NLG: 196159 NTA: 071969039 PLWABN: 9810679330405606 SUDOC: 028771818 VIAF: 91452775 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85215908 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_S._P._Beekes&oldid=1001655504" Categories: 1937 births 2017 deaths Linguists from the Netherlands Linguists of Indo-European languages Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Scholars of Ancient Greek People from Haarlem Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2019 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Esperanto Bahasa Indonesia Italiano مصرى Nederlands Polski Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 17:51 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-855	----	Glaucus of Corinth - Wikipedia Glaucus of Corinth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Glaucus (mythology). In Greek and Roman mythology, Glaucus (/ˈɡlɔːkəs/; Ancient Greek: Γλαῦκος Glaukos means "greyish blue" or "bluish green" and "glimmering") was a son of Sisyphus whose main myth involved his violent death as the result of his horsemanship. He was a king of Corinth[1] and the subject of a lost tragedy by Aeschylus, Glaucus Potnieus (Glaucus at Potniae),[2] fragments of which are contained in an Oxyrhynchus Papyrus.[3] Contents 1 Biography 2 Mythology 3 Notes 4 References Biography[edit] The mother of Glaucus was Merope, a daughter of Atlas and one of the Pleiades.[4][5][6] By marrying Sisyphus, she became the only one of the Pleiades to mate with a mortal. At first Sisyphus had tried to arrange a marriage for Glaucus with the shape-shifting Mestra, a daughter of Erysichthon, but despite the payment of valuable bride-gifts, she eluded the marriage and was taken to an island by Poseidon.[7][8] Glaucus then married a daughter of Nisus named Eurymede[9] or Eurynome.[10] Zeus had declared that Glaucus would sire no children even by his own wife, perhaps because of his violations against Aphrodite. While Eurynome gave birth to the famed hero Bellerophon, Poseidon is usually seen as the true father.[8][11][12] The Iliad, however, names Glaucus as Bellerophon's father.[13] The equine theme continues: Poseidon was associated with horses, and Bellerophon was the rider of the winged horse Pegasus. Glaucus succeeded Sisyphus to the throne of Ephyra, the city he had built, which later became Corinth.[citation needed] He was the ancestor of the Glaucus in the Iliad.[14] Mythology[edit] Glaucus took part in the funeral games organized in honor of Pelias by his son Acastus, the famous Athla epi Pelia in which some of the foremost heroes of Greece competed, including the Argonauts.[15] Glaucus lost to Iolaus in the chariot race. A fragment from Aeschylus's tragedy has sometimes been taken to mean that Glaucus died in a chariot accident on the way home, but it seems more probable that the accident occurred during the race.[15] According to Pausanias,[16] Glaucus haunted the Isthmian Games as a form of Taraxippus, because he was killed by his horses during the funeral games. There are two main traditions concerning the death of Glaucus.[17] In one, he feeds his mares on human flesh in order to make them fierce in battle, but at the games he has no supply for them, and they turn on their master and devour him instead.[8][18][19][20] Servius, however, regards Glaucus as a doublet of Hippolytus: he offended the goddess Aphrodite (Venus) either by keeping his mares from mating in order to preserve their speed,[8][21] or by scorning her in general.[22] The goddess then brings retribution upon him through his horses.[23] In other sources, the mares are driven into their man-killing frenzy by consuming either an herb in their Boeotian pasture at Potniae[8][24][25] or water from a toxic well.[26][27][28] Gilbert Murray saw Hippolytus, Glaucus and their ilk as undergoing sparagmos as vegetation deities.[29] In the Georgics, Vergil casts the neglect of Venus as preventing the mares from mating.[30] That the Romans considered mating a hazard of horse husbandry is indicated by a strange anecdote from Vergil's older contemporary Varro: when a stallion kept refusing to mate, the handler succeeded by covering its head; when uncovered, the stallion attacked him and killed him by biting.[31] Notes[edit] ^ Gilbert Murray, The Eumenides of Aeschylus (Oxford University Press, 1925), p. 15. ^ A.F. Garvie, Aeschylus: Persae (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. xliii. ^ H.D. Broadhead, The Persae of Aeschylus (Cambridge University Press, 1960), p. lviii. ^ Asclepiades 12F1 ^ Homer, Iliad 6.154–155 (Merope is not named) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.3 ^ Hesiod, Ehoiai frg. 43a 2–83 ^ a b c d e Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 433, 663. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.3 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 157 ^ Hesiod, frg. 43a 2–83 ^ Pindar, Olympian Ode 13.66–69 ^ Homer, Iliad 6.154 ^ Lowell Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), p. 13. ^ a b Garvie, Aeschylus: Persae, p. xliv. ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.20.10–19, as noted by Stephen G. Miller, Arete: Greek Sports from Ancient Sources (University of California Press, 2004), p. 56. ^ Katharina Volk, Vergil's Georgics (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 60. ^ As recorded by Probus and attributed to Asclepiades Tragilensis; Volk, Vergil's Georgics, p. 60 ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 250 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 6.20.19 ^ Vergil, Georgics 3.266–288, with Servius's note to line 268 ^ Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 432. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Volk, Vergil's Georgics, p. 60. ^ Scholium to Euripides, Orestes 318; "Porniades" in Et. Magn. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 25.94 ^ Hard, Robin (2004). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 432, 663. ISBN 0-203-44633-X.CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 268 ^ Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio 9.8.1 ^ Gilbert Murray, Aeschylus: The Creator of Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940), p. 113. ^ Vergil, Georgics 3.266–268 ^ Varro, On Agriculture 2.7.9 References[edit] Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Hesiod, Catalogue of Women from Homeric Hymns, Epic Cycle, Homerica translated by Evelyn-White, H G. Loeb Classical Library Volume 57. London: William Heinemann, 1914. Online version at theio.com Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 1855. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glaucus_of_Corinth&oldid=936365613" Categories: Ancient Eleans Kings of Corinth Hidden categories: CS1 maint: location All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara Français Italiano Latina Nederlands Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2020, at 10:51 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-85	----	Euripides - Wikipedia Euripides From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the classical Greek tragedian. For the asteroid, see 2930 Euripides. ancient Athenian tragic playwright Euripides Bust of Euripides: Roman marble copy of a fourth-century BC Greek original (Museo Pio-Clementino, Rome) Born c. 480 BC Salamis Died c. 406 BC (aged approximately 74) Macedonia Occupation Playwright Notable work Medea, 431 BC Hippolytus, 428 BC Electra, c. 420 BC The Trojan Women, c. 415 BC Bacchae, 405 BC Spouse(s) Melite Choerine Parent(s) Mnesarchus Cleito Euripides (/jʊəˈrɪpɪdiːz/;[1] Greek: Εὐριπίδης Eurīpídēs, pronounced [eu̯.riː.pí.dɛːs]; c. 480 – c. 406 BC) was a tragedian of classical Athens. Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom any plays have survived in full. Some ancient scholars attributed ninety-five plays to him, but the Suda says it was ninety-two at most. Of these, eighteen or nineteen have survived more or less complete (Rhesus is suspect).[2] There are many fragments (some substantial) of most of his other plays. More of his plays have survived intact than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly because his popularity grew as theirs declined[3][4]—he became, in the Hellenistic Age, a cornerstone of ancient literary education, along with Homer, Demosthenes, and Menander.[5] Euripides is identified with theatrical innovations that have profoundly influenced drama down to modern times, especially in the representation of traditional, mythical heroes as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances. This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, some of which are characteristic of romance. He also became "the most tragic of poets",[nb 1] focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown.[6][7] He was "the creator of...that cage which is the theatre of Shakespeare's Othello, Racine's Phèdre, of Ibsen and Strindberg," in which "imprisoned men and women destroy each other by the intensity of their loves and hates".[8] But he was also the literary ancestor of comic dramatists as diverse as Menander and George Bernard Shaw.[9] Unique among writers of ancient Athens, Euripides demonstrated sympathy towards the underrepresented members of society.[6][10] His male contemporaries were frequently shocked by the heresies[clarification needed] he put into the mouths of characters, such as these words of his heroine Medea:[11] [...] ὡς τρὶς ἂν παρ᾿ ἀσπίδα στῆναι θέλοιμ᾿ ἂν μᾶλλον ἢ τεκεῖν ἅπαξ [250-51].[12] I would rather stand three times with a shield in battle than give birth once.[13] His contemporaries associated him with Socrates as a leader of a decadent intellectualism. Both were frequently lampooned by comic poets such as Aristophanes. Socrates was eventually put on trial and executed as a corrupting influence. Euripides chose a voluntary exile in old age, dying in Macedonia.[14] But recent scholarship casts doubt on ancient biographies of Euripides. For example, it is possible that he never visited Macedonia at all,[15] or, if he did, he might have been drawn there by King Archelaus with incentives that were also offered to other artists.[16] Contents 1 Life 1.1 A fabled life 1.2 A comic life 1.3 A tragedian's life 2 Work 2.1 In Greek 3 Reception 4 Texts 4.1 Transmission 4.2 Chronology 4.3 Extant plays 4.4 Lost and fragmentary plays 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Life[edit] Traditional accounts of the author's life are found in many commentaries, and include details such as these: He was born on Salamis Island around 480 BC, with parents Cleito (mother) and Mnesarchus (father), a retailer who lived in a village near Athens. On receiving an oracle that his son was fated to win "crowns of victory", Mnesarchus insisted that the boy should train for a career in athletics. But the boy was destined for a career on the stage (where he was to win only five victories, one of these posthumously). He served for a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at the rites of Apollo Zosterius. His education was not confined to athletics, studying also painting and philosophy under the masters Prodicus and Anaxagoras. He had two disastrous marriages, and both his wives—Melite and Choerine (the latter bearing him three sons)—were unfaithful. He became a recluse, making a home for himself in a cave on Salamis (the Cave of Euripides, where a cult of the playwright developed after his death). "There he built an impressive library and pursued daily communion with the sea and sky"[citation needed]. Eventually, he retired to the "rustic court" of King Archelaus in Macedonia, where he died, in 406 BC.[17] However, as mentioned in the introduction, such biographical details should be regarded with scepticism, deriving almost entirely from three unreliable sources:[18] folklore, employed by the ancients to lend colour to the lives of celebrated authors; parody, employed by the comic poets to ridicule the tragic poets; 'autobiographical' clues gleaned from his extant plays (a mere fraction of his total output). This biography is divided into corresponding sections. A statue of Euripides, Louvre, Paris A fabled life[edit] Euripides was the youngest in a group of three great tragedians, who were almost contemporaries: his first play was staged thirteen years after Sophocles' debut, and three years after Aeschylus's Oresteia. The identity of the trio is neatly underscored[clarification needed] by a patriotic account of their roles during Greece's great victory over Persia at the Battle of Salamis—Aeschylus fought there, Sophocles was just old enough to celebrate the victory in a boys' chorus, and Euripides was born on the very day of the battle.[18] The apocryphal account, that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island, was a late tradition, probably symbolizing the isolation of an intellectual ahead of his time.[19] Much of his life, and his whole career, coincided with the struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece, but he didn't live to see the final defeat of his city. It is said that he died in Macedonia after being attacked by the Molossian hounds of King Archelaus, and that his cenotaph near Piraeus was struck by lightning—signs of his unique powers, whether for good or ill (according to one modern scholar, his death might have been caused instead by the harsh Macedonian winter).[clarification needed][20] In an account by Plutarch, the catastrophic failure of the Sicilian expedition led Athenians to trade renditions of Euripides' lyrics to their enemies in return for food and drink (Life of Nicias 29). Plutarch also provides the story that the victorious Spartan generals, having planned the demolition of Athens and the enslavement of its people, grew merciful after being entertained at a banquet by lyrics from Euripides' play Electra: "they felt that it would be a barbarous act to annihilate a city which produced such men" (Life of Lysander).[21] A comic life[edit] Tragic poets were often mocked by comic poets during the dramatic festivals Dionysia and Lenaia, and Euripides was travestied more than most. Aristophanes scripted him as a character in at least three plays: The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae and The Frogs. But Aristophanes also borrowed, rather than merely satirized, some of the tragedian's methods; he was himself ridiculed by a colleague,[clarification needed] Cratinus, as: ὑπολεπτολόγος, γνωμιδιώτης, εὐριπιδαριστοφανίζων.[22] a quibbler of words, a maker of maxims, a Euripidaristophaniser.[23] According to another comic poet, Teleclides, the plays of Euripides were co-authored by the philosopher Socrates:[24] Μνησίλοχός ἐστ᾿ ἐκεῖνος, <ὃς> φρύγει τι δρᾶμα καινόν Εὐριπίδῃ, καὶ Σωκράτης τὰ φρύγαν᾿ ὑποτίθησιν. [...] Εὐριπίδης σωκρατογόμφους.[25] Mnesilochus is the man <who> is roasting a new play for Euripides, and Socrates is laying down the kindling. [...] Euripides bolted together with Socrates.[26] According to Aristophanes, the alleged co-author was a celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who also shared the tragedian's house and his wife,[27] while Socrates taught an entire school of quibblers like Euripides: χαρίεν οὖν μὴ Σωκράτει παρακαθήμενον λαλεῖν, ἀποβαλόντα μουσικὴν τά τε μέγιστα παραλιπόντα τῆς τραγῳδικῆς τέχνης. τὸ δ᾿ ἐπὶ σεμνοῖσιν λόγοισι καὶ σκαριφησμοῖσι λήρων διατριβὴν ἀργὸν ποιεῖσθαι, παραφρονοῦντος ἀνδρός [1490-99].[28] So what’s stylish is not to sit beside Socrates and chatter, casting the arts aside and ignoring the best of the tragedian’s craft. To hang around killing time in pretentious conversation and hairsplitting twaddle is the mark of a man who’s lost his mind.[29] In The Frogs, written when Euripides and Aeschylus were dead, Aristophanes has the god Dionysus venturing down to Hades in search of a good poet to bring back to Athens. After a debate between the two deceased bards,[clarification needed] the god brings Aeschylus back to life, as more useful to Athens, for his wisdom, rejecting Euripides as merely clever[clarification needed]. Such comic 'evidence' suggests that Athenians admired Euripides even while they mistrusted his intellectualism, at least during the long war with Sparta. Aeschylus had written his own epitaph commemorating his life as a warrior fighting for Athens against Persia, without any mention of his success as a playwright; and Sophocles was celebrated by his contemporaries for his social gifts, and contributions to public life as a state official; but there are no records of Euripides' public life except as a dramatist—he could well have been "a brooding and bookish recluse".[30] He is presented as such in The Acharnians, where Aristophanes shows him to be living morosely in a precarious house, surrounded by the tattered costumes of his disreputable characters (and yet Agathon, another tragic poet, is discovered in a later play, Thesmophoriazusae, to be living in circumstances almost as bizarre). Euripides' mother was a humble vendor of vegetables, according to the comic tradition, yet his plays indicate that he had a liberal education and hence a privileged background.[18] A tragedian's life[edit] Euripides first competed in the City Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus; and did not win first prize until 441 BC. His final competition in Athens was in 408 BC. The Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis were performed in 405 BC, and first prize was awarded posthumously. He won first prize only five times. His plays, and those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, indicate a difference in outlook between the three—a generation gap probably due to the Sophistic enlightenment in the middle decades of the 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic period, Sophocles was in transition between periods, and Euripides was fully imbued with the new spirit of the classical age.[31] When Euripides' plays are sequenced in time, they also reveal that his outlook might have changed, providing a "spiritual biography", along these lines: an early period of high tragedy (Medea, Hippolytus) a patriotic period at the outset of the Peloponnesian War (Children of Heracles, The Suppliants) a middle period of disillusionment at the senselessness of war (Hecuba, The Trojan Women) an escapist period with a focus on romantic intrigue (Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris, Helen) a final period of tragic despair (Orestes, Phoenician Women, The Bacchae) However, about 80% of his plays have been lost, and even the extant plays do not present a fully consistent picture of his 'spiritual' development (for example, Iphigenia in Aulis is dated with the 'despairing' Bacchae, yet it contains elements that became typical of New Comedy).[32] In the Bacchae, he restores the chorus and messenger speech to their traditional role in the tragic plot, and the play appears to be the culmination of a regressive or archaizing tendency in his later works (for which see Chronology below). Believed to have been composed in the wilds of Macedonia, Bacchae also dramatizes a primitive side to Greek religion, and some modern scholars have interpreted this particular play biographically, therefore, as: a kind of death-bed conversion or renunciation of atheism; the poet's attempt to ward off the charge of impiety that was later to overtake his friend Socrates; evidence of a new belief that religion cannot be analysed rationally.[33] One of his earliest extant plays, Medea, includes a speech that he seems to have written in defence of himself as an intellectual ahead of his time (spoken by Medea):[14] σκαιοῖσι μὲν γὰρ καινὰ προσφέρων σοφὰ δόξεις ἀχρεῖος κοὐ σοφὸς πεφυκέναι· τῶν δ᾿ αὖ δοκούντων εἰδέναι τι ποικίλον κρείσσων νομισθεὶς ἐν πόλει λυπρὸς φανῇ. ἐγὼ δὲ καὐτὴ τῆσδε κοινωνῶ τύχης [298-302].[34] If you bring novel wisdom to fools, you will be regarded as useless, not wise; and if the city regards you as greater than those with a reputation for cleverness, you will be thought vexatious. I myself am a sharer in this lot.[35] Work[edit] Athenian tragedy in performance during Euripides' lifetime was a public contest between playwrights. The state funded it, and awarded prizes. The language was metrical, spoken and sung. The performance area included a circular floor or orchestra where the chorus could dance, a space for actors (three speaking actors in Euripides' time), a backdrop or skene and some special effects: an ekkyklema (used to bring the skene's "indoors" outdoors) and a mechane (used to lift actors in the air, as in deus ex machina). With the introduction of the third actor (attributed to Aeschylus by Themistius; to Sophocles by Aristotle),[36] acting also began to be regarded as a skill worth prizes, requiring a long apprenticeship in the chorus.[citation needed] Euripides and other playwrights accordingly composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to sing, and this tendency became more marked in his later plays:[37] tragedy was a "living and ever-changing genre"[38] (cf. previous section, and Chronology; a list of his plays is below). The comic poet, Aristophanes, is the earliest known critic to characterize Euripides as a spokesman for destructive, new ideas, associated with declining standards in both society and tragedy (see Reception for more). But fifth-century tragedy was a social gathering, for "carrying out quite publicly the maintenance and development of mental infrastructure"; and offered spectators a "platform for an utterly unique form of institutionalized discussion".[39] A dramatist's role was not only to entertain, but also educate fellow citizens—he was expected to have a message.[40] Traditional myth provided the subject matter, but the dramatist was meant to be innovative, which led to novel characterizations of heroic figures,[41] and use of the mythical past as a tool for discussing present issues.[42] The difference between Euripides and his older colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about the present more controversially and pointedly than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, sometimes even challenging the democratic order. Thus, for example, Odysseus is represented in Hecuba (lines 131–32) as "agile-minded, sweet-talking, demos-pleasing" i.e., a type of the war-time demagogues that were active in Athens during the Peloponnesian War.[43] Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles sometimes distinguish between slaves who are servile by nature, and those by circumstance; but Euripides' speakers go further, positing an individual's mental, rather than social or physical, state, as true index of worth.[44] Thus, in Hippolytus, a love-sick queen rationalizes her position, and, reflecting on adultery, arrives at this comment on intrinsic merit: ἐκ δὲ γενναίων δόμων τόδ᾿ ἦρξε θηλείαισι γίγνεσθαι κακόν· ὅταν γὰρ αἰσχρὰ τοῖσιν ἐσθλοῖσιν δοκῇ, ἦ κάρτα δόξει τοῖς κακοῖς γ᾿ εἶναι καλά. [...] μόνον δὲ τοῦτό φασ᾿ ἁμιλλᾶσθαι βίῳ, γνώμην δικαίαν κἀγαθὴν ὅτῳ παρῇ [409-27].[45] This contagion began for the female sex with the nobility. For when those of noble station resolve on base acts, surely the base-born will regard such acts as good. [...] One thing only, they say, competes in value with life, the possession of a heart blameless and good.[46] Euripides' characters resembled contemporary Athenians rather than heroic figures of myth. For achieving his end Euripides' regular strategy is a very simple one: retaining the old stories and the great names, as his theatre required, he imagines his people as contemporaries subjected to contemporary kinds of pressures, and examines their motivations, conduct and fate in the light of contemporary problems, usages and ideals. — Moses Hadas[47] As mouthpieces for contemporary issues, they "all seem to have had at least an elementary course in public speaking".[48] The dialogue often contrasts so strongly with the mythical and heroic setting that it can seem like Euripides aimed at parody. For example, in The Trojan Women, the heroine's rationalized prayer elicits comment from Menelaus: ΕΚΑΒΗ: [...] Ζεύς, εἴτ᾿ ἀνάγκη φύσεος εἴτε νοῦς βροτῶν, προσηυξάμην σε· πάντα γὰρ δι᾿ ἀψόφου βαίνων κελεύθου κατὰ δίκην τὰ θνήτ᾿ ἄγεις. ΜΕΝΕΛΑΟΣ: τί δ᾿ ἔστιν; εὐχὰς ὡς ἐκαίνισας θεῶν [886-89].[49] Hecuba: [...] Zeus, whether you are the necessity of nature or the mind of mortal men, I address you in prayer! For proceeding on a silent path you direct all mortal affairs toward justice! Menelaus: What does this mean? How strange your prayer to the gods is![50] Athenian citizens were familiar with rhetoric in the assembly and law courts, and some scholars believe that Euripides was more interested in his characters as speakers with cases to argue than as characters with lifelike personalities.[51] They are self-conscious about speaking formally, and their rhetoric is shown to be flawed, as if Euripides was exploring the problematical nature of language and communication: "For speech points in three different directions at once, to the speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in the world it describes, and each of these directions can be felt as skewed".[52] Thus, in the example above, Hecuba presents herself as a sophisticated intellectual, describing a rationalized cosmos; but the speech is ill-suited to her audience, Menelaus (a type of the unsophisticated listener); and is found to not suit the cosmos either (her grandson is murdered by the Greeks). In Hippolytus, speeches appear verbose and ungainly, as if to underscore the limitations of language.[53] Ancient Roman wall painting from House of the Vettii in Pompeii, showing the death of Pentheus, as portrayed in Euripides's Bacchae Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and Sophocles created comic effects, contrasting the heroic with the mundane; but they employed minor supporting characters for that purpose. Euripides was more insistent, using major characters as well. His comic touches can be thought to intensify the overall tragic effect; and his realism, which often threatens to make his heroes look ridiculous, marks a world of debased heroism: "The loss of intellectual and moral substance becomes a central tragic statement".[54] Psychological reversals are common, and sometimes happen so suddenly that inconsistency in characterization is an issue for many critics,[55] such as Aristotle, who cited Iphigenia in Aulis as an example (Poetics 1454a32). For others, psychological inconsistency is not a stumbling block to good drama: "Euripides is in pursuit of a larger insight: he aims to set forth the two modes, emotional and rational, with which human beings confront their own mortality."[56] Some think unpredictable behaviour realistic in tragedy: "everywhere in Euripides a preoccupation with individual psychology and its irrational aspects is evident....In his hands tragedy for the first time probed the inner recesses of the human soul and let passions spin the plot."[51] The tension between reason and passion is symbolized by his character's relationship with the gods,[clarification needed][57] as in Hecuba's prayer, answered not by Zeus, nor by the Law of Reason, but by Menelaus, as if speaking for the old gods; and, most famously,[citation needed] in Bacchae, where the god Dionysus savages his own converts.[clarification needed] When the gods do appear (in eight of the extant plays), they appear "lifeless and mechanical".[58] Sometimes condemned by critics as an unimaginative way to end a story, the spectacle of a "god" making a judgement, or announcement, from a theatrical crane, might actually have been intended to provoke scepticism about the religious and heroic dimension of his plays.[59][60] Similarly, his plays often begin in a banal manner that undermines theatrical illusion.[citation needed] Unlike Sophocles, who established the setting and background of his plays in the introductory dialogue, Euripides used a monologue in which a divinity or human character simply tells the audience all it needs to know to understand what follows.[61] Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, but Euripides had arrived at a position in the "ever-changing genre" where he could move easily between tragic, comic, romantic and political effects: a versatility that appears in individual plays, and also over the course of his career. Potential for comedy lay in his use of 'contemporary' characters; in his sophisticated tone; his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below); and in his ingenious use of plots, centred on motifs that later became standard in Menander's New Comedy, such as the 'recognition scene'. Other tragedians also used recognition scenes, but they were heroic in emphasis, as in Aeschylus's The Libation Bearers, which Euripides parodied in Electra (Euripides was unique among the tragedians in incorporating theatrical criticism in his plays).[62] Traditional myth, with its exotic settings, heroic adventures, and epic battles, offered potential for romantic melodrama, as well as for political comments on a war theme,[63] so that his plays are an extraordinary mix of elements.[citation needed] The Trojan Women, for example, is a powerfully disturbing play on the theme of war's horrors, apparently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed in the aftermath of the Melian massacre and during the preparations for the Sicilian Expedition),[64] yet it features the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above; and the chorus considers Athens, the "blessed land of Theus", to be a desirable refuge—such complexity and ambiguity are typical both of his "patriotic" and "anti-war" plays.[65] Tragic poets in the fifth century competed against one another at the City Dionysia, each with a tetralogy of three tragedies and a satyr-play. The few extant fragments of satyr-plays attributed to Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate that these were a loosely structured, simple, and jovial form of entertainment. But, in Cyclops (the only complete satyr-play that survives), Euripides structured the entertainment more like a tragedy, and introduced a note of critical irony, typical of his other work. His genre-bending inventiveness[citation needed] is shown above all in Alcestis, a blend of tragic and satyric elements. This fourth play in his tetralogy for 438 BC (i.e., it occupied the position conventionally reserved for satyr-plays) is a "tragedy", featuring Heracles as a satyric hero, in conventional satyr-play scenes: an arrival; banquet; victory over an ogre (in this case, Death); a happy ending; feast; and a departure for new adventures.[66] Most of the big innovations in tragedy were made by Aeschylus and Sophocles, but "Euripides made innovations on a smaller scale that have impressed some critics as cumulatively leading to a radical change of direction".[67] Euripides is also known for his use of irony. Many Greek tragedians make use of dramatic irony to bring out the emotion and realism of their characters or plays, but Euripides uses irony to foreshadow events and occasionally amuse his audience.[citation needed] For example, in his play Heracles, Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to see them grow. The irony here is that Heracles will be driven into a madness by Hera, and will kill his children. Similarly, in Helen, Theoclymenus remarks how happy he is that his sister has the gift of prophecy, and will warn him of any plots or tricks against him (the audience already knows that she has betrayed him). In this instance, Euripides uses irony not only for foreshadowing, but for comic effect also—something few tragedians did. Likewise, in the Bacchae, Pentheus’ first threat to the god Dionysus is that if he catches him in his city, he will ‘chop off his head’; and, in the final acts[clarification needed] of the play, Pentheus is beheaded. In Greek[edit] Medea About to Murder Her Children by Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862) The spoken language of the plays is not fundamentally different in style from that of Aeschylus or Sophocles—it employs poetic meters, a rarefied vocabulary, fullness of expression, complex syntax, and ornamental figures, all aimed at representing an elevated style.[68] But its rhythms are somewhat freer, and more natural, than that of his predecessors; and the vocabulary has been expanded to allow for intellectual and psychological subtleties. Euripides was also a great lyric poet.[citation needed] In Medea, for example, he composed for his city, Athens, "the noblest of her songs of praise".[69] His lyrical skills are not just confined to individual poems: "A play of Euripides is a musical whole...one song echoes motifs from the preceding song, while introducing new ones."[70] For some critics, the lyrics often seem dislocated from the action; but the extent and significance of this is "a matter of scholarly debate".[71] See Chronology for details about his style. Reception[edit] Euripides has aroused, and continues to arouse, strong opinions for and against his work: He was a problem to his contemporaries and he is one still; over the course of centuries since his plays were first produced he has been hailed or indicted under a bewildering variety of labels. He has been described as 'the poet of the Greek enlightenment' and also as 'Euripides the irrationalist';[nb 2] as a religious sceptic if not an atheist, but on the other hand, as a believer in divine providence and the ultimate justice of divine dispensation. He has been seen as a profound explorer of human psychology and also a rhetorical poet who subordinated consistency of character to verbal effect; as a misogynist and a feminist; as a realist who brought tragic action down to the level of everyday life and as a romantic poet who chose unusual myths and exotic settings. He wrote plays which have been widely understood as patriotic pieces supporting Athens' war against Sparta and others which many have taken as the work of the anti-war dramatist par excellence, even as attacks on Athenian imperialism. He has been recognized as the precursor of New Comedy and also what Aristotle called him: 'the most tragic of poets' (Poetics 1453a30). And not one of these descriptions is entirely false. — Bernard Knox[72] Aeschylus gained thirteen victories as a dramatist; Sophocles at least twenty; Euripides only four in his lifetime; and this has often been taken as indication of the latter's unpopularity. But a first place might not have been the main criterion for success (the system of selecting judges appears to have been flawed), and merely being chosen to compete was a mark of distinction.[73] Moreover, to have been singled out by Aristophanes for so much comic attention is proof of popular interest in his work.[74] Sophocles was appreciative enough of the younger poet to be influenced by him, as is evident in his later plays Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus.[75] According to Plutarch, Euripides had been very well received in Sicily, to the extent that after the failure of the Sicilian Expedition, many Athenian captives were released, simply for being able to teach their captors whatever fragments they could remember of his work.[76] Less than a hundred years later, Aristotle developed an almost "biological' theory of the development of tragedy in Athens: the art form grew under the influence of Aeschylus, matured in the hands of Sophocles, then began its precipitous decline with Euripides.[77] However, "his plays continued to be applauded even after those of Aeschylus and Sophocles had come to seem remote and irrelevant";[4] they became school classics in the Hellenistic period (as mentioned in the introduction) and, due to Seneca's adaptation of his work for Roman audiences, "it was Euripides, not Aeschylus or Sophocles, whose tragic muse presided over the rebirth of tragedy in Renaissance Europe."[78] In the seventeenth century, Racine expressed admiration for Sophocles, but was more influenced by Euripides (Iphigenia in Aulis and Hippolytus were the models for his plays Iphigénie and Phèdre).[79] Euripides' reputation was to take a beating in the early 19th century, when Friedrich Schlegel and his brother August Wilhelm Schlegel championed Aristotle's 'biological' model of theatre history, identifying Euripides with the moral, political, and artistic degeneration of Athens.[80] August Wilhelm's Vienna lectures on dramatic art and literature went through four editions between 1809 and 1846; and, in them, he opined that Euripides "not only destroyed the external order of tragedy but missed its entire meaning". This view influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, who seems, however, not to have known the Euripidean plays well.[81] But literary figures, such as the poet Robert Browning and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning, could study and admire the Schlegels, while still appreciating Euripides as "our Euripides the human" (Wine of Cyprus stanza 12).[80] Classicists such as Arthur Verrall and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff reacted against the views of the Schlegels and Nietzsche, constructing arguments sympathetic to Euripides,[82] which involved Wilamowitz in this restatement of Greek tragedy as a genre: "A [Greek] tragedy does not have to end 'tragically' or be 'tragic'. The only requirement is a serious treatment."[83] In the English-speaking world, the pacifist Gilbert Murray played an important role in popularizing Euripides, influenced perhaps by his anti-war plays.[84] Today, as in the time of Euripides, traditional assumptions are constantly under challenge, and audiences therefore have a natural affinity with the Euripidean outlook,[40] which seems nearer to ours, for example, than the Elizabethan.[clarification needed][4] As stated above, however, opinions continue to diverge, so that modern readers might actually "seem to feel a special affinity with Sophocles";[85] one recent critic might dismiss the debates in Euripides' plays as "self-indulgent digression for the sake of rhetorical display";[86] and one spring to the defence: "His plays are remarkable for their range of tones and the gleeful inventiveness, which morose critics call cynical artificiality, of their construction."[87] Texts[edit] Transmission[edit] The textual transmission of the plays, from the 5th century BC, when they were first written, until the era of the printing press, was a largely haphazard process. Much of Euripides' work was lost and corrupted; but the period also included triumphs by scholars and copyists, thanks to whom much was recovered and preserved. Summaries of the transmission are often found in modern editions of the plays, three of which are used as sources for this summary.[nb 3] The plays of Euripides, like those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, circulated in written form. But literary conventions that we take for granted today had not been invented—there was no spacing between words; no consistency in punctuation, nor elisions; no marks for breathings and accents (guides to pronunciation, and word recognition); no convention to denote change of speaker; no stage directions; and verse was written straight across the page, like prose. Possibly, those who bought texts supplied their own interpretative markings. Papyri discoveries have indicated, for example, that a change in speakers was loosely denoted with a variety of signs, such as equivalents of the modern dash, colon, and full-stop. The absence of modern literary conventions (which aid comprehension), was an early and persistent source of errors, affecting transmission. Errors were also introduced when Athens replaced its old Attic alphabet with the Ionian alphabet, a change sanctioned by law in 403–402 BC, adding a new complication to the task of copying. Many more errors came from the tendency of actors to interpolate words and sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a law was proposed by Lycurgus of Athens in 330 BC "that the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should be written down and preserved in a public office; and that the town clerk should read the text over with the actors; and that all performances which did not comply with this regulation should be illegal."[88] The law was soon disregarded, and actors continued to make changes until about 200 BC, after which the habit ceased. It was about then that Aristophanes of Byzantium compiled an edition of all the extant plays of Euripides, collated from pre-Alexandrian texts, furnished with introductions and accompanied by a commentary that was "published" separately. This became the "standard edition" for the future, and it featured some of the literary conventions that modern readers expect: there was still no spacing between words; little or no punctuation; and no stage directions; but abbreviated names denoted changes of speaker; lyrics were broken into "cola" and "strophai", or lines and stanzas; and a system of accentuation was introduced. Fragment of a vellum codex from the fourth or fifth centuries AD, showing choral anapaests from Medea, lines 1087–91; tiny though it is, the fragment influences modern editions of the play[nb 4] After this creation of a standard edition, the text was fairly safe from errors, besides slight and gradual corruption introduced with tedious copying. Many of these trivial errors occurred in the Byzantine period, following a change in script (from uncial to minuscule), and many were "homophonic" errors—equivalent, in English, to substituting "right" for "write"; except that there were more opportunities for Byzantine scribes to make these errors, because η, ι, οι and ει, were pronounced similarly in the Byzantine period. Around 200 AD, ten of the plays of Euripides began to be circulated in a select edition, possibly for use in schools, with some commentaries or scholia recorded in the margins. Similar editions had appeared for Aeschylus and Sophocles—the only plays of theirs that survive today.[89] Euripides, however, was more fortunate than the other tragedians,[clarification needed] with a second edition of his work surviving, compiled in alphabetical order as if from a set of his collect works; but without scholia attached. This "Alphabetical" edition was combined with the "Select" edition by some unknown Byzantine scholar, bringing together all the nineteen plays that survive today. The "Select" plays are found in many medieval manuscripts, but only two manuscripts preserve the "Alphabetical" plays—often denoted L and P, after the Laurentian Library at Florence, and the Bibliotheca Palatina in the Vatican, where they are stored. It is believed that P derived its Alphabet plays and some Select plays from copies of an ancestor of L, but the remainder is derived from elsewhere. P contains all the extant plays of Euripides, L is missing The Trojan Women and latter part of The Bacchae. In addition to L, P, and many other medieval manuscripts, there are fragments of plays on papyrus. These papyrus fragments are often recovered only with modern technology. In June 2005, for example, classicists at the University of Oxford worked on a joint project with Brigham Young University, using multi-spectral imaging technology to retrieve previously illegible writing (see References). Some of this work employed infrared technology—previously used for satellite imaging—to detect previously unknown material by Euripides, in fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university.[90][91] It is from such materials that modern scholars try to piece together copies of the original plays. Sometimes the picture is almost lost. Thus, for example, two extant plays, The Phoenician Women and Iphigenia in Aulis, are significantly corrupted by interpolations[92] (the latter possibly being completed post mortem by the poet's son); and the very authorship of Rhesus is a matter of dispute.[93] In fact, the very existence of the Alphabet plays, or rather the absence of an equivalent edition for Sophocles and Aeschylus, could distort our notions of distinctive Euripidean qualities—most of his least "tragic" plays are in the Alphabet edition; and, possibly, the other two tragedians would appear just as genre-bending as this "restless experimenter", if we possessed more than their "select" editions.[94] See Extant plays below for listing of "Select" and "Alphabetical" plays. Chronology[edit] Original production dates for some of Euripides' plays are known from ancient records, such as lists of prize-winners at the Dionysia; and approximations are obtained for the remainder by various means. Both the playwright and his work were travestied by comic poets such as Aristophanes, the known dates of whose own plays can serve as a terminus ad quem for those of Euripides (though the gap can be considerable: twenty-seven years separate Telephus, known to have been produced in 438 BC, from its parody in Thesmophoriazusae in 411 BC.). References in Euripides' plays to contemporary events provide a terminus a quo, though sometimes the references might even precede a datable event (e.g. lines 1074–89 in Ion describe a procession to Eleusis, which was probably written before the Spartans occupied it during the Peloponnesian War).[95] Other indications of dating are obtained by stylometry. Greek tragedy comprised lyric and dialogue, the latter mostly in iambic trimeter (three pairs of iambic feet per line). Euripides sometimes 'resolved' the two syllables of the iamb (˘¯) into three syllables (˘˘˘), and this tendency increased so steadily over time that the number of resolved feet in a play can indicate an approximate date of composition (see Extant plays below for one scholar's list of resolutions per hundred trimeters). Associated with this increase in resolutions was an increasing vocabulary, often involving prefixes to refine meanings, allowing the language to assume a more natural rhythm, while also becoming ever more capable of psychological and philosophical subtlety.[96] The trochaic tetrameter catalectic—four pairs of trochees per line, with the final syllable omitted—was identified by Aristotle as the original meter of tragic dialogue (Poetics 1449a21). Euripides employs it here and there in his later plays,[97] but seems not to have used it in his early plays at all, with The Trojan Women being the earliest appearance of it in an extant play—it is symptomatic of an archaizing tendency in his later works.[98][99] The later plays also feature extensive use of stichomythia (i.e. a series of one-liners).[100] The longest such scene comprises one hundred and five lines in Ion (lines 264–369). In contrast, Aeschylus never exceeded twenty lines of stichomythia; Sophocles' longest such scene was fifty lines, and that is interrupted several times by αντιλαβή [nb 5] (Electra, lines 1176–1226).[101] Euripides' use of lyrics in sung parts shows the influence of Timotheus of Miletus in the later plays—the individual singer gained prominence, and was given additional scope to demonstrate his virtuosity in lyrical duets, as well as replacing some of the chorus's functions with monodies. At the same time, choral odes began to take on something of the form of dithyrambs reminiscent of the poetry of Bacchylides, featuring elaborate treatment of myths.[102] Sometimes these later choral odes seem to have only a tenuous connection with the plot, linked to the action only in their mood. The Bacchae, however, shows a reversion to old forms,[103] possibly as a deliberate archaic effect, or because there were no virtuoso choristers in Macedonia (where it is said to have been written).[104] Extant plays[edit] Estimated chronological order Play Date BC Prize Lineage Resolutions Genre (and notes) Alcestis 438 2nd S 6.2 tragedy with elements of a satyr play Medea 431 3rd S 6.6 tragedy Heracleidae c. 430 A 5.7 political/patriotic drama Hippolytus 428 1st S 4.3 tragedy Andromache c. 425 S 11.3 tragedy (not produced in Athens)[105] Hecuba c. 424 S 12.7 tragedy The Suppliants c. 423 A 13.6 political/patriotic drama Electra c. 420 A 16.9 engages "untragically" with the traditional myth and with other dramatizations of it[94] Herakles c. 416 A 21.5 tragedy The Trojan Women 415 2nd S 21.2 tragedy Iphigenia in Tauris c. 414 A 23.4 romantic drama Ion c. 413[106] A 25.8 romantic drama Helen 412 A 27.5 romantic drama Phoenician Women c. 410 2nd S 25.8 tragedy (extensive interpolations) Orestes 408 S 39.4 tragedy Bacchae 405 1st S 37.6 tragedy (posthumously produced) Iphigenia in Aulis 405 1st A 34.7 tragedy (posthumously produced with extensive interpolations); also known as Iphigenia at Aulis Rhesus ? S 8.1 tragedy (authorship disputed) Cyclops ? A satyr play (the only fully extant example of this genre) Key: Date indicates date of first production. Prize indicates a place known to have been awarded in festival competition. Lineage: S denotes plays surviving from a 'Select' or 'School' edition, A plays surviving from an 'Alphabetical' edition[5]—see Transmission above for details. Resolutions: Number of resolved feet per 100 trimeters, Ceadel's list[107][108]—see Chronology above for details. Genre: Generic orientation[109] (see 'Transmission' section) with additional notes in brackets. Lost and fragmentary plays[edit] The following plays have come down to us in fragmentary form, if at all. They are known through quotations in other works (sometimes as little as a single line); pieces of papyrus; partial copies in manuscript; part of a collection of hypotheses (or summaries); and through being parodied in the works of Aristophanes. Some of the fragments, such as those of Hypsipyle, are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstructions to be proposed. A two-volume selection from the fragments, with facing-page translation, introductions, and notes, was published by Collard, Cropp, Lee, and Gibert;[110][111] as were two Loeb Classical Library volumes derived from them;[112][113] and there are critical studies in T. B. L. Webster's older The Tragedies of Euripides,[114] based on what were then believed to be the most likely reconstructions of the plays. The following lost and fragmentary plays can be dated, and are arranged in roughly chronological order: Peliades (455 BC) Telephus (438 BC with Alcestis) Alcmaeon in Psophis (438 BC with Alcestis) Cretan Women (438 with Alcestis) Cretans (c. 435 BC) Philoctetes (431 BC with Medea) Dictys (431 BC with Medea) Theristai (Reapers, satyr play, 431 BC with Medea) Stheneboea (before 429 BC) Bellerophon (c. 430 BC) Cresphontes (c. 425 BC) Erechtheus (422 BC) Phaethon (c. 420 BC) Wise Melanippe (c. 420 BC) Alexandros (415 BC with Trojan Women) Palamedes (415 BC with Trojan Women) Sisyphus (satyr play, 415 BC with Trojan Women) Captive Melanippe (c. 412 BC) Andromeda (412 BC with Helen) Antiope (c. 410 BC) Archelaus (c. 410 BC) Hypsipyle (c. 410 BC) Alcmaeon in Corinth (c. 405 BC) Won first prize as part of a trilogy with The Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis The following lost and fragmentary plays are of uncertain date, and are arranged in English alphabetical order. Aegeus Aeolus Alcmene Alope, or Cercyon Antigone Auge Autolycus Busiris Cadmus Chrysippus Danae Epeius Eurystheus Hippolytus Veiled Ino Ixion Lamia Licymnius Meleager Mysians Oedipus Oeneus Oenomaus Peirithous Peleus Phoenix Phrixus Pleisthenes Polyidus Protesilaus Rhadamanthys Sciron Scyrians Syleus Temenidae Temenos Tennes Theseus Thyestes Notes[edit] ^ The epithet "the most tragic of poets" was mastered[clarification needed] by Aristotle, probably in reference to a perceived preference for unhappy endings, but it has wider relevance: "For in his representation of human suffering Euripides pushes to the limits of what an audience can stand; some of his scenes are almost unbearable."—B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 339 ^ 'The poet of the Greek enlightenment' is taken from W. Nestle, Euripides, Stuttgart (1901); 'Euripides the irrationalist' is from E. Dodds, C.R 43 (1929), pp. 97–104 ^ This summary of the transmission is adapted from a) Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxvii–xliv; b) L.P.E. Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction pp. lvii–lxv; c) E.R. Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction pp. li–lvi ^ παῦρον ⌊δὲ δὴγένος ἐν πολλαῖς εὕροις ⌊ἂν ἴσως οὐκ ἀπό⌊μουσον τὸ γυναικῶν. καί φημι ⌊βροτῶν οἵτινές εἰσιν πάμπαν ⌊ἄπειροι μηδ΄ ἐφύτευσαν παῖ⌋δας͵ ⌊προφέρειν εἰς εὐτυχίαν ⌊τῶν γειναμένων.⌋ "Among many women, you might find a small class who are not uneducated. And I tell you that those who have no experience of children and parenthood are better off than those who do."—Medea lines 1087–91. (Half brackets enclose words not transmitted by the fragment but supplied by the greater tradition (see Leiden Conventions). The word οὐκ supports a reading preferred by modern scholars (it is represented as κοὐκ in other sources)—Denys L.Page, Euripides: Medea, O.U.P. (reprint 1978), note 1087–89, p. 151) ^ i.e. lines are split between speakers References[edit] ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ Walton (1997, viii, xix) ^ B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 316 ^ a b c Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. ix ^ a b L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. lx ^ a b Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, pp. xviii–xix ^ A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press (1990), Introduction p. vii ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 329 ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, pp. viii–ix ^ Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness, pp. 411–13. ^ Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction p. xi ^ Euripides (2001). Medea, in Euripides I. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 306. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Euripides (2001). Medea, in Euripides I. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 307. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ a b Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. ix–xii ^ Robin Mitchell-Boyask, Euripides: Medea, Diane Svarlien (trans.), Hackett Publishing Company (2008), Introduction, p. xii ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 253 ^ Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Cliff Notes on Greek Classics, Wiley Publishing Inc. (1998), pp. 147–48 ^ a b c Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 252 ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 317 ^ Richard Rutherford, Medea and Other Plays. By Euripides, Introduction. Rev ed. London: Penguin, 2003. ISBN 0-14-044929-9. ^ Plutarch, Life of Lysander, cited and translated by B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 337 ^ Cratinus (2011). Cratinus F 342, in Fragments of Old Comedy, Volume I: Alcaeus to Diocles. Storey, I. C. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 412. ISBN 9780674996625. ^ Cratinus (2011). Cratinus F 342, in Fragments of Old Comedy, Volume I: Alcaeus to Diocles. Storey, I. C. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780674996625. ^ Duane Reed Stuart, Epochs and Greek and Roman Biography, Biblo and Tannen Booksellers and Publishers' Inc. (1928), p. 174 ^ Teleclides (2011). Teleclides F 41, F 42, in Fragments of Old Comedy, Volume III: Philonicus to Xenophon. Adespota. Storey, I. C. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 304. ISBN 9780674996779. ^ Teleclides (2011). Teleclides F 41, F 42, in Fragments of Old Comedy, Volume III: Philonicus to Xenophon. Adespota. Storey, I. C. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 305. ISBN 9780674996779. ^ Alan H. Sommerstein, Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds, Penguin Books (1973), note 35, p. 241 ^ Aristophanes (2002). Frogs, in Aristophanes IV. Henderson, J. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780674995963. ^ Aristophanes (2002). Frogs, in Aristophanes IV. Henderson, J. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 231. ISBN 9780674995963. ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. viii ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 316–17 ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 318 ^ E.R.Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction p. xl ^ Euripides (2001). Medea, in Euripides I. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 310. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ Euripides (2001). Medea, in Euripides I. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 311. ISBN 9780674995604. ^ LLoyd-Jones, H. (ed. and trans.) (1997). Introduction, in Sophocles I. Sophocles. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780674995574. ^ John Gould, 'Tragedy in performance', in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 265–67 ^ D.J. Mastronade, 'European Tragedy and Genre', in Euripides and Tragic Theatre in the Late Fifth Century, M.Cropp, K.Lee and D. Sansone (eds), Champaign, Ill. (1999–2000), p. 27 ^ C. Meier, The Political Art of Greek Tragedy, Trans. A. Webber, Baltimore (1993), pp. 4, 42 ^ a b Philip Vellacott, Euripides: The Bacchae and Other Plays, Penguin Classics (1954), Introduction p. 10 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 260 ^ Neil Croally, 'Tragedy's Teaching', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 66 ^ Justina Gregory, "Euripidean Tragedy", in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.) Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 264 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 264 ^ Euripides (2005). Hippolytus, in Euripides II. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. pp. 164–66. ISBN 9780674995338. ^ Euripides (2005). Hippolytus, in Euripides II. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. pp. 165–67. ISBN 9780674995338. ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. x ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 328 ^ Euripides (1999). Trojan Women, in Euripides IV. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 100. ISBN 9780674995741. ^ Euripides (1999). Trojan Women, in Euripides IV. Kovacs, D. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780674995741. ^ a b B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 327 ^ Christopher Pelling, "Tragedy, Rhetoric and Performance Culture", in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 85 ^ A Further Note on the Modernity of "Hippolytus" Robert Skloot. The Classical Journal, Vol. 64, No. 5. (Feb., 1969), pp. 226–27. JSTOR.org ^ Bernd Seidensticker, "Dithyramb, Comedy and Satyr-Play', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 52–33 ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 326 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 261 ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 325 ^ B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 324 ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), pp. xvi–xviii ^ B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 332 ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), p. xvi ^ Justina Gregory, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 267 ^ B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 332–66 ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), p. 195 ^ B. M. Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 334–35 ^ Bernd Seidensticker, "Dithyramb, Comedy and Satyr-Play', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 50 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 269 ^ Justina Gregory, "Euripidean Tragedy", in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 256 ^ Medea 824 sqq.; Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction page vii ^ L. P. E. Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. lxxii ^ B. M. Knox, "Euripides" in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 338 ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), pp. 317–18 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 252–53 ^ David Barrett, Aristophanes: The Frogs and Other Plays, Penguin Books (1964), p. 98 ^ Robin Mitchel-Boyask, Euripides: Medea, Hackett Publishing Co. (2008), Introduction p. xii ^ Plutarch, The Life of Nicias 29. ^ L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. xl ^ B.M.Knox, 'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 339 ^ S. Philippo, Silent Witness: Racine's Non-Verbal Annotations of Euripides, Oxford University Press (2003), p. 22 ^ a b L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction p. xlii ^ Albert Heinrichs, 'Nietzsche in Greek Tragedy and the Tragic', in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 447 ^ L.P.E.Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction pp. xl–xliv ^ U.V. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Euripides: Herakles Vol. 1, Darmstadt, p. 113, quoted by J. Gregory in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 255 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy' in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 255 ^ LLoyd-Jones, H. (ed. and trans.) (1997). Introduction, in Sophocles I. Sophocles. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780674995574. ^ Collard 1975, quoted by Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy' in A companion to Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 259 ^ Peter Levi, 'Greek Drama' in The Oxford History of the Classical World, J.Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (ed.s), Oxford University Press (1986), p. 167 ^ Plutarch Vit.Dec.Orat. 851e, cited by Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxix–xl ^ Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction p. xlii ^ "POxy Oxyrhynchus Online". Papyrology.ox.ac.uk. 17 April 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2013. ^ "Papyrology Websites". Papyrology.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 30 August 2013. ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 259 ^ William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge University Press (1964) ^ a b Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 254 ^ A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press, Introduction pp. xl–xli ^ B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 337 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 257 ^ M. Platnauer, Iphigenia in Tauris, Oxford University Press (1938), Introduction page 14 ^ E.R.Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction p. xxxvi ^ John Gould, 'Tragedy in performance' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 281 ^ A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press (1990), Introduction p. 91 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 258 ^ B. Knox,'Euripides' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 338 ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. xvi ^ Kovacs, David (1994). Euripides, Vol. I: Cyclops, Alcestis, Medea. Harvard University Press. p. 17. ^ Kovacs, David (1994). Euripides, Vol. I: Cyclops, Alcestis, Medea. Harvard University Press. p. 17. ^ E.B.Ceadel, 'Resolved Feet in the Trimeters of Euripides', Classical Quarterly xxxv (1941), pp. 66–89 ^ William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge University Press (1964), p. 261 ^ Justina Gregory, 'Euripidean Tragedy', in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 254–58 ^ Euripides (1995). Collard, C.; Cropp, M.J.; Lee, K.H. (eds.). Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume I. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-619-0. ^ Euripides (2005). Collard, C.; Cropp, M.J.; Gibert, J. (eds.). Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume II. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-621-2. ^ Euripides (2008). Fragments: Aegeus-Meleager (Loeb Classical Library No. 504). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99625-0. ^ Euripides (2009). Oedipus-Chrysippus & Other Fragments. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99631-1. ^ Webster, T. B. L. (1967). The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Methuen. p. 316. OCLC 000310026. Further reading[edit] Barrett, William Spencer (2007). West, M. L. (ed.). Greek lyric, tragedy, and textual criticism collected papers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920357-4. Conacher, D. J. (1967). Euripidean Drama: Myth, Theme, and Structure. London: Oxford University Press. Croally, N.T. (2007). Euripidean polemic: the Trojan women and the function of tragedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-04112-6. Donovan, Bruce E. (1969). Euripides papyri. New Haven: American Society of Papyrologists. hdl:2333.1/47d7wrtn. Euripides (1968). Segal, Erich (ed.). Euripides: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Euripides (1983). Barrett, William Spencer (ed.). Hippolytos. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814167-X. Euripides (1997). "Introduction". Plays VI. Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists. J. Michael Walton, introduction. London: Methuen. pp. vii-xxii. ISBN 0-413-71650-3. Gregory, Justina (1991). Euripides and the instruction of the Athenians. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10230-3. Ippolito, P. (1999). La vita di Euripide (in Italian). Naples: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. Kitto, H. D. F. (1959). Greek tragedy: a literary study. New York: Barnes and Noble. Kovacs, David (1994). Euripidea. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09926-3. Lefkowitz, Mary R. (1981). The lives of the Greek poets. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-1721-4. Lucas, Frank Laurence (2012). Euripides and his Influence. New York: Barnes and Noble. ISBN 9781258337124. Murray, Gilbert (1946). Euripides and His Age (2nd ed.). London: Oxford University Press. Powell, Anton, ed. (1990). Euripides, women, and sexuality. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01025-X. Scullion, S. (2003). "Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs". Classical Quarterly. 53 (2): 389–400. doi:10.1093/cq/53.2.389. Segal, Charles, ed. (1993). Euripides and the poetics of sorrow: art, gender, and commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus, and Hecuba. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-1360-X. Sommerstein, Alan H. (2002). Greek drama and dramatists. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26028-0. Webster, T. B. L. (1967). The Tragedies of Euripides. London: Methuen. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Euripides Wikimedia Commons has media related to Euripides. Wikisource has original works written by or about: Euripides Library resources about Euripides Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Euripides Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Euripides at Project Gutenberg Works by Euripides at Faded Page (Canada) Works by or about Euripides at Internet Archive Works by Euripides at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Euripides with an English translation by Arthur S. Way. D. Lit. in four volumes, London, William Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4. Encarta's entry for Euripides (Archived 2009-10-31) Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com. Fordham.edu (in French) AC-Strasbourg.fr Imagi-nation.com IMDBs List of movies based on Euripides plays Staging of Euripides' fragmentary Hypsipyle Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Euripides, Trojan Women, 740–79; read by Stephen Daitz Euripidis opera omnia ex editionibus praestantissimis fideliter recusa, latina interpretatione, scholiis antiquis et eruditorum observationibus illustrata, 9 voll., Glasguae cura et typis Andreae et Joannis M. Duncan, 1821: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, vol. 6, vol. 7, vol. 8, vol. 9. Scholia of Euripides: Scholia in Euripidem, Eduardus Schwartz (ed.), 2 voll., Berolini tyois et impensis Georgii Reimer, 1887–91. [1] A Commentary on Euripides' Bacchae. v t e Plays by Euripides Extant plays Cyclops Alcestis Medea Children of Heracles Hippolytus Andromache Hecuba The Suppliants Electra Herakles The Trojan Women Iphigenia in Tauris Ion Helen The Phoenician Women Orestes Bacchae Iphigenia in Aulis Rhesus Lost and fragmentary plays Alcmaeon in Corinth Alcmaeon in Psophis Andromeda Antigone Archelaus Bellerophon Cresphontes Hypsipyle Oedipus Peliades Phaethon Philoctetes Theristai Thyestes Associated subjects v t e Iphigenia in Aulis and Iphigenia in Tauris by Euripides Iphigenia's family Agamemnon (father) Clytemnestra (mother) Aegisthus (stepfather) Orestes (brother) Electra (sister) Chrysothemis (sister) Iphigenia in Aulis Operas Iphigénie en Aulide (1774, Gluck) Plays Iphigénie (1674) Film Iphigenia (1977) Novel The Songs of the Kings Trilogy The Bacchae Alcmaeon in Corinth Related Bash: Latter-Day Plays The Killing of a Sacred Deer Iphigenia in Tauris Operas Iphigénie en Tauride (1699, Desmarets and Campra) Ifigenia in Tauride (1724, Vinci) Ifigenia in Tauride (1763, Traetta) Ifigenia in Tauride (1771, Jommelli) Iphigénie en Tauride (1779, Gluck) discography Iphigénie en Tauride (1781, Piccinni) Plays Iphigenia in Tauris (1779) v t e The Bacchae by Euripides (405 BC) Characters Dionysus Tiresias Cadmus Agave Pentheus Autonoe Ino Films The Bacchantes (1961) Dionysus in '69 (1970) The Bacchae (2002) Plays Dionysus in 69 (1968) A Mouthful of Birds (1986) The Lightning Child (2013) Operas The Bassarids (1966) Trilogy Iphigenia in Aulis Alcmaeon in Corinth Related Daphne (opera) Ink (novel) Talk (play) v t e Alcestis by Euripides Characters Apollo Thanatos / Death Maidservant Alcestis Admetus Eumelus Heracles Pheres Plays The Cocktail Party Operas Alceste (1674) Admeto (1727) Alceste (1767) Related Alcmaeon in Psophis v t e The Trojan Women by Euripides Film The Trojan Women (1971) Operas Troades (1986) Literature The Gate to Women's Country (1988) Women of Owu (2006) Related A 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en-wikipedia-org-8622	----	Help:Introduction - Wikipedia Help:Introduction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tutorial for newcomers who want to contribute to Wikipedia Introduction to Wikipedia Welcome to Wikipedia! Anyone can edit almost every page, and millions already have. This page takes you through a set of tutorials aimed at complete newcomers interested in contributing. It covers all the basics, and each tutorial takes only a few minutes, so you could become a proficient Wikipedian in no time! Get started Policies and Guidelines The Wiki markup source editor shows the underlying page source code, and works like a plain text file. Links and other items are indicated using simple code like this: [[Earth]]. Editing Referencing Images Tables Talk pages VisualEditor works more like a word processor and hides the underlying source code. Links and other items are edited using toolbar and pop-up interfaces. Editing Referencing Images Tables Navigating Wikipedia Manual of Style Conclusion View all as single page Shortcuts WP:I H:I H:INTRO ‹See TfM› For more training information, see also: Full help contents page Training for students A single-page guide to contributing A training adventure game Resources for new editors Please consider leaving us some feedback. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Introduction&oldid=1002888862" Categories: Wikipedia quick introductions Hidden categories: Help pages with short description Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikisource Wikiversity Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc Аҧсшәа العربية Arpetan অসমীয়া Авар Basa Bali বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Български Boarisch Bosanski Буряад Català Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Føroyskt Français Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Ladino ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം Malti مصرى Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Napulitano Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Română Romani čhib Runa Simi Русский संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tarandíne Татарча/tatarça ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ไทย Türkçe Удмурт Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2021, at 14:07 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8657	----	Sophocles - Wikipedia Sophocles From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the screenwriting software, see Sophocles (software). For the crater, see Sophocles (crater). For the ships, see SS Sophocles (1900) and SS Sophocles (1921). ancient Athenian tragic playwright Sophocles Born 497/496 BC Colonus, Attica Died 406/405 BC (aged 90–92) Athens Occupation Tragedian Genre Tragedy Notable works Ajax Antigone Oedipus Rex Electra Oedipus at Colonus Sophocles (/ˈsɒfəkliːz/;[1] Greek: Σοφοκλῆς, pronounced [so.pʰo.klɛ̂ːs]; c. 497/6 – winter 406/5 BC)[2] is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than, or contemporary with, those of Aeschylus; and earlier than, or contemporary with, those of Euripides. Sophocles wrote over 120 plays,[3] but only seven have survived in a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus.[4] For almost fifty years, Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens which took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in thirty competitions, won twenty-four, and was never judged lower than second place. Aeschylus won thirteen competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles; Euripides won four.[5] The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and Antigone: they are generally known as the Theban plays, though each was part of a different tetralogy (the other members of which are now lost). Sophocles influenced the development of drama, most importantly by adding a third actor (attributed to Sophocles by Aristotle; to Aeschylus by Themistius),[6] thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot.[citation needed] He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights.[7] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Sexuality 2 Works and legacy 2.1 Theban plays 2.1.1 Subjects 2.1.2 Composition and inconsistencies 2.2 Other plays 2.3 Fragmentary plays 2.4 Sophocles' view of his own work 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Life[edit] A marble relief of a poet, perhaps Sophocles Sophocles, the son of Sophillus, was a wealthy member of the rural deme (small community) of Hippeios Colonus in Attica, which was to become a setting for one of his plays; and he was probably born there,[2][8] a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC: the exact year is unclear, but 497/6 is most likely.[2][9] He was born into a wealthy family (his father was an armour manufacturer), and was highly educated. His first artistic triumph was in 468 BC, when he took first prize in the Dionysia, beating the reigning master of Athenian drama, Aeschylus.[2][10] According to Plutarch, the victory came under unusual circumstances: instead of following the usual custom of choosing judges by lot, the archon asked Cimon, and the other strategoi present, to decide the victor of the contest. Plutarch further contends that, following this loss, Aeschylus soon left for Sicily.[11] Though Plutarch says that this was Sophocles' first production, it is now thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC.[8] Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival.[8] In 480 BC Sophocles was chosen to lead the paean (a choral chant to a god), celebrating the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.[12] Early in his career, the politician Cimon might have been one of his patrons; but, if he was, there was no ill will borne by Pericles, Cimon's rival, when Cimon was ostracized in 461 BC.[2] In 443/2, Sophocles served as one of the Hellenotamiai, or treasurers of Athena, helping to manage the finances of the city during the political ascendancy of Pericles.[2] In 441 BC, according to the Vita Sophoclis, he was elected one of the ten generals, executive officials at Athens, as a junior colleague of Pericles; and he served in the Athenian campaign against Samos. He was supposed to have been elected to this position as the result of his production of Antigone,[13] but this is "most improbable".[14] In 420 BC, he was chosen to receive the image of Asclepius in his own house, when the cult was being introduced to Athens, and lacked a proper place (τέμενος).[15] For this, he was given the posthumous epithet Dexion (receiver) by the Athenians.[16] But "some doubt attaches to this story".[17] He was also elected, in 411 BC, one of the commissioners (probouloi) who responded to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War.[18] Sophocles died at the age of ninety or ninety-one in the winter of 406/5 BC, having seen, within his lifetime, both the Greek triumph in the Persian Wars, and the bloodletting of the Peloponnesian War.[2] As with many famous men in classical antiquity, his death inspired a number of apocryphal stories. The most famous[citation needed] is the suggestion that he died from the strain of trying to recite a long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take a breath. Another account suggests he choked while eating grapes at the Anthesteria festival in Athens. A third holds that he died of happiness after winning his final victory at the City Dionysia.[19] A few months later, a comic poet, in a play titled The Muses, wrote this eulogy: "Blessed is Sophocles, who had a long life, was a man both happy and talented, and the writer of many good tragedies; and he ended his life well without suffering any misfortune."[20] According to some accounts, however, his own sons tried to have him declared incompetent near the end of his life; and that he refuted their charge in court by reading from his new Oedipus at Colonus.[21] One of his sons, Iophon, and a grandson, called Sophocles, also became playwrights.[22] Sexuality[edit] An ancient source, Athenaeus’s work Sophists at Dinner, contains references to Sophocles' sexuality. In that work, a character named Myrtilus claims that Sophocles "was partial to boys, in the same way that Euripides was partial to women"[23] ("φιλομεῖραξ δὲ ἦν ὁ Σοφοκλῆς, ὡς Εὐριπίδης φιλογύνης");[24] and relates an anecdote, attributed to Ion of Chios, of Sophocles flirting with a serving-boy at a symposium: βούλει με ἡδέως πίνειν; [...] βραδέως τοίνυν καὶ πρόσφερέ μοι καὶ ἀπόφερε τὴν κύλικα.[25] Do you want me to enjoy my drink? [...] Then hand me the cup nice and slow, and take it back nice and slow too.[26] He also says that Hieronymus of Rhodes, in his Historical Notes, claims that Sophocles once led a boy outside the city-walls for sex; and that the boy snatched Sophocles' cloak (χλανίς, khlanis), leaving his own child-sized robe ("παιδικὸν ἱμάτιον") for Sophocles.[27][28] Moreover, when Euripides heard about this (it was much discussed), he mocked the disdainful treatment, saying that he had himself had sex with the boy, "but had not given him anything more than his usual fee"[29] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προσθεῖναι"),[30] or, "but that nothing had been taken off"[31] ("ἀλλὰ μηδὲν προεθῆναι").[32] In response, Sophocles composed this elegy: Ἥλιος ἦν, οὐ παῖς, Εὐριπίδη, ὅς με χλιαίνων γυμνὸν ἐποίησεν· σοὶ δὲ φιλοῦντι † ἑταίραν † Βορρᾶς ὡμίλησε. σὺ δ᾿ οὐ σοφός, ὃς τὸν Ἔρωτα, ἀλλοτρίαν σπείρων, λωποδύτην ἀπάγεις.[33] It was the Sun, Euripides, and not a boy, that got me hot and stripped me naked. But the North Wind was with you when you were kissing † a courtesan †. You’re not so clever, if you arrest Eros for stealing clothes while you’re sowing another man’s field.[34] Works and legacy[edit] Portrait of the Greek actor Euiaon in Sophocles' Andromeda, c. 430 BC. Sophocles is known for innovations in dramatic structure; deeper development of characters than earlier playwrights;[7] and, if it was not Aeschylus, the addition of a third actor,[35] which further reduced the role of the chorus, and increased opportunities for development and conflict.[7] Aeschylus, who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles' early career, adopted the third actor into his own work.[7] Besides the third actor, Aristotle credits Sophocles with the introduction of skenographia, or scenery-painting; but this too is attributed elsewhere to someone else (by Vitruvius, to Agatharchus of Samos).[36] After Aeschylus died, in 456 BC, Sophocles became the pre-eminent playwright in Athens,[2] winning competitions at eighteen Dionysia, and six Lenaia festivals.[2] His reputation was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts; but, unlike Aeschylus, who died in Sicily, or Euripides, who spent time in Macedon, Sophocles never accepted any of these invitations.[2] Aristotle, in his Poetics (c. 335 BC), used Sophocles' Oedipus Rex as an example of the highest achievement in tragedy.[37] Only two of the seven surviving plays[38] can be dated securely: Philoctetes, 409 BC; Oedipus at Colonus, 401 BC (staged after his death, by his grandson). Of the others, Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two, suggesting that it was probably written in the later part of his career; Ajax, Antigone, and The Trachiniae, are generally thought early, again based on stylistic elements; and Oedipus Rex is put in a middle period. Most of Sophocles' plays show an undercurrent of early fatalism, and the beginnings of Socratic logic as a mainstay for the long tradition of Greek tragedy.[39][40] Theban plays[edit] The Theban plays comprise three plays: Oedipus Rex (also called Oedipus Tyrannus or Oedipus the King), Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone. All three concern the fate of Thebes during and after the reign of King Oedipus.[41] They have often been published under a single cover;[42] but Sophocles wrote them for separate festival competitions, many years apart. The Theban plays are not a proper trilogy (i.e. three plays presented as a continuous narrative), nor an intentional series; they contain inconsistencies.[41] Sophocles also wrote other plays pertaining to Thebes, such as the Epigoni, but only fragments have survived.[43] Subjects[edit] The three plays involve the tale of Oedipus, who killed his father, and married his mother, not knowing either were his parents. His family is cursed for three generations. In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is the protagonist. His infanticide is planned by his parents, Laius and Jocasta, to prevent him fulfilling a prophecy; but the servant entrusted with the infanticide passes the infant on, through a series of intermediaries, to a childless couple, who adopt him, not knowing his history. Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle's prophecy of him, that he would kill his father, and marry his mother; he attempts to flee his fate without harming those he knows as his parents (at this point, he does not know that he is adopted). Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants; Oedipus and the man fight, and Oedipus kills the man (who was his father, Laius, although neither knew at the time). He becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the Sphinx and in the process, marries the widowed queen, his mother Jocasta. Thus the stage is set for horror. When the truth comes out, following from another true but confusing prophecy from Delphi, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes. At the end of the play, order is restored. This restoration is seen when Creon, brother of Jocasta, becomes king, and also when Oedipus, before going off to exile, asks Creon to take care of his children. Oedipus's children will always bear the weight of shame and humiliation because of their father's actions.[44] In Oedipus at Colonus, the banished Oedipus and his daughter Antigone arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus, King of Athens. Oedipus dies and strife begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles. In Antigone, the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter, Antigone. She is faced with the choice of allowing her brother Polyneices' body to remain unburied, outside the city walls, exposed to the ravages of wild animals, or to bury him and face death. The king of the land, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the city. Antigone decides to bury his body and face the consequences of her actions. Creon sentences her to death. Eventually, Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment, but his decision comes too late and Antigone commits suicide. Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others close to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was to wed Antigone, and his wife, Eurydice, who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son. Composition and inconsistencies[edit] Oedipus at Colonus by Jean-Antoine-Théodore Giroust (1788), Dallas Museum of Art The plays were written across thirty-six years of Sophocles' career and were not composed in chronological order, but instead were written in the order Antigone, Oedipus Rex, and Oedipus at Colonus. Nor were they composed as a trilogy – a group of plays to be performed together, but are the remaining parts of three different groups of plays. As a result, there are some inconsistencies: notably, Creon is the undisputed king at the end of Oedipus Rex and, in consultation with Apollo, single-handedly makes the decision to expel Oedipus from Thebes. Creon is also instructed to look after Oedipus' daughters Antigone and Ismene at the end of Oedipus Rex. By contrast, in the other plays there is some struggle with Oedipus' sons Eteocles and Polynices in regard to the succession. In Oedipus at Colonus, Sophocles attempts to work these inconsistencies into a coherent whole: Ismene explains that, in light of their tainted family lineage, her brothers were at first willing to cede the throne to Creon. Nevertheless, they eventually decided to take charge of the monarchy, with each brother disputing the other's right to succeed. In addition to being in a clearly more powerful position in Oedipus at Colonus, Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable: they consent (l. 429, Theodoridis, tr.) to their father's going to exile, which is one of his bitterest charges against them.[41] Other plays[edit] In addition to the three Theban plays, there are four surviving plays by Sophocles: Ajax, Women of Trachis, Electra, and Philoctetes, the last of which won first prize in 409 BC in which it competed.[45] Ajax focuses on the proud hero of the Trojan War, Telamonian Ajax, who is driven to treachery and eventually suicide. Ajax becomes gravely upset when Achilles’ armor is presented to Odysseus instead of himself. Despite their enmity toward him, Odysseus persuades the kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to grant Ajax a proper burial. The Women of Trachis (named for the Trachinian women who make up the chorus) dramatizes Deianeira's accidentally killing Heracles after he had completed his famous twelve labors. Tricked into thinking it is a love charm, Deianeira applies poison to an article of Heracles' clothing; this poisoned robe causes Heracles to die an excruciating death. Upon learning the truth, Deianeira commits suicide. Electra corresponds roughly to the plot of Aeschylus' Libation Bearers. It details how Electra and Orestes avenge their father Agamemnon's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. Philoctetes retells the story of Philoctetes, an archer who had been abandoned on Lemnos by the rest of the Greek fleet while on the way to Troy. After learning that they cannot win the Trojan War without Philoctetes' bow, the Greeks send Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him; due to the Greeks' earlier treachery, however, Philoctetes refuses to rejoin the army. It is only Heracles' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy. Fragmentary plays[edit] Although the list of over 120 titles of plays associated with Sophocles are known and presented below,[46] little is known of the precise dating of most of them. Philoctetes is known to have been written in 409 BC, and Oedipus at Colonus is known to have only been performed in 401 BC, posthumously, at the initiation of Sophocles' grandson. The convention on writing plays for the Greek festivals was to submit them in tetralogies of three tragedies along with one satyr play. Along with the unknown dating of the vast majority of over 120 play titles, it is also largely unknown how the plays were grouped. It is, however, known that the three plays referred to in the modern era as the "Theban plays" were never performed together in Sophocles' own lifetime, and are therefore not a trilogy (which they are sometimes erroneously seen as). Fragments of Ichneutae (Tracking Satyrs) were discovered in Egypt in 1907.[47] These amount to about half of the play, making it the best preserved satyr play after Euripides' Cyclops, which survives in its entirety.[47] Fragments of the Epigoni were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford University with the help of infrared technology previously used for satellite imaging. The tragedy tells the story of the second siege of Thebes.[43] A number of other Sophoclean works have survived only in fragments, including: Aias Lokros (Ajax the Locrian) Aias Mastigophoros (Ajax the Whip-Bearer) Aigeus (Aegeus) Aigisthos (Aegisthus) Aikhmalôtides (The Captive Women) Aithiopes (The Ethiopians), or Memnon Akhaiôn Syllogos (The Gathering of the Achaeans) Akhilleôs Erastai ([male] Lovers of Achilles) Akrisios Aleadae (The Sons of Aleus) Aletes Alexandros (Alexander) Alcmeôn Amphiaraus Amphitryôn Amycos Andromache Andromeda Antenoridai (Sons of Antenor) Athamas (two versions produced) Atreus, or Mykenaiai Camicoi Cassandra Cedaliôn Cerberus Chryseis Clytemnestra Colchides Côphoi (Mute Ones) Creusa Crisis (Judgement) Daedalus Danae Dionysiacus Dolopes Epigoni (The Progeny) Eriphyle Eris Eumelus Euryalus Eurypylus Eurysaces Helenes Apaitesis (Helen's Demand) Helenes Gamos (Helen's Marriage) Herakles Epi Tainaro (Hercules At Taenarum) Hermione Hipponous Hybris Hydrophoroi (Water-Bearers) Inachos Iobates Iokles Iôn Iphigenia Ixiôn Lacaenae (Lacaenian Women) Laocoôn Larisaioi Lemniai (Lemnian Women) Manteis (The Prophets) or Polyidus Meleagros Minôs Momus Mousai (Muses) Mysoi (Mysians) Nauplios Katapleon (Nauplius' Arrival) Nauplios Pyrkaeus (Nauplius' Fires) Nausicaa, or Plyntriai Niobe Odysseus Acanthoplex (Odysseus Scourged with Thorns) Odysseus Mainomenos (Odysseus Gone Mad) Oeneus Oenomaus Palamedes Pandora, or Sphyrokopoi (Hammer-Strikers) Pelias Peleus Phaiakes Phaedra Philoctetes In Troy Phineus (two versions) Phoenix Phrixus Phryges (Phrygians) Phthiôtides Poimenes (The Shepherds) Polyxene Priam Procris Rhizotomoi (The Root-Cutters) Salmoneus Sinon Sisyphus Skyrioi (Scyrians) Skythai (Scythians) Syndeipnoi (The Diners, or, The Banqueters) Tantalus Telephus Tereus Teukros (Teucer) Thamyras Theseus Thyestes Troilus Triptolemos Tympanistai (Drummers) Tyndareos Tyro Keiromene (Tyro Shorn) Tyro Anagnorizomene (Tyro Rediscovered). Xoanephoroi (Image-Bearers) Sophocles' view of his own work[edit] There is a passage of Plutarch's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Sophocles discusses his own growth as a writer. A likely source of this material for Plutarch was the Epidemiae of Ion of Chios, a book that recorded many conversations of Sophocles; but a Hellenistic dialogue about tragedy, in which Sophocles appeared as a character, is also plausible.[48] The former is a likely candidate to have contained Sophocles' discourse on his own development because Ion was a friend of Sophocles, and the book is known to have been used by Plutarch.[49] Though some interpretations of Plutarch's words suggest that Sophocles says that he imitated Aeschylus, the translation does not fit grammatically, nor does the interpretation that Sophocles said that he was making fun of Aeschylus' works. C. M. Bowra argues for the following translation of the line: "After practising to the full the bigness of Aeschylus, then the painful ingenuity of my own invention, now in the third stage I am changing to the kind of diction which is most expressive of character and best."[50] Here Sophocles says that he has completed a stage of Aeschylus' work, meaning that he went through a phase of imitating Aeschylus' style but is finished with that. Sophocles' opinion of Aeschylus was mixed. He certainly respected him enough to imitate his work early on in his career, but he had reservations about Aeschylus' style,[51] and thus did not keep his imitation up. Sophocles' first stage, in which he imitated Aeschylus, is marked by "Aeschylean pomp in the language".[52] Sophocles' second stage was entirely his own. He introduced new ways of evoking feeling out of an audience, as in his Ajax, when Ajax is mocked by Athene, then the stage is emptied so that he may commit suicide alone.[53] Sophocles mentions a third stage, distinct from the other two, in his discussion of his development. The third stage pays more heed to diction. His characters spoke in a way that was more natural to them and more expressive of their individual character feelings.[54] See also[edit] Theatre of ancient Greece Notes[edit] ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. ^ The exact number is unknown, the Suda says he wrote 123, another ancient source says 130, but no exact number "is possible", see Lloyd-Jones 2003, p. 3. ^ Suda (ed. Finkel et al.): s.v. Σοφοκλῆς. ^ Sophocles at the Encyclopædia Britannica ^ LLoyd-Jones, H. (ed. and trans.) (1997). Introduction, in Sophocles I. Sophocles. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780674995574. ^ a b c d Freeman, p. 247. ^ a b c Sommerstein (2007), p. xi. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 7. ^ Freeman, p. 246. ^ Life of Cimon 8. Plutarch is mistaken about Aeschylus' death during this trip; he went on to produce dramas in Athens for another decade. ^ McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama: An International Reference Work in 5 Volumes, Volume 1, "Sophocles". ^ Beer 2004, p. 69. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 12. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 13. ^ Clinton, Kevin "The Epidauria and the Arrival of Asclepius in Athens", in Ancient Greek Cult Practice from the Epigraphical Evidence, edited by R. Hägg, Stockholm, 1994. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 13. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, pp. 12–13. ^ Schultz 1835, pp. 150–51. ^ Lucas 1964, p. 128. ^ Cicero recounts this story in his De Senectute 7.22. ^ Sommerstein (2002), pp. 41–42. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 52. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Fortenbaugh, William Wall. Lyco and Traos and Hieronymus of Rhodes: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers (2004). ISBN 978-1-4128-2773-7. p. 161 ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Sophocles (1992). Greek Lyric, Volume IV: Bacchylides, Corinna, and Others. Campbell, D. A. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 333. ISBN 9780674995086. ^ Sophocles (1992). Greek Lyric, Volume IV: Bacchylides, Corinna, and Others. Campbell, D. A. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 332. ISBN 9780674995086. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Athenaeus (2011). The Learned Banqueters, Volume VII. Douglas Olson, S. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 59. ISBN 9780674996731. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 9. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, p. 9. ^ Aristotle. Ars Poetica. ^ The first printed edition of the seven plays is by Aldus Manutius in Venice 1502: Sophoclis tragaediae [sic] septem cum commentariis. Despite the addition 'cum commentariis' in the title, the Aldine edition did not include the ancient scholia to Sophocles. These had to wait until 1518 when Janus Lascaris brought out the relevant edition in Rome. ^ Lloyd-Jones 1994, pp. 8–9. ^ Scullion, pp. 85–86, rejects attempts to date Antigone to shortly before 441/0 based on an anecdote that the play led to Sophocles' election as general. On other grounds, he cautiously suggests c. 450 BC. ^ a b c Sophocles, ed Grene and Lattimore, pp. 1–2. ^ See for example: "Sophocles: The Theban Plays", Penguin Books, 1947; Sophocles I: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, University of Chicago, 1991; Sophocles: The Theban Plays: Antigone/King Oidipous/Oidipous at Colonus, Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company, 2002; Sophocles, The Oedipus Cycle: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, Harvest Books, 2002; Sophocles, Works, Loeb Classical Library, Vol I. London, W. Heinemann; New York, Macmillan, 1912 (often reprinted) – the 1994 Loeb, however, prints Sophocles in chronological order. ^ a b Murray, Matthew, "Newly Readable Oxyrhynchus Papyri Reveal Works by Sophocles, Lucian, and Others Archived 11 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine", Theatermania, 18 April 2005. Retrieved 9 July 2007. ^ Sophocles. Oedipus the King. The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. Gen. ed. Peter Simon. 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: Norton, 1984. 648–52. Print. ISBN 0-393-92572-2 ^ Freeman, pp. 247–48. ^ Lloyd-Jones 2003, pp. 3–9. ^ a b Seaford, p. 1361. ^ Sophocles (1997). Sophocles I. Lloyd-Jones, H. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge, MA; London, England: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780674995574. ^ Bowra, p. 386. ^ Bowra, p. 401. ^ Bowra, p. 389. ^ Bowra, p. 392. ^ Bowra, p. 396. ^ Bowra, pp. 385–401. References[edit] Beer, Josh (2004). Sophocles and the Tragedy of Athenian Democracy. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 0-313-28946-8 Bowra, C.M. (1940). "Sophocles on His Own Development". American Journal of Philology. 61 (4): 385–401. doi:10.2307/291377. JSTOR 291377. Finkel, Raphael. "Adler number: sigma,815". Suda on Line: Byzantine Lexicography. Retrieved 14 March 2007. Freeman, Charles. (1999). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-88515-0 Hubbard, Thomas K. (2003). Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents. Johnson, Marguerite & Terry Ryan (2005). Sexuality in Greek and Roman Society and Literature: A Sourcebook. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17331-0, 978-0-415-17331-5 Lloyd-Jones, Hugh & Wilson, Nigel Guy (ed.) (1990). Sophoclis: Fabulae. Oxford Classical Texts. Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Ajax. Electra. Oedipus Tyrannus. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 20. Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1994). Sophocles: Antigone. The Women of Trachis. Philoctetes. Oedipus at Colonus. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 21. Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (ed.) (1996). Sophocles: Fragments. Edited and translated by Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Loeb Classical Library No. 483. Lucas, Donald William (1964). The Greek Tragic Poets. W.W. Norton & Co. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vols. 5 & 6 translated by Paul Shorey. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. Schultz, Ferdinand (1835). De vita Sophoclis poetae commentatio. Phil. Diss., Berlin. Scullion, Scott (2002). Tragic dates, Classical Quarterly, new sequence 52, pp. 81–101. Seaford, Richard A. S. (2003). "Satyric drama". In Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (ed.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1361. ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3. Smith, Philip (1867). "Sophocles". In William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. pp. 865–73. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007. Sommerstein, Alan Herbert (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26027-2 Sommerstein, Alan Herbert (2007). "General Introduction" pp. xi–xxix in Sommerstein, A.H., Fitzpatrick, D. and Tallboy, T. Sophocles: Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume 1. Aris and Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-766-9 Sophocles. Sophocles I: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone. 2nd ed. Grene, David and Lattimore, Richard, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Macropaedia Knowledge In Depth." The New Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 20. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2005. 344–46. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sophocles Wikisource has original works written by or about: Sophocles Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sophocles. 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en-wikipedia-org-8663	----	Hades - Wikipedia Hades From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search God of the underworld in Greek mythology This article is about the Greek god. For the location, see Greek underworld and Hades in Christianity. For other uses, see Hades (disambiguation). Hades King of the Underworld God of the dead and riches Hades/Serapis with Cerberus Abode The underworld Symbol Cornucopia, Cypress, Narcissus, keys, serpent, mint plant, white poplar, dog, pomegranate, sheep, cattle, screech owl, horse, chariot Personal information Parents Cronus and Rhea Siblings Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Zeus, Chiron Consort Persephone Children Zagreus, Macaria, and in some cases Melinoë, Plutus, and the Erinyes Roman equivalent Dis Pater, Orcus, Pluto Hades (/ˈheɪdiːz/; Greek: ᾍδης Hádēs; Ἅιδης Háidēs), in the ancient Greek religion and myth, is the god of the dead and the king of the underworld, with which his name became synonymous.[1] Hades was the eldest son of Cronus and Rhea, although the last son regurgitated by his father.[2] He and his brothers, Zeus and Poseidon, defeated their father's generation of gods, the Titans, and claimed rulership over the cosmos. Hades received the underworld, Zeus the sky, and Poseidon the sea, with the solid earth, long the province of Gaia, available to all three concurrently. Hades was often portrayed with his three-headed guard dog Cerberus. The Etruscan god Aita and the Roman gods Dis Pater and Orcus were eventually taken as equivalent to Hades and merged into Pluto, a Latinization of Plouton (Greek: Πλούτων, Ploútōn),[3] itself a euphemistic title often given to Hades. Contents 1 Name 2 Mythology 2.1 Early years 2.2 God of the underworld 2.3 Persephone 2.4 Theseus and Pirithous 2.5 Heracles 2.6 Minthe 2.7 Leuce 3 Cult and epithets 4 Artistic representations 5 Realm of Hades 6 Genealogy 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Bibliography 10 External links Name The origin of Hades' name is uncertain, but has generally been seen as meaning "the unseen one" since antiquity. An extensive section of Plato's dialogue Cratylus is devoted to the etymology of the god's name, in which Socrates is arguing for a folk etymology not from "unseen" but from "his knowledge (eidenai) of all noble things". Modern linguists have proposed the Proto-Greek form *Awides ("unseen").[4] The earliest attested form is Aḯdēs (Ἀΐδης), which lacks the proposed digamma. Martin Litchfield West argues instead for an original meaning of "the one who presides over meeting up" from the universality of death.[5] Amphora Hades Louvre G209 n2; Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons In Homeric and Ionic Greek, he was known as Áïdēs.[6] Other poetic variations of the name include Aïdōneús (Ἀϊδωνεύς) and the inflected forms Áïdos (Ἄϊδος, gen.), Áïdi (Ἄϊδι, dat.), and Áïda (Ἄϊδα, acc.), whose reconstructed nominative case *Áïs (*Ἄϊς) is, however, not attested.[7] The name as it came to be known in classical times was Háidēs (Ἅιδης). Later the iota became silent, then a subscript marking (ᾍδης), and finally omitted entirely (Άδης).[8] Perhaps from fear of pronouncing his name, around the 5th century BC, the Greeks started referring to Hades as Plouton (Πλούτων Ploútōn), with a root meaning "wealthy", considering that from the abode below (i.e., the soil) come riches (e.g., fertile crops, metals and so on).[9] Plouton became the Roman god who both rules the underworld and distributed riches from below. This deity was a mixture of the Greek god Hades and the Eleusinian icon Ploutos, and from this he also received a priestess, which was not previously practiced in Greece.[10] More elaborate names of the same genre were Ploutodótēs (Πλουτοδότης) or Ploutodotḗr (Πλουτοδοτήρ), meaning "giver of wealth".[11] Epithets of Hades include Agesander (Ἀγήσανδρος) and Agesilaos (Ἀγεσίλαος),[12] both from ágō (ἄγω, "lead", "carry" or "fetch") and anḗr (ἀνήρ, "man") or laos (λαός, "men" or "people"), describing Hades as the god who carries away all.[13][14][15][16] Nicander uses the form Hegesilaus (Ἡγεσίλαος).[17] He was also referred to as Zeus katachthonios (Ζεὺς καταχθόνιος),[18] meaning "the Zeus of the Underworld", by those avoiding his actual name, as he had complete control over the Underworld.[19] Mythology Early years Pinax with Persephone and Hades Enthroned, 500-450 BC, Greek, Locri Epizephirii, Mannella district, Sanctuary of Persephone, terracotta – Cleveland Museum of Art In Greek mythology, Hades, the god of the underworld, was the first-born son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. He had three older sisters, Hestia, Demeter, and Hera, as well as a younger brother, Poseidon, all of whom had been swallowed whole by their father as soon as they were born. Zeus was the youngest child and through the machinations of their mother, Rhea, he was the only one that had escaped this fate. Upon reaching adulthood, Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release, the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged the elder gods for power in the Titanomachy, a divine war. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory, according to a single famous passage in the Iliad (Book XV, ln.187–93), Hades and his two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots[20] for realms to rule. Zeus received the sky, Poseidon received the seas, and Hades received the underworld,[21] the unseen realm to which the souls of the dead go upon leaving the world as well as any and all things beneath the earth. Some myths suggest that Hades was dissatisfied with his turnout, but had no choice and moved to his new realm.[22] Hades obtained his wife and queen, Persephone, through abduction at the behest of Zeus. This myth is the most important one Hades takes part in;[23] it also connected the Eleusinian Mysteries with the Olympian pantheon, particularly as represented in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, which is the oldest story of the abduction, most likely dating back to the beginning of the 6th century BC.[10] Helios told the grieving Demeter that Hades was not unworthy as a consort for Persephone: Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells. — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[24] Hades, Hierapolis God of the underworld Despite modern connotations of death as evil, Hades was actually more altruistically inclined in mythology. Hades was often portrayed as passive rather than evil; his role was often maintaining relative balance. That said, he was also depicted as cold and stern, and he held all of his subjects equally accountable to his laws.[25] Any other individual aspects of his personality are not given, as Greeks refrained from giving him much thought to avoid attracting his attention.[19] Hades ruled the dead, assisted by others over whom he had complete authority. The House of Hades was described as full of "guests," though he rarely left the Underworld.[26] He cared little about what happened in the world above, as his primary attention was ensuring none of his subjects ever left his domain. Red figure volute krater with scene of the Underworld, follower of the Baltimore Painter, Hermitage He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal the souls from his realm. His wrath was equally terrible for anyone who tried to cheat death or otherwise crossed him, as Sisyphus and Pirithous found out to their sorrow. While usually indifferent to his subjects, Hades was very focused on the punishment of these two people; particularly Pirithous, as he entered the underworld in an attempt to steal Persephone for himself, and consequently was forced onto the "Chair of Forgetfulness".[19] Another myth is about the Greek god Asclepius who was originally a demigod, son of Apollo and Coronis, a Thessalian princess. During his lifetime, he became a famous and talented physician, who eventually was able to bring the dead back to life. Feeling cheated, Plouton persuaded Zeus to kill him with a thunderbolt. After his death, he was brought to Olympus where he became a god.[27] Hades was only depicted outside of the Underworld once in myth, and even that is believed to have been an instance where he had just left the gates of the Underworld, which was when Heracles shot him with an arrow as Hades was attempting to defend the city of Pylos.[3] After he was shot, however, he traveled to Olympus to heal. Besides Heracles, the only other living people who ventured to the Underworld were also heroes: Odysseus, Aeneas (accompanied by the Sibyl), Orpheus, to whom Hades showed uncharacteristic mercy at Persephone's urging, who was moved by Orpheus' music,[28] Theseus with Pirithous, and, in a late romance, Psyche. None of them were pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the Greek war hero Achilles, whom Odysseus conjured with a blood libation, said: O shining Odysseus, never try to console me for dying. I would rather follow the plow as thrall to another man, one with no land allotted to him and not much to live on, than be a king over all the perished dead. — Achilles' soul to Odysseus. Homer, Odyssey 11.488-491 (Lattimore translation) Persephone Persephone and Hades: tondo of an Attic red-figured kylix, ca. 440–430 BC The consort of Hades was Persephone, daughter of Zeus and Demeter.[29] Oil painting of Hades abducting Persephone. 18th Century. Oil on wood with gilt background. Property of Missing Link Antiques. Persephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking flowers in the fields of Nysa (her father, Zeus, had previously given Persephone to Hades, to be his wife, as is stated in the first lines of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter). In protest of his act, Demeter cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine; though, one by one, the gods came to request she lift it, lest mankind perish and cause the gods to be deprived of their receiving gifts and sacrifices, Demeter asserted that the earth would remain barren until she saw her daughter again. Zeus then sends for his son, Hermes, and instructs him to go down to the Underworld in hopes that he may be able to convince Hades to allow Persephone to return to Earth, so that Demeter might see Persephone and cause the famine to stop. Hermes obeys and goes down to Hades' realm, wherein he finds Hades seated upon a couch, Persephone seated next to him. Hermes relays Zeus' message, and Hades complies, saying, "Go now, Persephone, to your dark-robed mother, go, and feel kindly in your heart towards me: be not so exceedingly cast down; for I shall be no unfitting husband for you among the deathless gods, that am own brother to father Zeus. And while you are here, you shall rule all that lives and moves and shall have the greatest rights among the deathless gods: those who defraud you and do not appease your power with offerings, reverently performing rites and paying fit gifts, shall be punished for evermore." — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[30] Afterwards, Hades readies his chariot, but not before he secretly gives Persephone a pomegranate seed to eat; Hermes takes the reins, and he and Persephone make their way to the Earth above, coming to a halt in front of Demeter's temple at Eleusis, where the goddess has been waiting. Demeter and Persephone run towards each other and embrace one another, happy that they are reunited. Demeter, however, suspects that Persephone may have eaten food while down in the Underworld, and so she questions Persephone, saying: "My child, tell me, surely you have not tasted any food while you were below? Speak out and hide nothing, but let us both know. For if you have not, you shall come back from loathly Hades and live with me and your father, the dark-clouded son of Cronos and be honored by all the deathless gods; but if you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me and the other deathless gods. But when the earth shall bloom with the fragrant flowers of spring in every kind, then from the realm of darkness and gloom thou shalt come up once more to be a wonder for gods and mortal men. And now tell me how he rapt you away to the realm of darkness and gloom, and by what trick did the strong Host of Many beguile you?" — Homeric Hymn to Demeter[31] Hades abducting Persephone, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece, c. 340 BC Persephone does admit that she ate the food of the dead, as she tells Demeter that Hades gave her a pomegranate seed and forced her to eat it. Persephone's eating the pomegranate seed binds her to Hades and the Underworld, much to the dismay of Demeter. Zeus, however, had previously proposed a compromise, to which all parties had agreed: of the year, Persephone would spend one third with her husband.[32] It is during this time, when Persephone is down in the Underworld with her husband, that winter falls upon the earth, "an aspect of sadness and mourning."[33] Theseus and Pirithous Theseus and Pirithous pledged to kidnap and marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus chose Helen and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone. They left Helen with Theseus' mother, Aethra, and traveled to the Underworld. Hades knew of their plan to capture his wife, so he pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by Heracles but Pirithous remained trapped as punishment for daring to seek the wife of a god for his own. Heracles Main article: Cerberus Heracles' final labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to Eleusis to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the centaurs and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at Taenarum. Athena and Hermes helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles didn't harm Cerberus. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern Acherusia. Minthe The nymph Minthe, associated with the river Cocytus and loved by Hades, was turned into the mint plant by a jealous Persephone.[34] Leuce Leuce was the most beautiful of the nymphs and a daughter of Oceanus. Hades fell in love with her and abducted her to the underworld. She lived out the span of her life in his realm, and when she died, the god sought consolation by creating a suitable memorial of their love: in the Elysian Fields where the pious spend their afterlife, he brought a white tree into existence. It was this tree with which Heracles crowned himself to celebrate his return from the underworld.[35] Cult and epithets Hades and Cerberus, in Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888 Hades, as the god of the dead, was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reluctant to swear oaths in his name, and averted their faces when sacrificing to him. Since to many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening, euphemisms were pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the "underworld" ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and as such the Greeks referred to him as Πλούτων (Greek Plouton; Latin PLVTO, Pluto, "the rich one"). This title is derived from the word Πλοῦτος (Greek Ploutos, literally "wealth, riches"). Sophocles explained the notion of referring to Hades as Plouton with these words: "the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears." In addition, he was called Clymenus ("notorious"), Polydegmon ("who receives many"), and perhaps Eubuleus ("good counsel" or "well-intentioned"),[36] all of them euphemisms for a name that was unsafe to pronounce, which evolved into epithets. He spent most of the time in his dark realm. Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous Titanomachy, the battle of the Olympians versus the Titans, which established the rule of Zeus. Feared and loathed, Hades embodied the inexorable finality of death: "Why do we loathe Hades more than any god, if not because he is so adamantine and unyielding?" The rhetorical question is Agamemnon's.[37] Hades was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and was therefore most often associated with death and feared by men, but he was not Death itself — it is Thanatos, son of Nyx and Erebus, who is the actual personification of death, although Euripides' play "Alkestis" states fairly clearly that Thanatos and Hades were one and the same deity, and gives an interesting description of Hades as being dark-cloaked and winged;[38] moreover, Hades was also referred to as Hesperos Theos ("god of death & darkness").[39] When the Greeks propitiated Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them.[40] Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him. While some suggest the very vehemence of the rejection of human sacrifice expressed in myth might imply an unspoken memory of some distant past, there is no direct evidence of such a turn.[41] The blood from all chthonic sacrifices including those to propitiate Hades dripped into a pit or cleft in the ground. The person who offered the sacrifice had to avert his face.[42] One ancient source says that he possessed the Cap of invisibility. His chariot, drawn by four black horses, made for a fearsome and impressive sight. These beasts were variously named as, according to Claudian: Orphnaeus, Aethon, Nycteus and Alastor while other authors listed also: Nonius, Ametheus, Abastor, Abetor and Metheus. His other ordinary attributes were the narcissus and cypress plants, the Key of Hades and Cerberus, the three-headed dog.[43] In certain portraits, snakes also appeared to be attributed to Hades[44] as he was occasionally portrayed to be either holding them or accompanied by them. This is believed to hold significance as in certain classical sources Hades ravished Kore in the guise of a snake, who went on to give birth to Zagreus-Dionysus.[45] While bearing the name 'Zeus', Zeus Olympios, the great king of the gods, noticeably differs from the Zeus Meilichios, a decidedly chthonian character, often portrayed as a snake,[46] and as seen beforehand, they cannot be different manifestations of the same god,[47] in fact whenever 'another Zeus' is mentioned, this always refers to Hades.[48] Zeus Meilichios and Zeus Eubouleus are often referred to as being alternate names for Hades.[49] The philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life (zoë), are the same god.[50] Among other evidence, Karl Kerényi notes in his book[51] that the Homeric Hymn To Demeter,[52] votive marble images[53] and epithets[54] all link Hades to being Dionysus. He also notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, as she states that it would be against themis for her to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone's abduction, because of this association; indicating that Hades may in fact have been a "cover name" for the underworld Dionysus.[55] He suggests that this dual identity may have been familiar to those who came into contact with the Mysteries.[56] Dionysus also shared several epithets with Hades such as Chthonios ("the subterranean"),[57][58] Eubouleus ("Good Counselor"), and Euclius ("glorious" or "renowned") . Evidence for a cult connection is quite extensive, particularly in southern Italy, especially when considering the death symbolism included in Dionysian worship;[59][60] statues of Dionysus[61][62] found in the Ploutonion at Eleusis gives further evidence as the statue bears a striking resemblance to the statue of Eubouleus[63] also known as the youthful depiction of the Lord of the Underworld. The statue of Eubouleus is described as being radiant but disclosing a strange inner darkness.[51] Ancient portrayals show Dionysus holding in his hand a kantharos, a wine-jar with large handles, and occupying the place where one would expect to see Hades. Archaic artist Xenocles portrayed on one side of a vase, Zeus, Poseidon and Hades, each with his emblems of power; with Hades' head turned back to front and, on the other side, Dionysus striding forward to meet his bride Persephone, with a kantharos in his hand, against a background of grapes.[64] Both Hades and Dionysus were associated with a divine tripartite deity with Zeus.[65] The Orphics in particular believed that Zeus and Hades were the same deity and portrayed them as such.[66][67] Zeus was portrayed as having an incarnation in the underworld identifying him as literally being Hades and leading to Zeus and Hades essentially being two representations and different facets of the same god and extended divine power.[68][69] This nature and aspect of Hades and Zeus displayed in the Orphic stories is the explanation for why both Hades and Zeus are considered to be the father of Melinoë and Zagreus.[70][71] The role of unifying Hades, Zeus and Dionysus as a single tripartite god was used to represent the birth, death and resurrection of a deity and to unify the 'shining' realm of Zeus and the dark realm of Hades that lay beneath the Earth.[65][72] Among the other appellations under which Hades or Pluto is generally known, are the following:[73][74] In Greek: Adesius, his name in Latium. It is expressive of the grace. Agelastus, from his melancholy countenance. Agesilaus, expressive of his attracting all people to his empire. Agetes or Hegetes, a name assigned to him by Pindar, as to one who conducts. Aidoneos, this name is probably derived from Hades' having been sometimes confounded with a king of this name among the Molossi, whose daughter Persephone, Theseus and Pirithous attempted to carry off. Axiocersus, or the shorn god, a name of Pluto in the mysteries of the Cabiri: he was there represented as without hair. Iao, his name at Clares, a town of Ionia. Moiragetes, his name as guide of the Fates. Ophieus, his name as the blind god among the Messenians: it was derived from their dedicating certain Augurs to him, whom they deprived of sight at the moment of their birth. In Latin or Etruscan Altor, from alo, to nourish. Februus, from Februa, signifying the sacrifices and purifications adopted in funeral rites. Feralis Deus, the dismal or cruel god. Lactum, his name among the Sarmatians. Larthy Tytiral, sovereign of Tartarus, his name in Etruria. Mantus or Manus, the diminutive of Summanus, an Etruscan epithet. Niger Deus, black god, his epithet as god of the Infernal Regions. Opertus, the concealed. Postulio, a name assigned to him by Varro, under which he was worshipped on the shores of the lake Curtius, from the circumstance of the earth's having opened at that spot, and of the Aruspices having presumed that the King of Death thus asked for (postula, I ask,) sacrifices. Profundus Jupiter, deep or lower Jove, from his being sovereign of the deep, or infernal regions. Quietalis, from quies, rest. Rusor, because all things return eventually to the earth. Salutaris Divus, a name assigned to him when he restored the dead to life. Whenever the gods wished to re-animate a body, Pluto let fail some drops of nectar from his urn upon the favoured person: this may account for bis being sometimes represented with an inverted vase. Saturnius, from his father Saturn. Soranus, his name among the Sabines, in the temple dedicated to him on Mount Soracte. Stygius, from the river Styx. Summanus, from summus manium, prince of the dead. Tellumo, a name derived from those treasures which Pluto possesses in the recesses of the earth. Tellumo denotes (according to Varro) the creative power of the earth, in opposition to Tellus the productive. Uragus, expressive of bis power over fire. Urgus, from urgeo, to impel. In Egypt: Amenthes, a name of Pluto among the Egyptians. Plutarch informs us, that the word Amenthes has a reference to the doctrines of the metempsychosis, and signifies the place which gives and receives; on the belief that some vast gulf was assigned as a receptacle to the souls, which were about to animate new bodies. Artistic representations Hades was depicted so infrequently in artwork, as well as mythology, because the Greeks were so afraid of him.[19] His artistic representations, which are generally found in Archaic pottery, are not even concretely thought of as the deity; however at this point in time it is heavily believed that the figures illustrated are indeed Hades.[10] He was later presented in the classical arts in the depictions of the Rape of Persephone.[75] Within these illustrations, Hades was often young, yet he was also shown as varying ages in other works.[10] Due to this lack of depictions, there weren't very strict guidelines when representing the deity.[10] On pottery, he has a dark beard and is presented as a stately figure on an "ebony throne."[22] His attributes in art include a scepter, cornucopia, rooster,[76] and a key, which both represented his control over the underworld and acted as a reminder that the gates of the Underworld were always locked so that souls could not leave.[77] Even if the doors were open, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, ensured that while all souls were allowed to enter into The Underworld freely, none could ever escape.[78] The dog is often portrayed next to the god as a means of easy identification, since no other deity relates to it so directly. Sometimes, artists painted Hades as looking away from the other gods, as he was disliked by them as well as humans.[10] As Plouton, he was regarded in a more positive light. He holds a cornucopia, representing the gifts he bestows upon people as well as fertility, which he becomes connected to.[10] Realm of Hades Main articles: Greek underworld and Hades in Christianity In older Greek myths, the realm of Hades is the misty and gloomy[79] abode of the dead (also called Erebus[79]) where all mortals go when they die. Very few mortals could leave Hades once they entered. The exceptions, Heracles and Theseus, are heroic.[80] Even Odysseus in his Nekyia (Odyssey, xi) calls up the spirits of the departed, rather than descend to them. Later Greek philosophy introduced the idea that all mortals are judged after death and are either rewarded or cursed.[citation needed] There were several sections of the realm of Hades, including Elysium, the Asphodel Meadows, and Tartarus. The mythographer Apollodorus, describes Tartarus as "a gloomy place in Hades as far distant from Earth, as Earth is distant from the sky."[81] Greek mythographers were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the afterlife. A contrasting myth of the afterlife concerns the Garden of the Hesperides, often identified with the Isles of the Blessed, where the blessed heroes may dwell. Aeneas's journey to Hades through the entrance at Cumae mapped by Andrea de Jorio, 1825 In Roman mythology, the entrance to the Underworld located at Avernus, a crater near Cumae, was the route Aeneas used to descend to the realm of the dead.[82] By synecdoche, "Avernus" could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The di inferi were a collective of underworld divinities. For Hellenes, the deceased entered the underworld by crossing the Styx, ferried across by Charon kair'-on), who charged an obolus, a small coin for passage placed in the mouth of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered for a hundred years on the near shore according to Book VI of Vergil's Aeneid. Greeks offered propitiatory libations to prevent the deceased from returning to the upper world to "haunt" those who had not given them a proper burial. The far side of the river was guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed dog defeated by Heracles (Roman Hercules). Passing beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered the land of the dead to be judged. The five rivers of the realm of Hades, and their symbolic meanings, are Acheron (the river of sorrow, or woe), Cocytus (lamentation), Phlegethon (fire), Lethe (oblivion), and Styx (hate), the river upon which even the gods swore and in which Achilles was dipped to render him invincible. The Styx forms the boundary between the upper and lower worlds. See also Eridanos. The first region of Hades comprises the Fields of Asphodel, described in Odyssey xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only libations of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity. Beyond lay Erebus, which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of Mnemosyne ("memory"), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. There at the trivium sacred to Hecate, where three roads meet, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to Elysium (Islands of the Blessed) with the "blameless" heroes. In the Sibylline oracles, a curious hodgepodge of Greco-Roman and Judaeo-Christian elements, Hades again appears as the abode of the dead, and by way of folk etymology, it even derives Hades from the name Adam (the first man), saying it is because he was the first to enter there.[83] Owing to its appearance in the New Testament of the Bible, Hades also has a distinct meaning in Christianity. Genealogy Hades' family tree [84] Uranus Gaia Uranus' genitals Cronus Rhea Zeus Hera Poseidon HADES Demeter Hestia     a [85]      b [86] Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena [87] Leto Apollo Artemis Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione     a [88]      b [89] Aphrodite In popular culture Main article: Hades in popular culture See also Ancient Greece portal Myths portal Religion portal Angra Mainyu Ereshkigal Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions Irkalla Last Judgment Osiris Saveasi'uleo Shiva The Golden Bough (mythology) Yama (East Asia) References ^ Cartwright, Mark, "Hades", Ancient History Encyclopedia, retrieved 29 June 2015. ^ Reckoning by this reverse order is preferred by Poseidon in his speech at Homer, Iliad 15.187. ^ a b Tripp, p. 256. ^ According to Dixon-Kennedy, p. 143 (following Kerényi 1951, p. 230) says "...his name means 'the unseen', a direct contrast to his brother Zeus, who was originally seen to represent the brightness of day". Ivanov, p. 284, citing Beekes 1998, pp. 17–19, notes that derivation of Hades from a proposed *som wid- is semantically untenable; see also Beekes 2009, p. 34. ^ West, M. L., Indo-European Poetry and Myth, OUP, 2007, p. 394. ^ Bailly, s.v. Ἅιδης. ^ Bailly, s.v. *Ἄϊς. ^ See Ancient Greek phonology and modern Greek. ^ Bailly, s.v. Πλούτων. ^ a b c d e f g "Gale Virtual Reference". Retrieved 2015-11-18. ^ Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, 806, note. Translated by Smyth, Herbert Weir (1922) in Loeb Classical Library, Volume 145. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Agesander (1)". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 68. ^ Liddell, Henry; Scott, Robert (1996). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. s.v. ISBN 0-19-864226-1. ^ Callimachus, Hymn. in Pallad. 130, with Friedrich Spanheim's note ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s.v. ^ Aeschyl. ap. Athen. iii. p. 99 ^ Nicander, ap. Athen. xv. p. 684 ^ "Ζεύς" in: An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon by Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. ^ a b c d Tripp, p. 257. ^ Walter Burkert, in The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, 1992, (pp 90ff) compares this single reference with the Mesopotamian Atra-Hasis: "the basic structure of both texts is astonishingly similar." The drawing of lots is not the usual account; Hesiod (Theogony, 883) declares that Zeus overthrew his father and was acclaimed king by the other gods. "There is hardly another passage in Homer which comes so close to being a translation of an Akkadian epic," Burkert concludes (p. 91). ^ Poseidon speaks: "For when we threw the lots I received the grey sea as my abode, Hades drew the murky darkness, Zeus, however, drew the wide sky of brightness and clouds; the earth is common to all, and spacious Olympus." Iliad 15.187 ^ a b "Hades the Greek God of the Underworld, Hades the unseen". www.greekmyths-greekmythology.com. Retrieved 2015-11-18. ^ Grant and Hazel, p. 236. ^ "Hymn 2 to Demeter, line 40". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Grant and Hazel, p. 235. ^ Gayley, p. 47. ^ Gayley, p. 104. ^ Gayley, pp. 165–166. ^ Guirand, p. 190. ^ "Hymn 2 to Demeter, line 347". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ "Hymn 2 to Demeter, line 398". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ Guirand, p. 175. ^ Guirand, p. 176. ^ Strabo, 8.3.14; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.728–730. ^ Servius, note to Eclogue 7.61: Leuce, Oceani filia, inter nymphas pulcherrima fuit. hanc Pluton adamavit et ad inferos rapuit. quae postquam apud eum completo vitae suae tempore mortua est, Pluton tam in amoris, quam in memoriae solacium in Elysiis piorum campis leucen nasci arborem iussit, ex qua, sicut dictum est, Hercules se, revertens ab inferis, coronavit. ^ The name Eubouleos is more often seen as an epithet for Dionysus or Zeus. ^ Iliad, ix ^ Parker, L. P. E. (2007). Euripides Alcestis: With Introduction and Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN 9780191569012. ^ Brown, Robert (1844). "The Religion of Zoroaster Considered In Connection With Archaic Monotheism". Archive.org. Retrieved 3 September 2017. ^ "Hades never knows what is happening in the world above, or in Olympus, except for fragmentary information which comes to him when mortals strike their hands upon the earth and invoke him with oaths and curses" (Robert Graves, The Greek Myths 1960: §31.e). ^ Dennis D. Hughes, Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece (London: Routledge, 2013), 49-70. ISBN 9781134966394 books.google.com/books?id=1iktBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 ^ Kerényi 1951, p. 231. ^ See, Sally (2014). The Greek Myths. S&T. p. 21. Retrieved 18 January 2017. ^ "Snake Symbolism". The Psychology of Dreams. 1998. Retrieved 5 September 2017. ^ Bell, Malcolm (1982). Morgantina Studies, Volume I: The Terracottas. Princeton University Press. pp. 88, 89, 90, 106, 168, 254. ISBN 9781400853243. ^ Ogden, Daniel (2008). A Companion to Greek Religion. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470997345. ^ Versnel, Henk (2011). Coping With the Gods: Wayward Readings in Greek Theology. Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004204904.i-594. ISBN 978-90-04-20490-4. ^ Schlesier, Renate (2012). A Different God?: Dionysos and Ancient Polytheism. Berlin, Germany.: Freie University. pp. 27, 28. ISBN 9783110222357. ^ Hornblower, Spawforth, Eidinow, Simon, Antony, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford: OUP Oxford. p. 354. ISBN 9780191016752.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Heraclitus, encountering the festival of the Phallophoria, in which phalli were paraded about, remarked in a surviving fragment: "If they did not order the procession in honor of the god and address the phallus song to him, this would be the most shameless behavior. But Hades is the same as Dionysos, for whom they rave and act like bacchantes", Kerényi 1976, pp. 239–240. ^ a b Kerényi, Karl (1991). Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691019154. ^ Summary of Karl Kerenyi: "The Hymn tells us that Persephone was abducted in Nysion pedion, or the Nysian Plain, a plain that was named after the Dionysian mountain of Nysa. Nysa was regarded as the birthplace and first home of Dionysus. The divine marriage of Plouton and Persephone was celebrated on ‘the meadow’. The dangerous region that Kore let herself be lured to in search of flowers was likely not originally connected to Plouton but to Dionysus, as Dionysus himself had the strange surname of ‘the gaping one’, though despite this the notion that the wine god in his quality as the Lord of the Underworld does not appear on the surface of the hymn. People would not be able to detect the hidden meaning it if it wasn’t for archaic vase portrayals." Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter [P. 34, 35,]. "The Hymn to Demeter later mentions that Queen Metaneira of Eleusis later offers the disguised Demeter a beaker of sweet wine, something that Demeter refuses on the grounds that it would be against themis, the very nature of order and justice, for her to drink red wine and she instead invents a new beverage called kykeon to drink instead. The fact that Demeter refuses to drink wine on the grounds that it would be against themis indicates that she is well aware of who Persephone’s abductor is, that it is the Subterranean cover name of Dionysus. The critic of the mysteries, the severe philosopher Herakleitos once declared “Hades is the same as Dionysos.” The subterranean wine god was the ravisher, so how could Demeter accept something that was his gift to mankind" [P. 40] ^ Summary of Karl Kerenyi: "The book later refers to Herakles initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries so that he may enter the Underworld. In the iconography after his initiation Herakles in shown wearing a fringed white garment with a Dionysian deerskin thrown over it. Kore is shown with her mother Demeter and a snake twined around the Mystery basket, foreshadowing the secret, as making friends with snakes was Dionysian [P. 58]. The god of the Anthesteria was Dionysus, who celebrated his marriage in Athens amid flowers, the opening of wine jars, and the rising up of the souls of the dead [P. 149]. There are two reliefs in a marble votive relief of the fourth century BCE. One depicts Kore crowning her mother Demeter, the deities at the second altar are Persephone and her husband Dionysus as the recumbent god has the features of the bearded Dionysus rather than of Plouton. In his right hand, he raises not a cornucopia, the symbol of wealth, but a wine vessel and in his left, he bears the goblet for the wine. Over their heads an inscription reads “To the God and Goddess” [P. 151, 152]. The fragments of a gilded jar cover of the Kerch type show Dionysus, Demeter, little Ploutos, Kore, and a curly-haired boy clad in a long garment, one of the first son’s of the Eleusinian king who was the first to be initiated. On another vase, Dionysus sits on his omphalos with his thryrsos in his left hand, sitting opposite Demeter, looking at each other severely. Kore is shown moving from Demeter towards Dionysus, as if trying to reconcile them [P. 162]. Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter ^ Summary of Karl Kerenyi: Kore and Thea are two different duplications of Persephone; Plouton and Theos are duplications of the subterranean Dionysus. The duplication of the mystery god as subterranean father and subterranean son, as Father Zagreus and the child Zagreus, husband and son of Persephone, has more to do with the mysteries of Dionysus than with the Eleusinian Mysteries. But a duplication of the chthonian, mystical Dionysus is provided even by his youthful aspect, which became distinguished and classical as the son of Semele from the son of Persephone. Semele, though not of Eleusinian origin, is also a double of Persephone [P. 155]. Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter ^ Kerényi 1967, p. 40. ^ Kerényi 1976, p. 240. ^ Kerényi 1976, pp. 83, 199. ^ Orphic Hymns to the Eumenides, 69 ^ Loyd, Alan B (2009). What is a God?: Studies in the Nature of Greek Divinity. The Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-1905125357. ^ Alan B Loyd: "“The identification of Hades and Dionysus does not seem to be a particular doctrine of Herakleitos, nor does it commit him to monotheism. The evidence for a cult connection between the two is quite extensive, particularly in Southern Italy, and the Dionysiac mysteries are associated with death rituals.” ^ http://www.my-favourite-planet.de/images/people/d-01/dionysus/athens_dj-28082013-2-0833c_dionysus-eleusis.jpg ^ http://www.my-favourite-planet.de/images/people/d-01/dionysus/athens_dj-28082013-2-0826d_dionysus-eleusis.jpg ^ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/NAMA_181_Eubouleus_2.JPG/477px-NAMA_181_Eubouleus_2.JPG ^ "London B 425 (Vase)". www.perseus.tufts.edu. ^ a b Taylor-Perry, Rosemarie (2003). The God who Comes: Dionysian Mysteries Revisited. Barnes & Noble. pp. 4, 22, 91, 92, 94, 168. ISBN 9780875862309. ^ Wypustek, Andrzej (2012). Images of Eternal Beauty in Funerary Verse Inscriptions of the Hellenistic Period. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004233188. ^ Andrzej Wypustek (Ph.D) "Votive inscriptions frequently mentioned Pluto but very rarely Hades. Particularly at Eleusis, the Pluto cult was for a deity who, like Persephone and Demeter, was favourably disposed to humans. He was frequently portrayed as a majestic elder with a sceptre, ranch, cornucopia, pomegranate, or drinking vessel in his hand; sometimes he was accompanied by an eagle. His iconography resembled that of Zeus, and especially that of some chthonic personification of the ruler of the gods, above all Zeus Meilichios. We can now go a step further. The nearest equivalent to the contrast between Hades and Pluto as presented in the Theophile epigram can be found in the Orphic Hymns, which are assumed to have originated from the Τελεται of the Dionysiac mystic circles in Asia Minor of the 1st – 3rd centuries. Hymn 41 worships Antaia, i.e. Demeter, the goddess who had searched for her daughter in Hades and discovered her in ‘the sacred bed of the sacred chthonic Zeus’. This formulation in itself is not surprising because the name Zeus (as a synonym for a deity and ruler) was used in reference to Hades-Pluto as the ruler of the underworld. In an interesting, though, sadly, only partly preserved inscription from Appia-Murathanlar in the Tembris Valley (in 3rd century AD Phrygia) the deceased appeals to “Zeus, god of the dead [φθιηένων*], Pluto” to protect his grave. The term “Chthonic Zeus” could, however, mean something more than a mere euphemism for the name Hades. The idea of defining Zeus as χθόνιος, κατα (χθόνιος) ἄλλος or simply Hades had been present in ancient Greek literature from Homer to Nonnos. This was a sort of extension, aspect or ‘shadow’ of the universal power of Zeus in the kingdom of the dead, where he was the judge of the dead and the also the consort of Persephone-Kore.Moreover, he was the provider of riches, Πλουτοδότης; a personification which was abbreviated to Πλούτων. Among other things, he controlled the crops and it was to him (as well as to Demeter) that the farmers turned for the promise of a good harvest. These are hardly well known traditions today. Some scholars maintain that their obscurity is on account of the secret role they played in the mysteries. … Therefore the Orphics worshipped Pluto as the saviour and judge of the deceased, as Zeus χθόνιος. They most likely assumed that Zeus had another embodiment of sorts in the underworld, in Hades. The effect of this assumption was the myth, known to us in several versions, of how Zeus had lain with Persephone (even though she was his daughter). The so-called great Orphic tablet of Thurii refers to the abduction of Persephone by Zeus, who then fathers her son, Dionysus. Their child was revered by the Orphics as Dionysus Zagreus, Dionysus Iacchus, which shows how much importance they attached to the love affair of that particular couple." (Images of Eternal Beauty in Funerary Verse Inscriptions of the Hellenistic Period) ^ Gantz, Timothy (1996). Early Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9. ^ Timothy Gantz "Thus it appears that at times Zeus and Hades represented simply different facets of a single extended divine power.” (Early Greek Myth) ^ Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010). Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11312-1. ^ Marguerite Rigoglioso "Given that Zeus was also sometimes portrayed as having an incarnation in the underworld that was closely identified with Hades, we can read here that Zeus and Hades were essentially two representations of the same god. ... The idea of Hades equals Dionysus, and that this dual god impregnated Persephone in the Eleusinian tradition, therefore, is in perfect accord with the story that Zeus impregnated her with Dionysus in Orphic myth, given that Hades equals Zeus, as well. Moreover, what we see from this esoteric complex is that, in seeding Persephone, Zeus/Hades/Dionysus created what Kerenyi perceptively calls “a second, a little Dionysus,” a “subterranean Zeus." (Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity) ^ Rosemarie Taylor-Perry: "“Interestingly it is often mentioned that Zeus, Hades and Dionysus were all attributed to being the exact same god… Being a tripartite deity Hades is also Zeus, doubling as being the Sky God or Zeus, Hades abducts his 'daughter' and paramour Persephone. The taking of Kore by Hades is the act which allows the conception and birth of a second integrating force: Iacchos (Zagreus-Dionysus), also known as Liknites, the helpless infant form of that Deity who is the unifier of the dark underworld (chthonic) realm of Hades and the Olympian ("Shining") one of Zeus.” ^ Murray, John (1833). A Classical Manual, being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. pp. 5–6. ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.' ^ The Rape of Persephone Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Naples, Italy ^ Hansen and Hansen, p. 183. ^ Tripp, p. 257; Grant and Hazel, p. 235 ^ Tripp, p. 258. ^ a b Homeric Hymn to Demeter ^ Downing, Christine (June 2006). Gleanings: Essays 1982-2006. iUniverse. ISBN 978-0-595-40036-2. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.2. ^ Aeneid, book 6. ^ Sibylline Oracles I, 101–3 ^ This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted. ^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. ^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100. Bibliography Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Anatole, Bailly (1963). Dictionnaire Grec-Français (26th ed.). Retrieved May 15, 2020. Beekes, Robert S. P. (1998). "Hades and Elysion". In Jasanoff, Jay; Melchert, H. Craig; Oliver, Lisi (eds.). Mír curad: Studies in honor of Calvert Watkins. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 17–28. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Leiden: E.J. Brill. Dixon-Kennedy, Mike, Encyclopedia Of Greco-Roman Mythology, ABC-CLIO (December 1, 1998). ISBN 978-1576070949. Internet Archive Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Gayley, Charles Mills, The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art, Based Originally on Bulfinch's "Age of fable" (1855), Ginn and Company, 1911. Internet Archive. Guirand, Felix, Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, Batchworth Press Limited, 1959. Grant, Michael; Hazel, John (2002). Who's Who in Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0415260418. Hansen, William, William F. Hansen, Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans, Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 9780195300352. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey of Homer, translated by Lattimore, Richard, Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006. ISBN 978-0061244186. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2), in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hughes, Dennis D. (2013) Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781134966394 Ivanov, Vyacheslav V., "Old Novgorodian Nevide, Russian nevidal’ : Greek ἀίδηλος" In UCLA Indo European Studies Volume 1 edited by Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Brent Vine, July 1999. pp. 283–293. Kerényi, Carl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. Kerényi, Carl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01915-0. Kerényi, Carl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-09863-8. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, Geography, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924). LacusCurtis, Books 6–14, at the Perseus Digital Library Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). ISBN 069022608X. West, M. L., European Poetry and Myth, OUP, 2007. ISBN 9780199280759. Bell, Malcolm, Morgantina Studies, Volume I: The Terracottas, Princeton University Press, 1982. ISBN 9781400853243. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hades. 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en-wikipedia-org-8739	----	Apollonius of Rhodes - Wikipedia Apollonius of Rhodes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search ancient Greek epic poet Apollonius Rhodius Born Early 3rd century BCE Alexandria or Naucratis Died Late 3rd century BCE Rhodes (or Alexandria) Occupation Epic poet, librarian, scholar Apollonius of Rhodes (Ancient Greek: Ἀπολλώνιος Ῥόδιος Apollṓnios Rhódios; Latin: Apollonius Rhodius; fl. first half of 3rd century BCE) was an ancient Greek author, best known for the Argonautica, an epic poem about Jason and the Argonauts and their quest for the Golden Fleece. The poem is one of the few extant examples of the epic genre and it was both innovative and influential, providing Ptolemaic Egypt with a "cultural mnemonic" or national "archive of images",[1] and offering the Latin poets Virgil and Gaius Valerius Flaccus a model for their own epics. His other poems, which survive only in small fragments, concerned the beginnings or foundations of cities, such as Alexandria and Cnidus places of interest to the Ptolemies, whom he served as a scholar and librarian at the Library of Alexandria. A literary dispute with Callimachus, another Alexandrian librarian/poet, is a topic much discussed by modern scholars since it is thought to give some insight into their poetry, although there is very little evidence that there ever was such a dispute between the two men. In fact almost nothing at all is known about Apollonius and even his connection with Rhodes is a matter for speculation.[2] Once considered a mere imitator of Homer, and therefore a failure as a poet, his reputation has been enhanced by recent studies, with an emphasis on the special characteristics of Hellenistic poets as scholarly heirs of a long literary tradition writing at a unique time in history.[3] Contents 1 Life 1.1 Sources 1.2 Main events 1.3 Sensational stories 1.4 Scholar 2 His poetry 2.1 Poems 2.1.1 Argonautica 2.1.2 Foundation-poems 2.1.3 Others 2.2 Poetic style 3 Notes 4 Citations 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Life[edit] Sources[edit] The most reliable information we have about ancient poets is largely drawn from their own works. Unfortunately, Apollonius of Rhodes reveals nothing about himself.[4] Most of the biographical material comes from four sources: two are texts entitled Life of Apollonius found in the scholia on his work (Vitae A and B); a third is an entry in the 10th-century encyclopaedia the Suda; and fourthly a 2nd-century BCE papyrus, P.Oxy. 1241, which provides names of several heads of the Library of Alexandria. Other scraps can be gleaned from miscellaneous texts. The reports from all the above sources however are scanty and often self-contradictory. Main events[edit] Birth. The two Lives and the Suda name Apollonius' father as Silleus or Illeus, but both names are very rare (hapax legomenon) and may derive from σίλλος or "lampoon", suggesting a comic source (ancient biographers often accepted or misconstrued the testimony of comic poets).[5] The second Life names his mother as "Rhode", but this is unlikely; Rhodē means "Rhodian woman", and is almost certainly derived from an attempt to explain Apollonius' epithet "Rhodian". The Lives, the Suda, and the geographical writer Strabo say that he came from Alexandria;[6] Athenaeus and Aelian say that he came from Naucratis, some 70 km south of Alexandria along the river Nile.[7] No source gives the date of his birth. Association with Callimachus. The Lives and the Suda agree that Apollonius was a student of the poet and scholar Callimachus. Vita B states that Callimachus was his instructor in rhetoric (γραμματικός), but the terminology is anachronistic. Moreover, in ancient biographies "pupil" and "student" are figures of speech designating the influence one poet may have exercised over another.[8] Their poetic works do in fact indicate a close relationship, if only as authors, with similarities in theme and composition, style and phrasing, but it is not easy to work out who was responding to whom, especially since 'publication' was a gradual process in those days, with shared readings of drafts and circulation of private copies: "In these circumstances interrelationships between writers who habitually cross-refer and allude to one another are likely to be complex."[9] A coin showing Ptolemy III Euergetes, who may have been a pupil of Apollonius Head of the Library of Alexandria. The second Life, the Suda, and P.Oxy. 1241 attest that Apollonius held this post. Moreover, P.Oxy. 1241 indicates that Apollonius was succeeded in the position by Eratosthenes; this must have been after 247/246 BCE, the date of the accession of Ptolemy III Euergetes, who was probably tutored by Apollonius[10] and who appointed Eratosthenes. The chronology of P.Oxy. 1241 bears some signs of confusion since it lists Apollonius under Ptolemy I Soter (died 283 BCE), or Ptolemy V Epiphanes (born 210 BCE). The Suda says that Apollonius succeeded Eratosthenes, but this does not fit the evidence either.[11] There was another Alexandrian librarian named Apollonius ("The Eidographer", succeeding Aristophanes of Byzantium as library head) and this may have caused some of the confusion.[12] Association with Rhodes. The epithet Rhodios or Rhodian indicates that Apollonius had some kind of association with the island of that name. The Lives and the Suda attest to his move there from Alexandria. They differ about whether he died in Rhodes or came back to Alexandria to take up the position of head of the Library. According to Vita A, he was a famous teacher in Rhodes, but it may have confused him with yet another Apollonius (Apollonius the Effeminate) who taught rhetoric there. In fact the epithet "of Rhodes" need not indicate any physical association with the island. It might simply reflect the fact that he once wrote a poem about Rhodes.[13] According to Athenaeus, he was also called the "Naucratite". Some modern scholars doubt that he was ever given that title but, if he was, it may be because he composed a poem about the foundation of Naucratis.[14] Death. Only the two Lives give information about Apollonius' death, and they disagree. The first reports that he died in Rhodes; the second reports that he died after returning to Alexandria and adds that "some say" he was buried with Callimachus. Sensational stories[edit] Ancient biographies often represent famous poets as going into exile to escape their ungrateful fellow citizens. Thus for example Homer was said to have left Cyme because the government there would not support him at public expense (Vit. Herod. 13-14), Aeschylus left Athens for Sicily because Athenians valued him less than some other poets (Vit. Aesch.), while Euripides fled to Macedonia because of humiliation by comic poets (Vit. Eur.). Similarly Vitae A and B tell us that Apollonius moved to Rhodes because his work was not well received in Alexandria. According to B, he redrafted the Argonautica in such fine style at Rhodes that he was able to return to Alexandria in triumph, where he was rewarded with a post in the library and finally a place in the cemetery next to Callimachus. These stories were probably invented to account for the existence of a second edition of Argonautica, indicated by variant readings in ancient manuscripts.[15] Until recently modern scholarship has made much of a feud between Callimachus and Apollonius. The evidence partly rests on an elegiac epigram in the Palatine Anthology, attributed to "Apollonius the grammarian". It blames Callimachus for some unstated offense and mocks both him and his most famous poem, the Aetia ("Causes"):[16] Καλλίμαχος, τὸ κάθαρμα, τὸ παίγνιον, ὁ ξυλινὸς νοῦς, αἴτιος, ὁ γράψας Αἴτια Καλλίμαχος.[17] Callimachus, that discard, that plaything, that mahogany noggin, Himself a cause, who composed The Causes, Callimachus. Ancient sources describe Callimachus's poem Ibis — which does not survive — as a polemic and some of them identified Apollonius as the target.[nb 1] These references conjure up images of a sensational literary feud between the two figures. Such a feud is consistent with what we know of Callimachus's taste for scholarly controversy and it might even explain why Apollonius departed for Rhodes. Thus there arises "a romantic vision of scholarly warfare in which Apollonius was finally driven out of Alexandria by a triumphant Callimachus".[18] However, both of the Lives of Apollonius stress the friendship between the poets, the second Life even saying they were buried together; moreover Callimachus's poem Ibis is known to have been deliberately obscure and some modern scholars believe the target was never meant to be identified.[19] There is still not a consensus about the feud, but most scholars of Hellenistic literature now believe it has been enormously sensationalised, if it happened at all.[nb 2] Scholar[edit] Apollonius was among the foremost Homeric scholars in the Alexandrian period. He wrote the period's first scholarly monograph on Homer, critical of the editions of the Iliad and Odyssey published by Zenodotus, his predecessor as head of the Library of Alexandria. Argonautica seems to have been written partly as an experimental means of communicating his own researches into Homer's poetry and to address philosophical themes in poetry.[20] It has even been called "a kind of poetic dictionary of Homer", without at all detracting from its merits as poetry.[21] He has been credited with scholarly prose works on Archilochus and on problems in Hesiod.[22] He is also considered to be one of the period's most important authors on geography, though approaching the subject differently from Eratosthenes, his successor at the library and a radical critic of Homer's geography. It was a time when the accumulation of scientific knowledge was enabling advances in geographical studies, as represented by the activities of Timosthenes, a Ptolemaic admiral and a prolific author. Apollonius set out to integrate new understandings of the physical world with the mythical geography of tradition and his Argonautica was, in that sense, a didactic epic on geography, again without detracting from its merits as poetry.[23] His poetry[edit] Poems[edit] Argonautica[edit] Main article: Argonautica The Argonautica differs in some respects from traditional or Homeric Greek epic, though Apollonius certainly used Homer as a model. The Argonautica is shorter than Homer's epics, with four books totalling fewer than 6000 lines, while the Iliad runs to more than 16,000. Apollonius may have been influenced here by Callimachus's brevity, or by Aristotle’s demand for "poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting" (the Poetics). Apollonius' epic also differs from the more traditional epic in its weaker, more human protagonist Jason and in its many digressions into local custom, aetiology, and other popular subjects of Hellenistic poetry. Apollonius also chooses the less shocking versions of some myths, having Medea, for example, merely watch the murder of Apsyrtus instead of murdering him herself. The gods are relatively distant and inactive throughout much of the epic, following the Hellenistic trend to allegorise and rationalise religion. Heterosexual loves such as Jason's are more emphasized than homosexual loves such as that of Heracles and Hylas, another trend in Hellenistic literature. Many critics regard the love of Medea and Jason in the third book as the best written and most memorable episode. Opinions on the poem have changed over time. Some critics in antiquity considered it mediocre.[24] Recent criticism has seen a renaissance of interest in the poem and an awareness of its qualities: numerous scholarly studies are published regularly, its influence on later poets like Virgil is now well recognised, and any account of the history of epic poetry now routinely includes substantial attention to Apollonius. Foundation-poems[edit] A handful of fragments are all that survive of his other work, mostly ktiseis (κτίσεις) or 'foundation-poems', apparently dealing with the mythical origins of cities, a theme that Apollonius also touches on in Argonautica (as for example in the foundation of Cius, 1.1321-23). The fragments have been given considerable attention recently, with speculation about their authenticity, about the subject matter and treatment of the original poems, their geo-political significance for Ptolemaic Egypt, and how they relate to Argonautika.[25] The Founding of Alexandria: all that survives is the title and a scholar's marginal note, written in a manuscript of a different author (Nicander), attributing to this Apollonius poem the statement that all biting creatures originated from the blood of the Gorgon. The Founding of Caunus: two comments in Parthenius's Love Stories are the only testament to this poem but they seem to give conflicting accounts. According to one, it deals with the story of Lyrcus; according to the other, it deals with the story of Byblis. This might indicate a loose, episodic structure, rather than a unified narrative. It might then be inferred that this kind of treatment was typical of his other foundation poems as well[26] (the question of unity is one of the main issues even in Argonautica, which is sometimes termed an "episodic epic").[27] Five hexameter verses attributed to Apollonius may be a fragment of this poem but they seem unrelated to the stories of Lyrcus and Byblis and some scholars think they come from the next poem. The Founding of Cnidus: Stephanus of Byzantium wrote the following entry for Ψυκτήριος (Cooling) – "a place in Thrace, taking its name from Heracles, who cooled off his sweat when he threw Adramyles in wrestling, as Apollonius says in his Founding of Cnidus."[28] That's all we know of the poem, unless the five hexameter lines belong here, and those describe sea routes also dealt with in Argonautica. The Founding of Naucratis: Athenaeus quotes six and bit hexameters and provides a commentary, concerning Apollo's abduction of Ocyrhoe and the punishment of a fisherman, Pompilus, who tried to protect her and was turned into a fish of the same name. According to the commentary, the Pompilus fish was a topic of great interest to poets and scholars, including Callimachus and Theocritus. It may be inferred that Apollonius developed a melodramatic story of passion from the etymology ("pompilus" denotes an "escort fish"). It is not known how this episode might have fitted into a poem on the origins of Naucratis. Possibly a broad-based account of its foundation owed something to Herodotus.[29] The Founding of Rhodes: all that we have is one and a bit hexameters, quoted by Stephanus of Byzantium to demonstrate a lexicographical point, and the testimony of a scholium to Pindar's Victory Ode 7.48, citing Apollonius as the source for a myth explaining the Rhodian practice of sacrificing without fire – they hated the fire-god Hephaestus because he once tried to rape Athena.[30] The Founding of Lesbos: twentyone hexameters were quoted by Parthenius under the title Lesbou ktisis. The author's name was not given but modern scholars attribute the verses to Apollonius since it has some clear affinities with the Jason/Medea story. It deals with the Lesbian princess, Peisidice, who betrayed her countrymen and her parents by opening the city gates to the man she loved, Achilles. Her reward was not the marriage she had anticipated but rather death by stoning at the hands of the Argives. It can be argued that Peisidice's viewpoint dominates the poem and that, as with Argonautica, epic material has been used unconventionally as a window into the female psyche.[31] Others[edit] Canobus: three choliambic verses were quoted by Stephanus Byzantius from a poem of this title, and a scholium to Nicander's Theriaca refers to it in a discussion on snake bites. It isn't known if the poem was about Canobus (sometimes called Canopus), the helmsman of Menelaus, buried in Egypt, or about the foundation of the city bearing his name. The choliambic meter distinguishes it from the above foundation poems, which are all in dactylic hexameters.[32] Callimachus epigram: The epigram, quoted in the biography section, was preserved in the Palatine Anthology, where it was attributed to 'Apollonius the Grammarian'. This might not have been Apollonius of Rhodes.[33] Poetic style[edit] Apollonius's poetic skills and technique have only recently come to be appreciated, with critical recognition of his successful fusing of poetry and scholarship.[34] Notes[edit] ^ E.g. the Suda entry on Callimachus, Suda 227 s.v. Καλλίμαχος. ^ For different views of the feud see for example M. Lefkowitz 2011 "Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius" in A Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (Brill, 51-71); P. Green, 1997, The Argonautika (Berkeley, 1-3); D.P. Nelis 1999 review of Green's book, in Journal of Hellenic Studies 119: 187. For a summary of contrasting views, see e.g. A. Cameron 1995, Callimachus and his Critics (Princeton, 214-228); Citations[edit] ^ S. Stephens, Ptolemaic Epic, 96-8 ^ W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, ix-x ^ T. Papanghelis and A. Rengakos, Editors' Introduction, xi-xii ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 52 ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 57 ^ Strabo 14.2.13. ^ Athenaeus Deipnosophistae 7.19; Aelian On the nature of animals 15.23. ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 56-7 ^ A.W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 587 ^ A. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 586 ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 57 ^ A.W. Bulloch, Hellenistic Poetry, 586 ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 58, 61 ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 314 ^ M. Lefkowitz, Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius, 59-61 ^ Pal. Anth. 11.322. ^ Palatine Anthology 11.275, cited by W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 484 ^ R. Hunter, Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, Book III, 6 ^ A. Cameron, Callimachus and his Critics, 228 ^ Dee Clayman, Timon of Phlius 2009 ISBN 3110220806 pp 187-200 ^ A. Rengakos, Apollonius Rhodius as a Homeric Scholar, 244, 265 ^ W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, xi ^ D. Meyer, Apollonius as a Hellenistic Geographer, 273–74, 277, 283 ^ Pseudo-Longinus On the sublime 33.4; Quintilian Institutio oratoria 10.1.54. ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 312-13 ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 327-28 ^ R. Glei, Outlines of Apollinian Scholarship 1955-1999, 15 ^ Stephanus's entry is quoted from the translation in W. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 477 ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 323 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, 480-81 ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 336 ^ E. Sistakou, In Search of Apollonius' 'Ktisis' Poems, 313 ^ W. H. Race, Apollonius Rhodius, 473 ^ A. Rengakos, Apollonius Rhodius as a Homeric Scholar, 265 References[edit] Bulloch, A.W. (1985), "Hellenistic Poetry", in P. Easterling; B. Knox (eds.), The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, Cambridge University Press Cameron, A (1995), Callimachus and His Critics, Princeton Green, P. (1997), The Argonautika, Berkeley Hunter, R. L. (1989), Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautika, Book III, Cambridge University Press Lefkowitz, Mary R. (2011), "Myth and History in the Biography of Apollonius", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Meyer, Doris (2011), "Apollonius as Hellenistic Geographer", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Papanghelis T.D. and Rengakos A. (2011), "Editors' Introduction", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), BrillCS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) Race, William R. (2008), Apollonius Rhodius: Argonautica, Loeb Classical Library Rengakos, Antonios (2011), "Apollonius Rhodius as a Homeric Scholar", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Sistakou, Evina (2011), "In Search of Apollonius' Ktisis Poems", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Stephens, Susan (2011), "Ptolemaic Epic", in T. Papaghelis; A. Rengakos (eds.), Brill's Companion to Apollonius Rhodius (second, revised ed.), Brill Further reading[edit] Albis, Robert V. 1996. Poet and Audience in the Argonautica of Apollonius. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Beye, Charles R. 2006. Ancient Epic Poetry: Homer, Apollonius, Virgil, With a Chapter on the Gilgamesh Poems. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci. Beye, Charles R. 1982. Epic and Romance in the Argonautica of Apollonius: Literary Structures. Carbondale: Univ. of Southern Illinois Press. Clare, Ray J. 1996. "Catullus 64 and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius: Allusion and Exemplarity." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 42:60–88. Clare, Ray J. 2002. The Path of the Argo: Language, Imagery, and Narrative in the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Clauss, James J. 1993. The Best of the Argonauts: The Redefinition of the Epic Hero in Book One of Apollonius’ Argonautica. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. DeForest, Mary Margolies. 1994. Apollonius’ Argonautica: A Callimachean Epic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Endso, Dag Ostein. 1997. "Placing the Unplaceable: The Making of Apollonius' Argonautic Geography." Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 38.4: 373-386. Harder, M. Annette, and Martine Cuypers, eds. 2005. Beginning from Apollo: Studies in Apollonius Rhodius and the Argonautic Tradition. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters. Heerink, Mark A. J. 2012. "Apollonius and Callimachus on Heracles and Theiodamas: a Metapoetical Interpretation." Quaderni urbinati di cultura classica 101:43-58. Hunter, Richard. 1989. "Introduction." In Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica Book III. Edited by Richard Hunter, 1–12. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Hunter, Richard. 1993. The Argonautica of Apollonius: Literary Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Kauffman, Nicholas. 2016. "Monstrous Beauty: The Transformation of Some Death Similes in Apollonius' Argonautica." Classical Philology 111.4: 372-390 Knight, Virginia H. 1995. The Renewal of Epic: Responses to Homer in the Argonautica of Apollonius. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Krevans, Nita. 2000. "On the Margins of Epic: The Foundation-Poems of Apollonius." In Apollonius Rhodius. Edited by M. Annette Harder, Remco F. Regtuit and Gerry C. Wakker, 69–84. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters Mori, Anatole. 2008. The Politics of Apollonius Rhodius’ Argonautica. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Nelis, Damien P. 2001. Vergil’s Aeneid and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. Leeds, UK: Cairns Noegel, Scott. 2004. "Apollonius' Argonautika and Egyptian Solar Mythology." Classical World 97.2: 123-136. Papanghelis, Theodore D., and Antonios Rengakos, eds. 2008. Brill’s Companion to Apollonius Rhodius. 2d rev. ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. External links[edit] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apollonius of Rhodes Wikisource has original works written by or about: Apollonius of Rhodes Library resources about Apollonius of Rhodes Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Apollonius of Rhodes Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Apollonius at Perseus Digital Library Works by Rhodius Apollonius at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Rhodius Apollonius at Internet Archive Works by Apollonius of Rhodes at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) A Hellenistic Bibliography, with exhaustive bibliographies on Apollonius: 1496-2005, 1496-2005 excluding reviews, 2001-2005, editions etc. Life of Apollonius, from the scholia at attalus.org P.Oxy. 1241 at attalus.org Preceded by Zenodotus Head of the Library of Alexandria Succeeded by Eratosthenes v t e Jason and the Argonauts Characters and topics Aeson (father) Argonauts Medea (spouse) Argus Aeëtes (father-in-law) Pelias (uncle) Phineus (oracle) Cheiron (trainer) Argo (ship) Golden Fleece Ancient sources Medea by Euripides Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica (Latin) by Gaius Valerius Flaccus Argonautica Orphica Film/TV Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film) Medea Young Hercules (1998) Jason and the Argonauts (2000 miniseries) Atlantis (2013) Opera Giasone (1649) La toison d'or (1789) Other The Golden Fleecing (comic book story) Jason with the Golden Fleece (sculpture) Jason et Médée (ballet) Jason and Medea (painting) Rise of the Argonauts (video game) Related The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived Before Achilles Jason in popular culture Authority control BIBSYS: 90261737 BNE: XX987060 BNF: cb118889807 (data) CANTIC: a11141657 CiNii: DA01321021 GND: 118503677 ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\051236 ISNI: 0000 0003 8210 8287 LCCN: n80008541 NDL: 00431621 NKC: jn19981000127 NLG: 14940 NLI: 000605812 NLK: KAC200606026 NLP: A11781002 NSK: 000503478 NTA: 069664757 PLWABN: 9810542961205606 RERO: 02-A000008387 SELIBR: 174778 SUDOC: 026688697 VcBA: 495/76610 VIAF: 262974255 WorldCat Identities: viaf-262974255 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollonius_of_Rhodes&oldid=997475144" Categories: Ancient Greek poets Librarians of Alexandria 3rd-century BC Egyptian people 3rd-century BC births Ancient Greek epic poets 3rd-century BC poets Hellenistic poets Textual scholarship Hellenistic writers Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hCards Articles containing Latin-language text CS1 maint: uses authors parameter Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Year of death missing Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages العربية Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 December 2020, at 18:01 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8751	----	Syzyfowe prace - Wikipedia Syzyfowe prace From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the 2000 film, see Syzyfowe prace (film). Syzyfowe prace (The Labors of Sisyphus in English) is an autobiographical novel by Polish author Stefan Żeromski which first appeared in the magazine Nowa Reforma [pl] in 1897. The work was published under the pseudonym Maurycy Zych and it was the writer's first published work. The novel is based on the author's personal experiences as a child and adolescent in the Russian-controlled Congress Poland. It is a portrait of his school and its students' attempts to resist the policy of Russification imposed by the Tsarist authorities.[1] The title refers to the Greek myth of Sisyphus, and portrays the attempts to indoctrinate the students as an occasionally successful, but ultimately doomed to failure, endeavor. The novel is set in the fictional town of Kleryków. One of the main characters, and one of the leaders of the rebellious students is Marcin Borowicz, originally named Andrzej Radek, a farmer's son. In 2000, it was adapted into a film of the same name by Paweł Komorowski. References[edit] ^ Miłosz, Czesław (1983) [1969]. "Chapter IX: Young Poland". The History of Polish Literature (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 366. ISBN 0-520-04477-0. This article about an 1890s novel is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page. This Poland-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syzyfowe_prace&oldid=924828124" Categories: 1897 novels 19th-century Polish novels Autobiographical novels Polish novels Novels set in 19th-century Russia Novels set in fictional populated places Polish novels adapted into films Works originally published in Polish magazines Works published under a pseudonym 1890s novel stubs Poland stubs Hidden categories: All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2019, at 05:19 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-87	----	Download as PDF - Wikipedia Download as PDF Sisyphus Jump to navigation Jump to search Download as PDF Sisyphus.pdf Download Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:DownloadAsPdf" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Special page Variants Views More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools Upload file Special pages Printable version Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8837	----	Oxford English Dictionary - Wikipedia Oxford English Dictionary From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Premier historical dictionary of the English language This article is about the multi-volume historical dictionary. For other dictionaries published by Oxford University Press, see Oxford dictionary. "OED" redirects here. For other uses, see OED (disambiguation). Oxford English Dictionary Seven of the twenty volumes of printed second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) Country United Kingdom Language English Publisher Oxford University Press Published 1884–1928 (first edition) 1989 (second edition) Third edition in preparation[1] Website https://www.oed.com/ The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is the principal historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a comprehensive resource to scholars and academic researchers, as well as describing usage in its many variations throughout the world.[2][3] Work began on the dictionary in 1857, but it was only in 1884 that it began to be published in unbound fascicles as work continued on the project, under the name of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society. In 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928, the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the former name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the second edition was published, comprising 21,728 pages in 20 volumes.[1] Since 2000, compilation of a third edition of the dictionary has been underway, approximately half of which was complete as of 2018[update].[1] The first electronic version of the dictionary was made available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving over two million visits per month. The third edition of the dictionary most likely will appear only in electronic form; the Chief Executive of Oxford University Press has stated that it is unlikely that it will ever be printed.[1][4][5] Contents 1 Historical nature 2 Entries and relative size 3 History 3.1 Origins 3.2 Early editors 3.3 Oxford editors 3.4 Completion of first edition and first supplement 3.5 Second supplement 3.6 Revised American edition 3.7 Second edition 3.8 Additions series 3.9 Third edition 3.9.1 New entries and words 4 Formats 4.1 Compact editions 4.2 Electronic versions 5 Relationship to other Oxford dictionaries 6 Spelling 7 Reception 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links 11.1 1st edition Historical nature[edit] As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary features entries in which the earliest ascertainable recorded sense of a word, whether current or obsolete, is presented first, and each additional sense is presented in historical order according to the date of its earliest ascertainable recorded use.[6] Following each definition are several brief illustrating quotations presented in chronological order from the earliest ascertainable use of the word in that sense to the last ascertainable use for an obsolete sense, to indicate both its life span and the time since its desuetude, or to a relatively recent use for current ones. The format of the OED's entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects. The forerunners to the OED, such as the early volumes of the Deutsches Wörterbuch, had initially provided few quotations from a limited number of sources, whereas the OED editors preferred larger groups of quite short quotations from a wide selection of authors and publications. This influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works.[7] Entries and relative size[edit] Diagram of the types of English vocabulary included in the OED, devised by James Murray, its first editor. According to the publishers, it would take a single person 120 years to "key in" the 59 million words of the OED second edition, 60 years to proofread them, and 540 megabytes to store them electronically.[8] As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries. Supplementing the entry headwords, there are 157,000 bold-type combinations and derivatives;[9] 169,000 italicized-bold phrases and combinations;[10] 616,500 word-forms in total, including 137,000 pronunciations; 249,300 etymologies; 577,000 cross-references; and 2,412,400 usage quotations. The dictionary's latest, complete print edition (second edition, 1989) was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, which required 60,000 words to describe some 430 senses. As entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011.[11][12][13] Despite its considerable size, the OED is neither the world's largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers' dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838 and completed in 1961. The first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca is the first great dictionary devoted to a modern European language (Italian) and was published in 1612; the first edition of Dictionnaire de l'Académie française dates from 1694. The official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española (produced, edited, and published by the Real Academia Española), and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716.[14] History[edit] Oxford English Dictionary Publications Publication date Volume range Title Volume 1888 A and B A New ED Vol. 1 1893 C NED Vol. 2 1897 D and E NED Vol. 3 1900 F and G NED Vol. 4 1901 H to K NED Vol. 5 1908 L to N NED Vol. 6 1909 O and P NED Vol. 7 1914 Q to Sh NED Vol. 8 1919 Si to St NED Vol. 9/1 1919 Su to Th NED Vol. 9/2 1926 Ti to U NED Vol. 10/1 1928 V to Z NED Vol. 10/2 1928 All NED 10 vols. 1933 All NED Suppl.. 1933 All & sup. Oxford ED 13 vols. 1972 A OED Sup. Vol. 1 1976 H OED Sup. Vol. 2 1982 O OED Sup. Vol. 3 1986 Sea OED Sup. Vol. 4 1989 All OED 2nd Ed. 20 vols. 1993 All OED Add. Ser. Vols. 1–2 1997 All OED Add. Ser. Vol. 3 Origins[edit] The dictionary began as a Philological Society project of a small group of intellectuals in London (and unconnected to Oxford University):[15]:103–4,112 Richard Chenevix Trench, Herbert Coleridge, and Frederick Furnivall, who were dissatisfied with the existing English dictionaries. The society expressed interest in compiling a new dictionary as early as 1844,[16] but it was not until June 1857 that they began by forming an "Unregistered Words Committee" to search for words that were unlisted or poorly defined in current dictionaries. In November, Trench's report was not a list of unregistered words; instead, it was the study On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries, which identified seven distinct shortcomings in contemporary dictionaries:[17] Incomplete coverage of obsolete words Inconsistent coverage of families of related words Incorrect dates for earliest use of words History of obsolete senses of words often omitted Inadequate distinction among synonyms Insufficient use of good illustrative quotations Space wasted on inappropriate or redundant content. The society ultimately realized that the number of unlisted words would be far more than the number of words in the English dictionaries of the 19th century, and shifted their idea from covering only words that were not already in English dictionaries to a larger project. Trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the society formally adopted the idea of a comprehensive new dictionary.[15]:107–8 Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips. Later the same year, the society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED).[18]:ix–x Early editors[edit] Richard Chenevix Trench (1807–1886) played the key role in the project's first months, but his appointment as Dean of Westminster meant that he could not give the dictionary project the time that it required. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor.[19]:8–9 Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910 On 12 May 1860, Coleridge's dictionary plan was published and research was started. His house was the first editorial office. He arrayed 100,000 quotation slips in a 54 pigeon-hole grid.[19]:9 In April 1861, the group published the first sample pages; later that month, Coleridge died of tuberculosis, aged 30.[18]:x Thereupon Furnivall became editor; he was enthusiastic and knowledgeable, but temperamentally ill-suited for the work.[15]:110 Many volunteer readers eventually lost interest in the project, as Furnivall failed to keep them motivated. Furthermore, many of the slips were misplaced. Furnivall believed that, since many printed texts from earlier centuries were not readily available, it would be impossible for volunteers to efficiently locate the quotations that the dictionary needed. As a result, he founded the Early English Text Society in 1864 and the Chaucer Society in 1868 to publish old manuscripts.[18]:xii Furnivall's preparatory efforts lasted 21 years and provided numerous texts for the use and enjoyment of the general public, as well as crucial sources for lexicographers, but they did not actually involve compiling a dictionary. Furnivall recruited more than 800 volunteers to read these texts and record quotations. While enthusiastic, the volunteers were not well trained and often made inconsistent and arbitrary selections. Ultimately, Furnivall handed over nearly two tons of quotation slips and other materials to his successor.[20] In the 1870s, Furnivall unsuccessfully attempted to recruit both Henry Sweet and Henry Nicol to succeed him. He then approached James Murray, who accepted the post of editor. In the late 1870s, Furnivall and Murray met with several publishers about publishing the dictionary. In 1878, Oxford University Press agreed with Murray to proceed with the massive project; the agreement was formalized the following year.[15]:111–2 20 years after its conception, the dictionary project finally had a publisher. It would take another 50 years to complete. Late in his editorship, Murray learned that a prolific reader named W. C. Minor was a criminal lunatic.[15]:xiii Minor was a Yale University-trained surgeon and military officer in the American Civil War, and was confined to Broadmoor Asylum for the Criminally Insane after killing a man in London. Minor invented his own quotation-tracking system, allowing him to submit slips on specific words in response to editors' requests. The story of Murray and Minor later served as the central focus of The Surgeon of Crowthorne (US title: The Professor and the Madman[15]), a popular book about the creation of the OED. This book was then the basis for the 2019 film The Professor and the Madman, starring Mel Gibson and Sean Penn. Oxford editors[edit] James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road During the 1870s, the Philological Society was concerned with the process of publishing a dictionary with such an immense scope.[1] They had pages printed by publishers, but no publication agreement was reached; both the Cambridge University Press and the Oxford University Press were approached. The OUP finally agreed in 1879 (after two years of negotiating by Sweet, Furnivall, and Murray) to publish the dictionary and to pay Murray, who was both the editor and the Philological Society president. The dictionary was to be published as interval fascicles, with the final form in four volumes, totalling 6,400 pages. They hoped to finish the project in ten years.[19]:1 A quotation slip as used in the compilation of the OED, illustrating the word flood. Murray started the project, working in a corrugated iron outbuilding called the "Scriptorium" which was lined with wooden planks, book shelves, and 1,029 pigeon-holes for the quotation slips.[18]:xiii He tracked and regathered Furnivall's collection of quotation slips, which were found to concentrate on rare, interesting words rather than common usages. For instance, there were ten times as many quotations for abusion as for abuse.[21] He appealed, through newspapers distributed to bookshops and libraries, for readers who would report "as many quotations as you can for ordinary words" and for words that were "rare, obsolete, old-fashioned, new, peculiar or used in a peculiar way".[21] Murray had American philologist and liberal arts college professor Francis March manage the collection in North America; 1,000 quotation slips arrived daily to the Scriptorium and, by 1880, there were 2,500,000.[19]:15 The first dictionary fascicle was published on 1 February 1884—twenty-three years after Coleridge's sample pages. The full title was A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society; the 352-page volume, words from A to ant, cost 12s 6d[19]:251 (equivalent to $66 in 2019). The total sales were only 4,000 copies.[22]:169 The OUP saw that it would take too long to complete the work with unrevised editorial arrangements. Accordingly, new assistants were hired and two new demands were made on Murray.[19]:32–33 The first was that he move from Mill Hill to Oxford, which he did in 1885. Murray had his Scriptorium re-erected on his new property.[18]:xvii The 78 Banbury Road, Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary Murray resisted the second demand: that if he could not meet schedule, he must hire a second, senior editor to work in parallel to him, outside his supervision, on words from elsewhere in the alphabet. Murray did not want to share the work, feeling that he would accelerate his work pace with experience. That turned out not to be so, and Philip Gell of the OUP forced the promotion of Murray's assistant Henry Bradley (hired by Murray in 1884), who worked independently in the British Museum in London beginning in 1888. In 1896, Bradley moved to Oxford University.[19] Gell continued harassing Murray and Bradley with his business concerns—containing costs and speeding production—to the point where the project's collapse seemed likely. Newspapers reported the harassment, particularly the Saturday Review, and public opinion backed the editors.[22]:182–83 Gell was fired, and the university reversed his cost policies. If the editors felt that the dictionary would have to grow larger, it would; it was an important work, and worth the time and money to properly finish. Neither Murray nor Bradley lived to see it. Murray died in 1915, having been responsible for words starting with A–D, H–K, O–P, and T, nearly half the finished dictionary; Bradley died in 1923, having completed E–G, L–M, S–Sh, St, and W–We. By then, two additional editors had been promoted from assistant work to independent work, continuing without much trouble. William Craigie started in 1901 and was responsible for N, Q–R, Si–Sq, U–V, and Wo–Wy.[18]:xix The OUP had previously thought London too far from Oxford but, after 1925, Craigie worked on the dictionary in Chicago, where he was a professor.[18]:xix[19] The fourth editor was Charles Talbut Onions, who compiled the remaining ranges starting in 1914: Su–Sz, Wh–Wo, and X–Z.[23] In 1919–1920, J. R. R. Tolkien was employed by the OED, researching etymologies of the Waggle to Warlock range;[24] later he parodied the principal editors as "The Four Wise Clerks of Oxenford" in the story Farmer Giles of Ham.[25] By early 1894, a total of 11 fascicles had been published, or about one per year: four for A–B, five for C, and two for E.[18] Of these, eight were 352 pages long, while the last one in each group was shorter to end at the letter break (which eventually became a volume break). At this point, it was decided to publish the work in smaller and more frequent instalments; once every three months beginning in 1895 there would be a fascicle of 64 pages, priced at 2s 6d. If enough material was ready, 128 or even 192 pages would be published together. This pace was maintained until World War I forced reductions in staff.[18]:xx Each time enough consecutive pages were available, the same material was also published in the original larger fascicles.[18]:xx Also in 1895, the title Oxford English Dictionary was first used. It then appeared only on the outer covers of the fascicles; the original title was still the official one and was used everywhere else.[18]:xx Completion of first edition and first supplement[edit] The 125th and last fascicle covered words from Wise to the end of W and was published on 19 April 1928, and the full dictionary in bound volumes followed immediately.[18]:xx William Shakespeare is the most-quoted writer in the completed dictionary, with Hamlet his most-quoted work. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) is the most-quoted female writer. Collectively, the Bible is the most-quoted work (in many translations); the most-quoted single work is Cursor Mundi.[8] Additional material for a given letter range continued to be gathered after the corresponding fascicle was printed, with a view towards inclusion in a supplement or revised edition. A one-volume supplement of such material was published in 1933, with entries weighted towards the start of the alphabet where the fascicles were decades old.[18] The supplement included at least one word (bondmaid) accidentally omitted when its slips were misplaced;[26] many words and senses newly coined (famously appendicitis, coined in 1886 and missing from the 1885 fascicle, which came to prominence when Edward VII's 1902 appendicitis postponed his coronation[27]); and some previously excluded as too obscure (notoriously radium, omitted in 1903, months before its discoverers Pierre and Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in Physics.[28]). Also in 1933 the original fascicles of the entire dictionary were re-issued, bound into 12 volumes, under the title "The Oxford English Dictionary".[29] This edition, of 13 volume including the supplement, was subsequently reprinted in 1961 and 1970. Second supplement[edit] In 1933, Oxford had finally put the dictionary to rest; all work ended, and the quotation slips went into storage. However, the English language continued to change and, by the time 20 years had passed, the dictionary was outdated.[30] There were three possible ways to update it. The cheapest would have been to leave the existing work alone and simply compile a new supplement of perhaps one or two volumes; but then anyone looking for a word or sense and unsure of its age would have to look in three different places. The most convenient choice for the user would have been for the entire dictionary to be re-edited and retypeset, with each change included in its proper alphabetical place; but this would have been the most expensive option, with perhaps 15 volumes required to be produced. The OUP chose a middle approach: combining the new material with the existing supplement to form a larger replacement supplement. Robert Burchfield was hired in 1957 to edit the second supplement;[31] Onions turned 84 that year but was still able to make some contributions as well. The work on the supplement was expected to take about seven years.[30] It actually took 29 years, by which time the new supplement (OEDS) had grown to four volumes, starting with A, H, O, and Sea. They were published in 1972, 1976, 1982, and 1986 respectively, bringing the complete dictionary to 16 volumes, or 17 counting the first supplement. Burchfield emphasized the inclusion of modern-day language and, through the supplement, the dictionary was expanded to include a wealth of new words from the burgeoning fields of science and technology, as well as popular culture and colloquial speech. Burchfield said that he broadened the scope to include developments of the language in English-speaking regions beyond the United Kingdom, including North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, and the Caribbean. Burchfield also removed, for unknown reasons, many entries that had been added to the 1933 supplement.[32] In 2012, an analysis by lexicographer Sarah Ogilvie revealed that many of these entries were in fact foreign loanwords, despite Burchfield's claim that he included more such words. The proportion was estimated from a sample calculation to amount to 17% of the foreign loan words and words from regional forms of English. Some of these had only a single recorded usage, but many had multiple recorded citations, and it ran against what was thought to be the established OED editorial practice and a perception that he had opened up the dictionary to "World English".[33][34][35] Revised American edition[edit] This was published in 1968 at $300. There were changes in the arrangement of the volumes – for example volume 7 covered only N-Poy, the remaining "P" entries being transferred to volume 8.[citation needed] Second edition[edit] Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition Editor John Simpson and Edmund Weiner Country United Kingdom Language English Subject Dictionary Publisher Oxford University Press Publication date 30 March 1989 Pages 21,730[8] ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8 OCLC 17648714 Dewey Decimal 423 19 LC Class PE1625 .O87 1989 By the time the new supplement was completed, it was clear that the full text of the dictionary would need to be computerized. Achieving this would require retyping it once, but thereafter it would always be accessible for computer searching – as well as for whatever new editions of the dictionary might be desired, starting with an integration of the supplementary volumes and the main text. Preparation for this process began in 1983, and editorial work started the following year under the administrative direction of Timothy J. Benbow, with John A. Simpson and Edmund S. C. Weiner as co-editors.[36] In 2016, Simpson published his memoir chronicling his years at the OED: The Word Detective: Searching for the Meaning of It All at the Oxford English Dictionary – A Memoir (New York: Basic Books). Editing an entry of the NOED using LEXX(subscription required) A printout of the SGML markup used in the computerization of the OED, showing pencil annotations used to mark corrections. Thus began the New Oxford English Dictionary (NOED) project. In the United States, more than 120 typists of the International Computaprint Corporation (now Reed Tech) started keying in over 350,000,000 characters, their work checked by 55 proof-readers in England.[36] Retyping the text alone was not sufficient; all the information represented by the complex typography of the original dictionary had to be retained, which was done by marking up the content in SGML.[36] A specialized search engine and display software were also needed to access it. Under a 1985 agreement, some of this software work was done at the University of Waterloo, Canada, at the Centre for the New Oxford English Dictionary, led by Frank Tompa and Gaston Gonnet; this search technology went on to become the basis for the Open Text Corporation.[37] Computer hardware, database and other software, development managers, and programmers for the project were donated by the British subsidiary of IBM; the colour syntax-directed editor for the project, LEXX,[38] was written by Mike Cowlishaw of IBM.[39] The University of Waterloo, in Canada, volunteered to design the database. A. Walton Litz, an English professor at Princeton University who served on the Oxford University Press advisory council, was quoted in Time as saying "I've never been associated with a project, I've never even heard of a project, that was so incredibly complicated and that met every deadline."[40] By 1989, the NOED project had achieved its primary goals, and the editors, working online, had successfully combined the original text, Burchfield's supplement, and a small amount of newer material, into a single unified dictionary. The word "new" was again dropped from the name, and the second edition of the OED, or the OED2, was published. The first edition retronymically became the OED1. The Oxford English Dictionary 2 was printed in 20 volumes.[1] Up to a very late stage, all the volumes of the first edition were started on letter boundaries. For the second edition, there was no attempt to start them on letter boundaries, and they were made roughly equal in size. The 20 volumes started with A, B.B.C., Cham, Creel, Dvandva, Follow, Hat, Interval, Look, Moul, Ow, Poise, Quemadero, Rob, Ser, Soot, Su, Thru, Unemancipated, and Wave. The content of the OED2 is mostly just a reorganization of the earlier corpus, but the retypesetting provided an opportunity for two long-needed format changes. The headword of each entry was no longer capitalized, allowing the user to readily see those words that actually require a capital letter.[41] Murray had devised his own notation for pronunciation, there being no standard available at the time, whereas the OED2 adopted the modern International Phonetic Alphabet.[41][42] Unlike the earlier edition, all foreign alphabets except Greek were transliterated.[41] The British quiz show Countdown has awarded the leather-bound complete version to the champions of each series since its inception in 1982.[43] When the print version of the second edition was published in 1989, the response was enthusiastic. Author Anthony Burgess declared it "the greatest publishing event of the century", as quoted by the Los Angeles Times.[44] Time dubbed the book "a scholarly Everest",[40] and Richard Boston, writing for The Guardian, called it "one of the wonders of the world".[45] Additions series[edit] The supplements and their integration into the second edition were a great improvement to the OED as a whole, but it was recognized that most of the entries were still fundamentally unaltered from the first edition. Much of the information in the dictionary published in 1989 was already decades out of date, though the supplements had made good progress towards incorporating new vocabulary. Yet many definitions contained disproven scientific theories, outdated historical information, and moral values that were no longer widely accepted.[46][47] Furthermore, the supplements had failed to recognize many words in the existing volumes as obsolete by the time of the second edition's publication, meaning that thousands of words were marked as current despite no recent evidence of their use.[48] Accordingly, it was recognized that work on a third edition would have to begin to rectify these problems.[46] The first attempt to produce a new edition came with the Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series, a new set of supplements to complement the OED2 with the intention of producing a third edition from them.[49] The previous supplements appeared in alphabetical installments, whereas the new series had a full A–Z range of entries within each individual volume, with a complete alphabetical index at the end of all words revised so far, each listed with the volume number which contained the revised entry.[49] However, in the end only three Additions volumes were published this way, two in 1993 and one in 1997,[50][51][52] each containing about 3,000 new definitions.[8] The possibilities of the World Wide Web and new computer technology in general meant that the processes of researching the dictionary and of publishing new and revised entries could be vastly improved. New text search databases offered vastly more material for the editors of the dictionary to work with, and with publication on the Web as a possibility, the editors could publish revised entries much more quickly and easily than ever before.[53] A new approach was called for, and for this reason it was decided to embark on a new, complete revision of the dictionary. Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series Volume 1 ( ISBN 978-0-19-861292-6): Includes over 20,000 illustrative quotations showing the evolution of each word or meaning. ?th impression (1994-02-10) Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series Volume 2 ( ISBN 978-0-19-861299-5) ?th impression (1994-02-10) Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series Volume 3 ( ISBN 978-0-19-860027-5): Contains 3,000 new words and meanings from around the English-speaking world. Published by Clarendon Press. ?th impression (1997-10-09) Third edition[edit] Beginning with the launch of the first OED Online site in 2000, the editors of the dictionary began a major revision project to create a completely revised third edition of the dictionary (OED3), expected to be completed in 2037[54][55][56] with the projected cost of about £34 million.[57][1] Revisions were started at the letter M, with new material appearing every three months on the OED Online website. The editors chose to start the revision project from the middle of the dictionary in order that the overall quality of entries be made more even, since the later entries in the OED1 generally tended to be better than the earlier ones. However, in March 2008, the editors announced that they would alternate each quarter between moving forward in the alphabet as before and updating "key English words from across the alphabet, along with the other words which make up the alphabetical cluster surrounding them".[58] With the relaunch of the OED Online website in December 2010, alphabetical revision was abandoned altogether.[59] The revision is expected roughly to double the dictionary in size.[5][60] Apart from general updates to include information on new words and other changes in the language, the third edition brings many other improvements, including changes in formatting and stylistic conventions for easier reading and computerized searching, more etymological information, and a general change of focus away from individual words towards more general coverage of the language as a whole.[53][61] While the original text drew its quotations mainly from literary sources such as novels, plays, and poetry, with additional material from newspapers and academic journals, the new edition will reference more kinds of material that were unavailable to the editors of previous editions, such as wills, inventories, account books, diaries, journals, and letters.[60] John Simpson was the first chief editor of the OED3. He retired in 2013 and was replaced by Michael Proffitt, who is the eighth chief editor of the dictionary.[62] The production of the new edition exploits computer technology, particularly since the June 2005 inauguration of the "Perfect All-Singing All-Dancing Editorial and Notation Application", or "Pasadena". With this XML-based system, lexicographers can spend less effort on presentation issues such as the numbering of definitions. This system has also simplified the use of the quotations database, and enabled staff in New York to work directly on the dictionary in the same way as their Oxford-based counterparts.[63] Other important computer uses include internet searches for evidence of current usage, and email submissions of quotations by readers and the general public.[64] New entries and words[edit] Wordhunt was a 2005 appeal to the general public for help in providing citations for 50 selected recent words, and produced antedatings for many. The results were reported in a BBC TV series, Balderdash and Piffle. The OED's readers contribute quotations: the department currently receives about 200,000 a year.[65] OED currently contains over 600,000 entries.[66]They update the OED on a quarterly basis to make up for its Third Edition revising their existing entries and adding new words and senses.[67] More than 600 new words, senses, and subentries have been added to the OED in December 2018, including "to drain the swamp", "TGIF", and "burkini".[68] South African additions—like eina, dwaal, and amakhosi—were also included.[69] The phrase "taffety tarts" entered the OED for the first time.[70] Formats[edit] Compact editions[edit] The Compact Oxford English Dictionary (second edition, 1991). Part of an entry in the 1991 compact edition, with a centimetre scale showing the very small type sizes used. In 1971, the 13-volume OED1 (1933) was reprinted as a two-volume Compact Edition, by photographically reducing each page to one-half its linear dimensions; each compact edition page held four OED1 pages in a four-up ("4-up") format. The two volume letters were A and P; the first supplement was at the second volume's end. The Compact Edition included, in a small slip-case drawer, a magnifying glass to help in reading reduced type. Many copies were inexpensively distributed through book clubs. In 1987, the second supplement was published as a third volume to the Compact Edition. In 1991, for the 20-volume OED2 (1989), the compact edition format was re-sized to one-third of original linear dimensions, a nine-up ("9-up") format requiring greater magnification, but allowing publication of a single-volume dictionary. It was accompanied by a magnifying glass as before and A User's Guide to the "Oxford English Dictionary", by Donna Lee Berg.[71] After these volumes were published, though, book club offers commonly continued to sell the two-volume 1971 Compact Edition.[25] The Compact Oxford English Dictionary (second edition, 1991, ISBN 978-0-19-861258-2): Includes definitions of 500,000 words, 290,000 main entries, 137,000 pronunciations, 249,300 etymologies, 577,000 cross-references, and over 2,412,000 illustrative quotations, a magnifying glass. ?th impression (1991-12-05) Electronic versions[edit] A screenshot of the first version of the OED second edition CD-ROM software. OED2 4th Edition CD-ROM. Once the text of the dictionary was digitized and online, it was also available to be published on CD-ROM. The text of the first edition was made available in 1987.[72] Afterward, three versions of the second edition were issued. Version 1 (1992) was identical in content to the printed second edition, and the CD itself was not copy-protected. Version 2 (1999) included the Oxford English Dictionary Additions of 1993 and 1997. Version 3.0 was released in 2002 with additional words from the OED3 and software improvements. Version 3.1.1 (2007) added support for hard disk installation, so that the user does not have to insert the CD to use the dictionary. It has been reported that this version will work on operating systems other than Microsoft Windows, using emulation programs.[73][74] Version 4.0 of the CD has been available since June 2009 and works with Windows 7 and Mac OS X (10.4 or later).[75] This version uses the CD drive for installation, running only from the hard drive. On 14 March 2000, the Oxford English Dictionary Online (OED Online) became available to subscribers.[76] The online database contains the entire OED2 and is updated quarterly with revisions that will be included in the OED3 (see above). The online edition is the most up-to-date version of the dictionary available. The OED web site is not optimized for mobile devices, but the developers have stated that there are plans to provide an API that would enable developers to develop different interfaces for querying the OED.[77] The price for an individual to use this edition is £195 or US$295 every year, even after a reduction in 2004; consequently, most subscribers are large organizations such as universities. Some public libraries and companies have subscribed, as well, including public libraries in the United Kingdom, where access is funded by the Arts Council,[78] and public libraries in New Zealand.[79][80] Individuals who belong to a library which subscribes to the service are able to use the service from their own home without charge. Oxford English Dictionary Second edition on CD-ROM Version 3.1: Upgrade version for 3.0 ( ISBN 978-0-19-522216-6): ?th impression (2005-08-18) Oxford English Dictionary Second edition on CD-ROM Version 4.0: Includes 500,000 words with 2.5 million source quotations, 7,000 new words and meanings. Includes Vocabulary from OED 2nd Edition and all 3 Additions volumes. Supports Windows 2000-7 and Mac OS X 10.4–10.5). Flash-based dictionary. Full version ( ISBN 0-19-956383-7/ ISBN 978-0-19-956383-8) ?th impression (2009-06-04) Upgrade version for 2.0 and above ( ISBN 0-19-956594-5/ ISBN 978-0-19-956594-8): Supports Windows only.[81] ?th impression (2009-07-15) Print+CD-ROM version ( ISBN 978-0-19-957315-8): Supports Windows Vista and Mac OS). ?th impression (2009-11-16) Relationship to other Oxford dictionaries[edit] The OED's utility and renown as a historical dictionary have led to numerous offspring projects and other dictionaries bearing the Oxford name, though not all are directly related to the OED itself. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, originally started in 1902 and completed in 1933,[82] is an abridgement of the full work that retains the historical focus, but does not include any words which were obsolete before 1700 except those used by Shakespeare, Milton, Spenser, and the King James Bible.[83] A completely new edition was produced from the OED2 and published in 1993,[84] with revisions in 2002 and 2007. The Concise Oxford Dictionary is a different work, which aims to cover current English only, without the historical focus. The original edition, mostly based on the OED1, was edited by Francis George Fowler and Henry Watson Fowler and published in 1911, before the main work was completed.[85] Revised editions appeared throughout the twentieth century to keep it up to date with changes in English usage. The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English was originally conceived by F. G. Fowler and H. W. Fowler to be compressed, compact, and concise. Its primary source is the Oxford English Dictionary, and it is nominally an abridgment of the Concise Oxford Dictionary. It was first published in 1924.[86] In 1998 the New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE) was published. While also aiming to cover current English, NODE was not based on the OED. Instead, it was an entirely new dictionary produced with the aid of corpus linguistics.[87] Once NODE was published, a similarly brand-new edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary followed, this time based on an abridgement of NODE rather than the OED; NODE (under the new title of the Oxford Dictionary of English, or ODE) continues to be principal source for Oxford's product line of current-English dictionaries, including the New Oxford American Dictionary, with the OED now only serving as the basis for scholarly historical dictionaries. Spelling[edit] Main article: Oxford spelling The OED lists British headword spellings (e.g., labour, centre) with variants following (labor, center, etc.). For the suffix more commonly spelt -ise in British English, OUP policy dictates a preference for the spelling -ize, e.g., realize vs. realise and globalization vs. globalisation. The rationale is etymological, in that the English suffix is mainly derived from the Greek suffix -ιζειν, (-izein), or the Latin -izāre.[88] However, -ze is also sometimes treated as an Americanism insofar as the -ze suffix has crept into words where it did not originally belong, as with analyse (British English), which is spelt analyze in American English.[89][90] Reception[edit] British prime minister Stanley Baldwin described the OED as a "national treasure".[91] Author Anu Garg, founder of Wordsmith.org, has called it a "lex icon".[92] Tim Bray, co-creator of Extensible Markup Language (XML), credits the OED as the developing inspiration of that markup language.[93] However, despite, and at the same time precisely because of, its claims of authority,[94] the dictionary has been criticized since at least the 1960s from various angles. It has become a target precisely because of its scope, its claims to authority, its British-centredness and relative neglect of World Englishes,[95] its implied but not acknowledged focus on literary language and, above all, its influence. The OED, as a commercial product, has always had to manoeuvre a thin line between PR, marketing and scholarship and one can argue that its biggest problem is the critical uptake of the work by the interested public. In his review of the 1982 supplement,[96] University of Oxford linguist Roy Harris writes that criticizing the OED is extremely difficult because "one is dealing not just with a dictionary but with a national institution", one that "has become, like the English monarchy, virtually immune from criticism in principle". He further notes that neologisms from respected "literary" authors such as Samuel Beckett and Virginia Woolf are included, whereas usage of words in newspapers or other less "respectable" sources hold less sway, even though they may be commonly used. He writes that the OED's "[b]lack-and-white lexicography is also black-and-white in that it takes upon itself to pronounce authoritatively on the rights and wrongs of usage", faulting the dictionary's prescriptive rather than descriptive usage. To Harris, this prescriptive classification of certain usages as "erroneous" and the complete omission of various forms and usages cumulatively represent the "social bias[es]" of the (presumably well-educated and wealthy) compilers. However, the identification of "erroneous and catachrestic" usages is being removed from third edition entries,[97] sometimes in favour of usage notes describing the attitudes to language which have previously led to these classifications.[98] Harris also faults the editors' "donnish conservatism" and their adherence to prudish Victorian morals, citing as an example the non-inclusion of "various centuries-old 'four-letter words'" until 1972. However, no English dictionary included such words, for fear of possible prosecution under British obscenity laws, until after the conclusion of the Lady Chatterley's Lover obscenity trial in 1960. The first dictionary to include the word fuck was the Penguin English Dictionary of 1965.[99] Joseph Wright's English Dialect Dictionary had included shit in 1905.[100] The OED's claims of authority have also been questioned by linguists such as Pius ten Hacken, who notes that the dictionary actively strives towards definitiveness and authority but can only achieve those goals in a limited sense, given the difficulties of defining the scope of what it includes.[101] Founding editor James Murray was also reluctant to include scientific terms, despite their documentation, unless he felt that they were widely enough used. In 1902, he declined to add the word "radium" to the dictionary.[102] See also[edit] Canadian Oxford Dictionary Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English Concise Oxford English Dictionary New Oxford American Dictionary Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Shorter Oxford English Dictionary A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles The Australian National Dictionary Dictionary of American Regional English References[edit] ^ a b c d e f g Dickson, Andrew (23 February 2018). "Inside the OED: can the world's biggest dictionary survive the internet?". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 December 2020. ^ "As a historical dictionary, the OED is very different from those of current English, in which the focus is on present-day meanings." [1] ^ "The OED is a historical dictionary, with a structure that is very different from that of a dictionary of current English."[2] ^ Alastair Jamieson, Alastair (29 August 2010). "Oxford English Dictionary 'will not be printed again'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 11 August 2012. ^ a b Flanagan, Padraic (20 April 2014). "RIP for OED as world's finest dictionary goes out of print". The Telegraph. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ "The Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 26 May 2015. ^ Osselton, Noel (2000). "Murray and his European Counterparts". In Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.). Lexicography and the OED: Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191583469. ^ a b c d "Dictionary Facts". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ A bold type combination has a significantly different meaning from the sum of its parts, for instance sauna-like is unlike an actual sauna. "Preface to the Second Edition: General explanations: Combinations". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ Italicized combinations are obvious from their parts (for example television aerial), unlike bold combinations. "Preface to the Second Edition: General explanations: Combinations". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ Winchester, Simon (28 May 2011). "A Verb for Our Frantic Time". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 December 2013. ^ Simpson, John (13 December 2007). "December 2007 revisions – Quarterly updates". Oxford English Dictionary Online. OED. Retrieved 3 August 2010. ^ Gilliver, Peter (2013). "Make, put, run: Writing and rewriting three big verbs in the OED". Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America. 34 (34): 10–23. doi:10.1353/dic.2013.0009. ^ "Kangxi Dictionary". cultural-china.com. Archived from the original on 30 March 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2013. ^ a b c d e f Winchester, Simon (1999). The Professor and the Madman. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 978-0-06-083978-9. ^ Gilliver, Peter (2013). "Thoughts on Writing a History of the Oxford English Dictionary". Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America. 34: 175–183. doi:10.1353/dic.2013.0011. ^ Trench, Richard Chenevix (1857). "On Some Deficiencies in Our English Dictionaries". Transactions of the Philological Society. 9: 3–8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Craigie, W. A.; Onions, C. T. (1933). A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Introduction, Supplement, and Bibliography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ^ a b c d e f g h Mugglestone, Lynda (2005). Lost for Words: The Hidden History of the Oxford English Dictionary. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10699-2. ^ "Reading Programme". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ a b Murray, K. M. Elizabeth (1977). Caught in the Web of Words: James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary. Yale University Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-300-08919-6. ^ a b Winchester, Simon (2003). The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860702-1. ^ Mugglestone, Lynda (2000). Lexicography and the OED : Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Oxford University Press. p. 245. ^ "Contributors: Tolkien". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 3 October 2012. ^ a b Considine, John (1998). "Why do large historical dictionaries give so much pleasure to their owners and users?" (PDF). Proceedings of the 8th EURALEX International Congress: 579–587. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ Gilliver p.199; Mugglestone p.100 ^ Gilliver pp.289–290; Mugglestone p.164 ^ Gilliver pp.302–303; Mugglestone p.161 ^ Murray, James A. H.; Bradley, Henry; Craigie, W. A.; Onions, C. T., eds. (1933). The Oxford English Dictionary; being a corrected re-issue with an introduction, supplement and bibliography of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (1st ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. The Philological Society. ISBN 0198611013. LCCN a33003399. OCLC 2748467. OL 180268M. ^ a b "Preface to the Second Edition: The history of the Oxford English Dictionary: A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary, 1957–1986". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ Simpson, John (2002). "The Revolution in English Lexicography". Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America. 23: 1–15. doi:10.1353/dic.2002.0004. ^ Ogilvie, Sarah (30 November 2012). "Focusing on the OED's missing words is missing the point". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 October 2014. ^ Ogilvie, Sarah (2012). Words of the World: A Global History of the Oxford English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02183-9. ^ Kaufman, Leslie (28 November 2012). "Dictionary Dust-Up (Danchi Is Involved)". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ Flood, Alison (26 November 2012). "Former OED editor covertly deleted thousands of words, book claims". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ a b c "Preface to the Second Edition: The history of the Oxford English Dictionary: The New Oxford English Dictionary project". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ Tompa, Frank (10 November 2005). "UW Centre for the New OED and Text Research". Retrieved 4 June 2014. ^ LEXX(subscription required) ^ Cowlishaw, Mike F. (1987). "LEXX—A Programmable Structured Editor" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 31 (1): 73–80. doi:10.1147/rd.311.0073. ^ a b Gray, Paul (27 March 1989). "A Scholarly Everest Gets Bigger". Time. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ a b c "Preface to the Second Edition: Introduction: Special features of the Second Edition". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ "Preface to the Second Edition: Introduction: The translation of the phonetic system". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ "Countdown". UKGameshows. Retrieved 2 June 2014. ^ Fisher, Dan (25 March 1989). "20-Volume English set costs $2,500; New Oxford Dictionary – Improving on the ultimate". Los Angeles Times. Here's novelist Anthony Burgess calling it 'the greatest publishing event of the century'. It is to be marked by a half-day seminar and lunch at that bluest of blue-blood London hostelries, Claridge's. The guest list of 250 dignitaries is a literary 'Who's Who'. ^ Boston, Richard (24 March 1989). "The new, 20-volume Oxford English Dictionary: Oxford's A to Z – The origin". The Guardian. London. The Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Dictionary of National Biography are indeed yet mighty, but not quite what they used to be, whereas the OED has gone from strength to strength and is one of the wonders of the world. ^ a b "Preface to the Second Edition: The history of the Oxford English Dictionary: The New Oxford English Dictionary project". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1989. Archived from the original on 16 December 2003. Retrieved 16 December 2003. ^ Brewer, Charlotte (28 December 2011). "Which edition contains what?". Examining the OED. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Brewer, Charlotte (28 December 2011). "Review of OED3". Examining the OED. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ a b "Preface to the Additions Series (vol. 1): Introduction". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 1993. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008. ^ Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1993. ISBN 978-0-19-861292-6. ^ Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1993. ISBN 978-0-19-861299-5. ^ Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-19-860027-5. ^ a b Simpson, John (31 January 2011). "The Making of the OED, 3rd ed" (video). Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Rachman, Tom (27 January 2014). "Deadline 2037: The Making of the Next Oxford English Dictionary". The Irish Times. Retrieved 27 August 2019. ^ Willen Brown, Stephanie (26 August 2007). "From Unregistered Words to OED3". CogSci Librarian. Retrieved 23 October 2007 – via BlogSpot. ^ Winchester, Simon (27 May 2007). "History of the Oxford English Dictionary". TVOntario (Podcast). Big Ideas. Archived from the original (MP3) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2007. ^ "History of the OED". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ "March 2008 Update". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ Brewer, Charlotte (12 February 2012). "OED Online and OED3". Examining the OED. Hertford College, University of Oxford. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ a b Simpson, John (March 2000). "Preface to the Third Edition of the OED". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ Durkin, Philip N. R. (1999). "Root and Branch: Revising the Etymological Component of the Oxford English Dictionary". Transactions of the Philological Society. 97 (1): 1–49. doi:10.1111/1467-968X.00044. ^ "John Simpson, Chief Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, to Retire". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 23 April 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Thompson, Liz (December 2005). "Pasadena: A Brand New System for the OED". Oxford English Dictionary News. Oxford University Press. p. 4. Retrieved 6 January 2014. ^ "Collecting the Evidence". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ "Reading Programme". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 8 June 2014. ^ "About". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 9 June 2020. ^ "Updates to the OED". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 27 October 2018. ^ "December 2018 Update: To drain the swamp, with one's bum in the butter". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 13 December 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018. ^ "South African additions to the OED". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 13 December 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018. ^ "December 2018 update: Taffety tarts enter the OED". Oxford English Dictionary Online. 13 December 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018. ^ The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1991. ISBN 978-0-19-861258-2. ^ Logan, H. M. (1989). "Report on a New OED Project: A Study of the History of New Words in the New OED". Computers and the Humanities. 23 (4–5): 385–395. doi:10.1007/BF02176644. JSTOR 30204378. ^ Holmgren, R. J. (21 December 2013). "v3.x under Macintosh OSX and Linux". Oxford English Dictionary (OED) on CD-ROM in a 16-, 32-, or 64-bit Windows environment. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Bernie. "Oxford English Dictionary News". Newsgroup: alt.english.usage. Usenet: 07ymc.5870$pa7.1359@newssvr27.news.prodigy.com. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ "The Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM Version 4.0 Windows/Mac Individual User Version". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 26 December 2013. ^ New, Juliet (23 March 2000). "'The world's greatest dictionary' goes online". Ariadne. ISSN 1361-3200. Retrieved 18 March 2007. ^ "Looking Forward to an Oxford English Dictionary API". Webometric Thoughts. 21 August 2009. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Kite, Lorien (15 November 2013). "The evolving role of the Oxford English Dictionary". Financial Times. ISSN 0307-1766. Retrieved 22 June 2015. ^ "How do I know if my public library subscribes?". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 6 January 2013. ^ "Oxford University Press Databases available through EPIC". EPIC. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Current OED Version 4.0 ^ Burnett, Lesley S. (1986). "Making it short: The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary" (PDF). ZuriLEX '86 Proceedings: 229–233. Retrieved 7 June 2014. ^ Blake, G. Elizabeth; Bray, Tim; Tompa, Frank Wm (1992). "Shortening the OED: Experience with a Grammar-Defined Database". ACM Transactions on Information Systems. 10 (3): 213–232. doi:10.1145/146760.146764. ^ Brown, Lesley, ed. (1993). The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861134-9. ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary: The Classic First Edition. Oxford University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-19-969612-3, facsimile reprint. ^ Thompson, Della. The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English, 8th Edition. Oxford University Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0198600459. ^ Quinion, Michael (18 September 2010). "Review: Oxford Dictionary of English". World Wide Words. Retrieved 29 July 2014. ^ "-ize, suffix". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ "Verbs ending in -ize, -ise, -yze, and -yse : Oxford Dictionaries Online". Askoxford.com. Retrieved 3 August 2010. ^ See also -ise/-ize at American and British English spelling differences. ^ "Well-chosen words". Financial Times. Retrieved 3 June 2018. ^ "Globe & Mail". Wordsmith. 11 February 2002. Retrieved 3 August 2010. ^ Bray, Tim (9 April 2003). "On Semantics and Markup". ongoing by Tim Bray. Retrieved 4 June 2014. ^ "History of the OED". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 18 February 2012. ^ Luk, Vivian (13 August 2013). "UBC prof lobbies Oxford English dictionary to be less British". Toronto Star. Canadian Press. Retrieved 9 February 2016. ^ Harris, Roy (1982). "Review of RW Burchfield A Supplement to the OED Volume 3: O–Scz". TLS. 3: 935–6. ^ Oxford University Press (2017). "Key to symbols and other conventional entries". Oxford English Dictionary online. Retrieved 28 October 2017. ^ "literally, adv. (sense I. 1. c.)". Oxford English Dictionary Online. September 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2014. ^ "fuck, v.". Oxford English Dictionary Online. March 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2014. ^ Wright, Joseph (1 February 1898). "The English dialect dictionary, being the complete vocabulary of all dialect words still in use, or known to have been in use during the last two hundred years;". London [etc.] : H. Frowde; New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons – via Internet Archive. ^ ten Hacken, Pius (2012). "In what sense is the OED the definitive record of the English language?" (PDF). Proceedings of the 15th EURALEX International Congress: 834–845. Retrieved 28 July 2014. ^ Gross, John, The Oxford Book of Parodies, Oxford University Press, 2010, pg. 319 Further reading[edit] Brewer, Charlotte (8 October 2019). "Oxford English Dictionary Research". Examining the OED. [The project]] sets out to investigate the principles and practice behind the Oxford English Dictionary... Brewer, Charlotte (2007), Treasure-House of the Language: the Living OED (hardcover), Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12429-3 Dickson, Andrew (23 February 2018). "Inside the OED: can the world's biggest dictionary survive the internet?". the Guardian. Gilliver, Peter (2016), The Making of the Oxford English Dictionary (hardcover), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-199-28362-0 Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2006), The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary (hardcover), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-861069-4 Gleick, James (5 November 2006). "Cyber-Neologoliferation". James Gleick. First published in the New York Times Magazine 5 November 2006 Green, Jonathon; Cape, Jonathan (1996), Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made (hardcover), ISBN 978-0-224-04010-5 Kelsey-Sugg, Anna (9 April 2020). "In a backyard 'scriptorium', this man set about defining every word in the English language". ABC News (Radio National). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Kite, Lorien (15 November 2013), "The evolving role of the Oxford English Dictionary", Financial Times (online edition) McPherson, Fiona (2013). The Oxford English Dictionary: From Victorian venture to the digital age endeavour (mp4). (McPherson is Senior Editor of OED) Ogilvie, Sarah (2013), Words of the World: a global history of the Oxford English Dictionary (hardcover), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107605695 Willinsky, John (1995), Empire of Words: The Reign of the Oxford English Dictionary (hardcover), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-03719-6 Winchester, Simon (27 May 2007). "History of the Oxford English Dictionary". TVOntario (Podcast). Big Ideas. Archived from the original (podcast) on 16 February 2008. Winchester, Simon (2003), The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary (hardcover), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-860702-1 Winchester, Simon (1998), "The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary", Bulletin of the World Health Organization (hardcover), Harper Collins, 79 (6): 579, ISBN 978-0-06-017596-2, PMC 2566457 External links[edit] Official website Archive of documents, including Trench's original "On some deficiencies in our English Dictionaries" paper Murray's original appeal for readers Their page of OED statistics, and another such page. Two "sample pages" (PDF). (1.54 MB) from the OED. Oxford University Press pages: Second Edition, Additions Series Volume 1, Additions Series Volume 2, Additions Series Volume 3, The Compact Oxford English Dictionary New Edition, 20-volume printed set+CD-ROM, CD 3.1 upgrade, CD 4.0 full, CD 4.0 upgrade 1st edition[edit] Internet Archive 1888–1933 Issue Full title of each volume: A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Vol. Year Letters Links 1 1888 A, B Vol. 1 2 1893 C Vol. 2 3 1897 D, E Vol. 3 (version 2) 4 1901 F, G Vol. 4 (version 2) (version 3) 5 1901 H–K Vol. 5 6p1 1908 L Vol. 6, part 1 6p2 1908 M, N Vol. 6, part 2 7 1909 O, P Vol.7 8p1 1914 Q, R Vol. 8, part 1 8p2 1914 S–Sh Vol.8, part 2 9p1 1919 Si–St Vol. 9, part 1 9p2 1919 Su–Th Vol. 9, part 2 10p1 1926 Ti–U Vol. 10, part 1 10p2 1928 V–Z Vol. 10, part 2 Sup. 1933 A–Z Supplement 1933 Corrected re-issue Full title of each volume: The Oxford English Dictionary: Being a Corrected Re-issue with an Introduction, Supplement and Bibliography, of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society Vol. Letters Links 1 A–B [3] 2 C [4] 3 D–E [5] 4 F–G [6] 5 H–K [7] 6 L–M [8] 7 N–Poy [9] 8 Poy–Ry [10] 9 S–Soldo [11] 10 Sole–Sz [12] 11 T–U [13] 12 V–Z [14] Sup. A–Z [15] HathiTrust Some volumes (only available from within the USA): University of Virginia copy Princeton University copy University of Michigan copy v t e Dictionaries of English Old and Middle English An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Dictionary of Old English Middle English Dictionary Historic Catholicon Anglicum (1483) The English Schoole-Master (1596) The New World of English Words (1658) A New English Dictionary (1702) An Universal Etymological English Dictionary (1721) Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) Webster's Dictionary (1828) Worcester's Dictionary Richardson's New Dictionary Imperial Dictionary (1847–1850) Century Dictionary (1889–1891) American English American Heritage Dictionary of American English Dictionary of American Regional English Encarta New Oxford American Oxford American Random House Webster's Webster's New World Webster's Third New International Dictionary World Book Dictionary British English Chambers Collins Oxford English Concise Oxford English Compact Oxford English Shorter Oxford English Historical Thesaurus Oxford Dictionary of English Penguin Canadian English Canadian Oxford Dictionary of Canadianisms Dictionary of Newfoundland English Gage Canadian (Full list) Australian English Australian National Australian Oxford Macquarie Online Collaborative International Dictionary of English Urban Dictionary Wiktionary Wordnik Learners / ESL Cambridge Advanced Learner's Collins COBUILD Advanced Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Oxford Advanced Learner's Authority control BNF: cb12264507s (data) GND: 4185017-8 LCCN: n85201132 SUDOC: 031429297 VIAF: 179862099 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 179862099 Books portal Languages portal Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxford_English_Dictionary&oldid=1005138107" Categories: Oxford English Dictionary 1884 non-fiction books Oxford dictionaries English dictionaries English non-fiction literature British culture Language software for MacOS Language software for Windows Hidden categories: Pages containing links to subscription-only content CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from July 2017 Use Oxford spelling from April 2020 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018 All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020 Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lingua Franca Nova മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Scots Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 February 2021, at 04:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-8909	----	Category:Mythological tricksters - Wikipedia Help Category:Mythological tricksters From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mythological tricksters. Subcategories This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total. D ► Trickster deities‎ (3 C, 1 P) J ► Jack tales‎ (2 C, 19 P) K ► Kitsune (fox)‎ (9 P) Pages in category "Mythological tricksters" The following 18 pages are in this category, out of 18 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   Akhu Tönpa A Agadzagadza Aguara Alux J Juan Bobo K Kijimuna Kudan (yōkai) L Leprechaun Leshy M Mannegishi Māui (Hawaiian mythology) Māui (Māori mythology) Mbeku P Păcală Pukwudgie S Signifying monkey Sisyphus T Takaonna Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Mythological_tricksters&oldid=930207606" Categories: Tricksters Mythological characters Hidden categories: Commons link from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Euskara 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 December 2019, at 23:00 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8922	----	Triangle (2009 English-language film) - Wikipedia Triangle (2009 English-language film) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Triangle (2009 British film)) Jump to navigation Jump to search 2009 psychological horror film Triangle Theatrical poster Directed by Christopher Smith Produced by Jason Newmark Julie Baines Chris Brown Written by Christopher Smith Starring Melissa George Michael Dorman Rachael Carpani Henry Nixon Emma Lung Liam Hemsworth Music by Christian Henson Cinematography Robert Humphreys Edited by Stuart Gazzard Production company UK Film Council Dan Films (UK) Distributed by Icon Film Distribution[1] Release date 16 October 2009 (2009-10-16)[1] Running time 99 minutes[1] Country United Kingdom Australia Language English Budget $12 million[2] Box office $1.3–1.6 million[3][2] Triangle is a 2009 psychological thriller film written and directed by Christopher Smith and starring Melissa George and Michael Dorman. The film was released in the United Kingdom on 16 October 2009.[4] George portrays a single mother who goes on a boating trip with several friends. When they are forced to abandon their ship, they board a derelict ocean liner, where they become convinced that someone is stalking them. Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Release 4.1 Home media 5 Reception 6 See also 7 References Plot[edit] While preparing to take Tommy, her son with autism, on a boat trip along with her friend Greg, Jess hears the doorbell ring, but no one is there. She later arrives at a harbour in Florida without Tommy, explaining that he is at school, and boards Greg's boat. She meets Greg's married friends Sally and Downey, Sally's friend Heather, and Victor, a runaway teen living with Greg. While out at sea, the wind dies and a storm approaches, and they pick up a distress signal while radioing the coast guard. The storm capsizes the boat, during which Heather is swept out into the water, and the others climb onto the overturned boat when the storm clears. They board an ocean liner as it passes; it appears to be deserted, yet there is fresh food in a dining room. Jess experiences a growing sense of déjà vu as they explore. They find Jess's keys in a corridor near a display case for Aeolus, the ship's namesake, leading Sally to believe Heather has also boarded. Jess soon spots someone watching them and Victor gives chase. She and Greg continue on and find "Go To Theater" written in blood on a mirror. After they part, she returns to the dining room, where the food is now rotting. Victor enters, covered in blood, and tries to kill Jess; she fights him off by aggravating a wound at the back of his head. She hears gunfire and follows it to a theater, where Greg lies dead of a gunshot. Sally and Downey tell Jess that Greg told them she shot him. They accuse her of sending them to the theater. A burlap-masked shooter kills them from a balcony and chases Jess to an outside deck; she fights back and disarms the shooter, who tells her "You have to kill them; it's the only way to get home" before falling overboard. She soon hears yelling and sees herself and the others alive on Greg's upturned boat. After they board, Jess becomes the earlier unseen figure: she drops her keys near the display case and is spotted shortly after. She attempts to warn Victor when he catches up to her, only to accidentally impale his head on a wall hook. She flees deeper into the ship and finds dozens of duplicates of the shooter's outfit, shotgun, her own locket, and a note saying to kill them all when they board. She takes a shotgun, intending to "change the pattern", but the shooter, another Jess, kills Greg and Downey before mortally wounding Sally with a knife. The first Jess chases Sally, who sends the distress signal heard on Greg's boat. Jess catches up to her on an upper deck filled with dozens of Sally corpses, and Sally succumbs to her wound as, below them, the newest Jess kills the shooter Jess. The overturned boat returns again, and Jess realises the loop restarts once everyone is killed. Desperate to stop and ultimately prevent the loop, Jess sets everything from the first loop into motion, with herself as the shooter. After she is disarmed during the fight on the front deck, she urges her counterpart to kill everyone when they return, and falls overboard. She awakens washed ashore and discovers that it is the same morning. She returns home and watches from outside her house as her double abuses Tommy out of anger toward his autism. Promising to change, she distracts her counterpart with the doorbell, then kills her, puts the bagged body in the car trunk, and leaves with Tommy. A gull hits their windscreen and dies, but when she picks it up and disposes of it, she sees a pile of dead gulls. Realising that she is still trapped in the loop, Jess hurriedly drives away, but she crashes into a truck and Tommy is killed and the earlier double (who Jess killed) is seen dead at the scene. In the aftermath, the real Jess stands watching the accident scene. A taxi driver approaches her and she accepts a ride to the harbour. After promising to return, she joins the others on Greg's boat, starting the loop again. Cast[edit] Melissa George as Jess Michael Dorman as Greg Rachael Carpani as Sally Henry Nixon as Downey Emma Lung as Heather Liam Hemsworth as Victor Joshua McIvor as Tommy Bryan Probets as Cab Driver Production[edit] The film, a British-Australian co-production, was written and directed by Christopher Smith. The UK Film Council awarded £1.6 million ($2.8 million) of public money from the National Lottery fund towards the development, production and distribution of the film.[5] Smith was inspired by Dead of Night and Memento. He wanted to make a circular film that explored déjà vu that avoided using the same elements as Jacob's Ladder. The film was shot on sets and on location in Queensland, Australia; the sets include the exterior of a cruise liner, which Smith insisted on constructing as he believed it was important that they avoid shooting everything with green screens.[4] The film is based in part on the story of Sisyphus, a figure in Greek mythology.[6] Release[edit] The film premiered in the UK at the London FrightFest Film Festival on 27 August 2009. Triangle was theatrically released on 16 October 2009, in the UK;[7] 30 December 2009 in Belgium;[8] 21 January 2010 in the Netherlands.[9] Triangle grossed $894,985 in its native UK and $1,303,598 total worldwide.[3] It did not receive a theatrical release in the US. Home media[edit] Icon Home Entertainment distributed Triangle on DVD and Blu-ray in the UK, with a release date of 1 March 2010,[10] whilst First Look Studios distributed the title on both DVD and Blu-ray with a release date of 2 February 2010.[11] Reception[edit] Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports an approval rating of 80% based on 40 reviews, with an average rating of 6.53/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Triangle sails into some strange waters, but this intelligent, well-acted horror outing anchors its idiosyncrasies in a satisfyingly scary story."[12] Empire gave the film a 4/5 stars rating and called it a "satisfying mind-twister, with an unexpectedly poignant pay-off".[13] Variety said that Triangle only makes some kind of sense on its own fantastic level.[14] Time Out London reviewer Nigel Floyd praised Melissa George's "fearless, credible performance" that "grounds the madness in a moving emotional reality".[15] The Guardian critic, Philip French compared it to a "Möbius strip" in which the viewer "wonders how Smith will keep things going" and added the viewer will "leave his picture suitably shaken".[16] Fellow Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw wrote that Triangle is a "smart, interestingly constructed scary movie", complimenting Smith for "creating some real shivers".[17] Entertainment.ie's Mike Sheridan was less impressed. Although he praised George's acting, he wrote that her performance "can't shield the fact that this still an exceptionally non-scary horror, that will have you scratching your head more than jumping out of your seat", ultimately rating it 2/5 stars.[18] The Scotsman called it "a trickily plotted and slickly made effort that nevertheless can't quite make its premise fly in gripping enough fashion".[19] See also[edit] List of films featuring time loops References[edit] ^ a b c "Triangle". British Board of Film Classification. 15 July 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2013. ^ a b "Triangle". The Numbers. Retrieved 12 January 2015. ^ a b "Triangle". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 22 January 2014. ^ a b "Director Chris Smith on Triangle". Empire. Retrieved 11 February 2017. ^ Kemp, Stuart (8 September 2008). "U.K. Film Council shores up 'Triangle'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 22 January 2014. ^ Jones, Gareth (3 September 2009). "Triangle (2009)". Dread Central. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2016. ^ "A New Look Inside Chris Smith's Bermuda 'Triangle'". Bloody Disgusting. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ "Triangle filmbespreking". Film Freak. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ "Triangle (2009)". Film1. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ Jones, Gareth (16 February 2010). "Triangle Splashes Onto UK DVD and Blu-ray Disc This March". Dread Central. Retrieved 22 January 2014. ^ McCutcheon, David (14 January 2010). "Triangle Gets Lost". IGN. Retrieved 22 January 2014. ^ "Triangle (2009)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 12 October 2019. ^ "Triangle (15)". Empire. Retrieved 25 February 2014. ^ Elley, Derek (8 November 2009). "Triangle". Variety. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ Floyd, Nigel (21 October 2009). "Triangle (2009)". Time Out London. Time Out. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ French, Philip (18 October 2009). "Triangle". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ Bradshaw, Peter (15 October 2009). "Triangle". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ Sheridan, Mike (22 October 2009). "Triangle Review". Entertainment.ie. Retrieved 16 January 2010. ^ "Film review: Triangle". The Scotsman. 15 October 2009. Retrieved 16 January 2010. Triangle at IMDb Triangle at Rotten Tomatoes v t e Films directed by Christopher Smith Films Creep (2004) Severance (2006) Triangle (2009) Black Death (2010) Get Santa (2014) Detour (2016) TV miniseries Labyrinth (2012) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triangle_(2009_English-language_film)&oldid=1002404994" Categories: 2009 films English-language films 2009 horror films 2000s thriller films 2000s horror thriller films 2000s mystery films 2009 psychological thriller films British films British horror films British mystery films Films set in the Bermuda Triangle Films set on ships Films set in Florida Films shot in Australia Time loop films Films about dysfunctional families Films about time travel Films about autism Films about child death Icon Productions films Films directed by Christopher Smith Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from January 2021 Use British English from November 2011 Template film date with 1 release date Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano Lietuvių Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 07:57 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-893	----	Bacchiadae - Wikipedia Bacchiadae From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bacchis) Jump to navigation Jump to search Noble Greek family The Bacchiadae (Ancient Greek: Βακχιάδαι Bakkhiadai), a tightly-knit Doric clan, were the ruling family of archaic Corinth in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, a period of Corinthian cultural power. Corinth had been a backwater in eighth-century Greece.[1] In 747 BCE (a traditional date) an aristocratic revolution ousted the Bacchiad kings of Corinth, when the royal clan of Bacchiadae, numbering perhaps a couple of hundred adult males and claiming descent from the Dorian hero Heracles through the seven sons and three daughters of a legendary king Bacchis, took power from the last king, Telestes.[2] Practising strict endogamy[3] which kept clan outlines within a distinct extended oikos, they dispensed with kingship and ruled as a group, governing the city by electing annually a prytanis who held the kingly position[4] for his brief term,[5] no doubt a council (though none is specifically documented in the scant literary materials) and a polemarchos to head the army. In 657 BCE the Bacchiadae were expelled in turn by the tyrant Cypselus,[6] who had been polemarch. The exiled Bacchiadae fled to Corcyra but also to Sparta and west, traditionally to found Syracuse in Sicily, and to Etruria, where Demaratus installed himself at Tarquinia, founding a dynasty of Etruscan kings. The royal line of the Lynkestis of Macedon was also of Bacchiad descent.[7] The foundation myths of Corcyra, Syracuse, and Megara Hyblaea[8] contain considerable detail about the Bacchiadae and the expeditions of the Bacchiad Archias of Corinth, legendary founder of Syracuse in 734/33 BCE, and Philolaos, lover of Diocles of Corinth, victor at Olympia in 728 BCE and a nomothete (lawgiver) of Thebes. See also[edit] Aristoi Notes[edit] ^ Édouard Will, Korinthiaka: recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinth des origines aux guerres médiques (Paris: Boccard) 1955. ^ Telestes was murdered by Arieus and Perantas, who were themselves Bacchiads. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I p. 450). To what extent this early "history" is genealogical myth is debated. ^ Herodotus 5.92.1. ^ Perhaps the designation "king" was retained, for reasons of cult, as a king was normally an essential intercessor with the gods. (Stewart Irvin Oost, "Cypselus the Bacchiad" Classical Philology 67.1 (January 1972, pp. 10-30) p. 10f.) See: rex sacrorum. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.9.6; Pausanias 2.4.4. ^ His mother had been of the Bacchiadae, but being lame, married outside the clan. ^ Strabo, Geography, 7.7: "The Lyncestae were under Arrhabaeus, who was of the race of the Bacchiadae." ^ From the lost Megarian Constitution of Aristotle Plutarch derived his Greek Questions 17, 18 and 59 (W.R. Halliday, Plutarch's Greek Questions, 1928, p. 92. Further reading[edit] Will, Edouard. Korinthiaka. Recherches sur l'histoire et la civilisation de Corinthe des origines aux guerres médiques v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacchiadae&oldid=987424942" Categories: Corinthian mythology Dorian mythology Mythology of Macedonia (region) Ancient Greek patronymics Heracleidae Ancient Greek dynasties Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 6 November 2020, at 23:33 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-8941	----	Odysseus - Wikipedia Odysseus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 6 February 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Odysseus (disambiguation). legendary Greek king of Ithaca Odysseus Head of Odysseus from a Roman period Hellenistic marble group representing Odysseus blinding Polyphemus, found at the villa of Tiberius at Sperlonga, Italy Abode Ithaca, Greece Personal information Parents Laërtes Anticlea Consort Penelope Children Telemachus Telegonus Roman equivalent Ulysses Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e Odysseus (/oʊˈdɪsiəs, oʊˈdɪsjuːs/;[1] Greek: Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσεύς, translit. Odysseús, Odyseús [o.dy(s).sěu̯s]), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses (US: /juːˈlɪsiːz/, UK: /ˈjuːlɪsiːz/; Latin: Ulysses , Ulixes), is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle. Son of Laërtes and Anticlea, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus and Acusilaus,[2] Odysseus is renowned for his intellectual brilliance, guile, and versatility (polytropos), and is thus known by the epithet Odysseus the Cunning (Greek: μῆτις, translit. mêtis, lit. "cunning intelligence"[3]). He is most famous for his nostos, or "homecoming", which took him ten eventful years after the decade-long Trojan War. Contents 1 Name, etymology, and epithets 2 Genealogy 3 Before the Trojan War 4 During the Trojan War 4.1 The Iliad 4.2 Other stories from the Trojan War 4.3 "Cruel, deceitful Ulixes" of the Romans 5 Journey home to Ithaca 6 Other stories 6.1 Classical 6.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 6.3 Modern literature 6.4 Television and film 6.5 Music 6.6 Comparative mythology 6.6.1 Nala 6.6.2 Aeneas 7 Altars 8 Namesakes 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Name, etymology, and epithets[edit] The form Ὀδυσ(σ)εύς Odys(s)eus is used starting in the epic period and through the classical period, but various other forms are also found. In vase inscriptions, we find the variants Oliseus (Ὀλισεύς), Olyseus (Ὀλυσεύς), Olysseus (Ὀλυσσεύς), Olyteus (Ὀλυτεύς), Olytteus (Ὀλυττεύς) and Ōlysseus (Ὠλυσσεύς). The form Oulixēs (Οὐλίξης) is attested in an early source in Magna Graecia (Ibycus, according to Diomedes Grammaticus), while the Greek grammarian Aelius Herodianus has Oulixeus (Οὐλιξεύς).[4] In Latin, he was known as Ulixēs or (considered less correct) Ulyssēs. Some have supposed that "there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus, the other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality."[5] However, the change between d and l is common also in some Indo-European and Greek names,[6] and the Latin form is supposed to be derived from the Etruscan Uthuze (see below), which perhaps accounts for some of the phonetic innovations. The etymology of the name is unknown. Ancient authors linked the name to the Greek verbs odussomai (ὀδύσσομαι) “to be wroth against, to hate”,[7] to oduromai (ὀδύρομαι) “to lament, bewail”,[8][9] or even to ollumi (ὄλλυμι) “to perish, to be lost”.[10][11] Homer relates it to various forms of this verb in references and puns. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseus' early childhood is recounted, Euryclea asks the boy's grandfather Autolycus to name him. Euryclea seems to suggest a name like Polyaretos, "for he has much been prayed for" (πολυάρητος) but Autolycus "apparently in a sardonic mood" decided to give the child another name commemorative of "his own experience in life":[12] "Since I have been angered (ὀδυσσάμενος odyssamenos) with many, both men and women, let the name of the child be Odysseus".[13] Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades (Λαερτιάδης), "son of Laërtes". In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several further epithets used to describe Odysseus. It has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, possibly not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology.[14] Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin.[15] In Etruscan religion the name (and stories) of Odysseus were adopted under the name Uthuze (Uθuze), which has been interpreted as a parallel borrowing from a preceding Minoan form of the name (possibly *Oduze, pronounced /'ot͡θut͡se/); this theory is supposed to explain also the insecurity of the phonologies (d or l), since the affricate /t͡θ/, unknown to the Greek of that time, gave rise to different counterparts (i. e. δ or λ in Greek, θ in Etruscan).[16] Genealogy[edit] Relatively little is given of Odysseus' background other than that according to Pseudo-Apollodorus, his paternal grandfather or step-grandfather is Arcesius, son of Cephalus and grandson of Aeolus, while his maternal grandfather is the thief Autolycus, son of Hermes[17] and Chione. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes. According to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes[18] and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition[19][20] that Sisyphus was his true father.[21] The rumour went that Laërtes bought Odysseus from the conniving king.[22] Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in book 15 of the Odyssey.[23] Before the Trojan War[edit] The majority of sources for Odysseus' pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries. Two stories in particular are well known: When Helen is abducted, Menelaus calls upon the other suitors to honour their oaths and help him to retrieve her, an attempt that leads to the Trojan War. Odysseus tries to avoid it by feigning lunacy, as an oracle had prophesied a long-delayed return home for him if he went. He hooks a donkey and an ox to his plow (as they have different stride lengths, hindering the efficiency of the plow) and (some modern sources add) starts sowing his fields with salt. Palamedes, at the behest of Menelaus' brother Agamemnon, seeks to disprove Odysseus' madness and places Telemachus, Odysseus' infant son, in front of the plow. Odysseus veers the plow away from his son, thus exposing his stratagem.[24] Odysseus holds a grudge against Palamedes during the war for dragging him away from his home. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon travel to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him. By most accounts, Thetis, Achilles' mother, disguises the youth as a woman to hide him from the recruiters because an oracle had predicted that Achilles would either live a long uneventful life or achieve everlasting glory while dying young. Odysseus cleverly discovers which among the women before him is Achilles when the youth is the only one of them to show interest in examining the weapons hidden among an array of adornment gifts for the daughters of their host. Odysseus arranges further for the sounding of a battle horn, which prompts Achilles to clutch a weapon and show his trained disposition. With his disguise foiled, he is exposed and joins Agamemnon's call to arms among the Hellenes.[25] During the Trojan War[edit] The Iliad[edit] Main article: Iliad Menelaus and Meriones lifting Patroclus' corpse on a cart while Odysseus looks on, Etruscan alabaster urn from Volterra, Italy, 2nd century BC Odysseus is one of the most influential Greek champions during the Trojan War. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus he is one of the most trusted counsellors and advisors. He always champions the Achaean cause, especially when others question Agamemnon's command, as in one instance when Thersites speaks against him. When Agamemnon, to test the morale of the Achaeans, announces his intentions to depart Troy, Odysseus restores order to the Greek camp.[26] Later on, after many of the heroes leave the battlefield due to injuries (including Odysseus and Agamemnon), Odysseus once again persuades Agamemnon not to withdraw. Along with two other envoys, he is chosen in the failed embassy to try to persuade Achilles to return to combat.[27] When Hector proposes a single combat duel, Odysseus is one of the Danaans who reluctantly volunteered to battle him. Telamonian Ajax ("The Greater"), however, is the volunteer who eventually fights Hector. Odysseus aids Diomedes during the night operations to kill Rhesus, because it had been foretold that if his horses drank from the Scamander River, Troy could not be taken.[28] After Patroclus is slain, it is Odysseus who counsels Achilles to let the Achaean men eat and rest rather than follow his rage-driven desire to go back on the offensive—and kill Trojans—immediately. Eventually (and reluctantly), he consents. During the funeral games for Patroclus, Odysseus becomes involved in a wrestling match with Ajax "The Greater" and foot race with Ajax "The Lesser," son of Oileus and Nestor's son Antilochus. He draws the wrestling match, and with the help of the goddess Athena, he wins the race.[29] Odysseus has traditionally been viewed as Achilles' antithesis in the Iliad:[30] while Achilles' anger is all-consuming and of a self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, a voice of reason, renowned for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills. He is also in some respects antithetical to Telamonian Ajax (Shakespeare's "beef-witted" Ajax): while the latter has only brawn to recommend him, Odysseus is not only ingenious (as evidenced by his idea for the Trojan Horse), but an eloquent speaker, a skill perhaps best demonstrated in the embassy to Achilles in book 9 of the Iliad. The two are not only foils in the abstract but often opposed in practice since they have many duels and run-ins. Other stories from the Trojan War[edit] Part of a Roman mosaic depicting Odysseus at Skyros unveiling the disguised Achilles,[31] from La Olmeda, Pedrosa de la Vega, Spain, 5th century AD Since a prophecy suggested that the Trojan War would not be won without Achilles, Odysseus and several other Achaean leaders went to Skyros to find him. Odysseus discovered Achilles by offering gifts, adornments and musical instruments as well as weapons, to the king's daughters, and then having his companions imitate the noises of an enemy's attack on the island (most notably, making a blast of a trumpet heard), which prompted Achilles to reveal himself by picking a weapon to fight back, and together they departed for the Trojan War.[32] The story of the death of Palamedes has many versions. According to some, Odysseus never forgives Palamedes for unmasking his feigned madness and plays a part in his downfall. One tradition says Odysseus convinces a Trojan captive to write a letter pretending to be from Palamedes. A sum of gold is mentioned to have been sent as a reward for Palamedes' treachery. Odysseus then kills the prisoner and hides the gold in Palamedes' tent. He ensures that the letter is found and acquired by Agamemnon, and also gives hints directing the Argives to the gold. This is evidence enough for the Greeks, and they have Palamedes stoned to death. Other sources say that Odysseus and Diomedes goad Palamedes into descending a well with the prospect of treasure being at the bottom. When Palamedes reaches the bottom, the two proceed to bury him with stones, killing him.[33] When Achilles is slain in battle by Paris, it is Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax who retrieve the fallen warrior's body and armour in the thick of heavy fighting. During the funeral games for Achilles, Odysseus competes once again with Telamonian Ajax. Thetis says that the arms of Achilles will go to the bravest of the Greeks, but only these two warriors dare lay claim to that title. The two Argives became embroiled in a heavy dispute about one another's merits to receive the reward. The Greeks dither out of fear in deciding a winner, because they did not want to insult one and have him abandon the war effort. Nestor suggests that they allow the captive Trojans decide the winner.[34] The accounts of the Odyssey disagree, suggesting that the Greeks themselves hold a secret vote.[35] In any case, Odysseus is the winner. Enraged and humiliated, Ajax is driven mad by Athena. When he returns to his senses, in shame at how he has slaughtered livestock in his madness, Ajax kills himself by the sword that Hector had given him after their duel.[36] Together with Diomedes, Odysseus fetches Achilles' son, Pyrrhus, to come to the aid of the Achaeans, because an oracle had stated that Troy could not be taken without him. A great warrior, Pyrrhus is also called Neoptolemus (Greek for "new warrior"). Upon the success of the mission, Odysseus gives Achilles' armour to him. It is learned that the war can not be won without the poisonous arrows of Heracles, which are owned by the abandoned Philoctetes. Odysseus and Diomedes (or, according to some accounts, Odysseus and Neoptolemus) leave to retrieve them. Upon their arrival, Philoctetes (still suffering from the wound) is seen still to be enraged at the Danaans, especially at Odysseus, for abandoning him. Although his first instinct is to shoot Odysseus, his anger is eventually diffused by Odysseus' persuasive powers and the influence of the gods. Odysseus returns to the Argive camp with Philoctetes and his arrows.[37] Perhaps Odysseus' most famous contribution to the Greek war effort is devising the strategem of the Trojan Horse, which allows the Greek army to sneak into Troy under cover of darkness. It is built by Epeius and filled with Greek warriors, led by Odysseus.[38] Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium that lay within Troy's walls, for the Greeks were told they could not sack the city without it. Some late Roman sources indicate that Odysseus schemed to kill his partner on the way back, but Diomedes thwarts this attempt. "Cruel, deceitful Ulixes" of the Romans[edit] Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a culture hero, but the Romans, who believed themselves the heirs of Prince Aeneas of Troy, considered him a villainous falsifier. In Virgil's Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is constantly referred to as "cruel Odysseus" (Latin dirus Ulixes) or "deceitful Odysseus" (pellacis, fandi fictor). Turnus, in Aeneid, book 9, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring (in John Dryden's translation), "You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear." While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. In Euripides' tragedy Iphigenia at Aulis, having convinced Agamemnon to consent to the sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the goddess Artemis, Odysseus facilitates the immolation by telling Iphigenia's mother, Clytemnestra, that the girl is to be wed to Achilles. Odysseus' attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, and the many stratagems and tricks that he employed to get his way offended Roman notions of honour. Journey home to Ithaca[edit] Odysseus and Polyphemus (1896) by Arnold Böcklin: Odysseus and his crew escape the Cyclops Polyphemus. Main article: Odyssey Odysseus is probably best known as the eponymous hero of the Odyssey. This epic describes his travails, which lasted for 10 years, as he tries to return home after the Trojan War and reassert his place as rightful king of Ithaca. On the way home from Troy, after a raid on Ismarus in the land of the Cicones, he and his twelve ships are driven off course by storms. They visit the lethargic Lotus-Eaters and are captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus while visiting his island. After Polyphemus eats several of his men, Polyphemus and Odysseus have a discussion and Odysseus tells Polyphemus his name is "Nobody". Odysseus takes a barrel of wine, and the Cyclops drinks it, falling asleep. Odysseus and his men take a wooden stake, ignite it with the remaining wine, and blind him. While they escape, Polyphemus cries in pain, and the other Cyclopes ask him what is wrong. Polyphemus cries, "Nobody has blinded me!" and the other Cyclopes think he has gone mad. Odysseus and his crew escape, but Odysseus rashly reveals his real name, and Polyphemus prays to Poseidon, his father, to take revenge. They stay with Aeolus, the master of the winds, who gives Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. However, the sailors foolishly open the bag while Odysseus sleeps, thinking that it contains gold. All of the winds fly out, and the resulting storm drives the ships back the way they had come, just as Ithaca comes into sight. After pleading in vain with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embark and encounter the cannibalistic Laestrygonians. Odysseus' ship is the only one to escape. He sails on and visits the witch-goddess Circe. She turns half of his men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine. Hermes warns Odysseus about Circe and gives him a drug called moly, which resists Circe's magic. Circe, being attracted to Odysseus' resistance, falls in love with him and releases his men. Odysseus and his crew remain with her on the island for one year, while they feast and drink. Finally, Odysseus' men convince him to leave for Ithaca. Guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew cross the ocean and reach a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrifices to the dead and summons the spirit of the old prophet Tiresias for advice. Next Odysseus meets the spirit of his own mother, who had died of grief during his long absence. From her, he learns for the first time news of his own household, threatened by the greed of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus also talks to his fallen war comrades and the mortal shade of Heracles. Odysseus and the Sirens, Ulixes mosaic at the Bardo National Museum in Tunis, Tunisia, 2nd century AD Odysseus' ship passing between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, from a fresco by Alessandro Allori (1535–1607) Odysseus and his men return to Circe's island, and she advises them on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirt the land of the Sirens, pass between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, where they row directly between the two. However, Scylla drags the boat towards her by grabbing the oars and eats six men. They land on the island of Thrinacia. There, Odysseus' men ignore the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunt down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios. Helios tells Zeus what happened and demands Odysseus' men be punished or else he will take the sun and shine it in the Underworld. Zeus fulfills Helios' demands by causing a shipwreck during a thunderstorm in which all but Odysseus drown. He washes ashore on the island of Ogygia, where Calypso compels him to remain as her lover for seven years. He finally escapes when Hermes tells Calypso to release Odysseus. Odysseus departs from the Land of the Phaeacians, painting by Claude Lorrain (1646) Odysseus is shipwrecked and befriended by the Phaeacians. After he tells them his story, the Phaeacians, led by King Alcinous, agree to help Odysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbor on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus, and also meets up with Telemachus returning from Sparta. Athena disguises Odysseus as a wandering beggar to learn how things stand in his household. The return of Ulysses, illustration by E. M. Synge from the 1909 Story of the World children's book series (book 1: On the shores of Great Sea) When the disguised Odysseus returns after 20 years, he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos. Penelope announces in her long interview with the disguised hero that whoever can string Odysseus' rigid bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe shafts may have her hand. According to Bernard Knox, "For the plot of the Odyssey, of course, her decision is the turning point, the move that makes possible the long-predicted triumph of the returning hero".[39] Odysseus' identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, as she is washing his feet and discovers an old scar Odysseus received during a boar hunt. Odysseus swears her to secrecy, threatening to kill her if she tells anyone. When the contest of the bow begins, none of the suitors is able to string the bow. After all the suitors have given up, the disguised Odysseus asks to participate. Though the suitors refuse at first, Penelope intervenes and allows the "stranger" (the disguised Odysseus) to participate. Odysseus easily strings his bow and wins the contest. Having done so, he proceeds to slaughter the suitors (beginning with Antinous whom he finds drinking from Odysseus' cup) with help from Telemachus and two of Odysseus' servants, Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd. Odysseus tells the serving women who slept with the suitors to clean up the mess of corpses and then has those women hanged in terror. He tells Telemachus that he will replenish his stocks by raiding nearby islands. Odysseus has now revealed himself in all his glory (with a little makeover by Athena); yet Penelope cannot believe that her husband has really returned—she fears that it is perhaps some god in disguise, as in the story of Alcmene (mother of Heracles)—and tests him by ordering her servant Euryclea to move the bed in their wedding-chamber. Odysseus protests that this cannot be done since he made the bed himself and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree. Penelope finally accepts that he truly is her husband, a moment that highlights their homophrosýnē (“like-mindedness”). The next day Odysseus and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laërtes. The citizens of Ithaca follow Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. The goddess Athena intervenes and persuades both sides to make peace. Other stories[edit] Odysseus is one of the most recurrent characters in Western culture. Classical[edit] According to some late sources, most of them purely genealogical, Odysseus had many other children besides Telemachus. Most such genealogies aimed to link Odysseus with the foundation of many Italic cities. The most famous being: with Penelope: Poliporthes (born after Odysseus' return from Troy) with Circe: Telegonus, Ardeas, Latinus, also Ausonus and Casiphone.[40] Xenagoras (historian) writes that Odysseus with Circe had three sons, Romos (Ancient Greek: Ῥώμος), Anteias (Ancient Greek: Ἀντείας) and Ardeias (Ancient Greek: Ἀρδείας), who built three cities and called them after their own names. The city that the Romos founded was the Rome.[41] with Calypso: Nausithous, Nausinous with Callidice: Polypoetes with Euippe: Euryalus with daughter of Thoas: Leontophonus He figures in the end of the story of King Telephus of Mysia. The supposed last poem in the Epic Cycle is called the Telegony and is thought to tell the story of Odysseus' last voyage, and of his death at the hands of Telegonus, his son with Circe. The poem, like the others of the cycle, is "lost" in that no authentic version has been discovered. In 5th century BC Athens, tales of the Trojan War were popular subjects for tragedies. Odysseus figures centrally or indirectly in a number of the extant plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles (Ajax, Philoctetes) and Euripides (Hecuba, Rhesus, Cyclops) and figured in still more that have not survived. In his Ajax, Sophocles portrays Odysseus as a modern voice of reasoning compared to the title character's rigid antiquity. Plato in his dialogue Hippias Minor examines a literary question about whom Homer intended to portray as the better man, Achilles or Odysseus. Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that at Pheneus there was a bronze statue of Poseidon, surnamed Hippios (Ancient Greek: Ἵππιος), meaning of horse, which according to the legends was dedicated by Odysseus and also a sanctuary of Artemis which was called Heurippa (Ancient Greek: Εὑρίππα), meaning horse finder, and was founded by Odysseus.[42] According to the legends Odysseus lost his mares and traversed the Greece in search of them. He found them on that site in Pheneus.[43] Pausanias adds that according to the people of Pheneus, when Odysseus found his mares he decided to keep horses in the land of Pheneus, just as he reared his cows. The people of Pheneus also pointed out to him writing, purporting to be instructions of Odysseus to those tending his mares.[44] As Ulysses, he is mentioned regularly in Virgil's Aeneid written between 29 and 19 BC, and the poem's hero, Aeneas, rescues one of Ulysses' crew members who was left behind on the island of the Cyclopes. He in turn offers a first-person account of some of the same events Homer relates, in which Ulysses appears directly. Virgil's Ulysses typifies his view of the Greeks: he is cunning but impious, and ultimately malicious and hedonistic. Ovid retells parts of Ulysses' journeys, focusing on his romantic involvements with Circe and Calypso, and recasts him as, in Harold Bloom's phrase, "one of the great wandering womanizers." Ovid also gives a detailed account of the contest between Ulysses and Ajax for the armour of Achilles. Greek legend tells of Ulysses as the founder of Lisbon, Portugal, calling it Ulisipo or Ulisseya, during his twenty-year errand on the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Olisipo was Lisbon's name in the Roman Empire. This folk etymology is recounted by Strabo based on Asclepiades of Myrleia's words, by Pomponius Mela, by Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd century AD), and will be resumed by Camões in his epic poem Os Lusíadas (first printed in 1572).[citation needed] Middle Ages and Renaissance[edit] Dante Alighieri, in the Canto XXVI of the Inferno segment of his Divine Comedy (1308–1320), encounters Odysseus ("Ulisse" in Italian) near the very bottom of Hell: with Diomedes, he walks wrapped in flame in the eighth ring (Counselors of Fraud) of the Eighth Circle (Sins of Malice), as punishment for his schemes and conspiracies that won the Trojan War. In a famous passage, Dante has Odysseus relate a different version of his voyage and death from the one told by Homer. He tells how he set out with his men from Circe's island for a journey of exploration to sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules and into the Western sea to find what adventures awaited them. Men, says Ulisse, are not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge.[45] After travelling west and south for five months, they see in the distance a great mountain rising from the sea (this is Purgatory, in Dante's cosmology) before a storm sinks them. Dante did not have access to the original Greek texts of the Homeric epics, so his knowledge of their subject-matter was based only on information from later sources, chiefly Virgil's Aeneid but also Ovid; hence the discrepancy between Dante and Homer. He appears in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602), set during the Trojan War. Modern literature[edit] In her poem Site of the Castle of Ulysses. (published in 1836), Letitia Elizabeth Landon gives her version of The Song of the Sirens with an explanation of its purpose, structure and meaning. The bay of Palaiokastritsa in Corfu as seen from Bella vista of Lakones. Corfu is considered to be the mythical island of the Phaeacians. The bay of Palaiokastritsa is considered to be the place where Odysseus disembarked and met Nausicaa for the first time. The rock in the sea visible near the horizon at the top centre-left of the picture is considered by the locals to be the mythical petrified ship of Odysseus. The side of the rock toward the mainland is curved in such a way as to resemble the extended sail of a trireme. Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842) presents an aging king who has seen too much of the world to be happy sitting on a throne idling his days away. Leaving the task of civilizing his people to his son, he gathers together a band of old comrades "to sail beyond the sunset". Frederick Rolfe's The Weird of the Wanderer (1912) has the hero Nicholas Crabbe (based on the author) travelling back in time, discovering that he is the reincarnation of Odysseus, marrying Helen, being deified and ending up as one of the three Magi. James Joyce's novel Ulysses (first published 1918–1920) uses modern literary devices to narrate a single day in the life of a Dublin businessman named Leopold Bloom. Bloom's day turns out to bear many elaborate parallels to Odysseus' ten years of wandering. In Virginia Woolf's response novel Mrs Dalloway (1925) the comparable character is Clarisse Dalloway, who also appears in The Voyage Out (1915) and several short stories. Nikos Kazantzakis' The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938), a 33,333 line epic poem, begins with Odysseus cleansing his body of the blood of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus soon leaves Ithaca in search of new adventures. Before his death he abducts Helen, incites revolutions in Crete and Egypt, communes with God, and meets representatives of such famous historical and literary figures as Vladimir Lenin, Don Quixote and Jesus. Return to Ithaca (1946) by Eyvind Johnson is a more realistic retelling of the events that adds a deeper psychological study of the characters of Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus. Thematically, it uses Odysseus' backstory and struggle as a metaphor for dealing with the aftermath of war (the novel being written immediately after the end of the Second World War). In the eleventh chapter of Primo Levi's 1947 memoir If This Is a Man, "The Canto of Ulysses", the author describes the last voyage of Ulysses as told by Dante in The Inferno to a fellow-prisoner during forced labour in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz. Odysseus is the hero of The Luck of Troy (1961) by Roger Lancelyn Green, whose title refers to the theft of the Palladium. In 1986, Irish poet Eilean Ni Chuilleanain published "The Second Voyage", a poem in which she makes use of the story of Odysseus. In S. M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time (1998), first part to his Nantucket series of alternate history novels, Odikweos ("Odysseus" in Mycenaean Greek) is a 'historical' figure who is every bit as cunning as his legendary self and is one of the few Bronze Age inhabitants who discerns the time-travellers' real background. Odikweos first aids William Walker's rise to power in Achaea and later helps bring Walker down after seeing his homeland turn into a police state. The Penelopiad (2005) by Margaret Atwood retells his story from the point of view of his wife Penelope. The literary theorist Núria Perpinyà conceived twenty different interpretations of the Odyssey in a 2008 study.[46] Odysseus is also a character in David Gemmell's Troy trilogy (2005–2007), in which he is a good friend and mentor of Helikaon. He is known as the ugly king of Ithaka. His marriage with Penelope was arranged, but they grew to love each other. He is also a famous storyteller, known to exaggerate his stories and heralded as the greatest storyteller of his age. This is used as a plot device to explain the origins of such myths as those of Circe and the Gorgons. In the series, he is fairly old and an unwilling ally of Agamemnon. In Madeline Miller's The Song of Achilles (a retelling of the Trojan War as well as the life of Patroclus and his romance with Achilles), Odysseus is a major character with much the same role he had in Homer's "Illiad", though it is expanded upon. Miller's Circe tells of Odysseus's visit to Circe's island from Circe's point of view, and includes the birth of their son Telegonus, and Odysseus' inadvertent death when Telegonus travels to Ithaca to meet him. Television and film[edit] The actors who have portrayed Odysseus in feature films include Kirk Douglas in the Italian Ulysses (1955), John Drew Barrymore in The Trojan Horse (1961), Piero Lulli in The Fury of Achilles (1962), and Sean Bean in Troy (2004). In TV miniseries he has been played by Bekim Fehmiu in L'Odissea (1968), Armand Assante in The Odyssey (1997), and by Joseph Mawle in Troy: Fall of a City (2018). Ulysses 31 is a French-Japanese animated television series (1981) that updates the Greek mythology of Odysseus to the 31st century.[47] Joel and Ethan Coen's film O Brother Where Art Thou? (2000) is loosely based on the Odyssey. However, the Coens have stated that they had never read the epic. George Clooney plays Ulysses Everett McGill, leading a group of escapees from a chain gang through an adventure in search of the proceeds of an armoured truck heist. On their voyage, the gang encounter—amongst other characters—a trio of Sirens and a one-eyed bible salesman. The plot of their 2013 movie, Inside Llewyn Davis, includes elements of the epic, as the hero, a former seaman, embarks on a torrid journey with a cat named Ulysses.[48] Music[edit] The British group Cream recorded the song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" in 1967 and the 2002 the U. S. progressive metal band Symphony X released an 24 minutes adaption of the tale on their album The Odyssey. Suzanne Vega's song "Calypso" from 1987 album Solitude Standing shows Odysseus from Calypso's point of view, and tells the tale of him coming to the island and his leaving. Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction) which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2014. Comparative mythology[edit] Over time, comparisons between Odysseus and other heroes of different mythologies and religions have been made. Nala[edit] A similar story exists in Hindu mythology with Nala and Damayanti where Nala separates from Damayanti and is reunited with her.[49] The story of stringing a bow is similar to the description in the Ramayana of Rama stringing the bow to win Sita's hand in marriage.[50] Aeneas[edit] The Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas and his travels to what would become Rome. On his journey he also endures strife comparable to that of Odysseus. However, the motives for both of their journeys differ as Aeneas was driven by this sense of duty granted to him by the gods that he must abide by. He also kept in mind the future of his people, fitting for the future Father of Rome. Altars[edit] Strabo writes that on Meninx (Ancient Greek: Μῆνιγξ) island, modern Djerba at Tunisia, there was an altar of the Odysseus.[51] Namesakes[edit] Head of Odysseus wearing a pileus depicted on a 3rd-century BC coin from Ithaca Prince Odysseas-Kimon of Greece and Denmark (born 2004), is the grandson of the deposed Greek king, Constantine II. See also[edit] Homer's Ithaca Odysseus Unbound Odyssey 1143 Odysseus Notes[edit] ^ "Odysseus". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ^ Epic Cycle. Fragments on Telegony, 2 as cited in Eustathias, 1796.35. ^ "μῆτις - Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Project. Archived from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2018. ^ Entry "Ὀδυσσεύς", in: Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott: A Greek–English Lexicon, 1940. ^ Stanford, William Bedell (1968). The Ulysses theme. A Study in the Adaptability of a Traditional Hero. New York: Spring Publications. p. 8. ^ See the entry “Ἀχιλλεύς” in Wiktionary; cfr. Greek δάκρυ, dákru, vs. Latin lacrima “tear”. ^ Entry “ὀδύσσομαι” in Liddell and Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon. ^ Entry “ὀδύρομαι” in Liddell and Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon. ^ Helmut van Thiel, ed. (2009). Homers Odysseen. Berlin: Lit. p. 194. ^ Entry “ὄλλυμι” in Liddell and Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon. ^ Marcy George-Kokkinaki (2008). Literary Anthroponymy: Decoding the Characters in Homer's Odyssey (PDF). 4. Antrocom. pp. 145–157. Retrieved 4 May 2017. ^ Stanford, William Bedell (1968). The Ulysses theme. p. 11. ^ Odyssey 19.400–405. ^ Dihle, Albrecht (1994). A History of Greek Literature. From Homer to the Hellenistic Period. Translated by Clare Krojzl. London and New York: Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-415-08620-2. Retrieved 4 May 2017. ^ Robert S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, Leiden 2009, p. 1048. ^ Glen Gordon, A Pre-Greek name for Odysseus, published at Paleoglot. Ancient languages. Ancient civilizations. Retrieved 4 May 2017. ^ Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Library 1.9.16 ^ Homer does not list Laërtes as one of the Argonauts. ^ Scholium on Sophocles' Aiax 190, noted in Karl Kerényi, The Heroes of the Greeks, 1959:77. ^ “Spread by the powerful kings, // And by the child of the infamous Sisyphid line” (κλέπτουσι μύθους οἱ μεγάλοι βασιλῆς // ἢ τᾶς ἀσώτου Σισυφιδᾶν γενεᾶς): Chorus in Ajax 189–190, translated by R. C. Trevelyan. ^ "A so-called 'Homeric' drinking-cup shows pretty undisguisedly Sisyphos in the bed-chamber of his host's daughter, the arch-rogue sitting on the bed and the girl with her spindle." The Heroes of the Greeks 1959:77. ^ “Sold by his father Sisyphus” (οὐδ᾽ οὑμπολητὸς Σισύφου Λαερτίῳ): Philoctetes in Philoctetes 417, translated by Thomas Francklin. ^ "Women in Homer's Odyssey". Records.viu.ca. 16 September 1997. Archived from the original on 4 October 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 95. Cf. Apollodorus, Epitome 3.7. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 96. ^ Iliad 2. ^ Iliad 9. ^ Iliad 10. ^ Iliad 23. ^ D. Gary Miller (2014 ), Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors, De Gruyter ISBN 978-1-61451-493-0. pp. 120-121 ^ Documentation on the "Villa romana de Olmeda", displaying a photograph of the whole mosaic, entitled "Aquiles en el gineceo de Licomedes" (Achilles in Lycomedes' 'seraglio'). ^ Achilleid, book 1. ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.8; Hyginus 105. ^ Scholium to Odyssey 11.547. ^ Odyssey 11.543–47. ^ Sophocles, Ajax 662, 865. ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.8. ^ See, e.g., Odyssey 8.493; Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14–15. ^ Bernard Knox (1996): Introduction to Robert Fagles' translation of The Odyssey, p. 55. ^ Chiliades, 5.23 lines 568-570 ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.72.5 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.14.5 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.14.5 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.14.6 ^ Dante, Divine Comedy, canto 26: “fatti non-foste a viver come bruti / ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza”. ^ Núria Perpinyà (2008): The Crypts of Criticism: Twenty Readings of The Odyssey (Spanish original: Las criptas de la crítica: veinte lecturas de la Odisea, Madrid, Gredos). ^ Ulysses 31 webpage ^ Smith, Kyle (5 December 2013). "Coen brothers' 'Inside Llewyn Davis' hits the right notes". New York Post. Retrieved 5 September 2020. ^ Wendy Doniger (1999). Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5. pp. 157ff ^ Harry Fokkens; et al. (2008). "Bracers or bracelets? About the functionality and meaning of Bell Beaker wrist-guards". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. University of Leiden. 74. p. 122. ^ Strabo, Geography, §17.3.17 References[edit] Vasil S. Tole (2005). Odyssey and Sirens: A Temptation towards the Mystery of the Iso-polyphonic Regions of Epirus. A Homeric theme with variations. Tirana, Albania. ISBN 99943-31-63-9. Robert Bittlestone; James Diggle; John Underhill (2005). Odysseus Unbound: The Search for Homer's Ithaca. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85357-5. Odysseus Unbound: The Search for Homer’s Ithaca. (www.odysseus-unbound.org) Ernle Bradford (1963). Ulysses Found. Hodder and Stoughton. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Odysseus. "Archaeological discovery in Greece may be the tomb of Odysseus" from the Madera Tribune Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Odysseus" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. v t e Characters in the Iliad Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon v t e Characters in the Odyssey House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Authority control BIBSYS: 1483107588205 CANTIC: a19379614 GND: 118589385 LCCN: no2014054320 NKC: jo2016908746 NLA: 66783807 PLWABN: 9810636090305606 SELIBR: 174303 SUDOC: 027305287 VIAF: 62341158 WorldCat Identities: viaf-62341158 Retrieved from 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en-wikipedia-org-894	----	Tartarus - Wikipedia Tartarus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the deity and the place in Greek mythology. For other uses, see Tartarus (disambiguation). Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld, Attic black-figure amphora, c. 530 BC Greek deities series Titans and Olympians Aquatic deities Chthonic deities Mycenaean deities Personified concepts Other deities Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Moirai Nyx Ourea Phanes Pontus Tartarus Thalassa Uranus Chthonic deities Hades Persephone Angelos Demeter Erinyes Gaia Hecate Iacchus Melinoë Triptolemus Trophonius v t e In Greek mythology, Tartarus (/ˈtɑːrtərəs/; Ancient Greek: Τάρταρος, Tártaros)[1] is the deep abyss that is used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans. Tartarus is the place where, according to Plato's Gorgias (c. 400 BC), souls are judged after death and where the wicked received divine punishment. Tartarus is also considered to be a primordial force or deity alongside entities such as the Earth, Night, and Time. Contents 1 Greek mythology 1.1 Deity 1.2 Place 1.3 Residents 2 Roman mythology 3 Biblical pseudepigrapha 4 New Testament 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Greek mythology[edit] Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e In Greek mythology, Tartarus is both a deity and a place in the underworld. In ancient Orphic sources and in the mystery schools, Tartarus is also the unbounded first-existing entity from which the Light and the cosmos are born. Deity[edit] In the Greek poet Hesiod's Theogony (c. late 8th century BC), Tartarus was the third of the primordial deities, following after Chaos and Gaia (Earth), and preceding Eros,[2] and was the father, by Gaia, of the monster Typhon.[3] According to Hyginus, Tartarus was the offspring of Aether and Gaia.[4] Place[edit] As for the place, Hesiod asserts that a bronze anvil falling from heaven would fall nine days before it reached the earth. The anvil would take nine more days to fall from earth to Tartarus.[5] In the Iliad (c. 8th century BC), Zeus asserts that Tartarus is "as far beneath Hades as heaven is above earth."[6] Similarly the mythographer Apollodorus, describes Tartarus as "a gloomy place in Hades as far distant from earth as earth is distant from the sky."[7] While according to Greek mythology the realm of Hades is the place of the dead, Tartarus also has a number of inhabitants. When Cronus came to power as the King of the Titans, he imprisoned the one-eyed Cyclopes and the hundred-armed Hecatonchires in Tartarus and set the monster Campe as its guard. Zeus killed Campe and released these imprisoned giants to aid in his conflict with the Titans. The gods of Olympus eventually triumphed. Cronus and many of the other Titans were banished to Tartarus, though Prometheus, Epimetheus, and female Titans such as Metis were spared (according to Pindar, Cronus somehow later earned Zeus' forgiveness and was released from Tartarus to become ruler of Elysium). Another Titan, Atlas, was sentenced to hold the sky on his shoulders to prevent it from resuming its primordial embrace with the Earth. Other gods could be sentenced to Tartarus as well. Apollo is a prime example, although Zeus freed him. The Hecatonchires became guards of Tartarus' prisoners. Later, when Zeus overcame the monster Typhon, he threw him into "wide Tartarus".[8] Residents[edit] Originally, Tartarus was used only to confine dangers to the gods of Olympus. In later mythologies, Tartarus became a space dedicated to the imprisonment and torment of mortals who had sinned against the gods, and each punishment was unique to the condemned. For example: King Sisyphus was sent to Tartarus for killing guests and travelers to his castle in violation to his hospitality, seducing his niece, and reporting one of Zeus' sexual conquests by telling the river god Asopus of the whereabouts of his daughter Aegina (who had been taken away by Zeus).[9] But regardless of the impropriety of Zeus' frequent conquests, Sisyphus overstepped his bounds by considering himself a peer of the gods who could rightfully report their indiscretions. When Zeus ordered Thanatos to chain up Sisyphus in Tartarus, Sisyphus tricked Thanatos by asking him how the chains worked and ended up chaining Thanatos; as a result there was no more death. This caused Ares to free Thanatos and turn Sisyphus over to him.[10] Sometime later, Sisyphus had Persephone send him back to the surface to scold his wife for not burying him properly. Sisyphus was forcefully dragged back to Tartarus by Hermes when he refused to go back to the Underworld after that. In Tartarus, Sisyphus was forced forever to try to roll a large boulder to the top of a mountain slope, which, no matter how many times he nearly succeeded in his attempt would always roll back to the bottom.[11]This constituted the punishment (fitting the crime) of Sisyphus for daring to claim that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus. Zeus's cunning punishment demonstrated quite the opposite to be the case, condemning Sisyphus to a humiliating eternity of futility and frustration. King Tantalus also ended up in Tartarus after he cut up his son Pelops, boiled him, and served him as food when he was invited to dine with the gods.[12] He also stole the ambrosia from the Gods and told his people its secrets.[13] Another story mentioned that he held onto a golden dog forged by Hephaestus and stolen by Tantalus' friend Pandareus. Tantalus held onto the golden dog for safekeeping and later denied to Pandareus that he had it. Tantalus' punishment for his actions (now a proverbial term for "temptation without satisfaction") was to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches raised his intended meal from his grasp. Whenever he bent down to get a drink, the water receded before he could get any. Over his head towered a threatening stone like that of Sisyphus.[14] Ixion was the king of the Lapiths, the most ancient tribe of Thessaly. Ixion grew to hate his father-in-law and ended up pushing him onto a bed of coal and wood committing the first kin-related murder. The princes of other lands ordered that Ixion be denied the cleansing of his sin. Zeus took pity on Ixion and invited him to a meal on Olympus. But when Ixion saw Hera, he fell in love with her and did some under-the-table caressing until Zeus signaled him to stop. After finding a place for Ixion to sleep, Zeus created a cloud-clone of Hera named Nephele to test him to see how far he would go to seduce Hera. Ixion made love to her, which resulted in the birth of Centaurus, who mated with some Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion and thus engendered the race of Centaurs (who are called the Ixionidae from their descent). Zeus drove Ixion from Mount Olympus and then struck him with a thunderbolt. He was punished by being tied to a winged flaming wheel that was always spinning: first in the sky and then in Tartarus. Only when Orpheus came down to the Underworld to rescue Eurydice did it stop spinning because of the music Orpheus was playing. Ixion being strapped to the flaming wheel represented his burning lust. In some versions, the Danaides murdered their husbands and were punished in Tartarus by being forced to carry water in a jug to fill a bath which would thereby wash off their sins. But the tub was filled with cracks, so the water always leaked out.[15] The giant Tityos attempted to rape Leto on Hera's orders, but was slain by Apollo and Artemis. As punishment, Tityos was stretched out in Tartarus and tortured by two vultures who fed on his liver. This punishment is extremely similar to that of the Titan Prometheus. King Salmoneus was also mentioned to have been imprisoned in Tartarus after passing himself off as Zeus, causing the real Zeus to smite him with a thunderbolt.[16] Arke is the twin sister of Iris who sided with the Titans. Zeus removed her wings following the gods' victory over the Titans and she was thrown into Tartarus with the Titans. Ocnus was condemned in Tartarus to weave a rope of straw which is quickly eaten by a donkey. There is no mentioning on what he did to end up in Tartarus. When his sister Coronis was killed by Artemis, King Phlegyas set fire to the Apollonian temple at Delphi and was killed by Apollo. He was punished in Tartarus by being entombed in a rock and starved in front of an eternal feast as he shouts to the other inhabitants not to despise the gods. According to Plato (c. 427 BC), Rhadamanthus, Aeacus and Minos were the judges of the dead and chose who went to Tartarus. Rhadamanthus judged Asian souls, Aeacus judged European souls and Minos was the deciding vote and judge of the Greek.[17] Souls regarded as unjust or perjured would go to Tartarus.[17] Those who committed crimes seen as curable would be purified there, while those who committed crimes seen as uncurable would be eternally damned, and demonstrate a warning example for the living.[17] In Gorgias, Plato writes about Socrates telling Callicles, who believes Might makes right,[18] that doing injustice to others is worse than suffering injustice, and most uncurable inhabitants of Tartarus were tyrants whose might gave them the opportunity to commit huge crimes.[17] Archelaus I of Macedon is mentioned as a possible example of this, while Thersites is said to be curable, because of his lack of might.[17] According to Plato's Phaedo, the uncurable consisted of temple robbers and murderers, while sons who killed one of their parents during a status of rage but regreted this their whole live long, and involuntary manslaughterers, would be taken out of Tartarus after one year, so they could ask their victims for forgiveness.[19] If they should be forgiven, they were liberated, but if not, would go back and stay there until they were finally pardoned.[19] In the Republic, Plato mentions the Myth of Er, who is said to have been a fallen soldier who resurrected from the dead, and saw their realm.[20] According to this, the length of a punishment an adult receives for each crime in Tartarus, who is responsible for a lot of deaths, betrayed states or armies and sold them into slavery or had been involved in similar misdeeds, corresponds to ten times out of a hundred earthly years (while good deeds would be rewarded in equal measure).[20] There were a number of entrances to Tartarus in Greek mythology. One was in Aornum.[21] Roman mythology[edit] In Roman mythology, sinners (as defined by the Roman societal and cultural mores of their time) are sent to Tartarus for punishment after death. Virgil describes Tartarus in great detail in the Aeneid, Book VI. He describes it as an expansive space, with a triple-walled perimeter to prevent sinners from escaping, all surrounded by the flaming river Phlegethon. Entry is guarded by a hydra with fifty black, gaping jaws, which sits at a screeching gate flanked by adamantine columns, a substance so hard that nothing can cut through it, akin to diamond. Inside the walls of Tartarus sits a wide-walled castle with a tall, iron turret. Tisiphone, one of the Erinyes who represents vengeance, stands sleepless guard at the top of the turret lashing her whip. Roman mythology describes a pit inside extending down into the earth twice as far as the distance from the lands of the living to Olympus. The twin sons of the Titan Aloeus were said to be imprisoned at the bottom of this pit. Biblical pseudepigrapha[edit] See also: Jewish pseudepigrapha and Jewish apocrypha Tartarus occurs in the Septuagint translation of Job into Koine Greek, and in Hellenistic Jewish literature from the Greek text of 1 Enoch, dated to 400–200 BC. This states that God placed the archangel Uriel "in charge of the world and of Tartarus" (20:2). Tartarus is generally understood to be the place where 200 fallen Watchers (angels) are imprisoned.[22] In Hypostasis of the Archons (also translated 'Reality of the Rulers'), an apocryphal gnostic treatise dated before 350 AD, Tartarus makes a brief appearance when Zōē (life), the daughter of Sophia (wisdom) casts Ialdabaōth (demiurge) down to the bottom of the abyss of Tartarus.[23] Tartarus also appears in sections of the Jewish Sibylline Oracles. E.g. Sib. Or. 4:186. New Testament[edit] See also: Christian views on hell In the New Testament, the noun Tartarus does not occur but tartaroō (ταρταρόω, "throw to Tartarus"), a shortened form of the classical Greek verb kata-tartaroō ("throw down to Tartarus"), does appear in 2 Peter 2:4. Liddell–Scott provides other sources for the shortened form of this verb, including Acusilaus (5th century BC), Joannes Laurentius Lydus (4th century AD) and the Scholiast on Aeschylus' Eumenides, who cites Pindar relating how the earth tried to tartaro "cast down" Apollo after he overcame the Python.[24] In classical texts, the longer form kata-tartaroo is often related to the throwing of the Titans down to Tartarus.[25] The ESV is one of several English versions that gives the Greek reading Tartarus as a footnote: "For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell [1] and committed them to chains of gloomy darkness to be kept until the judgment;" - Footnotes [1] 2:4 Greek Tartarus Adam Clarke reasoned that Peter's use of language relating to the Titans was an indication that the ancient Greeks had heard of a Biblical punishment of fallen angels.[26] Some Evangelical Christian commentaries distinguish Tartarus as a place for wicked angels and Gehenna as a place for wicked humans on the basis of this verse.[27] Other Evangelical commentaries, in reconciling that some fallen angels are chained in Tartarus, yet some not, attempt to distinguish between one type of fallen angel and another.[28] See also[edit] Greek mythology in popular culture Erebus Gehenna Hades Charon Greek underworld Lake of fire Duat Hell Orcus Sheol The Golden Bough (mythology) The tartaruchi of the non-canonical Apocalypse of Paul. Tzoah Rotachat Notes[edit] ^ The word is of uncertain origin ("Tartarus". Online Etymological Dictionary). ^ Hesiod. Theogony, 116–119 ^ Hesiod. Theogony, 820–822 ^ Hyginus. Fabulae, Preface ^ Hesiod. Theogony, 720–725 ^ Homer. Iliad, 8.17 ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.2. ^ Hesiod. Theogony, 868 ^ Hamilton, Edith. "Brief Myths." Mythology. ^ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014. ^ Homer. Odyssey, 11.593–600 ^ Pindar. Olympian Odes, 1.24–38 ^ Pindar. Olympian Odes, 1.60 ff ^ Homer. Odyssey, 11.582-92; Tantalus' transgressions are not mentioned; they must already have been well known to Homer's late-8th-century hearers. ^ The Danish government's third world aid agency's name was changed from DANAID to DANIDA in the last minute when this unfortunate connotation was discovered. ^ Virgil. Aeneid, 6.585–594 ^ a b c d e Plato, Gorgias, 523a-527e. ^ Plato, Gorgias, 482d-486e. ^ a b Platon, Phaidon, ed. and transl. by Rudolf Kassner, Jena 1906, S. 105–106. ^ a b Plato, Der Staat, ed. and transl. by August Horneffer, Leipzig 1908, p. 348–351. ^ The Greek Myths (Volume 1) by Robert Graves (1990), page 112: "... He used the passage which opens at Aornum in Thesprotis and, on his arrival, not only charmed the ferryman Charon..." ^ Kelley Coblentz Bautch A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17–19: "no One Has Seen what I Have Seen" p134 ^ Bentley Layton The Gnostic Scriptures: "Reality of the Rulers" 95:5 p.74 ^ A. cast into Tartarus or hell, Acus.8 J., 2 Ep.Pet.2.4, Lyd.Mens.4.158 (Pass.), Sch.T Il.14.296. Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by. Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1940. ^ Apollodorus of Athens, in Didymus' Scholia on Homer; Plutarch Concerning rivers ^ Clarke Commentary "The ancient Greeks appear to have received, by tradition, an account of the punishment of the 'fallen angels,' and of bad men after death; and their poets did, in conformity I presume with that account, make Tartarus the place where the giants who rebelled against Jupiter, and the souls of the wicked, were confined. 'Here,' saith Hesiod, Theogon., lin. 720, 1, 'the rebellious Titans were bound in penal chains.'" ^ Paul V. Harrison, Robert E. Picirilli James, 1, 2 Peter, Jude Randall House Commentaries 1992 p267 "We do not need to say, then, that Peter was reflecting or approving the Book of Enoch (20:2) when it names Tartarus as a place for wicked angels in distinction from Gehenna as the place for wicked humans." ^ Vince Garcia The Resurrection Life Study Bible 2007 p412 "If so, we have a problem: Satan and his angels are not locked up in Tartarus! Satan and his angels were alive and active in the time of Christ, and still are today! Yet Peter specifically (2 Peter 2:4) states that at least one group of angelic beings have literally been cast down to Tartarus and bound in chains until the Last Judgment. So if Satan and his angels are not currently bound in Tartarus—who is? The answer goes back~again~to the angels who interbred with humans. So then— is it impossible that Azazel is somehow another name for Satan? There may be a chance he is, but there is no way of knowing for sure. ..." References[edit] Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. v t e Underworlds Aztec mythology Mictlān Buddhism Naraka Chinese mythology Diyu Christianity Lake of fire Outer darkness Purgatory Limbo Hades Christian views on Hell Ancient Egyptian religion Duat Germanic and Norse paganism Hel (heimr) Náströnd Niflheim Niflhel Greek and Roman mythology Asphodel Meadows Elysium Erebus Fortunate Isles Hades Orcus Tartarus Hell Hinduism Naraka Patala Islam Jahannam Sijjin Jainism Naraka Judaism Abaddon Azazel Dudael Gehenna Sheol Tehom Tzoah Rotachat Maya mythology Xibalba Mesopotamian mythology Irkalla Persian mythology Duzakh Slavic mythology Nav Shinto Yomi Sumerian mythology Kur Turkic-Mongolian Tamag Welsh mythology Annwn v t e Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion/Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros/Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus/Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes (male) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Mousai (Muses) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Sea Gods Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus/Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Logoi Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgones Euryale Medusa Stheno The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas The Harpiae Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Homonoia Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deities Sky The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enyalius Lelantos Palaestra Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tartarus&oldid=1004046734" Categories: Greek death gods Conceptions of hell Locations in the Greek underworld Children of Gaia Underworld gods Greek primordial deities Hidden categories: Use dmy dates from January 2021 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page 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en-wikipedia-org-8989	----	Sisyphus: Revision history - Wikipedia Help Sisyphus: Revision history View logs for this page (view filter log) Jump to navigation Jump to search Filter revisionsshowhideTo date: Tag filter: Show revisions External tools: Find addition/removal (Alternate) Find edits by user Page statistics Pageviews Fix dead links For any version listed below, click on its date to view it. For more help, see Help:Page history and Help:Edit summary. (cur) = difference from current version, (prev) = difference from preceding version,  m = minor edit, → = section edit, ← = automatic edit summary (newest | oldest) View (newer 50 | older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) curprev 08:51, 21 January 2021‎ ClueBot NG talk contribs‎ m 18,574 bytes −15‎ Reverting possible vandalism by 5.132.113.238 to version by Mandarax. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3873097) (Bot) undo Tag: Rollback curprev 08:51, 21 January 2021‎ 5.132.113.238 talk‎ 18,589 bytes +15‎ →‎Reign undo Tag: Reverted curprev 23:29, 18 January 2021‎ Mandarax talk contribs‎ m 18,574 bytes −6‎ rv edit by 95.137.234.166 (talk) to last ver by Monkbot – restore correct grammar undo Tag: Rollback curprev 20:39, 18 January 2021‎ 95.137.234.166 talk‎ 18,580 bytes +6‎ →‎Etymology undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 03:01, 21 December 2020‎ Monkbot talk contribs‎ m 18,574 bytes −14‎ Task 18 (cosmetic): eval 7 templates: hyphenate params (4×); del |ref=harv (2×); undo Tag: AWB curprev 12:07, 13 December 2020‎ Markx121993 talk contribs‎ 18,588 bytes +34‎ undo Tag: Visual edit curprev 11:47, 13 December 2020‎ Markx121993 talk contribs‎ 18,554 bytes +48‎ →‎Family undo Tag: Visual edit curprev 15:52, 1 December 2020‎ 89.100.62.187 talk‎ 18,506 bytes 0‎ →‎Punishment in the underworld: Fixed typo undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 13:48, 1 December 2020‎ True Pagan Warrior talk contribs‎ 18,506 bytes −20‎ →‎Punishment in the underworld: The name of the underworld is "Hades;" "underworld" is a common noun. undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit curprev 13:47, 1 December 2020‎ True Pagan Warrior talk contribs‎ 18,526 bytes −140‎ →‎Cheating death: copy edit undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit curprev 13:39, 1 December 2020‎ True Pagan Warrior talk contribs‎ 18,666 bytes −1‎ →‎Conflict with Salmoneus: copy edit undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit curprev 19:54, 18 November 2020‎ 136.49.185.59 talk‎ 18,667 bytes 0‎ →‎Reign undo curprev 02:30, 29 October 2020‎ 100.11.62.135 talk‎ 18,667 bytes −1‎ →‎Cheating death undo curprev 07:15, 21 October 2020‎ Waynejayes talk contribs‎ 18,668 bytes +114‎ references undo curprev 07:07, 21 October 2020‎ Waynejayes talk contribs‎ 18,554 bytes +8‎ →‎References undo curprev 18:11, 19 October 2020‎ 2601:204:e080:9540:4893:9b00:b81:691e talk‎ 18,546 bytes +2‎ undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Visual edit curprev 09:31, 12 October 2020‎ Terasail talk contribs‎ 18,544 bytes +3,895‎ Reverted 1 edit by 153.19.169.14 (talk) to last revision by Materialscientist undo Tags: Undo Twinkle curprev 09:31, 12 October 2020‎ 153.19.169.14 talk‎ 14,649 bytes −3,895‎ Easyly undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit section blanking Reverted curprev 18:22, 1 October 2020‎ Materialscientist talk contribs‎ m 18,544 bytes −218‎ Reverted edits by Vicx_seyLynn (talk) (HG) (3.4.10) undo Tag: Rollback curprev 18:21, 1 October 2020‎ Vicx seyLynn talk contribs‎ 18,762 bytes +1‎ No undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 18:20, 1 October 2020‎ Vicx seyLynn talk contribs‎ 18,761 bytes +217‎ No undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Reverted curprev 19:33, 23 September 2020‎ Mandarax talk contribs‎ m 18,544 bytes −14‎ Reverted edits by 12.217.78.130 (talk) to last version by ClueBot NG undo Tag: Rollback curprev 19:23, 23 September 2020‎ 12.217.78.130 talk‎ 18,558 bytes +14‎ →‎Cheating death undo Tag: Reverted curprev 19:23, 23 September 2020‎ ClueBot NG talk contribs‎ m 18,544 bytes −15‎ Reverting possible vandalism by 12.217.78.130 to version by 66.43.33.252. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3782860) (Bot) undo Tag: Rollback curprev 19:23, 23 September 2020‎ 12.217.78.130 talk‎ 18,559 bytes +15‎ →‎Conflict with Salmoneus undo Tag: Reverted curprev 15:27, 18 September 2020‎ 66.43.33.252 talk‎ 18,544 bytes −1‎ →‎Reign: Fixed some punctuation undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 19:42, 15 September 2020‎ Iceinabucket talk contribs‎ m 18,545 bytes −22‎ Reverted 1 edit by 2601:647:4903:B890:5DC6:67FD:BB58:491B (talk) to last revision by Dawnseeker2000 undo Tags: Undo Twinkle curprev 19:42, 15 September 2020‎ 2601:647:4903:b890:5dc6:67fd:bb58:491b talk‎ 18,567 bytes +22‎ →‎Literary interpretations undo Tag: Reverted curprev 16:15, 6 September 2020‎ Dawnseeker2000 talk contribs‎ m 18,545 bytes −35‎ date format audit, minor formatting undo Tag: AWB curprev 04:38, 6 September 2020‎ Mountainmint13 talk contribs‎ m 18,580 bytes +1‎ "Samoneus" should be "Salmoneus" undo Tag: Manual revert curprev 17:44, 31 August 2020‎ 24.90.26.254 talk‎ 18,579 bytes −1‎ →‎Conflict with Salmoneus undo curprev 15:30, 8 August 2020‎ Deacon Vorbis talk contribs‎ 18,580 bytes −31‎ move last two to "See also" undo curprev 15:26, 8 August 2020‎ Deacon Vorbis talk contribs‎ 18,611 bytes −1,721‎ →‎In popular culture: leaving just two; these are the only even remotely reasonable of the bunch, but could still stand some fleshing out undo curprev 15:24, 8 August 2020‎ Deacon Vorbis talk contribs‎ 20,332 bytes −598‎ →‎Literature: rm trivial undo curprev 15:23, 8 August 2020‎ Deacon Vorbis talk contribs‎ 20,930 bytes −1,036‎ →‎Games: unsourced, trivial undo curprev 15:22, 8 August 2020‎ Deacon Vorbis talk contribs‎ 21,966 bytes −2,203‎ →‎Music: trivial mentions or simply title matches undo curprev 18:22, 29 July 2020‎ Arjayay talk contribs‎ m 24,169 bytes −1‎ an > a undo curprev 02:47, 26 July 2020‎ 2601:643:8301:1460:5592:a1e5:b610:edf9 talk‎ 24,170 bytes +4‎ Maske Porphyrion into a link to the Porphyrion page undo curprev 14:50, 25 July 2020‎ Thanatos666 talk contribs‎ m 24,166 bytes 0‎ →‎top undo curprev 03:41, 25 July 2020‎ KC Roosters talk contribs‎ m 24,166 bytes +56‎ Importing Wikidata short description: "King of Ephyra in Greek mythology" (Shortdesc helper) undo curprev 09:52, 13 July 2020‎ JBW talk contribs‎ 24,110 bytes −231‎ Unsourced undo curprev 09:49, 13 July 2020‎ TheVeryLastDodoBird talk contribs‎ 24,341 bytes +231‎ →‎Games: We added in the game Griptape Backbone. undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 23:31, 8 July 2020‎ DM10-Redux talk contribs‎ m 24,110 bytes +31‎ →‎Television undo curprev 23:30, 8 July 2020‎ DM10-Redux talk contribs‎ m 24,079 bytes +28‎ →‎Television undo curprev 03:42, 25 June 2020‎ TPIRFanSteve talk contribs‎ 24,051 bytes −1‎ →‎Cheating death undo curprev 01:27, 6 June 2020‎ 100.34.139.116 talk‎ 24,052 bytes −9‎ →‎Music undo curprev 14:09, 30 May 2020‎ 91.153.176.167 talk‎ 24,061 bytes +137‎ →‎In popular culture undo curprev 13:51, 30 May 2020‎ 2a00:23c4:9286:fb00:80f8:7516:b36:a67d talk‎ 23,924 bytes +66‎ →‎Literature: Added reference. undo Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit curprev 17:37, 23 May 2020‎ Rtkat3 talk contribs‎ 23,858 bytes +190‎ undo curprev 00:02, 21 May 2020‎ CHABBALL talk contribs‎ 23,668 bytes +31‎ →‎Television undo (newest | oldest) View (newer 50 | older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus" Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Atom Upload file Special pages Page information Wikidata item Languages Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9013	----	Ornytion - Wikipedia Ornytion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In Greek mythology, Ornytion (Ancient Greek: Ὀρνύτιων means "moon-bird"[1]) or Ornytus (Ὄρνυτος)[2] was a son of Sisyphus, brother of Glaucus, Almus and Thersander, and father of Phocus and Thoas.[3] A scholiast on Euripides relates of him that he came from Aonia to join the people of Hyampolis in the battle against the Opuntian Locrians over Daphnus and won himself the kingdom, which he handed over to Phocus and returned to Corinth with his other son Thoas, who later succeeded him.[4] Ornytion or Ornytus was also the name of his grandson (the son of Phocus), who in his turn was the father of Naubolus.[2][5] References[edit] ^ Graves, Robert (1960). The Greek Myths. Harmondsworth, London, England: Penguin Books. pp. s.v. Tereus. ISBN 978-0143106715. ^ a b Scholia on Iliad, 2. 517 ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 4. 3 ^ Scholia on Euripides, Orestes, 1094 ^ Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 207 v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) This article includes a list of Greek mythological figures with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific Greek mythology article referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended Greek mythology article, if one exists. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ornytion&oldid=1001033280" Categories: Set indices on Greek mythology Kings of Corinth Characters in Greek mythology Corinthian mythology Hidden categories: All set index articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Български Deutsch Français Italiano Português Русский Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 17 January 2021, at 23:05 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9029	----	Cocytus - Wikipedia Cocytus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Greek underworld Residents Aeacus Angelos Arae Ascalaphus Cerberus Ceuthonymus Charon Erinyes Eurynomos Hades/Pluto Hecate Hypnos Macaria Melinoë Menoetius Minos Moirai Mormolykeia Persephone Rhadamanthus Thanatos Geography Acheron Asphodel Fields Cocytus Elysium Erebus Lethe Phlegethon Styx Tartarus Famous Tartarus inmates Danaïdes Ixion Salmoneus Sisyphus Tantalus Titans Tityus Visitors Aeneas Dionysus Heracles Hermes Odysseus Orpheus Pirithous Psyche Theseus v t e Cocytus /koʊˈsaɪtəs/ or Kokytos /koʊˈkaɪtəs/ (Ancient Greek: Κωκυτός, literally "lamentation") is the river of wailing in the underworld in Greek mythology.[1] Cocytus flows into the river Acheron, on the other side of which lies Hades, The Underworld, the mythological abode of the dead. There are five rivers encircling Hades: the Styx, Phlegethon, Lethe, Acheron and Cocytus. In literature[edit] The Cocytus river was one of the rivers that surrounded Hades. Cocytus, along with the other rivers related to the underworld, was a common topic for ancient authors. Of the ancient authors, Cocytus was mentioned by Virgil, Homer, Cicero, Aeschylus, Apuleius and Plato, among others.[2] Cocytus also makes an appearance in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost. In Book Two, Milton speaks of "Cocytus, named of lamentation loud / Heard on the rueful stream".[3] It is also mentioned in William Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus and in Rick Riordan's The House of Hades. Cocytus also appears in Friedrich Schiller's poem "Gruppe aus dem Tartarus": ...Hohl sind ihre Augen—ihre Blicke/ Spähen bang nach des Cocytus Brücke... (...Hollow are their eyes, their looks / Peering anxiously to the bridge of Cocytus...) The river is also mentioned in Rafael Sabatini's novel Captain Blood: His Odyssey, when Colonel Bishop's nemesis, Peter Blood, addresses him as follows: "And now, ye greasy hangman, step out as brisk and lively as ye can, and behave as naturally as ye may, or it's the black stream of Cocytus ye'll be contemplating."[4] In the Divine Comedy[edit] Main article: Divine Comedy Dante's Cocytus, as illustrated by Gustave Doré (1832-1883). In Inferno, the first cantica of Dante's Divine Comedy, Cocytus is the ninth and lowest circle of The Underworld. Dante and Virgil are placed there by the giant Antaeus. There are other Giants around the rim that are chained; however Antaeus is unchained as he died before the Gigantomachy. Cocytus is referred to as a frozen lake rather than a river, although it originates from the same source as the other infernal rivers, the tears of a statue called The Old Man of Crete which represents the sins of humanity. Dante describes Cocytus as being the home of traitors and those who committed acts of complex fraud. Depending on the form of their treachery, inhabitants are buried in ice to a varying degree, anywhere from neck-high to completely submerged in ice. Cocytus is divided into four descending "rounds", or sections: Caina, after the Biblical Cain; traitors to blood relatives. Antenora, after Antenor from the Iliad; traitors to country. Ptolomea, after Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, who murdered his guests (1 Maccabees); traitors to guests. Here it is said that sometimes the soul of a traitor falls to Hell before Atropos cuts the thread, and their body is taken over by a fiend. Judecca, after Judas Iscariot; traitors to masters and benefactors. Dante's Satan is at the centre of the circle buried waist-high in ice. He is depicted with three faces and mouths. The central mouth gnaws Judas. Judas is chewed head foremost with his feet protruding and Satan's claws tearing his back while those gnawed in the side mouths, Brutus and Cassius, leading assassins of Julius Caesar, are both chewed feet foremost with their heads protruding. Under each chin Satan flaps a pair of wings, which only serve to increase the cold winds in Cocytus and further imprison him and other traitors. Dante and his guide Virgil proceed then to climb down Satan's back and then upwards towards Purgatory, though Dante is at first confused at their turning round, but Virgil explains it is due to the change in forces as they pass through the centre of the Earth. References[edit] ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cocytus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 631–632. ^ "KOKYTOS". Theoi Project. Retrieved 2009-12-08. ^ Milton, John (2005). Paradise Lost. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 591. ^ Sabatini, Rafael (1932). Captain Blood: His Odyssey. London: Hutchinson and Co., Ltd. p. 499., in the partly collected works Romances of the Sea. v t e Dante's Divine Comedy Characters and locations Inferno Acheron Alichino Barbariccia Ciampolo Cocytus Dis Ugolino della Gherardesca Malacoda Paolo Malatesta Malebranche Malebolge Minos Odysseus Phlegethon Francesca da Rimini Satan Scarmiglione Styx Virgil Purgatorio Cato the Younger Forese Donati Eunoe Beatrice Portinari Statius Paradiso Adam Thomas Aquinas Bernard of Clairvaux Bonaventure Cacciaguida Charles Martel of Anjou David Empyrean Justinian I Peter Lombard Piccarda Verses "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe" "Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi" Adaptations Classical music Après une Lecture de Dante: Fantasia quasi Sonata (Liszt, 1849) Dante Symphony (Liszt, 1857) Francesca da Rimini (Tchaikovsky, 1876) Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff, 1904) Francesca da Rimini (Zandonai, 1914) Gianni Schicchi (Puccini, 1918) The Divine Comedy (Smith, 1996) Paintings The Barque of Dante (Delacroix, 1822) The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides (Blake, 1827) Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil (Scheffer, 1835) Dante in Hell (Flandrin, 1835) The Barque of Dante (1850s, Manet) Pia de' Tolomei (Rossetti, 1868) Paolo and Francesca da Rimini (Rossetti, 1885) La barca de Aqueronte (Hidalgo, 1887) La Laguna Estigia (Hidalgo, 1887) Sculptures The Kiss (Rodin, 1882) The Thinker (Rodin, 1904) The Gates of Hell (Rodin, 1917) Architecture Danteum (Terragni, 1938) Modern music Inferno (1973 album) "Dante's Inferno" (1995 song) Dante XXI (2006 album) A Place Where the Sun Is Silent (2011 album) Film L'Inferno (1911) Dante's Inferno (1924) Dante's Inferno (1935) The Dante Quartet (1987) A TV Dante (1989) Dante's Inferno (2007) Dante's Inferno: An Animated Epic (2010) Dante's Hell Animated (2013) Literature The Story of Rimini (1816) La Comédie humaine (1830–1850) Earth Inferno (1905) The Cantos (1917–1962) As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (1937) The System of Dante's Hell (1965) Demon Lord Dante (1971) Inferno (1976) The Dante Club (2003) Jimbo's Inferno (2006) Inferno (2013) Video games Devil May Cry series (2001) Bayonetta series (2009) Dante's Inferno (2010) The Lost (cancelled) Related Cultural references in the Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy in popular culture English translations Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli Botticelli Inferno (2016 documentary) Hell in popular culture Category v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cocytus&oldid=1003504234" Categories: Rivers of Hades Divine Comedy Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 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en-wikipedia-org-9124	----	Political cartoon - Wikipedia Political cartoon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Editorial cartoons) Jump to navigation Jump to search Illustration used to comment on current events and personalities Political cartoon Comics Speech balloon Comics studies Education Glossary History by country Methods Cartooning Fumetti Media Formats Comic book Comic strip Digital comic Gag cartoon Graphic novel Political cartoon Webcomic Webtoon Comics by Country and Culture American comics Bandes dessinées (Belgium / Quebec) British comics Canadian comics Dutch comics German comics Italian comics Manga Manhua Manhwa Portuguese comics Spanish comics Community Awards Cartoonists Collecting Publishers Sales  Comics portal v t e A political cartoon, a type of editorial cartoon, is a cartoon graphic with caricatures of public figures, expressing the artist's opinion. An artist who writes and draws such images is known as an editorial cartoonist. They typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and satire in order to question authority and draw attention to corruption, political violence and other social ills.[1][2] Developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century, the political cartoon was pioneered by James Gillray,[3] although his and others in the flourishing English industry were sold as individual prints in print shops. Founded in 1841, the British periodical Punch appropriated the term cartoon to refer to its political cartoons, which led to the term's widespread use.[4] Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Development 1.3 Cartoonist's magazines 1.4 Maturation 2 Recognition 3 Modern political cartoons 4 Pocket cartoons 5 Controversies related to cartoons 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History[edit] Origins[edit] A Rake's Progress, Plate 8, 1735, and retouched by Hogarth in 1763 by adding the Britannia emblem[5][6] The pictorial satire has been credited as the precursor to the political cartoons in England: John J. Richetti, in The Cambridge history of English literature, 1660–1780, states that "English graphic satire really begins with Hogarth's Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme".[7][8] William Hogarth's pictures combined social criticism with sequential artistic scenes. A frequent target of his satire was the corruption of early 18th century British politics. An early satirical work was an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (c.1721), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720 known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money.[9] His art often had a strong moralizing element to it, such as in his masterpiece of 1732–33, A Rake's Progress, engraved in 1734. It consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from sex workers, and gambling—the character's life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital.[10] However, his work was only tangentially politicized and was primarily regarded on its artistic merits. George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s.[8][11] Development[edit] James Gillray’s The Plumb-pudding in Danger (1805). The world being carved up into spheres of influence between Pitt and Napoleon. According to Martin Rowson, it is "probably the most famous political cartoon of all time—it has been stolen over and over and over again by cartoonists ever since."[12] The medium began to develop in England in the latter part of the 18th century—especially around the time of the French Revolution—under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon.[3] Calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account, many of Gillray's satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of Revolutionary France and Napoleon.[3] The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable to the growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was carried on with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and personalities were freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's incomparable wit and humour, knowledge of life, fertility of resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, and beauty of execution, at once gave him the first place among caricaturists.[13] George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray (1820s–40s). His early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians and was bribed in 1820 "not to caricature His Majesty" (George IV) "in any immoral situation". His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as Gillray and Rowlandson.[14] Cartoonist's magazines[edit] 1942 political cartoon by Dr. Seuss Roosevelt introduces Taft as his crown prince: Puck magazine cover, 1906. An editorial cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled The Rail Splitter at Work Repairing the Union. The caption reads: (Johnson): "Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever." (Lincoln): "A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended." The art of the editorial cartoon was further developed with the publication of the British periodical Punch in 1841, founded by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells (an earlier magazine that published cartoons was Monthly Sheet of Caricatures, printed from 1830 and an important influence on Punch).[15] It was bought by Bradbury and Evans in 1842, who capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies to turn the magazine into a preeminent national institution. The term "cartoon" to refer to comic drawings was coined by the magazine in 1843; the Houses of Parliament were to be decorated with murals, and "carttons" for the mural were displayed for the public; the term "cartoon" then meant a finished preliminary sketch on a large piece of cardboard, or cartone in Italian. Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the term's widespread use.[4] Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and Charles Keene. This group became known as "The Punch Brotherhood", which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists also contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week (est.1859), created in response to Dickens' departure from Household Words. The most prolific and influential cartoonist of the 1850s and 60s was John Tenniel, chief cartoon artist for Punch, who perfected the art of physical caricature and representation to a point that has changed little up to the present day. For over five decades he was a steadfast social witness to the sweeping national changes that occurred during this period alongside his fellow cartoonist John Leech. The magazine loyally captured the general public mood; in 1857, following the Indian Rebellion and the public outrage that followed, Punch published vengeful illustrations such as Tenniel's Justice and The British Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger. Maturation[edit] Thomas Nast depicts the Tweed Ring: "Who stole the people's money?" / "'Twas him." 1899 cartoon showing Uncle Sam lecturing four children labeled Philippines, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Cuba. The caption reads: School Begins. Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization)! 1903 political cartoon. The U.S.'s intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of Panama from Colombia By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many countries featured cartoons designed to express the publisher's opinion on the politics of the day. One of the most successful was Thomas Nast in New York City, who imported realistic German drawing techniques to major political issues in the era of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Nast was most famous for his 160 editorial cartoons attacking the criminal characteristics of Boss Tweed's political machine in New York City. Albert Boime argues that: As a political cartoonist, Thomas Nast wielded more influence than any other artist of the 19th century. He not only enthralled a vast audience with boldness and wit, but swayed it time and again to his personal position on the strength of his visual imagination. Both Lincoln and Grant acknowledged his effectiveness in their behalf, and as a crusading civil reformer he helped destroy the corrupt Tweed Ring that swindled New York City of millions of dollars. Indeed, his impact on American public life was formidable enough to profoundly affect the outcome of every presidential election during the period 1864 to 1884.[16] Notable editorial cartoons include Benjamin Franklin's Join, or Die (1754), on the need for unity in the American colonies; The Thinkers Club (1819), a response to the surveillance and censorship of universities in Germany under the Carlsbad Decrees; and E. H. Shepard's The Goose-Step (1936), on the rearmament of Germany under Hitler. The Goose-Step is one of a number of notable cartoons first published in the British Punch magazine. Recognition[edit] Institutions which archive and document editorial cartoons include the Center for the Study of Political Graphics in the United States,[17] and the British Cartoon Archive in the United Kingdom.[18] Editorial cartoons and editorial cartoonists are recognised by a number of awards, for example the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning (for US cartoonists, since 1922) and the British Press Awards' "Cartoonist of the Year". Modern political cartoons[edit] Political cartoons can usually be found on the editorial page of many newspapers, although a few (such as Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury) are sometimes placed on the regular comic strip page. Most cartoonists use visual metaphors and caricatures to address complicated political situations, and thus sum up a current event with a humorous or emotional picture. Yaakov Kirschen, creator of the Israeli comic strip Dry Bones, says his cartoons are designed to make people laugh, which makes them drop their guard and see things the way he does. In an interview, he defined his objective as a cartoonist as an attempt to "seduce rather than to offend."[19] Modern political cartooning can be built around traditional visual metaphors and symbols such as Uncle Sam, the Democratic donkey and the Republican elephant. One alternative approach is to emphasize the text or the story line, as seen in Doonesbury which tells a linear story in comic strip format. Cartoons have a great potential to political communication capable of enhancing political comprehension and reconceptualization of events, through specific frames of understanding (Mateus, 2016). Mateus' analysis "seems to indicate that the double standard thesis can be actually applied to trans-national contexts. This means that the framing of politics and business may not be limited to one country but may reflect a political world-view occurring in contemporary societies. From the double standard standpoint, there are no fundamental differences in the way Canadian political cartoonists and Portuguese political cartoons assess politics and business life" (Mateus, 2016:216). The paper does not tell that all political cartoons are based on this kind of double standard, but suggests that the double standard thesis in Political Cartoons may be a frequent frame among possible others. A political cartoon commonly draws on two unrelated events and brings them together incongruously for humorous effect. The humour can reduce people's political anger and so serves a useful purpose. Such a cartoon also reflects real life and politics, where a deal is often done on unrelated proposals beyond public scrutiny. Pocket cartoons[edit] A pocket cartoon is a form of cartoon which generally consists of a topical political gag/joke and appears as a single-panel single-column drawing. It was introduced by Osbert Lancaster in 1939 at the Daily Express.[20] A 2005 obituary by The Guardian of its pocket cartoonist David Austin said "Newspaper readers instinctively look to the pocket cartoon to reassure them that the disasters and afflictions besetting them each morning are not final. By taking a sideways look at the news and bringing out the absurd in it, the pocket cartoonist provides, if not exactly a silver lining, then at least a ray of hope."[21] Controversies related to cartoons[edit] Editorial cartoons sometimes cause controversies.[22] Examples include the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and Charlie Hebdo shooting (stemming from the publication of cartoons related to Islam) and the 2007 Bangladesh cartoon controversy. Libel lawsuits have been rare. In Britain, the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century came in 1921 when J.H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of "Black Friday"—when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners' Federation. Thomas won his lawsuit, and restored his reputation.[23] See also[edit]  Cartoon portal Attitude: The New Subversive Cartoonists Graphics List of editorial cartoonists Internet memes References[edit] ^ Sterling, Christopher (2009). Encyclopedia of Journalism. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. pp. 253–261. ISBN 0-7619-2957-6. ^ Shelton, Mitchell. "Editorial Cartoons: An Introduction | HTI". hti.osu.edu. Retrieved 28 June 2017. ^ a b c "Satire, sewers and statesmen: why James Gillray was king of the cartoon". The Guardian. 16 June 2015. ^ a b Appelbaum & Kelly 1981, p. 15. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAppelbaumKelly1981 (help) ^ J. B. Nichols, 1833 p. 192 "PLATE VIII. ... Britannia 1763" ^ J. B. Nichols, 1833 p. 193 "Retouched by the Author, 1763" ^ Richetti, John J. (2005). The Cambridge history of English literature, 1660–1780. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78144-2., p. 85. ^ a b Charles Press (1981). The Political Cartoon. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 34. ^ See Ronald Paulson, Hogarth's Graphic Works (3rd edition, London 1989), no. 43. ^ "A Rake's Progress". Sir John Soane's Museum. Sir John Soane's Museum. 2012. Retrieved 13 December 2013. ^ Chris Upton. "Birth of England's pocket cartoon". Birmingham Post & Mail – via The Free Library. ^ Martin Rowson, speaking on The Secret of Drawing, presented by Andrew Graham Dixon, BBCTV ^ "James Gillray: The Scourge of Napoleon". HistoryToday. ^ Gatrell, Vic. City of Laughter: Sex and Satire in Eighteenth-Century London. New York: Walker & Co., 2006 ^ "Caricature and cartoon". Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Albert Boime, "Thomas Nast and French Art", American Art Journal (1972) 4#1 pp. 43–65 ^ "CSPG, politicalgraphics". CSPG, politicalgraphics. Retrieved 28 June 2017. ^ "British Cartoon Archive at University of Kent | Culture24". www.culture24.org.uk. Retrieved 28 June 2017. ^ Davis, Barry (31 May 2011). "'Dry Bones': Row shows clash of civilizations, Jerusalem Post". Jpost.com. Retrieved 16 May 2014. ^ David Smith, The Observer, 23 November 2008, Timeless appeal of the classic joke ^ Nicola Jennings and Patrick Barkham, The Guardian, 21 November 2005, David Austin: Guardian pocket cartoonist with a sceptically humanist view of the news ^ Navasky, Victor S. (12 November 2011). "Why Are Political Cartoons Incendiary?" – via NYTimes.com. ^ Samuel S. Hyde, "'Please, Sir, he called me "Jimmy!' Political Cartooning before the Law: 'Black Friday,' J.H. Thomas, and the Communist Libel Trial of 1921," Contemporary British History (2011) 25#4 pp 521–550 Further reading[edit] Adler, John, and Hill, Draper. Doomed by Cartoon: How Cartoonist Thomas Nast and the New York Times Brought Down Boss Tweed and His Ring of Thieves (2008) Gocek, Fatma Muge. Political Cartoons in the Middle East: Cultural Representations in the Middle East (Princeton series on the Middle East) (1998) Hess, Stephen, and Sandy Northrop. American Political Cartoons, 1754–2010: The Evolution of a National Identity (2010) Keller, Morton. The Art and Politics of Thomas Nast (1975) Knieper, Thomas. "Caricature and cartoon". Encyclopædia Britannica. Krauss, Jerelle. All the Art That’s Fit to Print (And Some That Wasn’t): Inside The New York Times Op-Ed Page (2009). excerpt ISBN 978-0-231-13825-3 "It's No Laughing Matter". Classroom Materials: Presentations and Activities. Library of Congress. Mateus, Samuel. ""Political Cartoons as communicative weapons – the hypothesis of the 'Double Standard Thesis' in three Portuguese cartoons", Communication Studies, nº23, pp. 195–221 (2016) McKenna, Kevin J. All the Views Fit to Print: Changing Images of the U.S. in 'Pravda' Political Cartoons, 1917–1991 (2001) Morris, Frankie. Artist of Wonderland: The Life, Political Cartoons, and Illustrations of Tenniel (Victorian Literature and Culture Series) (2005) Navasky, Victor S. (2013). The Art of Controversy: Political Cartoons and Their Enduring Power. ISBN 978-0307957207. Nevins, Allan. A Century of Political Cartoons: Caricature in the United States from 1800 to 1900 (1944) Press, Charles. The Political Cartoon (1981) External links[edit] This section's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Political cartoons. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Political cartoon History of Cartoon History of Cartoon from Toons Mag American Association of Editorial Cartoonists Political cartoons by the members of the American Association of Editorial Cartoonists TED Talk: The power of cartoons About.com: Political Cartoons Comprehensive guide to political editorial cartoons on the Web Globe Cartoon: archived editorial cartoons, searchable by themes and keywords Using editorial cartoons in the classroom Sources, analysis, interpretation (mostly English with some German) Gettysburg College Civil War Era Digital Collection Contains over 300 Civil War Era political cartoons The Role of Puck's Cartoons in Gilded Age Politics from American Studies at the University of Virginia CartoonMovement.com: Political Cartoons and Comics Journalism from around the world "Cartoons in American History" guide to websites John Tinney McCutcheon Editorial Cartoon Collection at the University of Missouri Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_cartoon&oldid=1002329300" Categories: Editorial cartoons Caricature Propaganda Propaganda cartoons Political terminology Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles containing Italian-language text Wikipedia external links cleanup from November 2017 Wikipedia spam cleanup from November 2017 Commons category link is on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Cymraeg Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia עברית Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Norsk bokmål Русский ไทย Türkçe Українська 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 January 2021, at 22:39 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9177	----	Pre-Greek substrate - Wikipedia Pre-Greek substrate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pre-Greek) Jump to navigation Jump to search Extinct language of prehistoric Greece Not to be confused with Proto-Greek language. The Pre-Greek substrate (or Pre-Greek substratum) consists of the unknown language(s) spoken in prehistoric Greece before the coming of the Proto-Greek language in the area during the Bronze Age. It is possible that Greek acquired some thousand words and proper names from such a language(s), because some of its vocabulary cannot be satisfactorily explained as deriving from Proto-Greek and a Proto-Indo-European reconstruction is almost impossible for such terms.[1][2] Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Linguistic situation 1.2 Coming of Proto-Greek 1.3 Reconstruction 2 Pre-Greek loanwords 3 Substratum theories 3.1 Anatolian Indo-European contact 3.2 Minoan substratum 3.3 Tyrrhenian substratum 3.4 Kartvelian theory 4 See also 4.1 Substrates of other Indo-European languages 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Introduction[edit] Linguistic situation[edit] Some modern linguists such as Robert Beekes and José Luís García-Ramón hold that the pre-Greek substrate spoken in the southern Balkans was non-Indo-European.[3][4] According to Beekes, the material "shows that we are largely dealing with one language, or a group of closely related dialects or languages".[5] However, Biliana Mihaylova finds no contradiction between "the idea of [an] Indo-European Pre-Greek substratum" and "the possibility of the existence of an earlier non-Indo-European layer in Greece" given certain pre-Greek words possessing Indo-European "pattern[s] of word formation".[6] Coming of Proto-Greek[edit] Estimates for the introduction of the Proto-Greek language into prehistoric Greece have changed over the course of the 20th century. Since the decipherment of Linear B, searches were made "for earlier breaks in the continuity of the material record that might represent the 'coming of the Greeks'".[7] The majority of scholars dates the coming of Proto-Greek to the transition from Early Helladic II to Early Helladic III (c. 2400−2200/2100 BC).[8] This has been criticized by John E. Coleman, who argues that this estimate is based on stratigraphic discontinuities at Lerna that other archaeological excavations in Greece suggested were the product of chronological gaps or separate deposit-sequencing instead of cultural changes.[9] Coleman estimates that the entry of Proto-Greek speakers into the Greek peninsula occurred during the late 4th millennium BC (c. 3200 BC) with pre-Greek spoken by the inhabitants of the Late Neolithic II period.[10] Reconstruction[edit] Although no written texts exist or have been identified as pre-Greek, the lexicon has been partially reconstructed via the considerable number of words that have been borrowed into Greek; such words often show a type of variation not found in inherited Indo-European Greek terms, and certain recurrent patterns that can be used to identify pre-Greek elements.[3] Pre-Greek loanwords[edit] There are different categories of words that have been suggested to be pre-Greek, or "Aegean", loanwords such as:[11][12] Anatomy: λαιμός, laimós, 'neck, throat'. Animals: βόλινθος/βόνασσος, bólinthos/bónassos, 'wild ox'; κάνθαρος, kántharos, 'beetle'; σμίνθος, smínthos, 'mouse'. Architecture: λαβύρινθος, labýrinthos, 'labyrinth'; πλίνθος, plínthos, 'brick'; πύργος, pýrgos, 'tower'.[13] Geography and topography: ἄμβων/ἄμβη, ámbōn/ámbē, 'crest of a hill', 'raised edge or protuberance'[6] Maritime vocabulary: ἄκατος, ákatos, 'small dinghy, skiff'. θάλασσα, thálassa, 'sea'. θάλαμος, thálamos, 'an inner room or chamber', 'the lowest, darkest part of the ship', 'the hold'[6] Metals and metallurgy: κασσίτερος, kassíteros, 'tin'; χαλκός, chalkós, 'copper'; μόλυβδος, mólybdos, 'lead'; σίδηρος, sídēros, 'iron'. Musical instruments: σύριγξ, sýrinx, 'flute'; κίθαρις, kítharis, 'zither'; σάλπιγξ, sálpinx, 'trumpet'; φόρμιγξ, phórminx, 'lyre'. Plants: ἀψίνθιον, apsínthion, 'wormwood' or 'absinthe'; ἐλαία, elaía, 'olive tree'; κισσός, kissós, 'ivy'; ἄμπελος, ámpelos, 'vine'; σταφυλή, staphylḗ, 'grape'. Social practices and institutions: ἀτέμβω, atémbo, 'maltreat' or 'to be bereft or cheated of a thing';[6] τύραννος, týrannos, 'absolute ruler'. Theonyms: Ἀπόλλων, Apóllōn, Apollo;[14][15] Ἄρης, Arēs, Ares;[15] Ἄρτεμις, Artemis, Artemis;[15] Ἀσκληπιός, Asklēpiós, Asclepius;[16] Ἀθήνη, Athḗnē, Athena;[15] Ἄτλας, Atlas, Atlas;[16] Διόνῡσος, Diónȳsos, Dionysus;[16] Ἑρμῆς, Hermēs, Hermes;[17] Ἥφαιστος Hēphaistos, Hephaestus;[18][17] Ὀδυσσεύς, Odysseús, Odysseus.[19][17] Toponyms/placenames: -νθ-, -nth- (e.g. Κόρινθος Korinthos, Ζάκυνθος Zakynthos), -σσ-, -ss- (e.g. Παρνασσός Parnassos), and -ττ-, -tt- (e.g. Ὑμηττός Hymettus).[20] Use of domestic species: ἔλαιον, élaion, 'olive oil'; λήκυθος, lḗkythos, 'oil-flask'; κάνθων, kánthōn, 'pack-ass'. Weapons: σιβύνη, síbynē, 'hunting spear'; ὑσσός, hyssós, 'javelin'; θώραξ, thṓrax, 'corselet'. Weaving: μύρινθος, mýrinthos, 'cord'; ἀρύβαλλος, arýballos, 'purse'. Substratum theories[edit] Various explanations have been made for these substrate features. Among these are:[21] Anatolian Indo-European contact[edit] Based upon toponymic evidence, it is generally assumed that a language was once spoken in both the Greek peninsula and western Anatolia before both Mycenaean Greek and the attested Anatolian languages became predominant. Various explanations for this phenomenon have been given by scholars.[22] From the distribution of the names, it appears that this language was spoken during the Early Helladic II period, which began around 2800 BC.[23] This substrate language, whose influence is observable on Ancient Greek and Anatolian languages, is taken by a number of scholars to be related to the Indo-European Luwian language,[23][24] and to be responsible for the widespread place-names ending in -ssa- and -nda- in Western Anatolia, and -ssos- and -nthos- in mainland Greece, respectively.[25][26][23] For instance, the name of the mount Parnassos in Greece has been interpreted as the Luwian parna- ('house') attached to the possessive suffix -ssa-. Both Hittite and Luwian texts also attest a place-name Parnassa, which could be related.[23] Philologist Martin L. West has proposed to name the language "Parnassian", and has argued for "a parallel movement down from Thrace by a branch of the same people as entered Anatolia, the people who were to appear 1,500 years later as the Luwians".[23] Other scholars have proposed that this substrate was brought to Greece by pre-Indo-European Anatolian settlers.[27][28] In most cases, it is impossible to distinguish between substrate words and loans from Asia Minor, and terms like τολύπη (tolúpē; 'clew, ball of wool ready for spinning') show typical pre-Greek features while being related to Anatolian words (in this case Luwian and Hittite taluppa/i- 'lump, clod') with no common Indo-European etymology, suggesting that they were borrowed into both Ancient Greek and Anatolian languages from the same substrate.[28] However, of the few words of secure Anatolian origin, most are cultural items or commodities which are likely the result of commercial exchange, not of a substratum.[29] Furthermore, the correlations between Anatolian and Greek placenames may in fact represent a common early phase of Indo-European spoken before the Anatolian languages developed in Asia Minor and Greek in mainland Greece.[30] Some of the relevant vocabulary can be explained alternatively as linguistic exchange between Greek and Anatolic languages across the Aegean Sea without necessarily originating from a change of language.[28][31] Anatolian loanwords include:[31] Apóllōn (Doric: Apéllōn, Cypriot: Apeílōn), from *Apeljōn, as in Hittite Appaliunaš;[14] dépas 'cup; pot, vessel', Mycenaean di-pa, from Hieroglyphic Luwian ti-pa-s 'sky; bowl, cup' (cf. Hittite nēpis 'sky; cup'); eléphās 'ivory', from Hittite laḫpa (itself from Mesopotamia; cf. Phoenician ʾlp, Egyptian Ȝbw); kýanos 'dark blue glaze; enamel', from Hittite kuwannan- 'copper ore; azurite' (ultimately from Sumerian kù-an); kýmbachos 'helmet', from Hittite kupaḫi 'headgear'; kýmbalon 'cymbal', from Hittite ḫuḫupal 'wooden percussion instrument'; mólybdos 'lead', Mycenaean mo-ri-wo-do, from *morkʷ-io- 'dark', as in Lydian mariwda(ś)-k 'the dark ones'; óbryza 'vessel for refining gold', from Hittite ḫuprušḫi 'vessel'; tolýpē 'ball of wool', from Hittite taluppa 'lump'/'clod' (or Cuneiform Luwian taluppa/i). Minoan substratum[edit] The existence of a Minoan (Eteocretan) substratum was the opinion of English archaeologist Arthur Evans who assumed widespread Minoan colonisation of the Aegean, policed by a Minoan thalassocracy.[32] Raymond A. Brown, after listing a number of words of pre-Greek origin from Crete, suggests a relation between Minoan, Eteocretan, Lemnian (Pelasgian), and Tyrrhenian, inventing the name "Aegeo-Asianic" for the proposed language family.[33] However, many Minoan loanwords found in Mycenaean Greek (e.g., words for architecture, metals and metallurgy, music, use of domestic species, social institutions, weapons, weaving) have been asserted to be the result of socio-cultural and economic interactions between the Minoans and Mycenaeans during the Bronze Age, and may therefore be part of a linguistic adstrate in Greek rather than a substrate.[34] Tyrrhenian substratum[edit] A Tyrrhenian/Etruscan substratum was proposed on the basis of (firstly) statements by Thucydides, to the effect that Tyrrhenian languages were spoken in an area including Athens, before the Tyrrhenians were expelled to the island of Lemnos,[35] and (secondly) the Lemnos funerary stele:[36] four pottery sherds inscribed in Etruscan that were found in 1885 at Ephestia in Lemnos.[36] However, the Lemnos funerary stele was written in a form of ancient Etruscan, which suggested that the author had emigrated from Etruria in Italy, rather than the Greek sphere, and the Homeric tradition makes no mention of a Tyrrhenian presence on Lemnos.[37] If Etruscan was spoken in Greece, it must have been effectively a language isolate, with no significant relationship to or interaction with speakers of pre-Greek or ancient Greek, since, in the words of C. De Simone, there are no Etruscan words that can be "etymologically traced back to a single, common ancestral form with a Greek equivalent".[37] Kartvelian theory[edit] In 1979, Edzard J. Furnée proposed a theory by which a pre-Greek substrate is associated with the Kartvelian languages.[38] See also[edit] Proto-Greek language Eteocretan Eteocypriot Etruscan language Minoan language Tyrrhenian languages Camunic language (probably Raetic) North Picene language Elymian language (probably Indo-European) Sicanian language Sicel language Paleo-Sardinian language (also called Paleosardinian, Protosardic, Nuraghic language) Hurro-Urartian languages Hurrian language Urartian language ?Kassite language Hattic language Substrates of other Indo-European languages[edit] Old European hydronymy Goidelic substrate hypothesis Germanic substrate hypothesis Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit References[edit] ^ Duhoux 2007, pp. 220–222. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFDuhoux2007 (help) ^ Beekes 2014, pp. 47–48: "Our knowledge of Indo-European has expanded so much, especially in the last thirty years (notably because of the laryngeal theory) that in some cases we can say almost with certainty that an Indo-European reconstruction is impossible. [...] In my EDG, I marked with >PG< all words which, in my view, were of Pre-Greek origin. I found 1106 words.". ^ a b Beekes 2014, p. 1. ^ García-Ramón 2004, pp. 999–1000. ^ Beekes 2014, p. 45. ^ a b c d Mihaylova 2012, pp. 80–81. ^ Coleman 2000, p. 104. ^ Meier-Brügger 2017, p. 697; citing Strunk 85−98, Panagl 99−103, and Lindner 105−108 in Bammesberger & Vennemann 2003. ^ Coleman 2000, pp. 106−107. ^ Coleman 2000, p. 139ff. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 244–245 (see Tables 1 and 2 for all loanwords except personal names, toponyms and theonyms). ^ Beekes 2014. ^ If the substratum is actually Indo-European, pyrgos as well as Pergamos might be connected to Proto-Indo-European *bhergh- Archived 2008-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Beekes 2003, pp. 1–21. ^ a b c d Beekes 2014, p. 160. ^ a b c Beekes 2014, p. 161. ^ a b c Beekes 2014, p. 162. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 527. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 1048. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 241, 253–254. ^ Other theories ranging from the mild (e.g., Egyptian) to the extreme (e.g., Proto-Turkic) have been proposed but have been given little to no consideration from the broader academic community and as such are not mentioned in the main body of this article. ^ Furnée 1972, p. 35; Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254; Finkelberg 2006, p. 52; West 2007, p. 8; Beekes 2009, p. 3 ^ a b c d e West 2007, p. 8. ^ Some scholars, such as Leonard R. Palmer, go so far as to suggest that the language of Linear A might be Luwian, though other Anatolian interpretations have also been offered. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254. ^ Finkelberg 2006, p. 52: "As we have seen, the suffixes -nth- and -ss, which a hundred years ago gave rise to the hypothesis of the non-Indo-European pre-Hellenic substratum, can now be accounted for as typically Anatolian or, to be more precise, Luwian." ^ Furnée 1972, p. 35. ^ a b c Beekes 2009, p. 3. ^ Beekes 2009, p. xv. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254, 256–257. ^ a b Hajnal 2009, pp. 1–21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHajnal2009 (help) ^ Gere 2006, p. 112: "Arthur Evans would live to repent of his suggestion to the British School that they reopen the excavations at Mycenae. He had expected that his theory of Minoan dominance over the mainland would be borne out, but instead he encountered stout resistance... Evans could never bring himself to believe any story except that of Minoan colonisation of the mainland from the beginning to the end of Mycenaean history." ^ Brown 1985, p. 289. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 239–264. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 4.109.4. ^ a b De Simone 2007, p. 786. ^ a b De Simone 2007, p. 787. ^ Furnée 1979. Sources[edit] Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo, eds. (2003). Languages in Prehistoric Europe (in German). Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter GmBH. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2003). "The Origin of Apollo". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 3 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1163/1569212031960384. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2014). Pre-Greek Phonology, Morphology, Lexicon. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004279445. Brown, Raymond A. (1985). Evidence for Pre-Greek Speech on Crete from Greek Alphabetic Sources. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. Coleman, John E. (2000). "An Archaeological Scenario for the "Coming of the Greeks" ca. 3200 B.C." The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 28 (1–2): 101–153. Demiraj, Shaban (2006). The Origin of the Albanians: Linguistically Investigated. Tirana: Academy of Sciences of Albania. ISBN 978-99943-817-1-5. De Simone, C. (2007). "9 Greek and Etruscan". In Christidis, A.-F.; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (eds.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 786–791. ISBN 978-0-521-83307-3. Duhoux, Y. (2007). "8 Greek and pre-Greek Languages: Introduction". In Christidis, A.-F.; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (eds.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 220–222. ISBN 9780521833073. Finkelberg, Margalit (2006). Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85216-6. Furnée, Edzard J. (1972). Die Wichtigsten Konsonantischen Erscheinungen Des Vorgriechischen: Mit Einem Appendix Über Den Vokalismus (in German). The Hague: Mouton. Furnée, Edzard Johan (1979). Vorgriechisch-Kartvelisches (in German). Leuven: Editions Peeters. ISBN 2801701149. García-Ramón, José Luís (2004). "Greece, Languages". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmut (eds.). Brill's New Pauly, Vol. 5. Leiden: Brill. Gere, Cathy (2006). The Tomb of Agamemnon. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02170-9. Hajnal, Ivo; Posch, Claudia (2009). "Graeco-Anatolian Contacts in the Mycenaean Period". Sprachwissenschaft Innsbruck Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen. Meier-Brügger, Michael (2017). "The Lexicon of Greek". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 1. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Mihaylova, Biliana (2012). "The Pre-Greek Substratum Revisited". In Hejl, Christina Løye; Jacquet, Janus Bahs; Heide, Marie; Whitehead, Benedicte Nielsen; Olsen, Birgit Anette (eds.). Etymology and the European Lexicon (PDF). Copenhagen: Roots of Europe (University of Copenhagen). pp. 80–81. Orel, Vladimir E. (1998). Albanian Etymological Dictionary. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11024-3. Renfrew, Colin (1998). "Word of Minos: The Minoan Contribution to Mycenaean Greek and the Linguistic Geography of the Bronze Age Aegean". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 8 (2): 239–264. doi:10.1017/S0959774300001852. West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Further reading[edit] Beattie, A.J. (1963). "Before Greek Alfred Heubeck: Praegraeca: sprachliche Untersuchungen zum vorgriechischindogermanischen Substrat. (Erlanger Forschungen, Reihe A, Band 12.) Pp. 90. Erlangen: Universitätsbibliothek, 1961. Paper". The Classical Review. 13 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00215370. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2008). "Palatalized Consonants in Pre-Greek". Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics. 32: 45–56. Carnoy, Albert (1960). "Les suffixes toponymiques pré-grecs". L'antiquité classique. 29 (2): 319–336. doi:10.3406/antiq.1960.348. Carnoy, Albert (1958). "Noms grecs de plantes d'origine pré-hellénique". L'antiquité classique. 27 (2): 305–327. doi:10.3406/antiq.1958.3346. Delgado, José Miguel Jiménez (2008). "Préstamos anatolios en griego antiguo" (PDF). Estudios Clásicos. 133: 7–32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-04. Retrieved 2017-09-22. Duhoux, Yves (2007). "Pre-Greek Languages: Indirect Evidence". In Christidis, A.-F. (ed.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–228. ISBN 978-0-521-83307-3. Heubeck, Alfred (1961). Praegraeca: sprachliche Untersuchungen zum vorgriechisch-indogermanischen Substrat (in German). Erlangen: Universitätsbund Erlangen. Watkins, Calvert (2007). "The Golden Bowl: Thoughts on the New Sappho and Its Asianic Background". Classical Antiquity. 26 (2): 305–324. doi:10.1525/ca.2007.26.2.305. External links[edit] Beekes, Roberts S. P. (2010). "Etymological Dictionary of Greek: The Pre-Greek Loanwords in Greek". Brill. (NB: Click the "Pre-Greek loanwords in Greek" tab found below the introductory text.) v t e Greek language Origin and genealogy Proto-Greek Pre-Greek substrate Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Hellenic languages Periods Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330) Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453) Modern Greek (since 1453) Varieties Ancient Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Homeric Locrian Pamphylian Macedonian Koine Jewish Koine Greek Modern Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Istanbul Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Phonology Ancient (accent/teaching) Koine Standard Modern Grammar Ancient Koine Standard Modern Writing systems Cypriot syllabary Linear B Greek alphabet History Archaic forms Attic numerals Greek numerals Orthography Diacritics Braille Cyrillization and Romanization Greeklish Literature Ancient Byzantine Modern Promotion and study Hellenic Foundation for Culture Center for the Greek Language Other Greek language question Exonyms Morphemes in English Terms of endearment Place names Proverbs Greek Language Day Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries v t e Language families of Eurasia Europe Indo-European Uralic Basque Iberian Tartessian Paleo-Corsican Paleo-Sardinian Camunic Elymian Ligurian North Picene Sicani Tyrsenian Eteocretan Eteocypriot Minoan West Asia Indo-European Afroasiatic Hurro-Urartian Hattic Kassite Kaskian Philistine Sumerian Proto-Euphratean ? Elamite Caucasian Kartvelian Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian South Asia Indo-European Dravidian Nihali Burushaski Kusunda Harappan ? East Asia Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong–Mien Kra–Dai Austronesian Japonic Indian Ocean rim Great Andamanese Ongan Kenaboi North Asia Altaic ? Turkic Mongolic Tungusic Koreanic Japonic "Paleosiberian" Koreanic Ainu Nivkh Chukotko-Kamchatkan Yukaghir Yeniseian Other North Asia Uralic Ruanruan ? Eskimo–Aleut Proposed groupings Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk Pontic Turanian Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Arunachal Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa Southeast Asia Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Substrata Atlantic Pre-Celtic Pre-Germanic Pre-Goidelic Pre-Greek Vasconic Pre-Vedic Pre-Finno-Ugric Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Greek_substrate&oldid=1004381058" Categories: Greek language Ancient Greek language Language contact Aegean languages in the Bronze Age Pre-Indo-Europeans Linguistic strata Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Български Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Македонски Nederlands Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 09:42 (UTC). 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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: == References == {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} *{{cite book|last=Evslin|first=Bernard |title=Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ljjly9Zes9AC|year=2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84511-321-6}} *[[Homer]], [[Iliad|''The Iliad'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Homer]]. ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0133 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''The Odyssey'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0135 Greek text available from the same website]. *{{cite book|last1=Morford|first1=Mark P. O. |last2=Lenardon|first2=Robert J. |title=Classical Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecGXcMRAPXcC&pg=PA491|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514338-6}} *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Graeciae Descriptio.'' ''3 vols''. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]], ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0021 Greek text available from the same website]. *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses'' translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses.'' Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{refend}} Return to Sisyphus. 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en-wikipedia-org-9260	----	Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard - Wikipedia Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Picture:File Upload Wizard Shortcut WP:FUW ‹See TfM› Thank you for offering to contribute an image or other media file for use on Wikipedia. This wizard will guide you through a questionnaire prompting you for the appropriate copyright and sourcing information for each file. Please ensure you understand copyright and the image use policy before proceeding. Upload to Wikimedia Commons Recommended for your own or freely licensed files Upload locally to Wikipedia Use for non-free (fair use) files You are not currently logged in. Sorry, in order to use this uploading script and to upload files, you need to be logged in with your named account. Please log in and then try again. Your account has not become confirmed yet. Sorry, in order to upload files on the English Wikipedia, you need to have a confirmed account. Normally, your account will become confirmed automatically once you have made 10 edits and four days have passed since you created it. You may already be able to upload files on the Wikimedia Commons, but you can't do it on the English Wikipedia just yet. If the file you want to upload has a free license, please go to Commons and upload it there. Important note: if you don't want to wait until you are autoconfirmed, you may ask somebody else to upload a file for you at Wikipedia:Files for upload. In very rare cases an administrator may make your account confirmed manually through a request at Wikipedia:Requests for permissions/Confirmed. Step 1: Choose your file File: Choose a file from your computer. Maximum file size: 100 MB. Permitted file types: png, gif, jpg, jpeg, xcf, pdf, mid, ogg, ogv, svg, djvu, tiff, tif, oga. Step 2: Describe your file Please provide a clear, descriptive name by which your file will be known on Wikipedia.   This name must be unique across the whole of Wikipedia, so please make it informative and easy to recognize. It's no problem to use a fairly long name. It may also include spaces, commas and most other punctuation marks. Please also note that file names are case sensitive (with the exception of the first letter). Good: "City of London, skyline from London City Hall, Oct 2008.jpg". Bad: "Skyline.jpg", "DSC0001234.jpg". Sorry, a few special characters and character combinations cannot be used in the filename for technical reasons. This goes especially for # < > [ ] | : { } /  and ~~~. Your filename has been modified to avoid these. Please check if it is okay now. The filename you chose seems to be very short, or overly generic. Please don't use: Titles that consist only of very generic descriptive words (e.g. "Sunset.jpg", "Townhall.jpg") Titles that consist only of a person's first or last name, when that name is likely to be shared by many others (e.g. "John.jpg", "Miller.jpg") Titles that consist of mere numbers, of the kind often produced by digital cameras ("DSC_001234", "IMGP0345"), or random strings like those sometimes found on the web ("30996951316264l.jpg") Existing file. Last uploaded by Example user. A file of this name already exists on Commons! If you upload your file with this name, you will be masking the existing file and make it inaccessible. Your new file will be displayed everywhere the existing file was previously used. This should not be done, except in very rare exceptional cases. Please don't upload your file under this name, unless you seriously know what you are doing. Choose a different name for your new file instead. If you want to replace the existing file with an uncontroversial, improved version of the same work, please go to Commons and upload it there, not here on the English Wikipedia's local wiki. A file of this name already exists. If you upload your file with this name, you will be overwriting the existing file. Your new file will be displayed everywhere the existing file was previously used. Please don't do this, unless you have a good reason to: No, I don't want to overwrite the existing file. I will choose a different name for my new file instead. Yes, I want to overwrite the existing file. My file is merely a new, improved and uncontentious version of the same work. The old description page, including the source and copyright information, will still be correct for the new version and can remain the same. Yes, I want to overwrite the existing file, and I will use this wizard to add a new description and new source information for it. The previous version was my own, or else I have made sure the previous uploader(s) don't object to this replacement. Please provide a brief description of the contents of this file. This will be stored and displayed as part of the file description page. It is important that other editors be able to understand what this file is about.   What does this file show? What is it a photo/diagram/recording of? It will be helpful if you also add a wikilink to the article where you want to use it. Step 3: Provide source and copyright information It is very important that you read through the following options and questions, and provide all required information truthfully and carefully. This is a free work. I can demonstrate that it is legally okay for anybody to use, in Wikipedia and elsewhere, for any purpose. Thank you for offering to upload a free work. Wikipedia loves free files. However, we would love it even more if you uploaded them on our sister project, the Wikimedia Commons. Files uploaded on Commons can be used immediately here on Wikipedia as well as on all its sister projects. Uploading files on Commons works just the same as here. Your Wikipedia account will automatically work on Commons too. Please consider uploading your file on Commons. However, if you prefer to do it here instead, you may go ahead with this form. You can also first use this form to collect the information about your file and then send it to Commons from here. Copyright status: This file is entirely my own work. I am the copyright holder. I made this myself, from scratch, without copying or incorporating anybody else's creative work, and I am willing to release it under a free license. Please note that by "entirely self-made" we really mean just that. Do not use this section for any of the following: a scan or photograph you made of a painting, drawing, printed page or other item originally created by somebody else. The copyright belongs to the original creator, not to you. a screenshot or other kind of capture of a video, computer screen, TV programme or other kind of visual media. a picture you created by modifying or copying some other picture or by combining several preexisting pictures made by somebody else. a picture given to you by somebody else. a picture you found somewhere on the Internet. Editors who falsely declare such items as their "own work" will be blocked from editing. Please describe how and when you created this item. How?   (e.g.: Where and on what kind of occasion did you take this photo? How did you make this diagram? etc.) Date   (please use YYYY-MM-DD format if possible). Publication: Please indicate here if you have previously published this item elsewhere, e.g. on your own website, your Flickr or Facebook account, etc., providing a link. It is important that you place this work under a free license, which will allow everybody else to use it for any purpose, including both commercial and non-commercial purposes, and to modify it. This license will be irrevocable. This file was given to me by its owner. The copyright owner of this file has given it to me for uploading on Wikipedia. I can provide evidence that they have agreed to release it under a free license, for free use by anybody and for any purpose. Please describe who owns this work and how you got it from them. Owner/author: Date of creation: Source: Where did you get the file from? (e.g. available online; was sent to me personally …) Permission: How did you receive the permission? (e.g.: by e-mail, personally, I work for the owner …) The copyright owner has chosen the following license: License: Other: Evidence: The license statement can be found online at: The license agreement has been forwarded to Wikimedia's copyright service at "permissions-en@wikimedia.org". OTRS ticket received: The license hasn't yet been forwarded, but I will do so shortly or ask the owner to send it. I haven't got the evidence right now, but I will provide some if requested to do so. Note: files without verifiable permissions may be deleted. You may be better off obtaining proof of permission first. This file is from a free published source. I took it from a website or other published source, where its author has explicitly placed it under a free license, allowing free re-use by anybody. Use this only if there is an explicit licensing statement in the source. The website must explicitly say that the image is released under a license that allows free re-use for any purpose, e.g. the Creative Commons Attribution license. You must be able to point exactly to where it says this. If the source website doesn't say so explicitly, please do not upload the file. Author/owner: Date of creation: Source: For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) The copyright owner has chosen the following license for this file: License: Other: Evidence: Provide a link to where the author explicitly says that the file is released under a free license. (if not visible on the source page itself). This work is so old its copyright has expired This is an old photograph, or a photographic reproduction of an old painting, drawing, etc. I can provide enough information about its author and provenance to prove that it is old enough for its copyright to have expired. It is now legally in the Public Domain. Original author: Please name the original author of this work. Lifetime: Specify date of death, if applicable to public domain status. In many cases, we need to be certain the author died before a certain year, in many cases before 1926. Original publication: Provide as much information as possible about the original time and place of publication of this work. For print publications: provide full bibliographic information. Date of publication: Provide date of first publication, and date of creation if different. Immediate source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Public Domain status: This work is free of all copyrights because: It was created and first published before 1925 and is therefore in the Public Domain in the USA. It was first published outside the USA, and it was in the Public Domain in its country of origin by the "URAA date". For most countries, this means the author died 70 years before 1 January 1996, i.e. before 1926. Please look up the copyright rules for the specific country at [1]. It was first published in the USA before 1989, and its copyright expired because it was published without a copyright notice and/or without the necessary copyright registration.Please look up the exact rules at [2]. Its copyright expired for some other reason. [Please explain below]. Explanation: Please provide any evidence necessary to verify the public domain status. This file is in the Public Domain for some other reason. I can demonstrate that this work is legally in the Public Domain, i.e. nobody owns any copyrights on it. This may be for a variety of reasons, for instance because it was created by the US Federal Government, or because it is too simple to attract any copyright. Public Domain means that nobody owns any copyrights on this work. It does not mean simply that it is freely viewable somewhere on the web or that it has been widely used by others. This is not for images you simply found somewhere on the web. Most images on the web are under copyright and belong to somebody, even if you believe the owner won't care about that copyright. If it is in the public domain, you must be able to point to an actual law that makes it so. If you can't point to such a law but merely found this image somewhere, then please do not upload it. Author: Please name the original author of this work. Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Date of creation: Public Domain status: This work is free of all copyrights because: It was created by an agency of the US Federal Government. This does not apply to most US state and local agencies, nor to governments of other countries! It is an official governmental item, such as a flag, state emblem, banknote or postage stamp, from a country where such items are exempt from copyright according to local law. This does not apply to all countries, nor does it usually apply to all publications! (For instance, it usually doesn't apply to simple publicity photographs published on a governmental website.) Please look up the copyright rules for the specific country in question. If the country does not have an exemption rule that applies to this item, go on with the section for "non-free copyrighted works" below. Explanation: Add any explanation or evidence necessary to substantiate your statement above. Cite and provide a link to the relevant law if possible. It is too simple to be eligible for copyright. This typically applies only to graphics that consist solely of simple geometric shapes and/or a few letters or words, or to items such as mathematical or chemical formulae. It may apply to some very simple logos that do not contain complex pictorial elements. It never applies to photographs! It is in the Public Domain for some other reason. Explanation: This is a copyrighted, non-free work, but I believe it is Fair Use. I have read the Wikipedia rules on Non-Free Content, and I am prepared to explain how the use of this file will meet the criteria set out there. Please remember that you will need to demonstrate that: The file will serve an important function in a particular article; (NFCC8) It cannot be replaced by any other, free illustration that might yet be created; (NFCC1) Its use does not negatively affect the commercial interests of its owner (NFCC2) There will not be more non-free material used than necessary. (NFCC3) This file will be used in the following article: Enter the name of exactly one Wikipedia article, without the [[...]] brackets and without the "http://en.wikipedia.org/..." URL code. It has to be an actual article, not a talkpage, template, user page, etc. If you plan to use the file in more than one article, please name only one of them here. Then, after uploading, open the image description page for editing and add your separate explanations for each additional article manually. Example – article okay. This article doesn't exist! The article Example could not be found. Please check the spelling, and make sure you enter the name of an existing article in which you will include this file. If this is an article you are only planning to write, please write it first and upload the file afterwards. This is not an actual encyclopedia article! The page Example is not in the main article namespace. Non-free files can only be used in mainspace article pages, not on a user page, talk page, template, etc. Please upload this file only if it is going to be used in an actual article. If this page is an article draft in your user space, we're sorry, but we must ask you to wait until the page is ready and has been moved into mainspace, and only upload the file after that. This is a disambiguation page! The page Example is not a real article, but a disambiguation page pointing to a number of other pages. Please check and enter the exact title of the actual target article you meant. Non-free use rationale This image is the object of discussion in an article. This is a copyrighted artwork or photograph, and the image itself is the topic of discussion in the article. The discussion is about the photograph or painting as such, as a creative work, not just about the thing or person it shows. Which of these options describes this item best? Who created this work? Author/owner: Date: Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Usage: The article as a whole is dedicated specifically to a discussion of this particular photograph/painting. (It is not just about the person or thing shown in the picture.) There is a substantial amount of encyclopedic discussion of this particular photograph/painting (not just about the person or thing shown in it) in this article. The illustration is specifically needed to support the following point: If neither of these two statements applies, then please do not upload this image. This section is not for images used merely to illustrate an article about a person or thing, showing what that person or thing look like. This is a depiction of a copyrighted three-dimensional work or building, which is the object of discussion in an article. This is a photograph or other kind of depiction of a copyrighted, three-dimensional creative work, such as a statue or work of architecture. The article contains a discussion of that work which requires illustration. The photograph as such is free, or was provided by the creator of the sculpture. Which of these options describes this item best? First describe who created the original work depicted: Creator: Date: Usage: The article as a whole is dedicated specifically to this work. There is a substantial amount of encyclopedic discussion of this work in this article. The illustration is specifically needed to support the following point: Now describe who created the image: Author: Date: Source: State exactly where you found this file. For web sources: please provide a link to the html web page where the file can be found ("http://... .html"), not a direct link to the image file itself ("http://... .jpg"). For print sources: provide full bibliographic information (author, title, publisher, year, page, etc.) Image status The image was created and published by the same author who also holds the rights to the original object, and no alternative depiction could be suitably created. The author of the image has released the photographic work under a free license, or it is in the public domain: Name the license or describe the public domain status, adding any necessary evidence to make the licensing status verifiable. This is an excerpt from a copyrighted work. This is an excerpt from a copyrighted work, e.g. a screenshot from a movie or TV programme, a panel from a comic, or a sound sample from a song. Its presence is needed to support a piece of explicit critical discussion in an article related to that work or its creator(s). Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (author / copyright owner of the original work) Date of creation: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) Please explain what exactly in the article it is that you want to illustrate with this.   Typically, the illustration must be used to support some specific issue of discussion in the article. Please be concrete and specific. Don't just copy boilerplate statements from elsewhere. State clearly, in your own words, what this particular file will be doing in this particular article. If necessary, please explain why this purpose cannot be achieved through text alone.   This is the official cover art of a work. This is the cover or dustjacket of a book, the cover of a CD or video, the official release poster of a movie, or a comparable item. It will be included as that work's primary means of visual identification, at the top of the article about the book, movie, etc. in question. Note: If you plan to use it for any other purpose than this, please tick the box for "other non-free work" below. Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (author / copyright owner of the original work) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the work in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. This is a logo of an organization, company, brand, etc. This is an official logo of an entity that is the subject of a Wikipedia article. It will be included as that entity's primary means of visual identification, at the top of the article in question. Note: If you plan to use it for any other purpose than this, please tick the box for "other non-free work" below. Which of these options describes this item best? Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the entity in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. This is an historic portrait of a person no longer alive. This is an historic photograph or other depiction of a person who is no longer alive. It will be used as the primary means of visual identification of that person in the article about them. Deceased since: (This type of file can typically only be used with people who are no longer alive.) Author: (Who made this image?) Original publication: (Where, when and how was this image first published?) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) This image will be shown as a primary means of visual identification at the top of the article dedicated to the person in question. A standard fair use rationale will be added that matches this type of use. If you plan to use the file for any purpose other than this, please do not use this section, but the one labelled "other type of non-free work" below. Please explain why a free alternative to this image cannot be found.   For subjects who died recently: have you made a reasonable effort to find people who might possess photographs of this person and might be willing to release one? For subjects who lived in the early-to-mid 20th century: have you considered if there might be an older photograph that has fallen in the public domain? Please explain why you are confident that our use of the file will not harm any commercial opportunities of its owner.   We will typically not use a file if its owner has a potential commercial interest in its use, and if our use of it would compete with its original market role. This is some other kind of non-free work that I believe is legitimate Fair Use. This is a copyrighted work whose use does not fall into any of the classes above. I have read the Wikipedia rules on Non-free content, and I will explain how this file meets all of the criteria set out there. Which of these options describes this item best? Author: (Who made this image?) Original publication: (Where, when and how was this image first published?) Date of publication: Source: (where exactly did you get this file from?) Please explain what exact purpose this file will serve in the article.   Please be concrete and specific. Don't just copy boilerplate statements from elsewhere. State clearly, in your own words, what this particular file will be doing in this particular article. Your explanation must make it clear why the article would be significantly worse off without this file. Please explain why this purpose could not be served by text alone.   Please explain why this purpose could not be served with an alternative, free illustration that could yet be found or created.   For a file to be deemed replaceable, it is not necessary that a suitable replacement already exists. Even if it is merely possible that a replacement could be created, we will not use the non-free file. Please explain why you are confident that our use of the file will not harm any commercial opportunities of its owner.   We will typically not use a file if its owner has a potential commercial interest in its use, and if our use of it would compete with its original market role. Remember that the use of non-free files must be minimal. This can mean several things: Don't use more files per article/topic than necessary Don't use the same file in more articles than necessary Don't use larger excerpts of a single work than necessary Don't use images of higher resolution than necessary In view of this, please explain how the use of this file will be minimal.   Special source and license conditions (optional)   Any further relevant information about this file?   Edit summary: A brief description of why you are overwriting this file. This will not be saved on the description page, but will be shown in its edit history. Yes, I want this file to be immediately available in all Wikimedia projects, in all languages. I will upload it on the Wikimedia Commons. Clicking this button will redirect you to a page on Commons. This will only work if you are already logged in there, which is likely the case if you have a unified account. Check here to see if you are logged in. No, I want to upload this file locally. This way it can be used only on the English Wikipedia. We urge you to upload it to the Commons unless there is a very good reason for it to stay local. Often such local files are copied to the Commons for use elsewhere and deleted locally, requiring extra work for other volunteers. If you do not want your file to be copied to Commons and deleted locally, consider adding the {{Keep local}} tag. Reset this form and start over. This file doesn't fit either of the categories above. This file doesn't seem to fall into either of the classes above, or I am not certain what its status is. I found this file somewhere, but I don't really know who made it or who owns it. Well, we're very sorry, but if you're not sure about this file's copyright status, or if it doesn't fit into any of the groups above, then: Please don't upload it. Really, please don't. Even if you think it would make for a great addition to an article. We really take these copyright rules very seriously on Wikipedia. Note that media is assumed to be fully-copyrighted unless shown otherwise; the burden is on the uploader. In particular, please don't upload: any file you simply found on some website, without knowing who its author or copyright owner is. any file you found somewhere, even if you have good reason to believe it has a copyright owner who would not mind us using it, but you don't have an explicit licensing statement from them. any file that was released for publicity purposes by its owners but doesn't have a fully-free license for free re-use for all purposes. any file credited to a commercial image agency, such as Reuters, AP or Getty Images. Such files normally cannot be used even under the "Fair Use" rules, except in rare cases. any file that is licensed for use exclusively on Wikipedia, or is free except that the free license excludes commercial use. If you are in any doubt, please ask some experienced editors for advice before uploading. People will be happy to assist you at Wikipedia:Media copyright questions. Thank you. 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en-wikipedia-org-9274	----	Cerberus - Wikipedia Cerberus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Multi-headed dog in Greek mythology This article is about the mythical dog. For other uses, see Cerberus (disambiguation). Heracles, wearing his characteristic lion-skin, club in right hand, leash in left, presenting a three-headed Cerberus, snakes coiling from his snouts, necks and front paws, to a frightened Eurystheus hiding in a giant pot. Caeretan hydria (c. 530 BC) from Caere (Louvre E701).[1] In Greek mythology, Cerberus (/ˈsɜːrbərəs/;[2] Greek: Κέρβερος Kérberos [ˈkerberos]), often referred to as the hound of Hades, is a multi-headed dog that guards the gates of the Underworld to prevent the dead from leaving. He was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, and was usually described as having three heads, a serpent for a tail, and snakes protruding from multiple parts of his body. Cerberus is primarily known for his capture by Heracles, one of Heracles' twelve labours. Contents 1 Descriptions 2 The Twelfth Labour of Heracles 2.1 Theseus and Pirithous 2.2 Capture 2.3 Exit from the underworld 2.4 Presented to Eurystheus, returned to Hades 3 Principal sources 4 Iconography 5 Etymology 6 Cerberus rationalized 7 Cerberus allegorized 8 Constellation 9 Snake genus 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Descriptions[edit] Descriptions of Cerberus vary, including the number of his heads. Cerberus was usually three-headed, though not always. Cerberus had several multi-headed relatives. His father was the multi snake-headed Typhon,[3] and Cerberus was the brother of three other multi-headed monsters, the multi-snake-headed Lernaean Hydra; Orthrus, the two-headed dog who guarded the Cattle of Geryon; and the Chimera, who had three heads: that of a lion, a goat, and a snake.[4] And, like these close relatives, Cerberus was, with only the rare iconographic exception, multi-headed. In the earliest description of Cerberus, Hesiod's Theogony (c. 8th – 7th century BC), Cerberus has fifty heads, while Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) gave him one hundred heads.[5] However, later writers almost universally give Cerberus three heads.[6] An exception is the Latin poet Horace's Cerberus which has a single dog head, and one hundred snake heads.[7] Perhaps trying to reconcile these competing traditions, Apollodorus's Cerberus has three dog heads and the heads of "all sorts of snakes" along his back, while the Byzantine poet John Tzetzes (who probably based his account on Apollodorus) gives Cerberus fifty heads, three of which were dog heads, the rest being the "heads of other beasts of all sorts".[8] Heracles, chain in left hand, his club laid aside, calms a two-headed Cerberus, which has a snake protruding from each of his heads, a mane down his necks and back, and a snake tail. Cerberus is emerging from a portico, which represents the palace of Hades in the underworld. Between them, a tree represents the sacred grove of Hades' wife Persephone. On the far left, Athena stands, left arm extended. Amphora (c. 525–510 BC) from Vulci (Louvre F204).[9] In art Cerberus is most commonly depicted with two dog heads (visible), never more than three, but occasionally with only one.[10] On one of the two earliest depictions (c. 590–580 BC), a Corinthian cup from Argos (see below), now lost, Cerberus was shown as a normal single-headed dog.[11] The first appearance of a three-headed Cerberus occurs on a mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup (see below).[12] Horace's many snake-headed Cerberus followed a long tradition of Cerberus being part snake. This is perhaps already implied as early as in Hesiod's Theogony, where Cerberus' mother is the half-snake Echidna, and his father the snake-headed Typhon. In art Cerberus is often shown as being part snake,[13] for example the lost Corinthian cup showed snakes protruding from Cerberus' body, while the mid sixth-century BC Laconian cup gives Cerberus a snake for a tail. In the literary record, the first certain indication of Cerberus' serpentine nature comes from the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), who makes Cerberus a large poisonous snake.[14] Plato refers to Cerberus' composite nature,[15] and Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails,[16] and presumably in connection to his serpentine nature, associates Cerberus with the creation of the poisonous aconite plant.[17] Virgil has snakes writhe around Cerberus' neck,[18] Ovid's Cerberus has a venomous mouth,[19] necks "vile with snakes",[20] and "hair inwoven with the threatening snake",[21] while Seneca gives Cerberus a mane consisting of snakes, and a single snake tail.[22] Cerberus was given various other traits. According to Euripides, Cerberus not only had three heads but three bodies,[23] and according to Virgil he had multiple backs.[24] Cerberus ate raw flesh (according to Hesiod),[25] had eyes which flashed fire (according to Euphorion), a three-tongued mouth (according to Horace), and acute hearing (according to Seneca).[26] The Twelfth Labour of Heracles[edit] Athena, Hermes and Heracles, leading a two-headed Cerberus out of the underworld, as Persephone looks on. Hydria (c. 550–500 BC) attributed to the Leagros Group (Louvre CA 2992).[27] Cerberus' only mythology concerns his capture by Heracles.[28] As early as Homer we learn that Heracles was sent by Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns, to bring back Cerberus from Hades the king of the underworld.[29] According to Apollodorus, this was the twelfth and final labour imposed on Heracles.[30] In a fragment from a lost play Pirithous, (attributed to either Euripides or Critias) Heracles says that, although Eurystheus commanded him to bring back Cerberus, it was not from any desire to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought that the task was impossible.[31] Heracles was aided in his mission by his being an initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Euripides has his initiation being "lucky" for Heracles in capturing Cerberus.[32] And both Diodorus Siculus and Apollodorus say that Heracles was initiated into the Mysteries, in preparation for his descent into the underworld. According to Diodorus, Heracles went to Athens, where Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, was in charge of the initiation rites,[33] while according to Apollodorus, he went to Eumolpus at Eleusis.[34] Heracles also had the help of Hermes, the usual guide of the underworld, as well as Athena. In the Odyssey, Homer has Hermes and Athena as his guides.[35] And Hermes and Athena are often shown with Heracles on vase paintings depicting Cerberus' capture. By most accounts, Heracles made his descent into the underworld through an entrance at Tainaron, the most famous of the various Greek entrances to the underworld.[36] The place is first mentioned in connection with the Cerberus story in the rationalized account of Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500–494 BC), and Euripides, Seneca, and Apolodorus, all have Heracles descend into the underworld there.[37] However Xenophon reports that Heracles was said to have descended at the Acherusian Chersonese near Heraclea Pontica, on the Black Sea, a place more usually associated with Heracles' exit from the underworld (see below).[38] Heraclea, founded c. 560 BC, perhaps took its name from the association of its site with Heracles' Cerberian exploit.[39] Theseus and Pirithous[edit] While in the underworld, Heracles met the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, where the two companions were being held prisoner by Hades for attempting to carry off Hades' wife Persephone. Along with bringing back Cerberus, Heracles also managed (usually) to rescue Theseus, and in some versions Pirithous as well.[40] According to Apollodorus, Heracles found Theseus and Pirithous near the gates of Hades, bound to the "Chair of Forgetfulness, to which they grew and were held fast by coils of serpents", and when they saw Heracles, "they stretched out their hands as if they should be raised from the dead by his might", and Heracles was able to free Theseus, but when he tried to raise up Pirithous, "the earth quaked and he let go."[41] The earliest evidence for the involvement of Theseus and Pirithous in the Cerberus story, is found on a shield-band relief (c. 560 BC) from Olympia, where Theseus and Pirithous (named) are seated together on a chair, arms held out in supplication, while Heracles approaches, about to draw his sword.[42] The earliest literary mention of the rescue occurs in Euripides, where Heracles saves Theseus (with no mention of Pirithous).[43] In the lost play Pirithous, both heroes are rescued,[44] while in the rationalized account of Philochorus, Heracles was able to rescue Theseus, but not Pirithous.[45] In one place Diodorus says Heracles brought back both Theseus and Pirithous, by the favor of Persephone,[46] while in another he says that Pirithous remained in Hades, or according to "some writers of myth" that neither Theseus, nor Pirithous returned.[47] Both are rescued in Hyginus.[48] Capture[edit] Athena, Heracles, and a two-headed Cerberus, with mane down his necks and back. Hermes (not shown in the photograph) stands to the left of Athena. An amphora (c. 575–525 BC) from Kameiros, Rhodes (Louvre A481).[49] There are various versions of how Heracles accomplished Cerberus' capture.[50] According to Apollodorus, Heracles asked Hades for Cerberus, and Hades told Heracles he would allow him to take Cerberus only if he "mastered him without the use of the weapons which he carried", and so, using his lion-skin as a shield, Heracles squeezed Cerberus around the head until he submitted.[51] In some early sources Cerberus' capture seems to involve Heracles fighting Hades. Homer (Iliad 5.395–397) has Hades injured by an arrow shot by Heracles.[52] A scholium to the Iliad passage, explains that Hades had commanded that Heracles "master Cerberus without shield or Iron".[53] Heracles did this, by (as in Apollodorus) using his lion-skin instead of his shield, and making stone points for his arrows, but when Hades still opposed him, Heracles shot Hades in anger. Consistent with the no iron requirement, on an early-sixth-century BC lost Corinthian cup, Heracles is shown attacking Hades with a stone,[54] while the iconographic tradition, from c. 560 BC, often shows Heracles using his wooden club against Cerberus.[55] Euripides, has Amphitryon ask Heracles: "Did you conquer him in fight, or receive him from the goddess [i.e. Persephone]? To which, Heracles answers: "In fight",[56] and the Pirithous fragment says that Heracles "overcame the beast by force".[57] However, according to Diodorus, Persephone welcomed Heracles "like a brother" and gave Cerberus "in chains" to Heracles.[58] Aristophanes, has Heracles seize Cerberus in a stranglehold and run off,[59] while Seneca has Heracles again use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to subdue Cerberus, after which a quailing Hades and Persephone, allow Heracles to lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away.[60] Cerberus is often shown being chained, and Ovid tells that Heracles dragged the three headed Cerberus with chains of adamant.[61] Exit from the underworld[edit] Hercules and Cerberus. Oil on canvas, by Peter Paul Rubens 1636, Prado Museum. There were several locations which were said to be the place where Heracles brought up Cerberus from the underworld.[62] The geographer Strabo (63/64 BC – c. AD 24) reports that "according to the myth writers" Cerberus was brought up at Tainaron,[63] the same place where Euripides has Heracles enter the underworld. Seneca has Heracles enter and exit at Tainaron.[64] Apollodorus, although he has Heracles enter at Tainaron, has him exit at Troezen.[65] The geographer Pausanias tells us that there was a temple at Troezen with "altars to the gods said to rule under the earth", where it was said that, in addition to Cerberus being "dragged" up by Heracles, Semele was supposed to have been brought up out of the underworld by Dionysus.[66] Another tradition had Cerberus brought up at Heraclea Pontica (the same place which Xenophon had earlier associated with Heracles' descent) and the cause of the poisonous plant aconite which grew there in abundance.[67] Herodorus of Heraclea and Euphorion said that when Heracles brought Cerberus up from the underworld at Heraclea, Cerberus "vomited bile" from which the aconite plant grew up.[68] Ovid, also makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous aconite, saying that on the "shores of Scythia", upon leaving the underworld, as Cerberus was being dragged by Heracles from a cave, dazzled by the unaccustomed daylight, Cerberus spewed out a "poison-foam", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous.[69] Seneca's Cerberus too, like Ovid's, reacts violently to his first sight of daylight. Enraged, the previously submissive Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles and Theseus must together drag Cerberus into the light.[70] Pausanias reports that according to local legend Cerberus was brought up through a chasm in the earth dedicated to Clymenus (Hades) next to the sanctuary of Chthonia at Hermione, and in Euripides' Heracles, though Euripides does not say that Cerberus was brought out there, he has Cerberus kept for a while in the "grove of Chthonia" at Hermione.[71] Pausanias also mentions that at Mount Laphystion in Boeotia, that there was a statue of Heracles Charops ("with bright eyes"), where the Boeotians said Heracles brought up Cerberus.[72] Other locations which perhaps were also associated with Cerberus being brought out of the underworld include, Hierapolis, Thesprotia, and Emeia near Mycenae.[73] Presented to Eurystheus, returned to Hades[edit] In some accounts, after bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, Heracles paraded the captured Cerberus through Greece.[74] Euphorion has Heracles lead Cerberus through Midea in Argolis, as women and children watch in fear,[75] and Diodorus Siculus says of Cerberus, that Heracles "carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men."[76] Seneca has Juno complain of Heracles "highhandedly parading the black hound through Argive cities"[77] and Heracles greeted by laurel-wreathed crowds, "singing" his praises.[78] Then, according to Apollodorus, Heracles showed Cerberus to Eurystheus, as commanded, after which he returned Cerberus to the underworld.[79] However, according to Hesychius of Alexandria, Cerberus escaped, presumably returning to the underworld on his own.[80] Principal sources[edit] Cerberus, with the gluttons in Dante's Third Circle of Hell. William Blake. The earliest mentions of Cerberus (c. 8th – 7th century BC) occur in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and Hesiod's Theogony.[81] Homer does not name or describe Cerberus, but simply refers to Heracles being sent by Eurystheus to fetch the "hound of Hades", with Hermes and Athena as his guides,[82] and, in a possible reference to Cerberus' capture, that Heracles shot Hades with an arrow.[83] According to Hesiod, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Echidna and Typhon, was fifty-headed, ate raw flesh, and was the "brazen-voiced hound of Hades",[84] who fawns on those that enter the house of Hades, but eats those who try to leave.[85] Stesichorus (c. 630 – 555 BC) apparently wrote a poem called Cerberus, of which virtually nothing remains.[86] However the early-sixth-century BC-lost Corinthian cup from Argos, which showed a single head, and snakes growing out from many places on his body,[87] was possibly influenced by Stesichorus' poem.[88] The mid-sixth-century BC cup from Laconia gives Cerberus three heads and a snake tail, which eventually becomes the standard representation.[89] Pindar (c. 522 – c. 443 BC) apparently gave Cerberus one hundred heads.[90] Bacchylides (5th century BC) also mentions Heracles bringing Cerberus up from the underworld, with no further details.[91] Sophocles (c. 495 – c. 405 BC), in his Women of Trachis, makes Cerberus three-headed,[92] and in his Oedipus at Colonus, the Chorus asks that Oedipus be allowed to pass the gates of the underworld undisturbed by Cerberus, called here the "untamable Watcher of Hades".[93] Euripides (c. 480 – 406 BC) describes Cerberus as three-headed,[94] and three-bodied,[95] says that Heracles entered the underworld at Tainaron,[96] has Heracles say that Cerberus was not given to him by Persephone, but rather he fought and conquered Cerberus, "for I had been lucky enough to witness the rites of the initiated", an apparent reference to his initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries,[97] and says that the capture of Cerberus was the last of Heracles' labors.[98] The lost play Pirthous (attributed to either Euripides or his late contemporary Critias) has Heracles say that he came to the underworld at the command of Eurystheus, who had ordered him to bring back Cerberus alive, not because he wanted to see Cerberus, but only because Eurystheus thought Heracles would not be able to accomplish the task, and that Heracles "overcame the beast" and "received favour from the gods".[99] Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Plato (c. 425 – 348 BC) refers to Cerberus' composite nature, citing Cerberus, along with Scylla and the Chimera, as an example from "ancient fables" of a creature composed of many animal forms "grown together in one".[100] Euphorion of Chalcis (3rd century BC) describes Cerberus as having multiple snake tails, and eyes that flashed, like sparks from a blacksmith's forge, or the volcaninc Mount Etna.[101] From Euphorion, also comes the first mention of a story which told that at Heraclea Pontica, where Cerberus was brought out of the underworld, by Heracles, Cerberus "vomited bile" from which the poisonous aconite plant grew up.[102] According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the capture of Cerberus was the eleventh of Heracles' labors, the twelfth and last being stealing the Apples of the Hesperides.[103] Diodorus says that Heracles thought it best to first go to Athens to take part in the Eleusinian Mysteries, "Musaeus, the son of Orpheus, being at that time in charge of the initiatory rites", after which, he entered into the underworld "welcomed like a brother by Persephone", and "receiving the dog Cerberus in chains he carried him away to the amazement of all and exhibited him to men." In Virgil's Aeneid (1st century BC), Aeneas and the Sibyl encounter Cerberus in a cave, where he "lay at vast length", filling the cave "from end to end", blocking the entrance to the underworld. Cerberus is described as "triple-throated", with "three fierce mouths", multiple "large backs", and serpents writhing around his neck. The Sybyl throws Cerberus a loaf laced with honey and herbs to induce sleep, enabling Aeneas to enter the underworld, and so apparently for Virgil—contradicting Hesiod—Cerberus guarded the underworld against entrance.[104] Later Virgil describes Cerberus, in his bloody cave, crouching over half-gnawed bones.[105] In his Georgics, Virgil refers to Cerberus, his "triple jaws agape" being tamed by Orpheus' playing his lyre.[106] Horace (65 – 8 BC) also refers to Cerberus yielding to Orphesus' lyre, here Cerberus has a single dog head, which "like a Fury's is fortified by a hundred snakes", with a "triple-tongued mouth" oozing "fetid breath and gore".[107] Ovid (43 BC – AD 17/18) has Cerberus' mouth produce venom,[108] and like Euphorion, makes Cerberus the cause of the poisonous plant aconite.[109] According to Ovid, Heracles dragged Cerberus from the underworld, emerging from a cave "where 'tis fabled, the plant grew / on soil infected by Cerberian teeth", and dazzled by the daylight, Cerberus spewed out a "poison-foam", which made the aconite plants growing there poisonous. Cerberus and Heracles. Etching by Antonio Tempesta (Italy, Florence, 1555–1630). The Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Seneca, in his tragedy Hercules Furens gives a detailed description of Cerberus and his capture.[110] Seneca's Cerberus has three heads, a mane of snakes, and a snake tail, with his three heads being covered in gore, and licked by the many snakes which surround them, and with hearing so acute that he can hear "even ghosts".[111] Seneca has Heracles use his lion-skin as shield, and his wooden club, to beat Cerberus into submission, after which Hades and Persephone, quailing on their thrones, let Heracles lead a chained and submissive Cerberus away. But upon leaving the underworld, at his first sight of daylight, a frightened Cerberus struggles furiously, and Heracles, with the help of Theseus (who had been held captive by Hades, but released, at Heracles' request) drag Cerberus into the light.[112] Seneca, like Diodorus, has Heracles parade the captured Cerberus through Greece.[113] Apollodorus' Cerberus has three dog-heads, a serpent for a tail, and the heads of many snakes on his back.[114] According to Apollodorus, Heracles' twelfth and final labor was to bring back Cerberus from Hades. Heracles first went to Eumolpus to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. Upon his entering the underworld, all the dead flee Heracles except for Meleager and the Gorgon Medusa. Heracles drew his sword against Medusa, but Hermes told Heracles that the dead are mere "empty phantoms". Heracles asked Hades (here called Pluto) for Cerberus, and Hades said that Heracles could take Cerberus provided he was able to subdue him without using weapons. Heracles found Cerberus at the gates of Acheron, and with his arms around Cerberus, though being bitten by Cerberus' serpent tail, Heracles squeezed until Cerberus submitted. Heracles carried Cerberus away, showed him to Eurystheus, then returned Cerberus to the underworld. In an apparently unique version of the story, related by the sixth-century AD Pseudo-Nonnus, Heracles descended into Hades to abduct Persephone, and killed Cerberus on his way back up.[115] Iconography[edit] One of the two earliest depictions of the capture of Cerberus (composed of the last five figures on the right) shows, from right to left: Cerberus, with a single dog head and snakes rising from his body, fleeing right, Hermes, with his characteristic hat (petasos) and caduceus, Heracles, with quiver on his back, stone in left hand, and bow in right, a goddess, standing in front of Hades' throne, facing Heracles, and Hades, with scepter, fleeing left. Drawing of a lost Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos. The capture of Cerberus was a popular theme in ancient Greek and Roman art.[116] The earliest depictions date from the beginning of the sixth century BC. One of the two earliest depictions, a Corinthian cup (c. 590–580 BC) from Argos (now lost),[117] shows a naked Heracles, with quiver on his back and bow in his right hand, striding left, accompanied by Hermes. Heracles threatens Hades with a stone, who flees left, while a goddess, perhaps Persephone or possibly Athena, standing in front of Hades' throne, prevents the attack. Cerberus, with a single canine head and snakes rising from his head and body, flees right. On the far right a column indicates the entrance to Hades' palace. Many of the elements of this scene— Hermes, Athena, Hades, Persephone, and a column or portico— are common occurrences in later works. The other earliest depiction, a relief pithos fragment from Crete (c. 590–570 BC), is thought to show a single lion-headed Cerberus with a snake (open-mouthed) over his back being led to the right.[118] A mid-sixth-century BC Laconian cup by the Hunt Painter adds several new features to the scene which also become common in later works: three heads, a snake tail, Cerberus' chain and Heracles' club. Here Cerberus has three canine heads, is covered by a shaggy coat of snakes, and has a tail which ends in a snake head. He is being held on a chain leash by Heracles who holds his club raised over head.[119] In Greek art, the vast majority of depictions of Heracles and Cerberus occur on Attic vases.[120] Although the lost Corinthian cup shows Cerberus with a single dog head, and the relief pithos fragment (c. 590–570 BC) apparently shows a single lion-headed Cerberus, in Attic vase painting Cerberus usually has two dog heads.[121] In other art, as in the Laconian cup, Cerberus is usually three-headed.[122] Occasionally in Roman art Cerberus is shown with a large central lion head and two smaller dog heads on either side.[123] Heracles with club in his right hand raised over head and leash in left hand drives ahead of him a two-headed Cerberus with mane down his necks and back and a snake tail. A neck-amphora (c. 530–515 BC) from Vulci (Munich 1493).[124] As in the Corinthian and Laconian cups (and possibly the relief pithos fragment), Cerberus is often depicted as part snake.[125] In Attic vase painting, Cerberus is usually shown with a snake for a tail or a tail which ends in the head of a snake.[126] Snakes are also often shown rising from various parts of his body including snout, head, neck, back, ankles, and paws. Two Attic amphoras from Vulci, one (c. 530–515 BC) by the Bucci Painter (Munich 1493),[127] the other (c. 525–510 BC) by the Andokides painter (Louvre F204),[128] in addition to the usual two heads and snake tail, show Cerberus with a mane down his necks and back, another typical Cerberian feature of Attic vase painting.[129] Andokides' amphora also has a small snake curling up from each of Cerberus' two heads. Besides this lion-like mane and the occasional lion-head mentioned above, Cerberus was sometimes shown with other leonine features. A pitcher (c. 530–500) shows Cerberus with mane and claws,[130] while a first-century BC sardonyx cameo shows Cerberus with leonine body and paws.[131] In addition, a limestone relief fragment from Taranto (c. 320–300 BC) shows Cerberus with three lion-like heads.[132] During the second quarter of the 5th century BC the capture of Cerberus disappears from Attic vase painting.[133] After the early third century BC, the subject becomes rare everywhere until the Roman period. In Roman art the capture of Cerberus is usually shown together with other labors. Heracles and Cerberus are usually alone, with Heracles leading Cerberus.[134] Etymology[edit] Cerberus and Hades/Serapis. Heraklion Archaeological Museum, Crete, Greece.[135] The etymology of Cerberus' name is uncertain. Ogden[136] refers to attempts to establish an Indo-European etymology as "not yet successful". It has been claimed to be related to the Sanskrit word सर्वरा sarvarā, used as an epithet of one of the dogs of Yama, from a Proto-Indo-European word *k̑érberos, meaning "spotted".[137] Lincoln (1991),[138] among others, critiques this etymology. Lincoln notes a similarity between Cerberus and the Norse mythological dog Garmr, relating both names to a Proto-Indo-European root *ger- "to growl" (perhaps with the suffixes -*m/*b and -*r). However, as Ogden observes, this analysis actually requires Kerberos and Garmr to be derived from two different Indo-European roots (*ker- and *gher- respectively), and so does not actually establish a relationship between the two names. Though probably not Greek, Greek etymologies for Cerberus have been offered. An etymology given by Servius (the late-fourth-century commentator on Virgil)—but rejected by Ogden—derives Cerberus from the Greek word creoboros meaning "flesh-devouring".[139] Another suggested etymology derives Cerberus from "Ker berethrou", meaning "evil of the pit".[140] Cerberus rationalized[edit] At least as early as the 6th century BC, some ancient writers attempted to explain away various fantastical features of Greek mythology;[141] included in these are various rationalized accounts of the Cerberus story.[142] The earliest such account (late 6th century BC) is that of Hecataeus of Miletus.[143] In his account Cerberus was not a dog at all, but rather simply a large venomous snake, which lived on Tainaron. The serpent was called the "hound of Hades" only because anyone bitten by it died immediately, and it was this snake that Heracles brought to Eurystheus. The geographer Pausanias (who preserves for us Hecataeus' version of the story) points out that, since Homer does not describe Cerberus, Hecataeus' account does not necessarily conflict with Homer, since Homer's "Hound of Hades" may not in fact refer to an actual dog.[144] Other rationalized accounts make Cerberus out to be a normal dog. According to Palaephatus (4th century BC)[145] Cerberus was one of the two dogs who guarded the cattle of Geryon, the other being Orthrus. Geryon lived in a city named Tricranium (in Greek Tricarenia, "Three-Heads"),[146] from which name both Cerberus and Geryon came to be called "three-headed". Heracles killed Orthus, and drove away Geryon's cattle, with Cerberus following along behind. Molossus, a Mycenaen, offered to buy Cerberus from Eurystheus (presumably having received the dog, along with the cattle, from Heracles). But when Eurystheus refused, Molossus stole the dog and penned him up in a cave in Tainaron. Eurystheus commanded Heracles to find Cerberus and bring him back. After searching the entire Peloponnesus, Heracles found where it was said Cerberus was being held, went down into the cave, and brought up Cerberus, after which it was said: "Heracles descended through the cave into Hades and brought up Cerberus." In the rationalized account of Philochorus, in which Heracles rescues Theseus, Perithous is eaten by Cerberus.[147] In this version of the story, Aidoneus (i.e., "Hades") is the mortal king of the Molossians, with a wife named Persephone, a daughter named Kore (another name for the goddess Persephone) and a large mortal dog named Cerberus, with whom all suitors of his daughter were required to fight. After having stolen Helen, to be Theseus' wife, Theseus and Perithous, attempt to abduct Kore, for Perithous, but Aidoneus catches the two heroes, imprisons Theseus, and feeds Perithous to Cerberus. Later, while a guest of Aidoneus, Heracles asks Aidoneus to release Theseus, as a favor, which Aidoneus grants. A 2nd-century AD Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer (not to be confused with the 5th-century BC Greek philosopher Heraclitus) – claimed that Cerberus had two pups that were never away from their father, which made Cerberus appear to be three-headed.[148] Cerberus allegorized[edit] Virgil feeding Cerberus earth, in the Third Circle of Hell. Illustration from Dante's Inferno by Gustave Doré. Servius, a medieval commentator on Virgil's Aeneid, derived Cerberus' name from the Greek word creoboros meaning "flesh-devouring" (see above), and held that Cerberus symbolized the corpse-consuming earth, with Heracles' triumph over Cerberus representing his victory over earthly desires.[149] Later the mythographer Fulgentius, allegorizes Cerberus' three heads as representing the three origins of human strife: "nature, cause, and accident", and (drawing on the same flesh-devouring etymology as Servius) as symbolizing "the three ages—infancy, youth, old age, at which death enters the world."[150] The Byzantine historian and bishop Eusebius wrote that Cerberus was represented with three heads, because the positions of the sun above the earth are three — rising, midday, and setting.[151] The later Vatican Mythographers repeat and expand upon the traditions of Servius and Fulgentius. All three Vatican Mythographers repeat Servius' derivation of Cerberus' name from creoboros.[152] The Second Vatican Mythographer repeats (nearly word for word) what Fulgentius had to say about Cerberus,[153] while the Third Vatican Mythographer, in another very similar passage to Fugentius', says (more specifically than Fugentius), that for "the philosophers" Cerberus represented hatred, his three heads symbolizing the three kinds of human hatred: natural, causal, and casual (i.e. accidental).[154] The Second and Third Vatican Mythographers, note that the three brothers Zeus, Poseidon and Hades each have tripartite insignia, associating Hades' three headed Cerberus, with Zeus' three-forked thunderbolt, and Poseidon's three-pronged trident, while the Third Vatican Mythographer adds that "some philosophers think of Cerberus as the tripartite earth: Asia, Africa, and Europe. This earth, swallowing up bodies, sends souls to Tartarus."[155] Virgil described Cerberus as "ravenous" (fame rabida),[156] and a rapacious Cerberus became proverbial. Thus Cerberus came to symbolize avarice,[157] and so, for example, in Dante's Inferno, Cerberus is placed in the Third Circle of Hell, guarding over the gluttons, where he "rends the spirits, flays and quarters them,"[158] and Dante (perhaps echoing Servius' association of Cerbeus with earth) has his guide Virgil take up handfuls of earth and throw them into Cerberus' "rapacious gullets."[159] Cerberus constellation Constellation[edit] In the constellation Cerberus introduced by Johannes Hevelius in 1687, Cerberus is drawn as a three-headed snake, held in Hercules' hand (previously these stars had been depicted as a branch of the tree on which grew the Apples of the Hesperides).[160] Snake genus[edit] In 1829 French naturalist Georges Cuvier gave the name Cerberus to a genus of Asian snakes, which are commonly called "dog-faced water snakes" in English.[161] See also[edit] Dormarch – part of the Cŵn Annwn Hellhound Notes[edit] ^ LIMC Herakles 2616 Archived 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Smallwood, pp. 92, 98); Ogden 2013b, p. 63; Ogden 2013a, p. 105; Gantz, p. 22; Perseus Louvre E 701 (Vase). ^ "Cerberus". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 16 July 2009. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 300–314, Acusilaus, fragment 6 (Freeman, p. 15), Hyginus, Fabulae Preface, 151 Archived 5 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, and Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica (or Fall of Troy) 6.260–268 (pp. 272–275) all have Cerberus as the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, while Bacchylides, Ode 5.56–62, Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1097–1099, Callimachus, fragment 515 Pfeiffer (Trypanis, pp. 258–259), and Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501, 7.406–409 all have Cerberus as the offspring of Echidna without naming a father. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 309–324 (although it is not certain whom Hesiod meant as the mother of the Chimera: Echidna, the Hydra, or Ceto); Apollodorus, 2.5.10, 2.3.1; Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. ^ Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 105, with n. 182; Hesiod, Theogony 311–312; Pindar, fragment F249a/b SM, from a lost Pindar poem on Heracles in the underworld, according to a scholia on the Iliad. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 105–106, with n. 183; Sophocles, Women of Trachis 22–25 ("three-bodied"), 1097–1099; Euripides, Heracles 610–611, 1276–1278; Virgil, Aeneid 6.417–421 ("triple-throated", "three fierce mouths"), Georgics 4.483 ("triple jaws"); Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.449–451 ("three-visaged mouths", "triple-barking"), 9.185 ("triple form"), 10.21–22 ("three necks"), 10.65–66 ("triple necks"), Heroides 9.93–94 (pp. 114–115) ("three-fold"); Seneca, Agamemnon 859–862 (pp. 198–199) ("triple chains"), Hercules Furens 60–62 (pp. 52–53) ("triple necks"), 782–784 (pp. 110–111); Statius, Silvae 2.1.183–184 (I pp. 90–91) ("triple jaws"), 3.3.27 (I pp. 168–169) ("threefold"), Thebaid, 2.31 (I pp. 396–397), ("threefold"), 2.53 (I pp. 398–399) ("tri-formed"); Propertius, Elegies 3.5.44 (pp. 234–237) ("three throats"), 3.18.23 (pp. 284–285) ("three heads") Apollodorus, 2.5.12 ("three heads of dogs"). ^ West, David, p. 108; Ogden 2013a, p. 107; Horace, Odes 3.11.17–20 (West, David, pp. 101–103) ("a hundred snakes … triple-tongued"), Odes 2.13.33–36 ("hundred-headed"), Odes 2.19.29–32 ("triple tongue"). ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12; Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.389–392 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48); Frazer's note 1 to Apollodorus, 2.5.12. ^ LIMC Herakles 2554 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 98); Schefold 1992, pp. 130–131, fig. 152; Beazley Archive 200011; Perseus Louvre F 204 (Vase). ^ Smallwood, p. 87; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106. According to Gantz, "Presumably the frequent variant of two heads arose from logistical problems in draftmanship," and Ogden wonders if "such images salute or establish a tradition of a two-headed Cerberus, or are we to imagine a third head concealed behind the two that can be seen?" For one-headed Cerberus, see LIMC Herakles 2553, 2570, 2576, 2591, 2621. ^ LIMC Herakles 2553 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 97–98); Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 184. A relief pithos fragment (c. 590–570 BC) LIMC Herakles 2621 (Smallwood, p. 92), seems to show a single lion-headed Cerberus, with snake (open-mouthed) over his back. ^ LIMC Herakles 2605 Archived 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Smallwood, p. 91); Schefold 1992, p. 129; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 185. ^ Ogden 2013b, p. 63. ^ Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2000, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Ogden 2013a, p. 107. ^ Plato Republic 588c. ^ Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Ogden 2013a, p. 107. ^ Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot, (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275 = Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler). ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.419, ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.22–24 ^ Ovid, Heroides 9.93–94 (pp. 114–115). ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 785–812 (pp. 112–113). See also Lucan, Pharsalia 6.664–665, which has Cerberus' heads "bristling" with snakes; and Apollodorus, 2.5.12 whose Cerberus is snake-tailed and has "on his back the heads of all sorts of snakes". ^ Euripides Heracles 22–25. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.422. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 311. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 788–791 (pp. 112–113). ^ LIMC Herakles 2599ad; Beazley Archive 302005. Reproduced from Baumeister's Denkmäler des klassichen Alterthums, volume I., figure 730 (text on p. 663). ^ For discussions of Heracles' capture of Cerberus, see Gantz, pp. 413–416; Hard, pp. 268–269; Ogden 2013a, pp. 104–115. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.367–368; compare with Odyssey 11.620–626. Heracles is also given the task by Eurystheus in Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2000, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27), Euripides, Heracles 1276–1278, Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 lines 10–14 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70; Collard and Cropp, pp. 646–647); Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1; Hyginus, Fabulae 32. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12. So also in Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot 13 (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70), and Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.388–410 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). Euripides, Heracles 22–25, calls this labor the last. However according to Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.2 this labor was the eleventh and next to last, the twelfth being stealig the Apples of the Hesperides. ^ Pirthous TrGF 43 F1 lines 10–14 (Ogden 2013b, p. 70; Collard and Cropp, pp. 646–647); Ogden 2013a, p. 113. ^ Euripides Heracles 612–613; Papadopoulou, p. 163. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1–2. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12; so also, Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.394 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). Apollodorus adds that, since it was unlawful for foreigners to be initiated, Heracles was adopted by Pylius, and that before Heracles could be initiated, he first had to be "cleansed of the slaughter of the centaurs"; see also Frazer's note 2 to Apollodorus, 2.5.12. ^ Homer, Odyssey 11.620–626; compare with Pausanias, 8.18.3. Apollodorus, 2.5.1 also has Hermes aiding Heracles in the underworld. ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 110; Fowler 2013, p. 305 with n. 159. An entrance at Tainaron is mentioned as early as Pindar, Pythian 4.44. ^ Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2000, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Euripides, Heracles 22–25; Seneca, Hercules Furens 662–696 (pp. 102–105); Apollodorus, 2.5.1, so also, Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.395 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48). ^ Xenophon of Athens, Anabasis 6.2.2. ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 108. ^ Gantz, pp. 291–295. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12, E.1.24; compare with Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.396–410, 4.31.911–916 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56, 153; English translation: Berkowitz, pp. 48, 138). ^ LIMC Herakles 3519; Gantz, p. 292; Schelfold 1966, pp. 68–69 fig. 24. ^ Euripides Heracles 1169–1170., :1221–1222; Gantz, p. 293. ^ Gantz, P. 293; Collard and Cropp, p. 637; Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). ^ Philochorus, FGrH 328 F18a, b, c; Harding, pp. 67–70; Ogden 2013b, p. 73; Ogden 2013a, p. 109 (Philochorus F18a = Plutarch, Theseus 35.1, compare with 31.1–4). ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.63.4; Gantz, pp. 294–295. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 79. ^ Beazley Archive 10772. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 110–112. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.1; compare with Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.400–401 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48) which says that Heracles mastered Cerberus "Covered only by his lion skin and breast piece / Apart from the rest of his weapons, just as Pluton [i.e. Hades] said". ^ Homer, Iliad 5.395–397; Kirk, p. 102; Ogden 2013a, pp. 110–111; Gantz, pp. 70, 414, 416. Panyassis F26 West (West, M. L., (pp. 212–213) has "Elean Hades" being shot by Heracles. Compare with Seneca, Hercules Furens 48–51 (pp. 52–53), where Heracles brings back "spoils of triumph over that conquered king … subdued Dis". ^ Schol. Homer Iliad 5.395–397 (Ogden 2013b, p. 66); Ogden 2013a, p. 112; Gantz, p. 416. ^ Smallwood, pp. 96–97; Ogden 2013a, p. 111. ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 111. ^ Euripides Heracles 610–613; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70. This question is echoed in Seneca, Hercules Furens 760–761 (pp. 110–111), where Amphitryon asks "Is it spoil [Heracles] brings, or a willing gift from his uncle. ^ Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. ^ Aristophanes, Frogs 465–469; Ogden 2013b, pp. 65–66. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–812 (pp. 112–113). ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.409–413. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 107–108, 112–113. ^ Strabo, 8.5.1. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 663 (pp. 102–105) (entrance), 813 (pp. 112–113) (exit). Seneca's account may reflect a much older tradition rationalized by Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2000, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27), see Ogden 2013a, p. 112. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12. Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.404 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48) also has Cerberus brought up at Troezen. ^ Pausanias, 2.31.2. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 107–108, 112; Ogden 2013b, pp. 68–69; Fowler 2013, pp. 305 ff.; Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler (= Euphorion fragment 41a Lightfoot); Euphorion, fragment 41 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275); Diodorus Siculus, 14.31.3; Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.406–419; Pomponius Mela, 1.92; Pliny, Natural History 27.4; Schol. Nicander alexipharmaca 13b; Dionysius Periegetes, 788–792; Eustathius, Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes 788–792; First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36). For aconite in the vicinity of Heraclea, see also Theophrastus, Historia Plantarum 9.16.4 pp. 298–299; Strabo, 12.3.7; Pliny, Natural History 6.4; Arrian, FGrH 156 F76a apud Eustathius of Thessalonica, Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes 788–792. ^ Schol. Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 2.353 (Ogden 2013b, p. 68); compare with Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot, (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275 = Herodorus fragment 31 Fowler). ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.413–419, which has Cerberus brought up from the underworld through a cave on "the shores of Scythia, where, 'tis fabled, the [aconite] plant grew on soil infected by Cerberian teeth." ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–821 (pp. 112–115); see also Agamemnon, 859–862 (pp. 198–199), which has Cerberus "fearing the colour of the unknown light." ^ Pausanias, 2.35.10; Euripides, Heracles 615 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70). ^ Pausanias, 9.34.5. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 112–113. ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 113; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–71. ^ Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot 14–15 (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70). ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.26.1. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53). ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 827–829 (pp. 114–115). ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12. ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s.v. eleutheron hydor (Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–71); Ogden 2013a, p. 114. ^ For a discussion of sources see Ogden 2013a, pp. 104–114; Ogden 2013b, pp. 63–74; Gantz, pp. 22–23, 413–416. ^ Homer, Iliad 8.367–368, Odyssey 11.620–626. ^ Homer, Iliad 5.395–397; Kirk, p. 102; Ogden 2013a, pp. 110–111; Gantz, pp. 70, 414, 416. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 300–312. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 767–774; Ogden 2013b, pp. 65. ^ Bowra, p. 94; Ogden 2013a, p. 105 n. 182. ^ Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 184; LIMC Herakles 2553. ^ Bowra, p. 120. ^ Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, with n. 185; LIMC Herakles 2605 Archived 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine; Schefold 1992, p. 129; Pipili, fig. 8. ^ Pindar fragment F249a/b SM, from a lost Pindar poem on Heracles in the underworld, according to a scholia on the Iliad, Gantz p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 105, with n. 182. ^ Bacchylides, Ode 5.56–62. ^ Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1097–1099. ^ Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 1568–1578; Markantonatos, pp. 129–130. ^ Euripides Heracles 1276–1278. ^ Euripides Heracles 22–25. ^ Euripides Heracles 22–25. ^ Euripides Heracles 612–613; Papadopoulou, p. 163; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70. ^ Euripides Heracles 22–25. ^ Pirithous TrGF 43 F1 Hypothesis (Collard and Cropp, pp. 640–641). For the question of authorship see Gantz, p. 293; Collard and Cropp, pp. 629–635, p. 636. ^ Plato Republic 588c. ^ Euphorian, fragment 71 Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 300–303; Ogden 2013b, pp. 69–70); Ogden 2013a, p. 107. ^ Schol. Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 2.353 (Ogden 2013b, p. 68); compare with Euphorion, fragment 41a Lightfoot (Lightfoot, pp. 272–275). ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.25.1, 26.1–2; Ogden 2013b, p. 66. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.417–425; Ogden 2013b, p. 71; Ogden 2013a, p, 109; Ogden 2013b, p. 69. Compare with Apuleius, Metamorphoses 6.19 (pp. 284–285), where following Virgil, exiting (as well as entering) the underworld is accomplished by giving Cerberus a mead-soaked barley cake. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 8.296–297. ^ Virgil, Georgics 4.483. ^ Horace, Odes 3.11.13–20; West, David, pp. 101–103; Ogden 2013a, p. 108. Compare with Odes 2.13.33–36 ("hundred-headed", referring perhaps to the one hundred snakes), Odes 2.19.29–32 ("triple tongue"). ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.500–501. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.406 ff.; Ogden 2013a, p. 108. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 782–821 (pp. 110–115); Ogden 2013b, pp. 66–68. ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 782–791 (pp. 110–113). ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 797–821 (pp. 112–115); see also Agamemnon, 859–862 (pp. 198–199), which has Cerberus "fearing the colour of the unknown light." ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53). ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.12; Ogden 2013b, pp. 64–65. ^ Pseudo-Nonnus, 4.51 (Nimmo Smith, p. 37); Ogden 2013a, p. 114. ^ Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Herakles 1697–1761 (Boardman, pp. 5–16), 2553–2675 (Smallwood, pp. 85–100); Schefold 1992, pp. 129–132. ^ LIMC Herakles 2553 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 97–98); Schefold 1966, p. 68 fig. 23; Schefold 1992, p. 129; Ogden 2013a, pp. 106, 111; Gantz, pp. 22, 413–414. ^ LIMC Herakles 2621 (Smallwood, pp. 92, 97); Ogden 2013a, p. 108. Cerberus is perhaps being led by Heracles, but only the left arm is preserved. According to Smallwood, the identification as Heracles and Cerberus is "suggested by Dunbabin, taken as certain by Schäfer" (p. 92), and "too little of the fragment is preserved for a secure identification". ^ LIMC Herakles 2605 Archived 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Smallwood, p. 91); Schefold 1992, pp. 129–130; Pipili, p. 5, fig. 8; Gantz, p. 22; Ogden 2013a, p. 106, 111 with n. 185, p. 111 with n. 230. ^ Schefold 1992, p. 98. ^ Schefold 1992, p. 129; Smallwood, p. 87. Exceptions include: LIMC Heracles 2570, 2576 (one head). ^ Smallwood, pp. 87, 93. Exceptions include: LIMC Herakles 2553, 2591, 2621 (one head), 2579 (two heads). ^ LIMC Herakles 2640, 2642, 2656, 2666, Smallwood, p. 93. ^ LIMC Herakles 2604 (Smallwood, p. 91); Beazley Archive 301639. ^ Smallwood, p. 87; Ogden 2013b p. 63. Examples include: LIMC Herakles 2553–4, 2560, 2571, 2579, 2581, 2586, 2588, 2595, 2600, 2603–6, 2610–11, 2616, 2621, 2628). ^ Smallwood, p. 87. ^ LIMC Herakles 2604 (Smallwood, p. 91); Beazley Archive 301639. ^ LIMC Herakles 2554 (Smallwood, pp. 87, 98); Schefold 1992, pp. 130–131, fig. 152; Beazley Archive 200011; Perseus Louvre F 204 (Vase). ^ Smallwood, pp. 8, 91. ^ LIMC Herakles 2610 (Smallwood, p. 91); Buitron, Worcester MA 1935.59; Beazley Archive 351415. ^ LIMC Herakles 2628 (Smallwood, p. 93). ^ LIMC Herakles 2618 (Smallwood, p. 92). ^ Smallwood, p. 98. ^ Smallwood, p. 99. ^ LIMC Kerberos 66; Woodford, p. 29. ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 105. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). "Chapter 25.10: Death and the Otherworld". Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, GBR: Oxford University Press. p. 439. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8. OCLC 139999117. ^ Lincoln, pp. 96–97. ^ Servius on Virgil, Aeneid 6.395; Ogden 2013a, p. 190; compare with Fulgentius, Mythologies 1.6 (Whitbread, pp. 51–52); First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36); Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, 106), 173 (Pepin, p. 171); Third Vatican Mythographer, 13.4 (Pepin, p. 324). According to Ogden, 2013b, p. 74, "creoboros is a genuine Greek word and does indeed mean 'flesh-devouring', but it has no part to play in the genuine etymology of Cerberus's name, which remains obscure". ^ Room, p. 88. ^ Stern, p. 7; Ogden 2013a, p. 183. ^ Ogden 2013a, pp. 184–185. ^ Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. *27 a Fowler (Fowler 2000, p. 136) (apud Pausanias, 3.25.4–5), (cf. FGrH 1 F27); Hawes, p. 8; Hopman, p. 182; Ogden 2013a, p. 107; Ogden 2013b, pp. 72–73. ^ Pausanias, 3.25.6. ^ Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 39 (Stern, pp. 71–72). ^ Ogden 2013a, p. 187. ^ Philochorus, FGrH 328 F18a (= Plutarch, Theseus 35.1), F18b, F18c; Harding, pp. 68–70; Ogden 2013b, p. 73; Ogden 2013a, p. 109; Gantz, p. 295; Collard and Cropp, p. 637. Compare with Plutarch, Theseus 31.1–4; Tzetzes, Chiliades 2.36.388–411 (Greek: Kiessling, pp. 55–56; English translation: Berkowitz, p. 48), 4.31.911–916 (Kiessling, p. 153; Berkowitz, p. 138). ^ Ogden 2013b, p. 73. ^ Servius on Virgil, Aeneid 6.395; Ogden 2013a, p. 190. For others who followed Servius in interpreting Cerberus as symbolizing the corruption of flesh, in both the literal and moral senses, see Brumble, pp. 68–69. ^ Fulgentius, Mythologies 1.6 (Whitbread, pp. 51–52); Ogden 2013a, p. 190. ^ Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospels 3.11.16. ^ First Vatican Mythographer, 1.57 (Ogden 2013b, pp. 73–74; Pepin, p. 36); Second Vatican Mythographer, 173 (Pepin, p. 171); Third Vatican Mythographer, 13.4 (Pepin, p. 324). ^ Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, p. 106). ^ Third Vatican Mythographer 6.22 (Pepin, p. 171). ^ Second Vatican Mythographer, 13 (Pepin, p. 106); Third Vatican Mythographer 6.22 (Pepin, p. 171). For others who associated Cerberus' three heads with the three continents see Brumble, p. 69. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 6.421. ^ Wilson-Okamura, p. 169; Brumble, p. 69. ^ Dante, Inferno 6.13–18 ^ Dante, Inferno 6.25–27; Lansing, p. 154. ^ "Ian Ridpath's 'Star Tales'". Ianridpath.com. Retrieved 7 July 2012. ^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Cerberus", p. 50). References[edit] Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apuleius, Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass), Volume I: Books 1–6. Edited and translated by J. Arthur Hanson. Loeb Classical Library No. 44. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996. Online version at Harvard University Press. Aristophanes, Frogs, Matthew Dillon, Ed., Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, 1995. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Bacchylides, Odes, translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1991. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Bloomfield, Maurice, Cerberus, the Dog of Hades: The History of an Idea, Open Court publishing Company, 1905. Online version at Internet Archive Bowra, C. M., Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides, Clarendon Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-814329-1. Diodorus Siculus, Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Euripides. Fragments: Oedipus-Chrysippus. Other Fragments. Edited and translated by Christopher Collard, Martin Cropp. Loeb Classical Library No. 506. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009. Euripides, Heracles, translated by E. P. Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. Volume 1. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-814740-4.* Freeman, Kathleen, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Harvard University Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-674-03501-0. Fowler, R. L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-814741-1. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, ISBN 9780415186360. Google Books. Harding, Phillip, The Story of Athens: The Fragments of the Local Chronicles of Attika, Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-1-134-30447-9. Hawes, Greta, Rationalizing Myth in Antiquity, OUP Oxford, 2014. ISBN 9780191653407. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hopman, Marianne Govers, Scylla: Myth, Metaphor, Paradox, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-139-85185-5. Horace, The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace. John Conington. trans. London. George Bell and Sons. 1882. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Kirk, G. S. 1990 The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume 2, Books 5–8, ISBN 978-0521281720. Lansing, Richard (editor), The Dante Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2010. ISBN 9781136849725. Lightfoot, J. L. Hellenistic Collection: Philitas. Alexander of Aetolia. Hermesianax. Euphorion. Parthenius. Edited and translated by J. L. Lightfoot. Loeb Classical Library No. 508. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-674-99636-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. Lincoln, Bruce (1991). Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48199-9. Lucan, Pharsalia, Sir Edward Ridley. London. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Markantonatos, Andreas, Tragic Narrative: A Narratological Study of Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, Walter de Gruyter, 2002. ISBN 978-3-11-089588-9. Nimmo Smith, Jennifer, A Christian's Guide to Greek Culture: The Pseudo-nonnus Commentaries on Sermons 4, 5, 39 and 43. Liverpool University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780853239178. Ogden, Daniel (2013a), Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5. Ogden, Daniel (2013b), Dragons, Serpents, and Slayers in the Classical and early Christian Worlds: A sourcebook, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-992509-4. Ovid. Heroides. Amores. Translated by Grant Showerman. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 41. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-674-99045-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Papadopoulou, Thalia, Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy, Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-139-44667-9. Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pepin, Ronald E., The Vatican Mythographers, Fordham University Press, 2008. ISBN 9780823228928 Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pipili, Maria, Laconian Iconography of the Sixth Century B.C., Oxford University, 1987. Plato, Republic Books 6–10, Translated by Paul Shorey, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Plutarch. Lives, Volume I: Theseus and Romulus. Lycurgus and Numa. Solon and Publicola. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Loeb Classical Library No. 46. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914. ISBN 978-0-674-99052-4. Theseus at the Perseus Digital Library. Propertius Elegies Edited and translated by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library 18. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990. Online version at Harvard University Press. Quintus Smyrnaeus, Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy, Translator: A.S. Way; Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1913. Internet Archive Room, Adrian, Who's Who in Classical Mythology, Gramercy Books, 2003. ISBN 0-517-22256-6. Schefold, Karl (1966), Myth and Legend in Early Greek Art, London, Thames and Hudson. Schefold, Karl (1992) Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art, assisted by Luca Giuliani, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-521-32718-3. Seneca, Tragedies, Volume I: Hercules. Trojan Women. Phoenician Women. Medea. Phaedra. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 62. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-674-99602-1. Online version at Harvard University Press. Seneca, Tragedies, Volume II: Oedipus. Agamemnon. Thyestes. Hercules on Oeta. Octavia. Edited and translated by John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library No. 78. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-99610-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. Smallwood, Valerie, "M. Herakles and Kerberos (Labour XI)" in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) V.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1990. ISBN 3-7608-8751-1. pp. 85–100. Sophocles, Women of Trachis, Translated by Robert Torrance. Houghton Mifflin. 1966. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume I, Silvae, Thebaid, Books I–IV, Loeb Classical Library No. 206, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. ISBN 978-0-674-99226-9. Internet Archive Statius, Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley, Volume II, Thebaid, Books V–XII, Achilleid, Loeb Classical Library No. 207, London: William Heinemann, Ltd., New York: G. P. Putnamm's Sons, 1928. ISBN 978-0-674-99228-3. Internet Archive Stern, Jacob, Palaephatus Πεπὶ Ὰπίστων, On Unbelievable Tales, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1996. ISBN 9780865163201. Trypanis, C. A., Gelzer, Thomas; Whitman, Cedric, CALLIMACHUS, MUSAEUS, Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments. Hero and Leander, Harvard University Press, 1975. ISBN 978-0-674-99463-8. Tzetzes, Chiliades, editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G. Vogel, 1826. (English translation, Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz. Internet Archive). Virgil, Aeneid, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Virgil, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library West, David, Horace, Odes 3, Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-872165-9. West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC. Edited and translated by Martin L. West. Loeb Classical Library No. 497. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003. Online version at Harvard University Press. Whitbread, Leslie George, Fulgentius the Mythographer. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971. Woodford, Susan, Spier, Jeffrey, "Kerberos", in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) VI.1 Artemis Verlag, Zürich and Munich, 1992. ISBN 3-7608-8751-1. pp. 24–32. Xenophon, Anabasis in Xenophon in Seven Volumes, 3. Carleton L. Brownson. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts; William Heinemann, Ltd., London. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. External links[edit] Look up Cerberus or Κέρβερος in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cerberus (mythology).   Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cerberus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 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en-wikipedia-org-9331	----	Wu Gang - Wikipedia Wu Gang From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For the actor, see Wu Gang (actor). For locations, see Wugang (disambiguation). An 1886 Japanese print of Wu Gang by Yoshitoshi. Part of a series on Taoism Theories Dao (Tao) De (Te) Wuji Taiji Yin-Yang Wuwei Ziran Xian Wu Xing Qi Zhenren Practices Three Treasures Daoist meditation Daoist diet (Bigu) Neidan Waidan Daoist sexual practices Five Precepts Ten Precepts Texts Yijing Laozi (Daodejing) Zhuangzi Huainanzi Taipingjing Xiang'er Liezi Sanhuangjing Huahujing Qingjing Jing Baopuzi Daozang Deities Hongjun Laozu Three Pure Ones Guan Shengdi Eight Immortals Yellow Emperor Li Hong Xiwangmu Chang'e Jade Emperor Other deities People Laozi Zhuangzi Lie Yukou Heshanggong Zhang Daoling Zhang Jue Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove Ge Hong Bao Jingyan Kou Qianzhi Tao Hongjing Cheng Xuanying Chen Tuan Wang Chongyang Qiu Chuji fangshi Schools Orthodox Unity Wudoumi Tianshi Northern Tianshi Zhengyi Huang–Lao Way of the Taiping Xuanxue Shangqing Lingbao Chongxuan Quanzhen (Longmen) Wuliu Yao Taoism Holy places Taoist temple Grotto-heavens Mount Penglai Mount Kunlun Wudang Mountains Louguan Tower Baiyun Monastery Institutions and Organizations Chinese Taoist Association Celestial Master Taoist priests v t e Wu Gang (simplified Chinese: 吴刚; traditional Chinese: 吳剛; pinyin: Wú Gāng), formerly romanized as Wu Kang[1] and also known as Wu Zhi in some sources,[2] is a figure in traditional Chinese folklore[3] and religion. He is known for endlessly cutting down a self-healing osmanthus tree on the Moon,[8] a divine punishment which has led to his description as the Chinese Sisyphus.[2][5] In modern Chinese, the chengyu "Wu Gang chopping the tree" (吳剛伐桂) is used to describe any endless toil. The specific reason for his situation has varied in the sources,[3] but Wu Gang's story dates back to at least the Tang dynasty. Contents 1 Legend 1.1 Origins 1.2 First version 1.3 Second version 1.4 Third version 1.5 Fourth version 2 See also 3 References Legend[edit] Origins[edit] An etiological myth for the moon's phases was that a great forest or great tree grew there, swiftly growing and losing leaves and blossoms over the course of each month. After the expansion of the Chinese cultural area south of the Yangtze River during the Qin and Han dynasties, the lunar trees became associated with the fragrant and white-blossoming osmanthus. This tree flowers during the autumn[2] and promoted the connection of the Chinese harvest celebration with the Moon, a connection still observed during the modern Mid-Autumn Festival. Confections and wine flavored with its blossoms are also still associated with the holiday.[9][10] By the time of the Han, the Book of the Master of Huainan associated the waxing of the moon with trees growing from the feet of a Chinese immortal. In his Compendium of Materia Medica, Li Shizhen explains that Wu Gang was added to the stories about the holiday from novellas published during the Sui and Tang dynasties.[11] First version[edit] The 9th-century Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang mentions a lunar tree over five hundred feet high and says that Wu Gang of Xihe stood under it. It relates that other immortals were sent there to chop the tree when they made a mistake.[12] Second version[edit] Wu witnessed a liaison between his wife and Yandi's grandson, after the two had already carried on an affair so long it begat three sons. In a rage, Wu murdered his wife's lover but Yandi ordered Wu banished to the Moon, where he would cut down a tree. After each blow, the tree healed itself and Wu was therefore forced to cut at it forever.[3] Third version[edit] Another version features a cherry bay.[dubious – discuss] In this version, Wu Gang began the attempt to become a Taoist immortal but gave up lazily midway through the process. The Jade Emperor was furious and decided to punish him. The Emperor created a cherry bay on the Moon and Wu Gang was invited to chop it down in order to become an immortal. Wu Gang tried, but again the tree healed itself and the task was impossible. The shadows on the Moon are said to be created by the growing cherry bay.[13] Fourth version[edit] In yet another version, Wu found a teacher in the mountains in his quest for immortality. When his teacher taught him to heal, he gave up after three days. When he was taught to play Chinese chess, he gave up after two days. When he was taught the method of eternal life, he gave up after a day. His teacher then sent him to the Moon to chop down the tree.[1] See also[edit] Sisyphus – a similar figure from Greek mythology Chang E Jade Rabbit References[edit] ^ a b "Wu Kang". S.K.H. Kei Oi Primary School. Retrieved 2009-08-06. ^ a b c d Eberhard, Wolfram. Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought, pp. 76 ff. Routledge & Kegan Paul (London), 2013. Accessed 12 November 2013. ^ a b c 吳剛砍玉桂樹 (in Chinese). Hong Kong Space Museum. Retrieved 2009-08-05. ^ The Fiji Times Online. "The Legend of Wu Gang". 19 September 2013. Accessed 12 October 2013. ^ a b c Brendon, Juliet & al. The Moon Year: A Record of Chinese Customs and Festivals, p. 410. Kelly & Walsh, 1927. Reprinted Routledge (Abingdon), 2011. Accessed 13 November 2013. ^ Zdic. "蟾宫折桂". 2013. Accessed 13 November 2013. (in Chinese) ^ 杜近芳 [Du Jinfang]. 《红楼梦汉英习语词典》 ["A Dictionary of Chinese Idioms in the Dream of the Red Chamber"]. 2003. Accessed 13 November 2013.  & (in Chinese) ^ The tree is given in the Chinese sources as a 桂, which originally referred to both the sweet osmanthus (now 桂花, "gui flower"),[4] a species of olive, and the cassia (now 肉桂, "meat gui"),.[5] Because of the latter's greater importance in modern international trade, it is often encountered in English translations although the sweet-smelling osmanthus is the one meant. See, for instance, Wolfram, who consistently translates 桂 as "cassia" while in fact describing and giving the scientific name for sweet osmanthus.[2] In Chinese, meanwhile, the chengyu "pluck osmanthus in the Toad Palace" (蟾宫折桂, Chángōng zhé guì) associating the lunar tree with passing the imperial examinations[5][6][7] eventually led to the association of the tree with the true laurel, which bears similar associations in European cultures from its use in Greece and Rome. It is now known in Chinese as the 月桂 or "Moon gui" and connected with the earlier myths. ^ Qiu Yaohong. Origins of Chinese Tea and Wine, p. 121. Asiapac Books (Singapore), 2004. Accessed 7 November 2013. ^ Liu Junru. Chinese Food, p. 136. Cambridge Univ. Press (Cambridge), 2011. Accessed 7 November 2013. ^ The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949–1976, Vol. II. January 1956 – December 1957, p. 540. M.E. Sharpe (London), 1992. Accessed 12 November 2013. ^ 中秋傳說之——吳剛伐桂 (in Chinese). National Taipei University. Retrieved 2009-08-05. ^ "Mid-Autumn Festival Story". Retrieved 2009-08-06. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wu_Gang&oldid=933984620" Categories: Taoism Chinese mythology Hidden categories: CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh) CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles containing Chinese-language text Articles with Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from November 2013 Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikibooks Languages Polski Русский 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2020, at 02:30 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9382	----	None 
en-wikipedia-org-9402	----	Homer - Wikipedia Homer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 5 February 2021. Jump to navigation Jump to search name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey For other uses, see Homer (disambiguation). "Homeric" and "Homerus" redirect here. For other uses, see Homeric (disambiguation) and Homerus (disambiguation). "Homeric" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Homerian. Roman bust of Homer from the second century AD, portrayed with traditional iconography, based on a Greek original dating to the Hellenistic period[1] Homer (/ˈhoʊmər/; Ancient Greek: Ὅμηρος Greek pronunciation: [hómɛːros], Hómēros; c. 800–c. 701 BC) was the presumed author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems that are the foundational works of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The Odyssey focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary.[2][3][4] The Homeric Question – concerning by whom, when, where and under what circumstances the Iliad and Odyssey were composed – continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion falls into two groups. One holds that most of the Iliad and (according to some) the Odyssey are the works of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the result of a process of working and reworking by many contributors, and that "Homer" is best seen as a label for an entire tradition.[4] It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.[5] The poems are in Homeric Greek, also known as Epic Greek, a literary language which shows a mixture of features of the Ionic and Aeolic dialects from different centuries; the predominant influence is Eastern Ionic.[6][7] Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.[8] From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.[9] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[10][11] Contents 1 Works attributed to Homer 2 Ancient biographical traditions 3 History of Homeric scholarship 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Modern 3.3 Contemporary 4 Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society 5 Homeric language 6 Homeric style 7 Textual transmission 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Selected bibliography 10.1 Editions 10.2 Interlinear translations 10.3 English translations 10.4 General works on Homer 10.5 Influential readings and interpretations 10.6 Commentaries 10.7 Dating the Homeric poems 11 Further reading 12 External links Works attributed to Homer[edit] Homer and His Guide (1874) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau Today only the Iliad and Odyssey are associated with the name 'Homer'. In antiquity, a very large number of other works were sometimes attributed to him, including the Homeric Hymns, the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, the Little Iliad, the Nostoi, the Thebaid, the Cypria, the Epigoni, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"), the Margites, the Capture of Oechalia, and the Phocais. These claims are not considered authentic today and were by no means universally accepted in the ancient world. As with the multitude of legends surrounding Homer's life, they indicate little more than the centrality of Homer to ancient Greek culture.[12][13][14] Ancient biographical traditions[edit] Further information: Ancient accounts of Homer Some ancient claims about Homer were established early and repeated often. They include that Homer was blind (taking as self-referential a passage describing the blind bard Demodocus[15][16]), that he was born in Chios, that he was the son of the river Meles and the nymph Critheïs, that he was a wandering bard, that he composed a varying list of other works (the "Homerica"), that he died either in Ios or after failing to solve a riddle set by fishermen, and various explanations for the name "Homer". The two best known ancient biographies of Homer are the Life of Homer by the Pseudo-Herodotus and the Contest of Homer and Hesiod.[17][18] In the early 4th century BC Alcidamas composed a fictional account of a poetry contest at Chalcis with both Homer and Hesiod. Homer was expected to win, and answered all of Hesiod's questions and puzzles with ease. Then, each of the poets was invited to recite the best passage from their work. Hesiod selected the beginning of Works and Days: "When the Pleiades born of Atlas ... all in due season". Homer chose a description of Greek warriors in formation, facing the foe, taken from the Iliad. Though the crowd acclaimed Homer victor, the judge awarded Hesiod the prize; the poet who praised husbandry, he said, was greater than the one who told tales of battles and slaughter.[19] History of Homeric scholarship[edit] Further information: Homeric scholarship and Homeric Question Ancient[edit] Part of an eleventh-century manuscript, "the Townley Homer". The writings on the top and right side are scholia. The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.[20][21][22] Nonetheless, the aims of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia.[20] The earliest preserved comments on Homer concern his treatment of the gods, which hostile critics such as the poet Xenophanes of Colophon denounced as immoral.[22] The allegorist Theagenes of Rhegium is said to have defended Homer by arguing that the Homeric poems are allegories.[22] The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely used as school texts in ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultures.[20][22][23] They were the first literary works taught to all students.[23] The Iliad, particularly its first few books, was far more intently studied than the Odyssey during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[23] As a result of the poems' prominence in classical Greek education, extensive commentaries on them developed to explain parts of the poems that were culturally or linguistically difficult.[20][22] During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many interpreters, especially the Stoics, who believed that Homeric poems conveyed Stoic doctrines, regarded them as allegories, containing hidden wisdom.[22] Perhaps partially because of the Homeric poems' extensive use in education, many authors believed that Homer's original purpose had been to educate.[22] Homer's wisdom became so widely praised that he began to acquire the image of almost a prototypical philosopher.[22] Byzantine scholars such as Eustathius of Thessalonica and John Tzetzes produced commentaries, extensions and scholia to Homer, especially in the twelfth century.[24][22] Eustathius's commentary on the Iliad alone is massive, sprawling over nearly 4,000 oversized pages in a twenty-first century printed version and his commentary on the Odyssey an additional nearly 2,000.[22] Modern[edit] Homer as depicted in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle In 1488, the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles published the editio princeps of the Homeric poems.[22] The earliest modern Homeric scholars started with the same basic approaches towards the Homeric poems as scholars in antiquity.[22][21][20] The allegorical interpretation of the Homeric poems that had been so prevalent in antiquity returned to become the prevailing view of the Renaissance.[22] Renaissance humanists praised Homer as the archetypically wise poet, whose writings contain hidden wisdom, disguised through allegory.[22] In western Europe during the Renaissance, Virgil was more widely read than Homer and Homer was often seen through a Virgilian lens.[25] In 1664, contradicting the widespread praise of Homer as the epitome of wisdom, François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac wrote a scathing attack on the Homeric poems, declaring that they were incoherent, immoral, tasteless, and without style, that Homer never existed, and that the poems were hastily cobbled together by incompetent editors from unrelated oral songs.[21] Fifty years later, the English scholar Richard Bentley concluded that Homer did exist, but that he was an obscure, prehistoric oral poet whose compositions bear little relation to the Iliad and the Odyssey as they have been passed down.[21] According to Bentley, Homer "wrote a Sequel of Songs and Rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small Earnings and good Cheer at Festivals and other Days of Merriment; the Ilias he wrote for men, and the Odysseis for the other Sex. These loose songs were not collected together in the Form of an epic Poem till Pisistratus' time, about 500 Years after."[21] Friedrich August Wolf's Prolegomena ad Homerum, published in 1795, argued that much of the material later incorporated into the Iliad and the Odyssey was originally composed in the tenth century BC in the form of short, separate oral songs,[26][27][21] which passed through oral tradition for roughly four hundred years before being assembled into prototypical versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey in the sixth century BC by literate authors.[26][27][21] After being written down, Wolf maintained that the two poems were extensively edited, modernized, and eventually shaped into their present state as artistic unities.[26][27][21] Wolf and the "Analyst" school, which led the field in the nineteenth century, sought to recover the original, authentic poems which were thought to be concealed by later excrescences.[26][27][21][28] Within the Analyst school were two camps: proponents of the "lay theory", which held that the Iliad and the Odyssey were put together from a large number of short, independent songs,[21] and proponents of the "nucleus theory", which held that Homer had originally composed shorter versions of the Iliad and the Odyssey, which later poets expanded and revised.[21] A small group of scholars opposed to the Analysts, dubbed "Unitarians", saw the later additions as superior, the work of a single inspired poet.[26][27][21] By around 1830, the central preoccupations of Homeric scholars, dealing with whether or not "Homer" actually existed, when and how the Homeric poems originated, how they were transmitted, when and how they were finally written down, and their overall unity, had been dubbed "the Homeric Question".[21] Following World War I, the Analyst school began to fall out of favor among Homeric scholars.[21] It did not die out entirely, but it came to be increasingly seen as a discredited dead end.[21] Starting in around 1928, Milman Parry and Albert Lord, after their studies of folk bards in the Balkans, developed the "Oral-Formulaic Theory" that the Homeric poems were originally composed through improvised oral performances, which relied on traditional epithets and poetic formulas.[29][28][21] This theory found very wide scholarly acceptance[29][28][21] and explained many previously puzzling features of the Homeric poems, including their unusually archaic language, their extensive use of stock epithets, and their other "repetitive" features.[28] Many scholars concluded that the "Homeric question" had finally been answered.[21] Meanwhile, the 'Neoanalysts' sought to bridge the gap between the 'Analysts' and 'Unitarians'.[30][31] The Neoanalysts sought to trace the relationships between the Homeric poems and other epic poems, which have now been lost, but of which modern scholars do possess some patchy knowledge.[21] Neoanalysts hold that knowledge of earlier versions of the epics can be derived from anomalies of structure and detail in the surviving versions of the Iliad and Odyssey. These anomalies point to earlier versions of the Iliad in which Ajax played a more prominent role, in which the Achaean embassy to Achilles comprised different characters, and in which Patroclus was actually mistaken for Achilles by the Trojans. They point to earlier versions of the Odyssey in which Telemachus went in search of news of his father not to Menelaus in Sparta but to Idomeneus in Crete, in which Telemachus met up with his father in Crete and conspired with him to return to Ithaca disguised as the soothsayer Theoclymenus, and in which Penelope recognized Odysseus much earlier in the narrative and conspired with him in the destruction of the suitors.[32] Contemporary[edit] Most contemporary scholars, although they disagree on other questions about the genesis of the poems, agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not produced by the same author, based on "the many differences of narrative manner, theology, ethics, vocabulary, and geographical perspective, and by the apparently imitative character of certain passages of the Odyssey in relation to the Iliad."[33][34][35][21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Iliad and the Odyssey are unified poems, in that each poem shows a clear overall design, and that they are not merely strung together from unrelated songs.[21] It is also generally agreed that each poem was composed mostly by a single author, who probably relied heavily on older oral traditions.[21] Nearly all scholars agree that the Doloneia in Book X of the Iliad is not part of the original poem, but rather a later insertion by a different poet.[21] Some ancient scholars believed Homer to have been an eyewitness to the Trojan War; others thought he had lived up to 500 years afterwards.[36] Contemporary scholars continue to debate the date of the poems.[37][38][21] A long history of oral transmission lies behind the composition of the poems, complicating the search for a precise date.[39] At one extreme, Richard Janko has proposed a date for both poems to the eighth century BC based on linguistic analysis and statistics.[37][38] Barry B. Powell dates the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey to sometime between 800 and 750 BC, based on the statement from Herodotus, who lived in the late fifth century BC, that Homer lived four hundred years before his own time "and not more" (καὶ οὐ πλέοσι), and on the fact that the poems do not mention hoplite battle tactics, inhumation, or literacy.[40] Martin Litchfield West has argued that the Iliad echoes the poetry of Hesiod, and that it must have been composed around 660–650 BC at the earliest, with the Odyssey up to a generation later.[41][42][21] He also interprets passages in the Iliad as showing knowledge of historical events that occurred in the ancient Near East during the middle of the seventh century BC, including the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib in 689 BC and the Sack of Thebes by Ashurbanipal in 663/4 BC.[21] At the other extreme, a few American scholars such as Gregory Nagy see "Homer" as a continually evolving tradition, which grew much more stable as the tradition progressed, but which did not fully cease to continue changing and evolving until as late as the middle of the second century BC.[37][38][21] "'Homer" is a name of unknown etymological origin, around which many theories were erected in antiquity. One such linkage was to the Greek ὅμηρος (hómēros), "hostage" (or "surety"). The explanations suggested by modern scholars tend to mirror their position on the overall Homeric question. Nagy interprets it as "he who fits (the song) together". West has advanced both possible Greek and Phoenician etymologies.[43][44] Historicity of the Homeric epics and Homeric society[edit] Main article: Historicity of the Homeric epics Greece according to the Iliad Scholars continue to debate questions such as whether the Trojan War actually took place – and if so when and where – and to what extent the society depicted by Homer is based on his own or one which was, even at the time of the poems' composition, known only as legends. The Homeric epics are largely set in the east and center of the Mediterranean, with some scattered references to Egypt, Ethiopia and other distant lands, in a warlike society that resembles that of the Greek world slightly before the hypothesized date of the poems' composition.[45][46][47][48] In ancient Greek chronology, the sack of Troy was dated to 1184 BC. By the nineteenth century, there was widespread scholarly skepticism that the Trojan War had ever happened and that Troy had even existed, but in 1873 Heinrich Schliemann announced to the world that he had discovered the ruins of Homer's Troy at Hissarlik in modern Turkey. Some contemporary scholars think the destruction of Troy VIIa circa 1220 BC was the origin of the myth of the Trojan War, others that the poem was inspired by multiple similar sieges that took place over the centuries.[49] Most scholars now agree that the Homeric poems depict customs and elements of the material world that are derived from different periods of Greek history.[28][50][51] For instance, the heroes in the poems use bronze weapons, characteristic of the Bronze Age in which the poems are set, rather than the later Iron Age during which they were composed;[28][50][51] yet the same heroes are cremated (an Iron Age practice) rather than buried (as they were in the Bronze Age).[28][50][51] In some parts of the Homeric poems, heroes are accurately described as carrying large shields like those used by warriors during the Mycenaean period,[28] but, in other places, they are instead described carrying the smaller shields that were commonly used during the time when the poems were written in the early Iron Age.[28] In the Iliad 10.260–265, Odysseus is described as wearing a helmet made of boar's tusks. Such helmets were not worn in Homer's time, but were commonly worn by aristocratic warriors between 1600 and 1150 BC.[52][53][54] The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and continued archaeological investigation has increased modern scholars' understanding of Aegean civilisation, which in many ways resembles the ancient Near East more than the society described by Homer.[55] Some aspects of the Homeric world are simply made up;[28] for instance, the Iliad 22.145–56 describes there being two springs that run near the city of Troy, one that runs steaming hot and the other that runs icy cold.[28] It is here that Hector takes his final stand against Achilles.[28] Archaeologists, however, have uncovered no evidence that springs of this description ever actually existed.[28] Homeric language[edit] Main article: Homeric Greek Detail of The Parnassus (painted 1509–1510) by Raphael, depicting Homer wearing a crown of laurels atop Mount Parnassus, with Dante Alighieri on his right and Virgil on his left The Homeric epics are written in an artificial literary language or 'Kunstsprache' only used in epic hexameter poetry. Homeric Greek shows features of multiple regional Greek dialects and periods, but is fundamentally based on Ionic Greek, in keeping with the tradition that Homer was from Ionia. Linguistic analysis suggests that the Iliad was composed slightly before the Odyssey, and that Homeric formulae preserve older features than other parts of the poems.[56][57] Homeric style[edit] The Homeric poems were composed in unrhymed dactylic hexameter; ancient Greek metre was quantity-based rather than stress-based.[58][59] Homer frequently uses set phrases such as epithets ('crafty Odysseus', 'rosy-fingered Dawn', 'owl-eyed Athena', etc.), Homeric formulae ('and then answered [him/her], Agamemnon, king of men', 'when the early-born rose-fingered Dawn came to light', 'thus he/she spoke'), simile, type scenes, ring composition and repetition. These habits aid the extemporizing bard, and are characteristic of oral poetry. For instance, the main words of a Homeric sentence are generally placed towards the beginning, whereas literate poets like Virgil or Milton use longer and more complicated syntactical structures. Homer then expands on these ideas in subsequent clauses; this technique is called parataxis.[60] The so-called 'type scenes' (typische Scenen), were named by Walter Arend in 1933. He noted that Homer often, when describing frequently recurring activities such as eating, praying, fighting and dressing, used blocks of set phrases in sequence that were then elaborated by the poet. The 'Analyst' school had considered these repetitions as un-Homeric, whereas Arend interpreted them philosophically. Parry and Lord noted that these conventions are found in many other cultures.[61][62] 'Ring composition' or chiastic structure (when a phrase or idea is repeated at both the beginning and end of a story, or a series of such ideas first appears in the order A, B, C ... before being reversed as ... C, B, A) has been observed in the Homeric epics. Opinion differs as to whether these occurrences are a conscious artistic device, a mnemonic aid or a spontaneous feature of human storytelling.[63][64] Both of the Homeric poems begin with an invocation to the Muse.[65] In the Iliad, the poet invokes her to sing of "the anger of Achilles",[65] and, in the Odyssey, he asks her to sing of "the man of many ways".[65] A similar opening was later employed by Virgil in his Aeneid.[65] Textual transmission[edit] A Reading from Homer (1885) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema The orally transmitted Homeric poems were put into written form at some point between the eighth and sixth centuries BC. Some scholars believe that they were dictated to a scribe by the poet and that our inherited versions of the Iliad and Odyssey were in origin orally-dictated texts.[66] Albert Lord noted that the Balkan bards that he was studying revised and expanded their songs in their process of dictating.[67] Some scholars hypothesize that a similar process of revision and expansion occurred when the Homeric poems were first written down.[68][69] Other scholars hold that, after the poems were created in the eighth century, they continued to be orally transmitted with considerable revision until they were written down in the sixth century.[70] After textualisation, the poems were each divided into 24 rhapsodes, today referred to as books, and labelled by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Most scholars attribute the book divisions to the Hellenistic scholars of Alexandria, in Egypt.[71] Some trace the divisions back further to the Classical period.[72] Very few credit Homer himself with the divisions.[73] In antiquity, it was widely held that the Homeric poems were collected and organised in Athens in the late sixth century BC by the tyrant Peisistratos (died 528/7 BC), in what subsequent scholars have dubbed the "Peisistratean recension".[74][22] The idea that the Homeric poems were originally transmitted orally and first written down during the reign of Peisistratos is referenced by the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero and is also referenced in a number of other surviving sources, including two ancient Lives of Homer.[22] From around 150 BC, the texts of the Homeric poems seem to have become relatively established. After the establishment of the Library of Alexandria, Homeric scholars such as Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzantium and in particular Aristarchus of Samothrace helped establish a canonical text.[75] The first printed edition of Homer was produced in 1488 in Milan, Italy. Today scholars use medieval manuscripts, papyri and other sources; some argue for a "multi-text" view, rather than seeking a single definitive text. The nineteenth-century edition of Arthur Ludwich mainly follows Aristarchus's work, whereas van Thiel's (1991, 1996) follows the medieval vulgate. Others, such as Martin West (1998–2000) or T.W. Allen, fall somewhere between these two extremes.[75] See also[edit] Ancient Greece portal Poetry portal Literature portal Achaeans (Homer) Aeneid Bibliomancy Catalogue of Ships Creophylus of Samos Cyclic Poets Deception of Zeus Epithets in Homer Geography of the Odyssey Greek mythology Hector Historicity of Homer Homeric scholarship Ithaca List of Homeric characters Peisistratos Sortes Homericae Tabula iliaca Telemachy The Golden Bough Trojan Battle Order Trojan War in popular culture Troy VII Venetus A Manuscript Notes[edit] ^ "Portrait Bust". The British Museum. ^ Wilson, Nigel (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 366. ISBN 978-1136788000. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0226143125. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ a b Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0521809665. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Croally, Neil; Hyde, Roy (2011). Classical Literature: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 978-1136736629. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (2015). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 445. ISBN 978-1118885956. ^ Miller, D. Gary (2013). Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus. Walter de Gruyter. p. 351. ISBN 978-1614512950. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna (1996). The Odyssey Re-formed. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483356. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Latacz, Joachim (1996). Homer, His Art and His World. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472083534. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Too, Yun Lee (2010). The Idea of the Library in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. p. 86. ISBN 978-0199577804. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ MacDonald, Dennis R. (1994). Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0195358629. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Homerica". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0606. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Graziosi, Barbara; Haubold, Johannes (2005). Homer: The Resonance of Epic. A&C Black. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0715632826. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–168. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ Odyssey, 8:64ff. ^ Lefkowitz, Mary R. (2013). The Lives of the Greek Poets. A&C Black. pp. 14–30. ISBN 978-1472503077. ^ Kelly, Adrian D. (2012). "Biographies of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0243. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ West, M. L. Theogony & Works and Days. Oxford University Press. p. xx. ^ a b c d e Dickey, Eleanor (2012). "Scholarship, Ancient". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1307. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa West, M. L. (December 2011). "The Homeric Question Today". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 155 (4): 383–393. JSTOR 23208780. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Lamberton, Robert (2010). "Homer". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ a b c Hunter, Richard L. (2018). The Measure of Homer: The Ancient Reception of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-108-42831-6. ^ Kaldellis, Anthony (2012). "Scholarship, Byzantine". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1308. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, Renaissance through 17th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1310. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 18th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1311. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 19th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1312. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Taplin, Oliver (1986). "2: Homer". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 50–77. ISBN 978-0198721123. ^ a b Foley, John Miles (1988). The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253342607. ^ Heiden, Bruce (2012). "Scholarship, 20th Century". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1313. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Edwards, Mark W. (2012). "Neoanalysis". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0968. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Reece, Steve. "The Cretan Odyssey: A Lie Truer than Truth". American Journal of Philology 115 (1994) 157-173. The_Cretan_Odyssey ^ West, M. L. (1999). "The Invention of Homer". Classical Quarterly. 49 (2): 364–382. doi:10.1093/cq/49.2.364. JSTOR 639863. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Homeric Question". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0605. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Latacz, Joachim; Bierl, Anton; Olson, S. Douglas (2015). "New Trends in Homeric Scholarship" in Homer's Iliad: The Basel Commentary. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1614517375. ^ Saïd, Suzanne (2011). Homer and the Odyssey. OUP Oxford. pp. 14–17. ISBN 978-0199542840. ^ a b c Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ a b c Fowler, Robert; Fowler, Robert Louis (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge University Press. pp. 220–232. ISBN 978-0521012461. ^ Burgess, Jonathan S. (2003). The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle. JHU Press. pp. 49–53. ISBN 978-0801874819. ^ Barry, Barry B. (1996). Homer and the Origins of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 217–222. ISBN 978-0-521-58907-9. ^ Hall, Jonathan M. (2002). Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture. University of Chicago Press. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0226313290. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Date of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0330. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–89. ISBN 978-0521809665. ^ West, M. L. (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 622. ^ Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2012). "Historicity of Homer". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0601. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Finley, Moses I. (1991). The World of Odysseus. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140136869. ^ Wees, Hans van (2009). War and Violence in Ancient Greece. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-1910589298. ^ Morris, Ian (1986). "The Use and Abuse of Homer". Classical Antiquity. 5 (1): 81–138. doi:10.2307/25010840. JSTOR 25010840. ^ Dowden, Ken; Livingstone, Niall (2011). A Companion to Greek Mythology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 440. ISBN 978-1444396935. ^ a b c Sacks, David; Murray, Oswyn; Brody, Lisa R. (2014). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Infobase Publishing. p. 356. ISBN 978-1438110202. ^ a b c Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. pp. 434–435. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Wood, Michael (1996). In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Schofield, Louise (2007). The Mycenaeans. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-89236-867-9. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Everson, Tim (2004). Warfare in Ancient Greece: Arms and Armour from the Heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great. Brimscombe Port: The History Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-7524-9506-4. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. BRILL. p. 625. ISBN 978-9004217607. ^ Willi, Andreas (2012). "Language, Homeric". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0792. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Bakker, Egbert J. (2010). A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. John Wiley & Sons. p. 401. ISBN 978-1444317404. ^ W. Edwards, Mark (2012). "Meter". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0913. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nussbaum, G.B. (1986). Homer's Metre: A Practical Guide for Reading Greek Hexameter Poetry. Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-0862921729. ^ Edwards, Mark W. (2012). "Style". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1377. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Reece, Steve T. (2012). "Type-Scenes". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1488. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Edwards, MW (1992). "Homer and Oral Tradition: The Type-Scene". Oral Tradition. 7: 284–330. ^ Stanley, Keith (2014). The Shield of Homer: Narrative Structure in the Illiad. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400863372. ^ Minchin, Elizabeth (2012). "Ring Composition". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1287. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ a b c d Adler, Eve (2003). Vergil's Empire: Political Thought in the Aeneid. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7425-2167-4. ^ Steve Reece, "Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: From Oral Performance to Written Text", in Mark Amodio (ed.), New Directions in Oral Theory (Tempe: Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2005) 43-89. ^ Albert B. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960). ^ Kirk, G.S. (1976). Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0521213097. ^ Foley, John Miles (2012). "Oral Dictated Texts". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1029. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ Nagy, Gregory (1996). Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521558488. ^ U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Homerische Untersuchungen (Berlin, 1884) 369; R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship (Oxford, 1968) 116-117. ^ West, Martin L. (2012). "Book Division". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe0253. ISBN 978-1405177689.; S. West, The Ptolemaic Papyri of Homer (Cologne, 1967) 18-25. ^ P. Mazon, Introduction à l'Iliade (Paris, 1912) 137-40; C.H. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge [Mass.], 1958) 282-83; G.P. Goold, "Homer and the Alphabet", TAPA 96 (1960) 272-91; K. Stanley, The Shield of Homer (Princeton, 1993) 37, 249ff. ^ Jensen, Minna Skafte (1980). The Homeric Question and the Oral-formulaic Theory. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-8772890968. ^ a b Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413. ISBN 978-1405177689. Selected bibliography[edit] Editions[edit] Texts in Homeric Greek Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488 the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517) 1st ed. with comments, Micyllus and Camerarius, Basel, 1535, 1541 (improved text), 1551 (incl. the Batrachomyomachia) Th. Ridel, Strasbourg, c. 1572, 1588 and 1592. Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807) Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836) Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858) La Roche (Odyssey, 1867–1868; Iliad, 1873–1876, both at Leipzig) Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889–1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907) W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed. 1900–1902) William Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i–xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886) Monro (Odyssey xiii–xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901) Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917–1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad=3rd edition, Odyssey=2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN 0-19-814534-9 H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09459-2 M. L. West 1998–2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1 P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7 M. L. West 2017, Homerus Odyssea, Berlin/Boston. ISBN 3-11-042539-4 Interlinear translations[edit] The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text ISBN 978-1-60725-298-6 English translations[edit] Main article: English translations of Homer This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Augustus Taber Murray (1866–1940) Homer: Iliad, 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1999). Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1995). Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985) The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1 The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9 Robert Fagles (1933–2008) The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3 The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3 Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943) Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2 Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7 Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3 Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7 The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1 The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5 Barry B. Powell (b. 1942) "Iliad", Oxford University Press (2013) ISBN 978-0-19-932610-5 "Odyssey", Oxford University PressI (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-936031-4 Homer's Iliad and Odyssey: The Essential Books, Oxford University Press (2014) ISBN 978-0-19-939407-4 Samuel Butler (1835–1902) The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1 The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8 Herbert Jordan (b. 1938) Iliad, University of Oklahoma Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-8061-3974-6 (soft cover) Emily Wilson (b. 1971) The Odyssey, W.W. Norton & Company (2017) ISBN 978-0-393-08905-9 Rodney Merrill The Iliad, University of Michigan Press (2007) ISBN 978-0-472-11617-1 The Odyssey, University of Michigan Press (2002) ISBN 978-0-472-11231-9 General works on Homer[edit] Carlier, Pierre (1999). Homère (in French). Paris: Les éditions Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-60381-0. de Romilly, Jacqueline (2005). Homère (5th ed.). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-054830-0. Fowler, Robert, ed. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01246-1. Latacz, J.; Windle, Kevin, Tr.; Ireland, Rosh, Tr. (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0. In German, 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig, 2005. In Spanish, 2003, ISBN 84-233-3487-2. In modern Greek, 2005, ISBN 960-16-1557-1. Monro, David Binning (1911). "Homer" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 626–39. Morris, Ian; Powell, Barry B., eds. (1997). A New Companion to Homer. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09989-0. Powell, Barry B. (2007). Homer (2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-6. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2000). Le monde d'Homère (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-01181-9. Wace, A.J.B.; F.H. Stubbings (1962). A Companion to Homer. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-07113-7. Influential readings and interpretations[edit] Auerbach, Erich (1953). "Chapter 1". Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11336-4. (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern) de Jong, Irene J.F. (2004). Narrators and Focalizers: the Presentation of the Story in the Iliad (2nd ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-658-0. Edwards, Mark W. (1987). Homer, Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3329-8. Fenik, Bernard (1974). Studies in the Odyssey. Hermes, Einzelschriften 30. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Finley, Moses (2002). The World of Odysseus. New York: New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-017-5. Nagy, Gregory (1979). The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Nagy, Gregory (2010). Homer: the Preclassic. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95024-5. Reece, Steve. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Commentaries[edit] Iliad: P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2 G.S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985–1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7, ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN 0-521-31209-4 J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002 Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913) (6 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1 N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter. ISBN 0-85989-684-6 M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5 Odyssey: A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990–1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981–1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0 P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8 I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2 Dating the Homeric poems[edit] Janko, Richard (1982). Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronic Development in Epic Diction. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23869-4. Further reading[edit] Buck, Carl Darling (1928). The Greek Dialects. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Evelyn-White, Hugh Gerard (tr.) (1914). Hesiod, the Homeric hymns and Homerica. The Loeb Classical Library. London; New York: Heinemann; MacMillen. Ford, Andrew (1992). Homer : the poetry of the past. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2700-8. Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Perception of Epic. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kirk, G.S. (1962). The Songs of Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library. Murray, Gilbert (1960). The Rise of the Greek Epic (Galaxy Books ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Schein, Seth L. (1984). The mortal hero : an introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05128-7. Silk, Michael (1987). Homer: The Iliad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83233-5. Smith, William, ed. (1876). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. I, II & III. London: John Murray. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Homer. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Homer Wikisource has original works written by or about: Homer Library resources about Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Homer Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Works by Homer at Perseus Digital Library Homer at the Encyclopædia Britannica Works by Homer at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Homer at Internet Archive Works by Homer at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Homer; Murray, A.T. (1925). The Iliad with an English Translation (in Ancient Greek and English). I, Books I–XII. London; New York: William Heinemann Ltd.; G.P. Putnam's Sons; Internet Archive. The Chicago Homer Daitz, Stephen (reader). "Homer, Iliad, Book I, lines 1–52". Society for the Reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL). Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2008-05-09. Heath, Malcolm (May 4, 2001). "CLAS3152 Further Greek Literature II: Aristotle's Poetics: Notes on Homer's Iliad and Odyssey". Department of Classics, University of Leeds; Internet Archive. Archived from the original on September 8, 2008. Retrieved 2014-11-07. Bassino, Paola (2014). "Homer: A Guide to Selected Sources". Living Poets: a new approach to ancient history. Durham University. Retrieved November 18, 2014. v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams (Kiln) Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient state) Macedonia (ancient kingdom) 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Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing Coinage Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Homosexuality Law Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wedding customs Wine Arts and science Architecture Greek Revival architecture Astronomy Literature Mathematics Medicine 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Sicily Akragas Akrai Akrillai Apollonia Calacte Casmenae Catana Gela Helorus Henna Heraclea Minoa Himera Hybla Gereatis Hybla Heraea Kamarina Leontinoi Megara Hyblaea Messana Naxos Segesta Selinous Syracuse Tauromenion Thermae Tyndaris Aeolian Islands Didyme Euonymos Ereikousa Hycesia Lipara/Meligounis Phoenicusa Strongyle Therassía Sardinia Olbia Cyrenaica Balagrae Barca Berenice Cyrene (Apollonia) Ptolemais Iberian Peninsula Akra Leuke Alonis Emporion Helike Hemeroscopion Kalathousa Kypsela Mainake Menestheus's Limin Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus Rhode Salauris Zacynthos Illyria Aspalathos Apollonia Epidamnos Epidauros Issa Melaina Korkyra Nymphaion Orikon Pharos Tragurion Thronion Black Sea north coast Borysthenes Charax Chersonesus Dioscurias Eupatoria Gorgippia Hermonassa Kepoi Kimmerikon Myrmekion Nikonion Nymphaion Olbia Panticapaion Phanagoria Pityus Tanais Theodosia Tyras Tyritake Black Sea south coast Dionysopolis Odessos Anchialos Mesambria Apollonia Salmydessus Heraclea Tium Sesamus Cytorus Abonoteichos Sinope Zaliche Amisos Oinòe Polemonion Thèrmae Cotyora Kerasous Tripolis Trapezous Rhizos Athina Bathus Phasis Lists Cities in Epirus People Place names Stoae Temples Theatres Category Portal Outline Associated subjects v t e Theban Cycle Poems Oedipodea Thebaid Epigoni Alcmeonis Nominal authors Cinaethon (Oedipodea) Homer (Thebaid, Epigoni) Antimachus of Teos (Epigoni) v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony v t e Homer's Odyssey (8th century BC) Characters House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea (1911 Italian) Ulysses (1954 Italian) The Return of Ringo (1965 Italian) Nostos: The Return (1989 Italian) Ulysses' Gaze (1995 Greek) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) Keyhole (2012) TV The Odyssey (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature A True Story (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Poems "Ulysses" (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" (song) "The Odyssey" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer "Odysseus' scar" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey v t e Homer's Iliad (8th century BC) Characters Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon (king of Mycenae) Agapenor Ajax the Greater (king of Salamis) Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas (prophet) Diomedes (king of Argos) Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen (queen of Sparta) Ialmenus Idomeneus (king of Crete) Iphigenia (princess of Mycenae) Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus (king of Sparta) Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor (king of Pylos) Nireus Odysseus (king of Ithaca) Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Sinon Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas (royal demigod) Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor (king's brother-in-law) Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra (princess of Troy) Chryseis Chryses (priest of Apollo) Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus (prince of Troy) Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector (prince of Troy) Hecuba (queen of Troy) Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon (prince of Troy) Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris (prince of Troy) Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus (prince of Troy) Polyxena (princess of Troy) Priam (king of Troy) Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon (king of Lycia) Theano Ucalegon Major deities Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Hades Hephaestus Hera Hermes Poseidon Zeus Minor deities Deimos Eris Iris Leto Phobos Proteus Scamander Thetis Sections Catalogue of Ships Deception of Zeus Trojan Battle Order Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Historicity of the Homeric epics "The Iliad or the Poem of Force" (1939 essay) Milawata letter Rediscovering Homer Dactylic hexameter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Manuscripts Ambrosian Iliad Codex Nitriensis Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 20 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 Uncial 098 Venetus A Venetus B Alternate versions Ilias Latina (60–70 CE) Dictys Cretensis Ephemeridos belli Trojani (4th century ?) Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia (5th century) Hermoniakos' Iliad (14th century) Men in Aida (1983) Translation English translations of Homer "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Literature Verse Priapea 68 De bello Troiano (1183) The Rape of the Lock (1712) "The Shield of Achilles" (1952) War Music (1959) Omeros (1990) Novels The Firebrand (1987) Black Ships Before Troy (1993) Troy (2000) Ilium (2003) Ransom (2009) Starcrossed (2011) Stage Rhesus (5th century BC play) The Trojan War Will Not Take Place (Tiger at the Gates) (1935) The Golden Apple (1954 musical) Films Helena (1924) Helen of Troy (1956) The Trojan Horse (1961) Troy (2004) Television The Myth Makers (1965) In Search of the Trojan War (1985) Helen of Troy (2003 miniseries) Troy: Fall of a City (2018 miniseries) Music King Priam (1961 Tippett opera) The Triumph of Steel (1992 album) "And Then There Was Silence" (2001 song) The Odyssey (Smith symphony) Art Tabula iliaca The Apotheosis of Homer The Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles The Loves of Paris and Helen Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus Orestes Pursued by the Furies The Revelers Vase Statue of Zeus at Olympia Phrases "Ever to Excel" "Hold your horses" "In medias res" "Noblesse oblige" Other Warriors: Legends of Troy (video game) Age of Bronze (comics) Sortes Homericae Heraclitus Weighing of souls Where Troy Once Stood Blood rain Authority control BIBSYS: 90069675 BNE: XX907843 BNF: cb11907688f (data) CANTIC: a1010107x CiNii: DA00258983 GND: 11855333X ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\018814 ISNI: 0000 0003 6354 151X LCCN: n78095639 LNB: 000040458 MBA: ebde00ad-8f53-48bb-a6c8-a5b0d7c01705 NDL: 00443699 NKC: jn19981001474 NLA: 35204200 NLG: 34000 NLI: 000064577 NLK: KAC199612729 NSK: 000016617 NTA: 068585764 PLWABN: 9810582427505606 RERO: 02-A000081090 RSL: 000082457 SELIBR: 189316 SNAC: w6qz9r2d SUDOC: 026924005 Trove: 863914 ULAN: 500279109 VcBA: 495/55034 VIAF: 224924963 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n78095639 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homer&oldid=1004920826" Categories: Homer Oral epic poets Blind poets Mythography Ancient Greek epic poets 8th-century BC Greek people 8th-century BC poets Blind people from Greece Mycenaean Greece Greek speculative fiction writers Greek gods Ancient Chians Ancient Smyrnaeans Deified people People whose existence is disputed Storytellers Hidden categories: Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 French-language sources (fr) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference CS1: long volume value Commons link from Wikidata Articles with Encyclopædia Britannica links Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Articles with LibriVox links CS1 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en-wikipedia-org-9500	----	Help:Category - Wikipedia Help:Category From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For guidelines on the use of categories in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Categorization. For a basic readers' guide see Help:Categories. For quick answers, see the readers' FAQ or the editors' FAQ on categories. For a list of categories, see Special:Categories. Wikipedia information page This is an information page. It is not one of Wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of Wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. It may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. Shortcut H:CAT ‹See TfM› Wikipedia data structure Namespaces Subject namespaces Talk namespaces 0 (Main/Article) Talk 1 2 User User talk 3 4 Wikipedia Wikipedia talk 5 6 File File talk 7 8 MediaWiki MediaWiki talk 9 10 Template Template talk 11 12 Help Help talk 13 14 Category Category talk 15 100 Portal Portal talk 101 118 Draft Draft talk 119 710 TimedText TimedText talk 711 828 Module Module talk 829 Currently unused 108 Book Book talk 109 446 Education Program Education Program talk 447 2300 Gadget Gadget talk 2301 2302 Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 2303 Virtual namespaces -1 Special -2 Media Categories are intended to group together pages on similar subjects. They are implemented by a MediaWiki feature that adds any page with a text like [[Category:XYZ]] in its wikimarkup to the automated listing that is the category with name XYZ. Categories help readers to find, and navigate around, a subject area, to see pages sorted by title, and to thus find article relationships. Categories are normally found at the bottom of an article page. Clicking a category name brings up a category page listing the articles (or other pages) that have been added to that particular category. There may also be a section listing the subcategories of that category. The subcategorization feature makes it possible to organize categories into tree-like structures to aid navigation. The term category does refer to both the title of a category page—the category pagename—and the category itself. Keeping this in mind while reading about categorization, plus learning a category page layout is a worthwhile investment in research techniques. (See also the search box parameter "incategory".) The layout of a category page is mostly text, but see about displaying category trees below. Contents 1 Summary 2 Category page definition 2.1 Putting pages into categories 3 Working with category pages 3.1 Linking to category pages 3.2 Retrieving raw category information 3.3 Sorting category pages 3.3.1 Default sort key 3.4 Searching for pages in categories 3.5 Listing all categories 3.6 Displaying category trees and page counts 3.7 Moving and redirecting category pages 3.8 Hiding categories 4 Finding articles for a category 5 Categorizing 5.1 Categorizing templates 5.2 Categories and templates 5.3 Categorizing redirect pages 5.4 "Related Changes" with categories 5.5 Watching category additions and removals 6 See also 7 Notes Summary The MediaWiki software maintains tables of categories, to which any editable page can be added. To add a page to a category, include "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" in that page's wikimarkup. The categories to which a page belongs appear in a box at the bottom of the page. A category is usually associated with a category page in the "Category:" namespace.[1] A category page contains text that can be edited, like any other page, but when the page is displayed, the last part of what is displayed is an automatically generated list of all pages in that category, in the form of links. Other category pages which appear in this list are treated separately, as subcategories. The bottom of a Wikipedia article on Chicken eyeglasses. At the very bottom of the page, below the References, navigation templates and external links are a series of links. These links are the categories used on the page, which include: Category:Animal Welfare, Category:Animal equipment, Category:Eyewear, and Category:Poultry farming. By clicking on the category link at the bottom of the page, readers can navigate the Category tree. Category page definition A category page is any page in the Category namespace. They each act as a category, and are termed a "category". The category page has one section titled Subcategories listing other "categories", and one section titled Pages, listing pages as categorized (in other namespaces). New categories are created by creating a page in the Category namespace. A category page can be edited like any other page. However, when it is displayed, the editable part of the page is followed by automatically generated lists of pages belonging to the category, as follows: First a count and list of subcategories (other category pages belonging to the category) is shown, if any exist. The name of each subcategory is followed by counts like "(6 C, 38 P, 2 F)", meaning this subcategory contains 6 subcategories, 38 pages, and 2 files. Counts of 0 are omitted. The further subcategories are expanded in the display if the ► sign alongside the subcategory is clicked (but this "widget" is only visible if your browser has JavaScript enabled). Note: ► is shown if there are no further subcategories. The subcategory is collapsed again if ▼ is clicked. Next a count and list of pages in the category (excluding subcategories and images) is shown. If the category has no members, a message to that effect is displayed. Next a count and list of image and other media files in the category appears, if any exist. These are shown with thumbnails. The first 20 characters of the file name are shown, with an ellipsis if that is not the full name; also the file size is shown. The items in the lists all link to the pages concerned; in the case of the images this applies both to the image itself and to the text below it (the name of the image). For the way in which the lists are ordered, see Sorting category pages below. The first and second lists are divided into sections, according to the first character of the sort key. These initial characters are displayed above the sections. To suppress these, make all sort keys start with a space. A category page can only display a limited number of items (currently 200). If more pages belong to the category, there will be a link to the next ones. The categories box for the category page appears at the bottom, in the same place as for other pages. This contains the categories to which the current category page has been added, i.e. its parent categories (the categories of which it is a subcategory). Add a category page to other categories in the normal way, using the "[[Category:Category name]]" or "[[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]" syntax. Putting pages into categories Shortcut WP:PAGECAT ‹See TfM› A page belongs to a category if the page's wikimarkup contains a declaration for that category. A category declaration takes the form [[Category:Category name]] or [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]]. The declaration must be processed, i.e. it will not work if it appears between <nowiki>...</nowiki> or <includeonly>...</includeonly> tags, or in a comment. The declaration may however come from a transcluded page; see Categories and templates below. A category name can be any string that would be a legitimate page title. If the category name begins with a lower-case letter it will be capitalized. In Wikipedia, it is customary to place category declarations at the end of the wikimarkup, but before any stub templates (which themselves transclude categories) and interlanguage links. When a page has been added to one or more categories, a categories box appears at the bottom of the page (or possibly elsewhere, if a non-default skin is being used). This box contains a list of the categories the page belongs to, in the order in which the category declarations appear in the processed wikimarkup. The category names are linked to the corresponding category pages. They appear as redlinks if the corresponding category page does not exist. If a user has enabled the HotCat gadget, the categories box will also provide links to quickly add, remove, or modify category declarations on the page, without having to edit the whole page. Hidden categories are not displayed, except as described below under Hiding categories. Working with category pages The following subsections are ordered from simple actions to more elaborate or rarer actions. Linking to category pages To link to a category page without putting the current page in that category, precede the link with a colon: [[:Category:Category name]]. Such a link can be piped like a normal wikilink. (The {{cl}} template, and others listed on its documentation page, may sometimes be helpful.) Retrieving raw category information Raw information about the members of a category, their sortkeys and timestamps (time when last added to the category) can be obtained from the API, using a query of the form: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?cmtitle=Category:Category_name&action=query&list=categorymembers&cmlimit=500&cmprop=title|sortkey|timestamp Listings of up to 500 members are possible. If there are more members then the results will include text near the end like this: <categorymembers cmcontinue="page|NNNN|TITLE" />. This can be added to the previous one, without quotation marks, for the next page of members: ...&cmcontinue=page|NNNN|TITLE Sorting category pages See also: Help:Sorting Shortcut WP:SORTCAT ‹See TfM› By default, a page is sorted under the first character of its name, without the namespace. English Wikipedia groups accented characters together with their unaccented version, so pages starting with À, Á, Ä, will be listed under heading A. Sorting is case-insensitive, so "ABC" comes after "Abacus". Unlike at Special:Allpages and Special:Prefixindex, a space is treated as a space (coming before all other characters), not as an underscore. The English Wikipedia has numerical sorting in categories. This means a page whose title begins with a number will be sorted according to the numeric value of the number (even if it is multiple digits). Thus "9 dogs", "25 dogs", and "112 dogs" will all appear under the "0–9" heading in numeric order. If the number includes a comma, space, or period, the sorting algorithm will only consider the part of the number before the separator. Each of the three lists (subcategories, pages, media files) is arranged in the order explained above (except that, in the subcategories list, the namespace indicator "Category:" is not considered). If an item ought to be positioned within a list on the basis of an alternative name (sort key) for that item, then this can be specified in the category tag that places the item in the list: [[Category:Category name|Sortkey]] For example, to add an article called Albert Einstein to the category "People" and have the article sorted by "Einstein, Albert", you would type: [[Category:People|Einstein, Albert]] Unlike a piped link (which uses the same syntax), the sort key itself is not displayed to readers. It affects only the order in which pages are listed on the category page. It is useful to document the system being used for sort keys on the category page. For guidelines about the use of sort keys on Wikipedia, see WP:SORTKEY. Default sort key Shortcut WP:DEFAULTSORT ‹See TfM› See also: WP:NAMESORT and WP:SORTKEY It is possible to set a default sort key which is different from {{PAGENAME}} by using the magic word {{DEFAULTSORT}}: {{DEFAULTSORT:new key}} In the case of multiple default sort key tags, the last DEFAULTSORT on the final rendering of a page applies for all categories, regardless of the position of the category tags. This also means that a DEFAULTSORT tag included from a template is not effective if another DEFAULTSORT tag occurs later on the page, even if the later DEFAULTSORT tag is also "hidden" (included by another template). If a category is added inside <ref>...</ref> then DEFAULTSORT may be ignored. Searching for pages in categories Further information: Help:Searching § Syntax See also: § Searching for articles in categories, Wikipedia:Category intersection, and Wikimedia bug T3497 "Hierarchical category system is urgently needed" In addition to browsing through hierarchies of categories, it is possible to use the search tool to find specific articles in specific categories. To search for articles in a specific category, type incategory:"CategoryName" in the search box. An "OR" can be added to join the contents of one category with the contents of another. For example, enter incategory:"Suspension bridges" OR incategory:"Bridges in New York City" to return all pages that belong to either (or both) of the categories, as here. Note that using search to find categories will not find articles which have been categorized using templates. This feature also doesn't return pages in subcategories. Listing all categories Special:Categories provides an alphabetic list of all categories, with the number of members of each; this number does not include the content of the subcategories, but it includes the subcategories themselves, i.e., each counting as one. The above list contains all categories that have members, regardless of whether they have corresponding category pages. To list all existing category pages (regardless of whether they have members), use Special:AllPages/Category:. Displaying category trees and page counts As described at mw:Help:Magic words, {{PAGESINCATEGORY:Example}} or {{PAGESINCAT:Example}} returns the number of pages in "Category:Example". Each subcategory counts as one page; pages in subcategories are not counted. The page Special:CategoryTree enables you to see the tree structure of a category (its subcategories, their subcategories and so on; the display of files and other member pages is optional). The CategoryTree extension can be used to display such a tree on any page. (This is sometimes done on the category page itself, if the category is split over multiple screens, to make all subcategories available on every screen.) The basic syntax is <categorytree>Category name</categorytree> to display just the subcategory tree, and <categorytree mode=pages>Category name</categorytree> to display member pages as well. They will be indicated by italics. Dapete's category-visualizer vCat will render charts of the tree structure. You may also use Template:Category tree or Template:Category tree all, instead. Warning: The following code {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{PAGENAME}}}} will not work as expected when used in the wikitext or in a transcluded template in a category page whose title contains some ASCII punctuations. For legacy reasons, {{PAGENAME}} may return the page name with these characters being HTML-encoded using numeric character entities : this still works for generating derived wikilinks or displaying page names, or when HTML-encoded this page name is used in a conditional "#switch", but PAGESINCATEGORY does not recognize the category name given in parameter if some characters are HTML-encoded (this is the case notably when the category name contains ASCII apostrophes ' and a few other ASCII punctuations. (The same HTML-encoding is also applied to the values returned by {{FULLPAGENAME}}, {{SUBPAGENAME}}, or {{NAMESPACE}}). In that case, as the category is not found by its HTML-encoded pagename, PAGESINCATEGORY will unexpectedly return 0 and not its effective number of member pages. A simple workaround is to transform these HTML-encoded characters back into standard UTF-8-encoded characters, by using the {{titleparts:}} parser function, like this: {{PAGESINCATEGORY:{{titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}}}}} Moving and redirecting category pages Categories can be moved in the same way as an ordinary page; but a certain amount of cleanup may be necessary. A redirect is left at the old category name, and this is not a normal #REDIRECT [[...]] but a {{category redirect}}. Once all the pages have been moved out of the old category, it may be left as a category redirect or deleted. For categories entirely populated through templates (see above), modifying the templates enables all affected articles to be moved to another category, but with the refresh problem mentioned. Almost all category name changes are made pursuant to a consensus decision at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion. Do not create intercategory redirects other than with a {{category redirect}} template. See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion#Redirecting categories for more on category redirects. Hiding categories When the magic word __HIDDENCAT__ is placed on a category page, that category becomes hidden, meaning that it will not be displayed on the pages belonging to that category. On Wikipedia, the magic word is not normally used explicitly, but is applied through the {{hidden category}} template. The feature is mostly used to prevent project maintenance categories from showing up to ordinary readers on article pages. However, hidden categories are displayed (although listed as hidden): on category pages (whether as parent categories or subcategories); at preview during editing; if the user has selected "Show hidden categories" in user preferences. Hidden categories are automatically added to Category:Hidden categories. For guidelines on the hiding of categories on Wikipedia, see WP:HIDDENCAT. Finding articles for a category The most effective way of finding entries of a category is using the "What links here" tool on the category's main article. An easy way to find relevant articles for a new category or missing entries in an existing one is by finding the most relevant list and checking its entries. Sometimes categories are about things that are intersections of other categories for which the PetScan tool can be used. More relevant articles may also be found linked in a category's main article and the articles already featured in the category − especially in their "See also" sections (if existent) and the automatically suggested "RELATED ARTICLES" below them. Furthermore, a category's superordinate categories often feature articles that should be subcategorized to the category. Other ways to find relevant articles include searching Wikipedia for the category's topic and searching the Web for the topic in quotes " (with synonyms also in quotes and appended after an OR) and appending the word wiki or Wikipedia or site:Wikipedia.org to them. Categorizing Main page: Wikipedia:Categorization Categorizing templates Templates are categorized the same way as articles, except that [[Category: Some-topic templates]] should be placed on the template's documentation page (or inside <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, if there is no documentation page), this is necessary to avoid categorizing pages by template inclusion (see below). Categories and templates A template can be used to add pages to a category, usually by placing the category link inside <includeonly></includeonly> tags on the template (e.g. <includeonly>[[Category:category name]]</includeonly>). When the template is transcluded into the page, the category link becomes active, and the page is added to the category page. This is useful for categories that have high turnover or many pages included, like cleanup categories. Changes to the template, however, may not be reflected immediately on the category page. When you edit an article to add a category tag directly, the list of category members is updated immediately when the page is saved. When a category link is contained in a template, however, this does not happen immediately: instead, whenever a template is edited, all the pages that transclude it are put into the job queue to be recached during periods of low server load. This means that, in busy periods, it may take hours or even days before individual pages are recached and they start to appear in the category list. Performing a null edit to a page will allow it to jump the queue and be immediately recached. To add the template itself to the category page as well, omit the "includeonly" tags. To add the template to a category without categorizing pages on which the template is transcluded, place the category declaration between <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, or add it to the template documentation page between <includeonly></includeonly> (the latter allows recategorizing the template without editing it, which is helpful if it is protected, or so complicated that mere mortals hesitate to touch it). Parser functions can be used to make the transcluded categories, or the sort key used in them, dependent on other variables, notably PAGENAME. Passing a category name as a parameter <includeonly>[[Category:{{{cat|default}}}]]</includeonly> or <includeonly>{{{cat|[[Category:default]]}}}</includeonly> If the user provides a parameter 'cat=XXX' the page will be categorized at the page [[Category:XXX]], otherwise it will be categorized at the page [[Category:default]]. Calling the template with "cat=" (equal to nothing) disables putting the page in any category. Excluding non-article pages <includeonly>{{#if:{{NAMESPACE}} | | [[Category:XXX]]}}</includeonly> the variable NAMESPACE is null for mainspace articles. For any space other than mainspace, this ParserFunction will produce an empty string, but for regular articles this will include the article in Category:XXX. On Wikipedia it is not recommended that templates be used to populate ordinary content categories of articles. See Categorization using templates in the categorization guideline. Categorizing redirect pages Main page: Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects Redirect pages can be categorized and there are conventions how to do it. The redirect link must be first on the page. On a category page, redirects are listed in italics. "Related Changes" with categories For a category, the "Related Changes" feature, when applied to the corresponding category page, lists recent changes to the pages which are currently listed as belonging to a category. Where those pages are subcategories or image pages, only changes to their editable parts are listed. Notice that "Related Changes" does not show edits to pages that have been removed from the category. Also, "Related Changes" does not list recent changes to pages linked from the editable part of the category page (as it would normally, with a non-category page). If a workaround would be required, the links in question could be placed in a template and transcluded onto the category page. As usual – unlike with watchlists – recent changes to corresponding talk pages are not shown under "Related Changes". Pages one is watching are bolded on the list. This can help to find which pages in a given category one has on one's watchlist. The DynamicPageList (third-party) extension provides a list of last edits to the pages in a category, or optionally, just the list of pages; the simpler DynamicPageList (Wikimedia) is installed on Meta, Wikinews, Wikibooks and Wikiversity; the extension mw:Extension:DPLforum is installed on Wikia. Watching category additions and removals Since 2016, additions and removals from categories are available via the "Category changes" filter on recent changes pages, including watchlists and Special:RecentChangesLinked. For example, category changes to articles in Category:Cannabis stubs can be found here. You can monitor additions and removals from specific categories by adding the categories to your watchlist and making sure the "Category changes" filter is active. You can view changes to categories in your watchlist by clicking here. Additional scripts with similar functionality are User:CategoryWatchlistBot and User:Ais523/catwatch. See also mw:Help:Categories {{Category TOC}} Wikipedia:FAQ/Categorization Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories Wikipedia:Quick cat index Notes ^ The category itself is permanently created as soon as it has been saved on to any page. Unless you create a category page, it will display as a red link. Unless you add another category to the category page, it will not be placed in the category tree. Category pages are created like any other page. Most commonly, editors click on the redlink in an article and create the category page that way. Wikipedia help pages Visit the Teahouse or the Help desk for an interactive Q & A forum. FAQs (?) Reference desks (?) Noticeboards (?) Cheatsheet (?) Directories (?) About Wikipedia (?) Administration Purpose Principles Policies and guidelines What Wikipedia is not Disclaimer (parental advice) Making requests Who writes Wikipedia? Help for readers (?) 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General technical help Browser notes Bypass cache Keyboard shortcuts Troubleshooting Editing CharInsert Edit conflict Edit toolbar Reverting How to create a page IRC Tutorial Mobile access Multilingual support Page history Page information Page name Help Printing Software notices Editnotice Special Characters Entering User access levels VisualEditor User guide Special page-related Special page help Edit filter Emailing users Logging in Reset passwords Logs Moving a page Fixing cut-and-paste moves Notifications/Echo FAQ Page Curation Page import Pending changes Random pages Recent changes Related changes Searching Linksearch Tags User contributions Watchlist What links here Wikitext Wikitext Cheatsheet Columns Line-break handling Lists Magic words For beginners Conditional expressions Switch parser function Time function Redirects Sections and TOCs Tables Introduction Basics Advanced table formatting Collapsing Conditional tables Sorting Using colours Links and diffs Links Interlanguage Interwiki Permanent Diffs Simplest diff guide Simple diff and link guide Complete diff and link guide Colon trick Link color Magic links Pipe trick URLs Media files: images, videos and sounds Media help Files Creation and usage Moving files to Commons Images Introduction to images Picture tutorial Preparing images for upload Uploading images Options to hide an image Extended image syntax SVG help Gallery tag Graphics tutorials Basic bitmap image editing How to improve image quality Graphics Lab resources Sound file markup Visual file markup Other graphics Family trees Graphs and charts How to create Barcharts To scale charts Math formulas Math symbols LaTeX symbols Rendering math Musical scores Musical symbols Timeline EasyTimeline syntax WikiHiero syntax Templates and Lua modules Templates Advanced template coding Template documentation Template index Template limits Template sandbox and test cases Citation templates Lua help Lua project Resources To do Substitution Purge Job queue Transclusion Labeled section Guide to Scribbling Data structure Namespaces Main/Article Category Draft File File description page Help Portal Project/Wikipedia Talk Archiving Template User User page design MediaWiki Bug reports and feature requests System message TimedMediaHandler extension Module Special HTML and CSS Cascading Style Sheets HTML in wikitext Catalogue of CSS classes Common.js and common.css User CSS for monospaced coding font Classes in Ambox Classes in microformats Markup validation Span tags Useful styles Customisation and tools Preferences Gadgets Skins Citation tools Cleaning up vandalism tools Customizing watchlists Hide pages IRC Scripts User scripts Guide Techniques User style Tools Alternative browsing Browser tools Editing tools Navigation shortcuts Optimum tool set Wikimedia Cloud Services Beta Features at MediaWiki Automated editing AfC helper script AutoWikiBrowser Bots Creating HotCat Huggle Navigation popups RedWarn Twinkle WPCleaner Inactive igloo STiki See also: Category:Wikipedia how-to Category:Wikipedia information pages Further navigation at: Help pages Administrators Accessibility Accounts Bots Referencing Citation metadata Templates User scripts v t e Wikipedia categorization Guidelines Categorization Categories, lists, and navigation templates Overcategorization Categorization of people Categorization of portals Categorization/Ethnicity, gender, religion and sexuality People by year Categorizing redirects Category names User categories Overcategorization/User categories Help pages Categories Category Classification Container category PetScan FAQ for readers FAQ for editors Template index/Category namespace Discussions Categories for discussion Categories for discussion/Speedy Categories for discussion/All current discussions Projectspace essays Categories are different from articles Categories versus lists Categorising fiction Do not write articles using categories Overcategorization/Intersection of location and occupation Wiki workflow WikiProject Plants/Description in year categories Userspace essays DexDor/Terminology categories DexDor/Categorization of award recipients Alan Liefting/On categorisation Coder Dan/Categories gracefool/What is a category? Kbdank71/Wikiproject notification Category:Wikipedia categorization Category:Contents WikiProject Categories Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Category&oldid=1004778813" Categories: Wikipedia information pages Wikipedia categorization Wikipedia how-to Wikipedia page help Hidden categories: Wikipedia semi-protected project pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Help pages with short description Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Help page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wiktionary Languages Alemannisch Bân-lâm-gú Башҡортса Беларуская भोजपुरी Boarisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Ilokano Íslenska Italiano Lëtzebuergesch मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Svenska தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça Türkçe Українська اردو Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 February 2021, at 10:03 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9545	----	Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers - Wikipedia Help Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This category is for articles with LCCN identifiers. Please do not add subcategories. For more information, see Wikipedia:Authority control and d:Property:P244. Administrators: Please do not delete this category even if it is empty! This category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. This is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the Wikipedia project. It is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. Do not include this category in content categories. This is a tracking category. It builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. They are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. This category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. These categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. These categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). Contents: Top 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z * # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • A Aa Ae Aj Ao At • B Ba Be Bj Bo Bt • C Ca Ce Cj Co Ct • D Da De Dj Do Dt • E Ea Ee Ej Eo Et • F Fa Fe Fj Fo Ft • G Ga Ge Gj Go Gt • H Ha He Hj Ho Ht • I Ia Ie Ij Io It • J Ja Je Jj Jo Jt • K Ka Ke Kj Ko Kt • L La Le Lj Lo Lt • M Ma Me Mj Mo Mt • N Na Ne Nj No Nt • O Oa Oe Oj Oo Ot • P Pa Pe Pj Po Pt • Q Qa Qe Qj Qo Qt • R Ra Re Rj Ro Rt • S Sa Se Sj So St • T Ta Te Tj To Tt • U Ua Ue Uj Uo Ut • V Va Ve Vj Vo Vt • W Wa We Wj Wo Wt • X Xa Xe Xj Xo Xt • Y Ya Ye Yj Yo Yt • Z Za Ze Zj Zo Zt Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Authority control. Pages in category "Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 557,178 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)! !!! 0–9 0 I Corps (United States) 1 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia 1 Giant Leap 1 of the Girls (group) One Times Square One World Trade Center 1. X. 1905 1.6 Band 1.8.7 1GN 1Malaysia Development Berhad 1st Cavalry Division (United States) 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade 1st Florida Cavalry Regiment (Union) 1st New Jersey Regiment 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler 1st United States Congress 1st Virginia Regiment Second Amendment to the United States Constitution 2 2 Bad Mice 2 Brothers on the 4th Floor 2 Chainz II D Extreme 2 Fast 2 Furious 2 in a Room 2 June Movement 2 Live Crew 2 Live Jews 2 Pistols 2 Plus 1 2 Tone Records 2 Unlimited 2-4 Family 2Baba 2Cellos 2Cents 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles 2nd Chapter of Acts 2nd II None 2nd Infantry Division (United States) 2nd United States Congress 2NU 2raumwohnung III Corps (United States) 3 (American band) 3 3rd Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Confederate States) 3 Arts Entertainment 3 Colours Red 3 Doors Down 3 Hürel 3 Idiots 3 Inches of Blood 3 Lb. Thrill 3 Melancholy Gypsys 3 Mustaphas 3 3-2 3-manifold 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film) 3:10 to Yuma (2007 film) 3's a Crowd (band) 3D film 3D printing 3D Realms 3Deep 3M 3OH!3 3rd Avenue (band) 3rd Bass 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines 3rd Force 3rd millennium 3rd Party 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition 3rd Storee 3rd Virginia Regiment 3rdeyegirl 3X Krazy 4 4 Vesta 4 Corners (group) 4 Non Blondes The 4 of Us 4 Out of 5 Doctors 4 P.M. (group) 4 Strings 4 the Cause 4-4-1 4-H The 4-Skins 4chan 4ft Fingers 4hero 4th Fighter Group 5 The 5 Browns The "5" Royales 5 Seconds of Summer La 5ª Estación 5ive (American band) 5'nizza 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking 5th Ward Boyz 5uu's 6ix9ine 6lack 6th Arkansas Infantry Regiment 6th Marine Division (United States) 6th of October (city) 6th SS Mountain Division Nord Seventh United States Army 7 Seconds (band) 7 Sons of Soul 7 Walkers 7 World Trade Center 7 Worlds Collide 7 Year Bitch 7-Eleven 7eventh Time Down 7th century 7th Heaven (band) 7th Sky Entertainment 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen 8½ 8 Bold Souls 8 Eyed Spy 8 Nëntori Publishing House 8½ Souvenirs 8 Women 8Ball & MJG 8stops7 8th arrondissement of Paris 8th century 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution 9/11 Commission 9 Lazy 9 9 Story Media Group 9Bach 9th century 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen 9th Wonder 10 10 Foot Ganja Plant 10 Minute Warning 10 Things I Hate About You 10 Years (band) 10th century 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution 11/5 11:30 11th century Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution 12 Angry Men (1957 film) The 12 Cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic 12 Fantasias for Viola da Gamba (Telemann) 12 Rods 12 Stones 12th century 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 13 & God 13 Engines 13 JG 52 13th century The 13th Floor Elevators 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) The 13th Warrior Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 14 Bis (band) 14th century 14th Street (Manhattan) 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician) Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 15th century Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 16 Horsepower 16th century 16volt 17th Airborne Division (United States) Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 17 Again (film) 17th century Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 18F 18th century Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 19th century 20 July plot 20 Minute Loop 20th century 20th Century Club (Reno, Nevada) 20th century in literature 20th Century Studios 20th century music (previous page) (next page) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Wikipedia_articles_with_LCCN_identifiers&oldid=961965705" Categories: Pages with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with authority control information Hidden categories: Hidden categories Tracking categories Template Large category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with over 20,000 pages CatAutoTOC generates Large category TOC Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Category Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Afrikaans Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân-lâm-gú भोजपुरी Български Bosanski Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Монгол 日本語 Nordfriisk ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Português Română Sardu Scots Simple English سنڌي Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Tagalog ไทย Türkçe اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2020, at 10:27 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9582	----	Wikipedia:Contact us - Wikipedia Wikipedia:Contact us From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Introduction Readers How to report a problem with an article, or find out more information. Article subjects Problems with articles about you, your company, or somebody you represent. Licensing How to copy Wikipedia's information, donate your own, or report unlicensed use of your information. Donors Find out about the process, how to donate, and information about how your money is spent. Press and partnerships If you're a member of the press looking to contact Wikipedia, or have a business proposal for us. Back to main page Thank you for your interest in contacting Wikipedia. Before proceeding, some important disclaimers: Wikipedia has no central editorial board. Contributions are made by a large number of volunteers at their own discretion. Edits are neither the responsibility of the Wikimedia Foundation (the organisation that hosts the site) nor of its staff and edits will not generally be made in response to an email request. Although Wikipedia was founded by Jimmy Wales, he is not personally responsible for our content. If you have questions about the concept of Wikipedia rather than a specific problem, the About Wikipedia page may help. If you want to ask other users for help with editing or using Wikipedia, stop by the Teahouse, Wikipedia's live help channel, or the help desk to ask someone for assistance. If you disagree with an article's content, or are involved in a content dispute, see Dispute resolution. The links on the left should direct you to how to contact us or resolve problems. If you cannot find your issue listed there, you can email helpful, experienced volunteers at info-enwikimedia.org. Please refrain from emailing about disagreements with content; they will not be resolved via email. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Contact_us&oldid=967537943" Categories: Wikipedia tutorials Wikipedia quick introductions Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Project page Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary Languages Alemannisch العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Banjar Basa Banyumasan भोजपुरी Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Malti Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча پښتو Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2020, at 20:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9690	----	Museo del Prado - Wikipedia Museo del Prado From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Prado Museum) Jump to navigation Jump to search Spanish national art museum in Madrid, Spain "Prado" redirects here. For other uses, see Prado (disambiguation). Art museum, Historic site in Madrid, Spain Museo Nacional del Prado Exterior of the Prado Museum Established 1819 Location Paseo del Prado, Madrid, Spain Type Art museum, Historic site Visitors 2.892.937 (2018)[1] Ranked 18th globally (2013)[1] Director Miguel Falomir[2] Public transit access Atocha Main Line Station Banco de España Underground Station Website www.museodelprado.es Museo del Prado (Main wing) Architect Juan de Villanueva Spanish Property of Cultural Interest Official name Museo Nacional del Prado Type Non-movable Criteria Monument Designated 1962 Reference no. RI-51-0001374 The Prado Museum (/ˈprɑːdoʊ/ PRAH-doh; Spanish: Museo del Prado [muˈseo ðel ˈpɾaðo]), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It is widely considered to have one of the world's finest collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on the former Spanish Royal Collection, and the single best collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it also contains important collections of other types of works. The Prado Museum is one of the most visited sites in the world, and it is considered one of the greatest art museums in the world. The numerous works by Francisco Goya, the single most extensively represented artist, as well as by Hieronymus Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Titian, and Diego Velázquez, are some of the highlights of the collection. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings, 7,600 paintings, 4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to many other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder were in storage.[3] The museum received 2.8 million visitors in 2012.[4] It is one of the largest museums in Spain. The best-known work on display at the museum is Las Meninas by Velázquez. Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museum's fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now the largest outside Italy. Contents 1 History 2 Historic structure 3 Special exhibitions 4 Nearby museums 5 Management 5.1 Funding 5.2 Directors 6 Collection highlights 6.1 Selected works 7 In Google Earth 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links History[edit] The building that is now the home of the Museo Nacional del Prado was designed in 1785 by architect of the Enlightenment in Spain Juan de Villanueva on the orders of Charles III to house the Natural History Cabinet. Nonetheless, the building's final function was not decided until the monarch's grandson, Ferdinand VII, encouraged by his wife, Queen María Isabel de Braganza, decided to use it as a new Royal Museum of Paintings and Sculptures. The Royal Museum, which would soon become known as the National Museum of Painting and Sculpture, and subsequently the Museo Nacional del Prado, opened to the public for the first time in November 1819. It was created with the double aim of showing the works of art belonging to the Spanish Crown and to demonstrate to the rest of Europe that Spanish art was of equal merit to any other national school. Also, this museum needed several renovations during the 19th and 20th centuries, because of the increase of the collection as well as the increase of the public who wants to see all the collection that the Museum hosted.[5] In the main exhibition hall, first floor The first catalogue of the Museum, published in 1819 and solely devoted to Spanish painting, included 311 paintings, although at that time the Museum housed 1,510 from the various royal residences, the Reales Sitios, including works from other schools. The exceptionally important royal collection, which forms the nucleus of the present-day Museo del Prado, started to increase significantly in the 16th century during the time of Charles V and continued under the succeeding Habsburg and Bourbon monarchs. Their efforts and determination led to the Royal Collection being enriched by some of the masterpieces now to be seen in the Prado. These include The Descent from the Cross by Rogier van der Weyden, The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymous Bosch, Knight with his Hand on his Breast by El Greco, The Death of the Virgin by Mantegna, The Holy Family, known as "La Perla", by Raphael, Charles V at Mülhberg by Titian, Christ Washing the Disciples’ Feet by Tintoretto, Dürer's Self-portrait, Las Meninas by Velázquez, The Three Graces by Rubens, and The Family of Charles IV by Goya.[citation needed] Francisco Goya Francisco Goya, La maja desnuda, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800) Francisco Goya, La maja vestida, oil on canvas, (circa 1797–1800) In addition to works from the Spanish royal collection, other holdings increased and enriched the Museum with further masterpieces, such as the two Majas by Goya. Among the now closed museums whose collections have been added to that of the Prado were the Museo de la Trinidad in 1872, and the Museo de Arte Moderno in 1971. In addition, numerous legacies, donations and purchases have been of crucial importance for the growth of the collection. Various works entered the Prado from the Museo de la Trinidad, including The Fountain of Grace by the School of Van Eyck, the Santo Domingo and San Pedro Martír altarpieces painted for the monastery of Santo Tomás in Ávila by Pedro Berruguete, and the five canvases by El Greco executed for the Colegio de doña María de Aragón. Most of the Museum's 19th-century paintings come from the former Museo de Arte Moderno, including works by the Madrazos, José de Madrazo y Agudo and Federico de Madrazo, Vicente López, Carlos de Haes, Eduardo Rosales and Sorolla.[citation needed] Upon the deposition of Isabella II in 1868, the museum was nationalized and acquired the new name of "Museo del Prado". The building housed the royal collection of arts, and it rapidly proved too small. The first enlargement to the museum took place in 1918. Since the creation of the Museo del Prado more than 2,300 paintings have been incorporated into its collection, as well as numerous sculptures, prints, drawings and works of art through bequests, donations and purchases, which account for most of the New Acquisitions. Numerous bequests have enriched the Museum's holdings, such as the outstanding collection of medals left to the Museum by Pablo Bosch; the drawings and items of decorative art left by Pedro Fernández Durán as well as Van der Weyden's masterpiece, Duran Madonna; and the Ramón de Errazu bequest of 19th-century paintings. Particularly important donations include Barón Emile d'Erlanger's gift of Goya's Black Paintings in 1881. Among the numerous works that have entered the collection through purchase are some outstanding ones acquired in recent years including two works by El Greco, The Fable and The Flight into Egypt acquired in 1993 and 2001, Goya's The Countess of Chinchon bought in 2000, Velázquez's Portrait of Ferdinando Brandani, acquired in 2003 and Fra Angelico's Madonna of the Pomegranate purchased in 2016.[citation needed] Between 1873 and 1900, the Prado helped decorate city halls, new universities, and churches. During the Second Spanish Republic from 1931 to 1936, the focus was on developing provincial museums. During the Spanish Civil War, upon the recommendation of the League of Nations, the museum staff removed 353 paintings, 168 drawings and the Dauphin's Treasure and sent the art to Valencia, then later to Girona, and finally to Geneva. The art had to be returned across French territory in night trains to the museum upon the commencement of World War II. During the early years of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, many paintings were sent to embassies.[6] A main promenade entrance is dominated by this 1899 bronze statue of Diego Velázquez, by Aniceto Marinas The main building was enlarged with short pavilions in the rear between 1900 and 1960. The next enlargement was the incorporation of two buildings (nearby but not adjacent) into the institutional structure of the museum: the Casón del Buen Retiro, which is equipped to display up to 400 paintings and which housed the bulk of the 20th-century art from 1971 to 1997, and the Salón de Reinos (Throne building), formerly the Army Museum. In 1993, an extension proposed by the Prado's director at the time, Felipe Garin, was quickly abandoned after a wave of criticism.[7] In the late 1990s, a $14 million roof work forced the Velázquez masterpiece Las Meninas to change galleries twice.[8] In 1998, the Prado annex in the nearby Casón del Buen Retiro closed for a $10 million two-year overhaul that included three new underground levels. In 2007, the museum finally executed Rafael Moneo's project to expand its exposition room to 16,000 square meters, hoping to increase the yearly number of visitors from 1.8 million to 2.5 million. The cafeteria in the underground extension by Rafael Moneo A glass-roofed and wedge-shaped foyer now contains the museum's shops and cafeteria, removing them from the main building to make more room for galleries.[8] The 16th-century Cloister of Jerónimo has been removed stone by stone to make foundations for increased stability of surrounding buildings and will be re-assembled in the new museum's extension. Hydraulic jacks had to be used to prevent the basement walls from falling during construction. [9] The enlargement is an underground building which connects the main building to another one entirely reconstructed. In November 2016, it was announced that British architect Norman Foster, in a joint project with Carlos Rubio Carvajal, is to renovate the Hall of Realms, which once formed part of the Buen Retiro palace and transform it into a $32 million extension of the Prado. The museum announced the selection of Foster and Rubio after a jury reviewed the proposals of the eight competition finalists – including David Chipperfield, Rem Koolhaas and Eduardo Souto de Moura –,[10] who had already been shortlisted from an initial list of 47 international teams of architects.[11] The building was acquired by the Prado in 2015, after having served as an army museum until 2005. The project is designed to give the Prado about 61,500 square feet of additional available space, of which about 27,000 square feet will be used to exhibit works.[11] Historic structure[edit] The Goya Gate in the north façade of the museum. The Museo del Prado is one of the buildings constructed during the reign of Charles III (Carlos III) as part of a grandiose building scheme designed to bestow upon Madrid a monumental urban space. The building that lodges the Museum of the Prado was initially conceived by José Moñino y Redondo, count of Floridablanca and was commissioned in 1785 by Charles III for the reurbanización of the Paseo del Prado. To this end, Charles III called on one of his favorite architects, Juan de Villanueva, author also of the nearby Botanical Garden and the City Hall of Madrid.[12] The prado ("meadow") that was where the museum now stands gave its name to the area, the Salón del Prado (later Paseo del Prado), and to the museum itself upon nationalisation. Work on the building stopped at the conclusion of Charles III's reign and throughout the Peninsular War and was only initiated again during the reign of Charles III's grandson, Ferdinand VII. The premises had been used as headquarters for the cavalry and a gunpowder-store for the Napoleonic troops based in Madrid during the war. The last of the renovations that this Museum has to suffer will be the one promoted by Norman Foster, an English architect. This renovation was approved at Juny 2020 and it is expected to last four years as minimum.[13] Special exhibitions[edit] Between 8 November 2011 and 25 March 2012, a group of 179 works of art were brought to the Museo del Prado from the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.[14] Notable works included: A Scholar (1631), by Rembrandt The Lute Player (c. 1596), by Caravaggio Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647), by Bernini Game of Bowls (1908), by Henri Matisse Bouquet of Cornflowers with Stems of Oats in a Vase (c. 1900), by House of Fabergé Pond at Montgeron (1876), by Claude Monet Belt buckle with a monster attacking a horse, (4th–3rd century BC), (gold ornament from Peter I's Siberian Collection) Moonrise, Two Men on the Shore (c. 1900), by Caspar David Friedrich Composition VI (1913), by Wassily Kandinsky Metaphysical Still life (1918), by Giorgio Morandi Conversely, for the first time in its 200-year history, the Museo del Prado has toured an exhibition of its renowned collection of Italian masterpieces at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia, from 16 May 2014 until 31 August 2014. Many of the works have never before left Spain. Nearby museums[edit] The Prado, with the nearby Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and the Museo Reina Sofía, forms Madrid's Golden Triangle of Art. Nearby is the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. The Museo Arqueológico houses some art of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome formerly in the collection of the Prado. The Naval Museum, managed by the Ministry of Defence, is also nearby. Management[edit] Funding[edit] Until the early 2000s, the Prado's annual income was approximately $18 million, $15 million of which came from the government and the remainder from private contributions, publications, and admissions.[15] In 2001, the conservative government of José María Aznar decided to change the museum's financing platform, ushering in a public-private partnership. Under its new bylaws, which the Cortes Generales approved in 2003, the Prado must gradually reduce its level of state support to 50 percent from 80 percent. In exchange, the museum gained control of the budget — now roughly €35 million — and the power to raise money from corporate donations and merchandising. However, its recent €150 million expansion was paid for by the Spanish state.[16] In 1991, Manuel Villaescusa bequeathed his fortune of nearly $40 million in Madrid real estate to the Prado, to be used solely for the acquisition of paintings. The museum subsequently sold Villaescusa's buildings to realize income from them. The bequest suddenly made the Prado one of the most formidable bidders for paintings in the world.[15] Directors[edit] The first four directors were drawn from nobility. From 1838 to 1960, the directors were mostly artists. Since then, most of them have been art historians. José Gabriel de Silva-Bazán y Waldstein, 1817–1820 Pedro de Alcántara Téllez-Girón y Pimentel, 1820–1823 José Idiáquez Carvajal [es], 1823–1826 José Rafael de Silva Fernández de Híjar, 1826–1838 José de Madrazo, 1838–1857 Juan Antonio de Ribera, 1857–1860 Federico de Madrazo, 1860–1868 Antonio Gisbert, 1868–1873 Francisco Sans Cabot, 1873–1881 Federico de Madrazo, 1881–1894 Vicente Palmaroli, 1894–1896 Francisco Pradilla, 1896–1898 Luis Álvarez Catalá, 1898–1901 José Villegas Cordero, 1901–1918 Aureliano de Beruete y Moret [es], 1918–1922 Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor, 1922–1931 Ramón Pérez de Ayala, 1931–1936 Pablo Ruiz Picasso, 1936–1939 Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor, 1939–1960 Francisco Javier Sánchez Cantón, 1960–1968 Diego Angulo Íñiguez, 1968–1971 Xavier de Salas Bosch [es], 1971–1978 José Manuel Pita Andrade [es], 1978–1981 Federico Sopeña [es], 1981–1983 Alfonso Pérez Sánchez [es], 1983–1991 Felipe Garín Llombart [es], 1991–1993 Francisco Calvo Serraller, 1993–1994 José María Luzón Nogué [es], 1994–1996 Fernando Checa Cremades [es], 1996–2002 Miguel Zugaza Miranda [es], 2002–2017 Miguel Falomir [es], 2017 – present Collection highlights[edit] Further information: Category:Collections of the Museo del Prado See also: British paintings in the Museo del Prado Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, between 1480 and 1505. Diego Velázquez, Las Meninas, between 1656 and 1657. Diego Velázquez, The Triumph of Bacchus, 1628–29 Fra Angelico, Annunciation, 1430–32 Raphael, Christ Falling on the Way to Calvary, 1517 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Triumph of Death, c. 1562 Peter Paul Rubens, The Adoration of the Magi, 1609/1628-1629 Peter Paul Rubens, The Three Graces, c.1635 Selected works[edit] Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the Cross, c. 1435 Andrea Mantegna, Death of the Virgin, c. 1461 Antonello da Messina, The Dead Christ Supported by an Angel, c. 1475 Albrecht Dürer Adam and Eve, 1507 Raphael, Portrait of a Cardinal, c. 1510–11 Tintoretto, Christ Washing the Disciples' Feet, c. 1518 Correggio, Noli me tangere, c. 1525 Titian, Bacchanal of the Andrians, c. 1523–1526 Titian, Equestrian Portrait of Charles V, c. 1548 Titian, The Fall of Man, c. 1570 El Greco, The Holy Trinity, 1577–1579 El Greco, The Knight with His Hand on His Breast, c. 1580 Paolo Veronese, Venus and Adonis, c. 1580 Caravaggio, David and Goliath, 1600 Georges de La Tour, Ciego tocando la zanfonía, 1610–1630 Guido Reni, Hipómenes y Atalanta, 1618–19 Joos de Momper, Landscape with Sea and Mountains, c. 1623 Gaspar de Crayer, Caritas Romana, ca. 1625 Nicolas Poussin, Parnassus, c. 1630–31 Rembrandt, Artemisia, c. 1634 Anthony van Dyck, Self-portrait with Endymion Porter, c. 1635 Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634–35 Diego Velázquez, Mars Resting, 1639–1641 José de Ribera, Jacob's Dream, 1639 Peter Paul Rubens, The Judgement of Paris, 1638–39 Claude Lorrain El embarque de santa Paula, 1639–40 Francisco de Zurbarán, Agnus Dei, 1635–1640 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, La Inmaculada de Soult, 1678 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, The Immaculate Conception, 1767 Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814 Francisco Goya, The Dog, 1819–1823 Francisco Goya, Saturn Devouring His Son, 1819–1823 Paul Baudry, The Pearl and the Wave, 1862 Antonio Gisbert Pérez, Execution of Torrijos and his Companions on the Beach at Málaga, 1882 In Google Earth[edit] In 2009, the Prado Museum selected 14 of its most important paintings to be displayed in Google Earth and Google Maps at extremely high resolution, with the largest displayed at 14,000 megapixels. The images' zoom capability allows for close-up views of paint texture and fine detail.[17][18] References[edit] ^ a b Top 100 Art Museum Attendance, The Art Newspaper, 2014. Retrieved on 15 July 2014. ^ Barrigós, Concha (21 March 2017). "Miguel Falomir, nuevo director del Prado: "Nunca, nunca pediré el traslado del 'Guernica'"". 20 minutos. Retrieved 1 April 2017. ^ "The Collection: origins". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012.See also Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, No ISBN, which lists about 7,800 paintings. Many works have been passed to the Museo Reina Sofia and other museums over the years; others are on loan or in storage. On the new displays, see El Prado se reordena y agranda. europapress.es here (in Spanish) ^ (in Spanish) "El Prado perderá un cuarto de sus visitantes" El País. Retrieved 28 June 2013. ^ "La historia del Museo del Prado". Vipealo. Retrieved 13 November 2020. ^ Alan Riding (1 August 1990). "The Prado Finds Out What It Has and Where". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Alan Riding (1 May 1995). "The Prado Embarks On Plans to Expand Into a Complex". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ a b Al Goodman (19 November 1998). "At Long Last, Expanding Spain's Treasure Chest". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ "Chronology of the extension". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Hannah McGivern (25 November 2016), Norman Foster to design Prado extension in historic palace Archived 27 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Art Newspaper. ^ a b Raphael Minder (25 November 2016), Norman Foster to Remodel Palace for Prado Extension New York Times. ^ "Chronology of Museo del Prado, 1785" (in Spanish). Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ "Así es la ampliación del Museo del Prado de Norman Foster". ABC. Retrieved 13 November 2020. ^ "The Hermitage in the Prado". Museo Nacional del Prado. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ a b Michael Kimmelman (21 November 1993). "New Brooms Sweep Madrid's Museums". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Dale Fuchs (24 December 2004). "The art of financing the Prado". New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 15 November 2012. ^ Tremlett, Giles (14 January 2009). "Online gallery zooms in on Prado's masterpieces (even the smutty bits)". The Guardian. London: Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 5 March 2019. ^ "The Prado in Google Earth". Google.com. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009. Further reading[edit] Alcolea Blanch, Santiago. The Prado, translated by Richard-Lewis Rees and Angela Patricia Hall. Madrid: Ediciones Polígrafa 1991. Araujo Sánchez, Ceferino. Los museos de España. Madrid 1875. Blanco, Antonio. Museo del Prado. Catálago de la Escultura. I Esculturas clásicas. II. Escultura, copia e imitaciones de las antiguas) (siglos XVI–XVIII). Madrid 1957. Luca de Tena, Consuelo and Mena, Manuela. Guía actualizada del Prado. Madrid: Alfiz 1985. Rumeu de Armas, Antonio. Origen y fundación del Museo del Prado. Madrid: Instituto de España 1980. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Museo del Prado (category) Official website Masterworks in the collection Prado in Google Earth, extra high resolution v t e National Museums of Spain Prado National Museum (Madrid) Queen Sofía Art Center National Museum (Madrid) Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum (Madrid) Art National Museum and Research Center of Altamira (Santillana del Mar) Museum of the Americas (Madrid) National Museum of Anthropology (Madrid) National Archaeological Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology (Cartagena) National Museum of Architecture and Urbanism (Salamanca and Barcelona) González Martí National Museum of Ceramics and Decorative Arts (Valencia) Museum Cerralbo (Madrid) Cervantes' House Museum (Valladolid) Museum of Garment - Ethnologic Heritage Research Center (Madrid) National Museum of Decorative Arts (Madrid) El Greco Museum (Toledo) Lázaro Galdiano Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Roman Art (Mérida) National Museum of Romanticism (Madrid) National Museum of Sculpture (Valladolid) Sephardic Museum (Toledo) Sorolla Museum (Madrid) National Museum of Theatre (Almagro) Military Museum of the Army (Toledo) Naval Museum (Madrid) Aeronautical and Astronautical Museum (Madrid) Science and Technology Royal Botanical Garden (Madrid) Geomineral Museum (Madrid) Museum of the Royal Mint (Madrid) National Museum of Natural Sciences (Madrid) Railway Museum (Madrid) Catalonia Railway Museum (Vilanova i la Geltrú) National Museum of Science and Technology (La Coruña and Alcobendas) v t e Juan de Villanueva Projects Casita del Infante (1773) House of the Prince in El Escorial (1770s) House of the Prince in El Pardo (1780s) Royal Botanical Garden (1781) Prado Museum (1785) Royal Academy of History (1788) Oratory of the Caballero de Gracia (1789) Royal Observatory of Madrid (1790) Reconstruction of Plaza Mayor (1791) v t e Rafael Moneo Projects National Museum of Roman Art (1986) Madrid Atocha railway station remodeling and extension (1992) Palace of Villahermosa transformation into Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum (1992) Seville Airport main terminal (1992) Davis Museum at Wellesley College (1993) Moderna Museet and Swedish Centre for Architecture and Design complex (1997) L'Auditori (1999) Kursaal Congress Centre and Auditorium (1999) Audrey Jones Beck Building (2000) Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (2002) Valladolid Science Museum (2003) Prado Museum extension (2007) Rhode Island School of Design Museum Chace Center (2008) Princeton Neuroscience Institute Scully Hall (2013) v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 1980s 1981: María Zambrano 1982: Mario Bunge 1983: El País newspaper 1984: Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz 1985: José Ferrater Mora 1986: Grupo Globo 1987: El Espectador and El Tiempo newspapers 1988: Horacio Sáenz Guerrero 1989: Pedro Laín Entralgo and Fondo de Cultura Económica 1990s 1990: José Simeón Cañas Central American University 1991: Luis María Anson 1992: Emilio García Gómez 1993: Vuelta magazine by Octavio Paz 1994: Spanish Missions in Rwanda and Burundi 1995: EFE Agency and José Luis López Aranguren 1996: Indro Montanelli and Julián Marías 1997: Václav Havel and CNN 1998: Reinhard Mohn 1999: Caro and Cuervo Institute 2000s 2000: Umberto Eco 2001: George Steiner 2002: Hans Magnus Enzensberger 2003: Ryszard Kapuściński and Gustavo Gutiérrez Merino 2004: Jean Daniel 2005: Alliance Française, Società Dante Alighieri, British Council, Goethe-Institut, Instituto Cervantes and Instituto Camões 2006: National Geographic Society 2007: Nature and Science journals 2008: Google 2009: National Autonomous University of Mexico 2010s 2010: Alain Touraine and Zygmunt Bauman 2011: Royal Society 2012: Shigeru Miyamoto 2013: Annie Leibovitz 2014: Quino Princess of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities 2010s 2015: Emilio Lledó Íñigo 2016: James Nachtwey 2017: Les Luthiers 2018: Alma Guillermoprieto 2019: Museo del Prado 2020s 2020: Guadalajara International Book Fair and Hay Festival of Literature & Arts Authority control BIBSYS: 90153245 BNE: XX254080 BNF: cb118666032 (data) CANTIC: a10128128 CiNii: DA03210098 GND: 116443-0 ISNI: 0000 0001 2294 2419 LCCN: n79064568 LNB: 000093261 NKC: ko2004238697 NLA: 36514982 NLG: 251512 NLI: 000096641 NSK: 000198133 RERO: 02-A000185173 SUDOC: 026414767 ULAN: 500270885 VcBA: 494/732 VIAF: 147181932 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n79064568 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Museo_del_Prado&oldid=998544345" Categories: Museo del Prado Museums in Madrid Art museums and galleries in Madrid Paseo del Prado Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in Madrid Tourism in Madrid Art museums established in 1819 1819 establishments in Spain Juan de Villanueva buildings Neoclassical architecture in Madrid Cultural tourism in Spain Buildings and structures in Jerónimos neighborhood, Madrid Hidden 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en-wikipedia-org-9721	----	Solar deity - Wikipedia Solar deity From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Solar theory) Jump to navigation Jump to search Sky deity who represents the Sun "Sun Chariot" and "Sun god" redirect here. For the racehorse, see Sun Chariot (horse). For other uses, see Sun god (disambiguation). Ra, ancient Egyptian god of the sun and king of the gods The Trundholm sun chariot The winged sun was an ancient (3rd millennium BC) symbol of Horus, later identified with Ra A solar representation on an anthropomorphic stele dated from the time period between the Copper Age and the Early Bronze Age, discovered during an archaeological excavation on the Rocher des Doms, Avignon. A solar deity (also sun goddess or sun god) is a sky deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it, usually by its perceived power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. The Sun is sometimes referred to by its Latin name Sol or by its Greek name Helios. The English word sun stems from Proto-Germanic *sunnǭ.[1] Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Africa 1.2 Greece 1.3 Armenia 1.4 Aztec mythology 1.5 Arabia 1.6 Baltic mythology 1.7 Buddhism 1.8 Celtic 1.9 Chinese mythology 1.10 Christianity 1.10.1 Jesus and the Sun 1.11 Greco-Roman world 1.12 Roman historiography 1.13 Hinduism 1.14 Indian mythology 1.15 Incan mythology 1.16 Indonesian mythology 1.17 Modern mythology 1.18 Yazidism 2 Solar myth 3 Solar vessels and sun chariots 4 Female and male 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Overview[edit] The Neolithic concept of a "solar barge" (also "solar bark", "solar barque", "solar boat" and "sun boat", a mythological representation of the Sun riding in a boat) is found in the later myths of ancient Egypt, with Ra and Horus. Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the sun-god and Horus as a god of the sky and Sun. As the Old Kingdom theocracy gained power, early beliefs were incorporated with the expanding popularity of Ra and the Osiris-Horus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting Sun. Osiris became the divine heir to Atum's power on Earth and passes his divine authority to his son Horus.[2] Early Egyptian myths imply the Sun is within the lioness, Sekhmet, at night and is reflected in her eyes; or that it is within the cow, Hathor, during the night, being reborn each morning as her son (bull).[3] Mesopotamian Shamash plays an important role during the Bronze Age, and "my Sun" is eventually used as an address to royalty. Similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship, as with the Incan Inti.[citation needed] Proto-Indo-European religion has a solar chariot, the Sun as traversing the sky in a chariot.[4] In Germanic mythology this is Sol, in Vedic Surya, and in Greek Helios (occasionally referred to as Titan) and (sometimes) as Apollo. In Proto-indo-European mythology the sun appears to be a multilayered figure, manifested as a goddess but also perceived as the eye of the sky father Dyeus.[5][6] During the Roman Empire, a festival of the birth of the Unconquered Sun (or Dies Natalis Solis Invicti) was celebrated on the winter solstice—the "rebirth" of the Sun—which occurred on 25 December of the Julian calendar. In late antiquity, the theological centrality of the Sun in some Imperial religious systems suggest a form of a "solar monotheism". The religious commemorations on 25 December were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ.[7] Africa[edit] Isis, bearing her solar disk and horns nurses her infant, Horus The Tiv people consider the Sun to be the son of the Moon Awondo's daughter and the supreme being Awondo. The Barotse tribe believes that the Sun is inhabited by the sky god Nyambi and the Moon is his wife. Some Sara people also worship the Sun. Even where the sun god is equated with the supreme being, in some African mythologies he or she does not have any special functions or privileges as compared to other deities. The ancient Egyptian god of creation, Amun is also believed to reside inside the sun. So is the Akan creator deity, Nyame and the Dogon deity of creation, Nommo. Also in Egypt, there was a religion that worshipped the Sun directly, and was among the first monotheistic religions: Atenism.[citation needed] Sun worship was prevalent in ancient Egyptian religion. The earliest deities associated with the Sun are all goddesses: Wadjet, Sekhmet, Hathor, Nut, Bast, Bat, and Menhit. First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurse Horus and Ra. Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus.[citation needed] From at least the 4th Dynasty of ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the deity Re (pronounced probably as Riya, meaning simply 'the sun'), and portrayed as a falcon headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. Re supposedly gave warmth to the living body, symbolised as an ankh: a "T" shaped amulet with a looped upper half. The ankh, it was believed, was surrendered with death, but could be preserved in the corpse with appropriate mummification and funerary rites. The supremacy of Re in the Egyptian pantheon was at its highest with the 5th Dynasty, when open air solar temples became common. In the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Ra lost some of his preeminence to Osiris, lord of the West, and judge of the dead. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton.[8][9] The Sun's movement across the sky represents a struggle between the Pharaoh's soul and an avatar of Osiris. Ra travels across the sky in his solar-boat; at dawn he drives away the demon king Apep. The "solarisation" of several local gods (Hnum-Re, Min-Re, Amon-Re) reaches its peak in the period of the fifth dynasty.[citation needed] Akhet (horizon) in hieroglyphs Rituals to the god Amun who became identified with the sun god Ra were often carried out on the top of temple pylons. A Pylon mirrored the hieroglyph for 'horizon' or akhet, which was a depiction of two hills "between which the sun rose and set",[10] associated with recreation and rebirth. On the first Pylon of the temple of Isis at Philae, the pharaoh is shown slaying his enemies in the presence of Isis, Horus and Hathor.[citation needed] In the eighteenth dynasty, the earliest-known monotheistic head of state, Akhenaten changed the polytheistic religion of Egypt to a monotheistic one, Atenism of the solar-disk and is the first recorded state monotheism. All other deities were replaced by the Aten, including Amun-Ra, the reigning sun god of Akhenaten's own region. Unlike other deities, the Aten did not have multiple forms. His only image was a disk—a symbol of the Sun.[citation needed] Soon after Akhenaten's death, worship of the traditional deities was reestablished by the religious leaders (Ay the High-Priest of Amen-Ra, mentor of Tutankhaten/Tutankhamen) who had adopted the Aten during the reign of Akhenaten.[citation needed] Greece[edit] In Greek mythology, Helios was the personification of the Sun however, he was a relatively minor deity. The Ancient Greeks also associated the Sun with Apollo. Apollo (along with Helios) was sometimes depicted as riding a fiery chariot.[citation needed] Armenia[edit] In Armenian mythology and in the vicinity of Carahunge, the ancient site of interest in the field of archaeoastronomy, people worshiped a powerful deity or intelligence called Ara, embodied as the sun (Ar[11] or Arev). The ancient Armenians called themselves "children of the sun".[12] (Russian and Armenian archaeoastronomers have suggested that at Carahunge seventeen of the stones still standing were associated with observations of sunrise or sunset at the solstices and equinoxes.[13]) Aztec mythology[edit] In Aztec mythology, Tonatiuh (Nahuatl languages: Ollin Tonatiuh, "Movement of the Sun") was the sun god. The Aztec people considered him the leader of Tollan (heaven). He was also known as the fifth sun, because the Aztecs believed that he was the sun that took over when the fourth sun was expelled from the sky. According to their cosmology, each sun was a god with its own cosmic era. According to the Aztecs, they were still in Tonatiuh's era. According to the Aztec creation myth, the god demanded human sacrifice as tribute and without it would refuse to move through the sky. The Aztecs were fascinated by the Sun and carefully observed it, and had a solar calendar similar to that of the Maya. Many of today's remaining Aztec monuments have structures aligned with the Sun.[14] In the Aztec calendar, Tonatiuh is the lord of the thirteen days from 1 Death to 13 Flint. The preceding thirteen days are ruled over by Chalchiuhtlicue, and the following thirteen by Tlaloc.[citation needed] Arabia[edit] The concept of the sun in Pre-Islamic Arabia, was abolished only under Muhammad.[15] The Arabian solar deity appears to have been a goddess, Shams/Shamsun, most likely related to the Canaanite Shapash and broader middle-eastern Shamash. She was the patron goddess of Himyar, and possibly exalted by the Sabaeans and early Bedouin.[16][17][18] Baltic mythology[edit] Those who practice Dievturība, beliefs of traditional Latvian culture, celebrate the Sun goddess, Saule, known in traditional Lithuanian beliefs as Saulė. Saule is among the most important deities in Baltic mythology and traditions.[19] Buddhism[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In Buddhist cosmology, the bodhisattva of the Sun is known as Sūryaprabha ("having the light of the sun"); in Chinese he is called Rigong Riguang Pusa (The Bright Solar Bodhisattva of the Solar Palace), Rigong Riguang Tianzi (The Bright Solar Prince of the Solar Palace), or Rigong Riguang Zuntian Pusa (The Greatly Revered Bright Solar Prince of the Solar Palace), one of the 20 or 24 guardian devas. Sūryaprabha is often depicted with Candraprabha ("having the light of the moon"), called in Chinese Yuegong Yueguang Pusa (The Bright Lunar Bodhisattva of the Lunar Palace), Yuegong Yueguang Tianzi ( The Bright Lunar Prince of the Lunar Palace), or Yuegong Yueguang Zuntian Pusa (The Greatly Revered Bright Lunar Prince of the Lunar Palace). Together with Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Chinese: Yaoshi Fo) these two bodhisattvas constitute the Dongfang San Sheng (Three Holy Sages of the Eastern Quarter). The devas Surya and Candra are also recognized as deities that embody the Sun and Moon, respectively. Celtic[edit] The sun in Insular Celtic culture is assumed to have been feminine,[20][21][22] and several goddesses have been proposed as possibly solar in character. In Continental Celtic culture, the sun gods, like Belenos, Grannos, and Lug, were masculine.[23][24][25] In Irish, the name of the Sun, Grian, is feminine. The figure known as Áine is generally assumed to have been either synonymous with her, or her sister, assuming the role of Summer Sun while Grian was the Winter Sun.[26] Similarly, Étaín has at times been considered to be another theonym associated with the Sun; if this is the case, then the pan-Celtic Epona might also have been originally solar in nature,[26] though Roman syncretism pushed her towards a lunar role.[citation needed] The British Sulis has a name cognate with that of other Indo-European solar deities such as the Greek Helios and Indic Surya,[27][28] and bears some solar traits like the association with the eye as well as epithets associated with light. The theonym Sulevia, which is more widespread and probably unrelated to Sulis,[29] is sometimes taken to have suggested a pan-Celtic role as a solar goddess.[20] She indeed might have been the de facto solar deity of the Celts.[citation needed] The Welsh Olwen has at times been considered a vestige of the local sun goddess, in part due to the possible etymological association[30] with the wheel and the colours gold, white and red.[20] Brighid has at times been argued as having had a solar nature, fitting her role as a goddess of fire and light.[20] Chinese mythology[edit] Taiyang Shen, the Chinese solar deity Statue of the sun goddess Xihe charioteering the sun, being pulled by a dragon, in Hangzhou In Chinese mythology (cosmology), there were originally ten suns in the sky, who were all brothers. They were supposed to emerge one at a time as commanded by the Jade Emperor. They were all very young and loved to fool around. Once they decided to all go into the sky to play, all at once. This made the world too hot for anything to grow. A hero named Hou Yi, honored to this day, shot down nine of them with a bow and arrow to save the people of the Earth.[31] In another myth, a solar eclipse was said to be caused by a magical dog or dragon biting off a piece of the Sun. The referenced event is said to have occurred around 2136 BCE; two royal astronomers, Ho and Hi, were executed for failing to predict the eclipse. There was a tradition in China to make lots of loud celebratory sounds during a solar eclipse to scare the sacred beast away.[32] The Deity of the Sun in Chinese mythology is Ri Gong Tai Yang Xing Jun (Tai Yang Gong/Grandfather Sun) or Star Lord of the Solar Palace, Lord of the Sun. In some mythologies, Tai Yang Xing Jun is believed to be Hou Yi.[citation needed] Tai Yang Xing Jun is usually depicted with the Star Lord of the Lunar Palace, Lord of the Moon, Yue Gong Tai Yin Xing Jun (Tai Yin Niang Niang/Lady Tai Yin). Worship of the moon goddess Chang'e and her festivals are very popular among followers of Chinese folk religion and Taoism. The goddess and her holy days are ingrained in Chinese popular culture.[33] Christianity[edit] It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article. (Discuss) (December 2019) The halo of Jesus, seen in many paintings, has similarities to a parhelion. According to one hypothesis about Christmas, it was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival of Sol Invictus. This idea became popular especially in the 18th[34][35] and 19th centuries.[36][37][38] Another speculation connects the biblical elements of Christ's life to those of a sun god.[39] The Christian gospels report that Jesus had 12 followers (Apostles),[40] which is claimed to be akin to the twelve zodiac constellations. When the Sun was in the house of Scorpio, Judas plotted with the chief priests and elders to arrest Jesus by kissing him. As the Sun exited Libra, it enters into the waiting arms of Scorpio to be kissed by Scorpio's bite.[41][42] Many of the world's sacrificed godmen, such as Osiris and Mithra, have their traditional birthday on 25 December. During this time, people believed that the "sun god" had "died" for three days and was "born again" on 25 December.[43] After 25 December, the Sun supposedly moves 1 degree north, foreshadowing longer days.[44] The three days following 21 December remain the darkest days of the year where Jesus (the sun) dies and remains unseen for three days.[45][46] At the beginning of the first century, the Sun on the vernal equinox passed from Aries to Pisces (1 A.D. to 2150 A.D). That harmonizes with the mentioned lamb and fish in the gospels.[47][48] The man carrying a pitcher of water (Luke 22:10) is Aquarius, the water bearer, who is always seen as a man pouring out a pitcher of water. He represents the Age of Aquarius, the age after Pisces, and when the Sun leaves the Age of Pisces (Jesus), it will go into the House of Aquarius.[48][49] By "the sun of righteousness" in Malachi 4 (Malachi 4:2) "the fathers, from Justin downward, and nearly all the earlier commentators understand Christ, who is supposed to be described as the rising sun".[50] The New Testament itself contains a hymn fragment in Ephesians 5: "Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead, and Christ will shine on you."[51] Clement of Alexandria wrote of "the Sun of the Resurrection, he who was born before the dawn, whose beams give light".[52] Jesus and the Sun[edit] Mosaic of Christ as Sol or Apollo-Helios in Mausoleum M in the pre-4th-century necropolis beneath[53] St. Peter's in the Vatican, which many interpret as representing Christ The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 gives a festival of Natalis Invicti on 25 December. There is limited evidence that this festival was celebrated at around this time before the mid-4th century.[54][55] The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.[56] This interpretation is doubted by others: "Only the cross-shaped nimbus makes the Christian significance apparent".[57] and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.[58] The idea that Christians chose to celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December because this was the date of an already existing festival of the Sol Invictus was expressed in an annotation to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote: "It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day." [59][60][61][62] In the judgement of the Church of England Liturgical Commission, this view has been seriously challenged[63] by a view based on an old tradition, according to which the date of Christmas was fixed at nine months after 25 March, the date of the vernal equinox, on which the Annunciation was celebrated.[64] The Jewish calendar date of 14 Nisan was believed to be that of creation,[65] as well as of the Exodus and so of Passover, and Christians held that the new creation, both the death of Jesus and the beginning of his human life, occurred on the same date, which some put at 25 March in the Julian calendar.[63][66][67][68] It was a traditional Jewish belief that great men lived a whole number of years, without fractions, so that Jesus was considered to have been conceived on 25 March, as he died on 25 March, which was calculated to have coincided with 14 Nisan.[69] Sextus Julius Africanus (c.160 – c.240) gave 25 March as the day of creation and of the conception of Jesus.[70] The tractate De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae falsely attributed to John Chrysostom also argued that Jesus was conceived and crucified on the same day of the year and calculated this as 25 March.[64][68] A passage of the Commentary on the prophet Daniel by Hippolytus of Rome, written in about 204, has also been appealed to.[71] Among those who have put forward this view are Louis Duchesne,[72] Thomas J. Talley,[73] David J. Rothenberg,[74] J. Neil Alexander,[75] and Hugh Wybrew.[76] The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought also remarks on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the celebrations of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun and the birthday of Jesus: "This 'calculations' hypothesis potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian's decree, which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and challenge."[77] Susan K. Roll calls "most extreme" the unproven hypothesis that "would call Christmas point-blank a 'christianization' of Natalis Solis Invicti, a direct conscious appropriation of the pre-Christian feast, arbitrarily placed on the same calendar date, assimilating and adapting some of its cosmic symbolism and abruptly usurping any lingering habitual loyalty that newly-converted Christians might feel to the feasts of the state gods".[78] Mosaic in the Beth Alpha synagogue, with the Sun represented in the centre, surrounded by the twelve zodiac constellations and with the four seasons associated inaccurately with the constellations The nimbus of the figure under Saint Peter's Basilica is described by some as rayed,[79] as in traditional pre-Christian representations, but another has said: "Only the cross-shaped nimbus makes the Christian significance apparent" (emphasis added).[80] Yet another has interpreted the figure as a representation of the sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.[81] Among scholars who view the celebration of the birth of Jesus on 25 December as motivated by choice of the winter solstice, rather than that he was conceived and died on 25 March, some reject the idea that this choice constituted a deliberate Christianization of a festival of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun. For example, Michael Alan Anderson writes: Both the sun and Christ were said to be born anew on December 25. But while the solar associations with the birth of Christ created powerful metaphors, the surviving evidence does not support such a direct association with the Roman solar festivals. The earliest documentary evidence for the feast of Christmas makes no mention of the coincidence with the winter solstice. Thomas Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian's dedication of a temple to the sun god in the Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the 'Birthday of the Invincible Sun' on December 25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect. The origins of Christmas, then, may not be expressly rooted in the Roman festival.[82] The same point is made by Hijmans: "It is cosmic symbolism...which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the southern solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ ... While they were aware that pagans called this day the 'birthday' of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas."[83] He also states that, "while the winter solstice on or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas".[84] A study of Augustine of Hippo remarks that his exhortation in a Christmas sermon, "Let us celebrate this day as a feast not for the sake of this sun, which is beheld by believers as much as by ourselves, but for the sake of him who created the sun", shows that he was aware of the coincidence of the celebration of Christmas and the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun, although this pagan festival was celebrated at only a few places and was originally a peculiarity of the Roman city calendar. It adds: "He also believes, however, that there is a reliable tradition which gives 25 December as the actual date of the birth of our Lord."[85] The comparison of Christ with the astronomical Sun is common in ancient Christian writings.[86] In the 5th century, Pope Leo I (the Great) spoke in several sermons on the Feast of the Nativity of how the celebration of Christ's birth coincided with increase of the Sun's position in the sky. An example is: "But this Nativity which is to be adored in heaven and on earth is suggested to us by no day more than this when, with the early light still shedding its rays on nature, there is borne in upon our senses the brightness of this wondrous mystery.[87] Christians adopted the image of the Sun (Helios or Sol Invictus) to represent Christ. In this portrayal he is a beardless figure with a flowing cloak in a chariot drawn by four white horses, as in the mosaic in Mausoleum M discovered under Saint Peter's Basilica and in an early-4th-century catacomb fresco.[79] Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot in this way across the sky.[88] Greco-Roman world[edit] The Greek astronomer Thales of Miletus described the scientific properties of the Sun and Moon, making their godship unnecessary.[89] Anaxagoras was arrested in 434 BC and banished from Athens for denying the existence of a solar or lunar deity.[90] The titular character of Sophocles' Electra refers to the Sun as "All-seeing". Hermetic author Hermes Trismegistus calls the Sun "God Visible".[91] The Minotaur has been interpreted as a solar deity (as Moloch or Chronos),[92] including by Arthur Bernard Cook, who considers both Minos and Minotaur as aspects of the sun god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull.[citation needed] Roman historiography[edit] First century historian Tacitus, in his book Germania, mentioned that "beyond the Suiones [tribe]" a sea was located where the sun maintained its brilliance from its rising to its sunset, and that "[the] popular belief" was that "the sound of its emergence was audible" and "the form of its horses visible".[93][94][95] Hinduism[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Hindu solar deity Surya being driven across the sky in his chariot The Ādityas are one of the principal deities of the Vedic classical Hinduism belonging to the solar class. In the Vedas, numerous hymns are dedicated to Mitra, Varuna, Savitr, etc. In hymn 7.99 of the Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu produces the sun, his discus a vestige of his solar creation, equivalent to the sun. The Vishnu purana identifies the Discus chakra with the following: 'thoughts, like the chakra, flow faster than even the mightiest wind.' The Gayatri mantra, which is regarded as one of the most sacred of the Vedic hymns is dedicated to Savitr, one of the principal Ādityas. The Adityas are a group of solar deities, from the Brahmana period numbering twelve. The ritual of Surya Namaskaar, performed by Hindus, is an elaborate set of hand gestures and body movements, designed to greet and revere the Sun. The sun god in Hinduism is an ancient and revered deity. In later Hindu usage, all the Vedic Ādityas lost identity and metamorphosed into one composite deity, Surya, the Sun. The attributes of all other Ādityas merged into that of Surya and the names of all other Ādityas became synonymous with, or epithets of, Surya. The Ramayana has Rama as a direct descendant of the Surya, thus belonging to the Suryavansha or the clan of the Sun. The Mahabharata describes one of its warrior heroes, Karna, as being the son of the Pandava mother Kunti and Surya. The sun god is said to be married to the goddess Ranaadeh, also known as Sanjnya. She is depicted in dual form, being both sunlight and shadow, personified. The goddess is revered in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The charioteer of Surya is Aruna, who is also personified as the redness that accompanies the sunlight in dawn and dusk. The sun god is driven by a seven-horsed Chariot depicting the seven days of the week and the seven colours of rainbow which are seen due to the dispersion by Surya's rays. In India, at Konark, in the state of Odisha, a temple is dedicated to Surya. The Konark Sun Temple has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Surya is the most prominent of the navagrahas or nine celestial objects of the Hindus. Navagrahas can be found in almost all Hindu temples. There are further temples dedicated to Surya, one in Arasavilli, Srikakulam District in AndhraPradesh, one in Gujarat at Modhera and another in Rajasthan. The temple at Arasavilli was constructed in such a way that on the day of Radhasaptami, the Sun's rays directly fall on the feet of the Sri Suryanarayana Swami, the deity at the temple. Chhath (Hindi: छठ, also called Dala Chhath) is an ancient Hindu festival dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity, unique to Bihar, Jharkhand and the Terai. This major festival is also celebrated in the northeast region of India, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Chhattisgarh. Hymns to the Sun can be found in the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. Practiced in different parts of India, the worship of the Sun has been described in the Rigveda. There is another festival called Sambha-Dasami, which is celebrated in the state of Odisha for the surya. Indian mythology[edit] The sun is prayed to by South Indians during the harvest festival.[96] In Tamil Nadu, the Tamil people worship the sun god during the Tamil month of Thai, after a year of crop farming. The month is known as the harvesting month and people pay respects to the sun on the first day of the Thai month known as Thai pongal, or Pongal, which ia a four-day celebration.[97] It is one of the few indigenous worship by the Tamil people irrespective of religion.[98] In other parts of India, the festival is celebrated as Makar Sankranti and is mostly worshipped by the hindu diaspora of India.[citation needed] Incan mythology[edit] Inti is the ancient Incan sun god. He is revered as the national patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more appropriately viewed as a cluster of solar aspects, since the Inca divided his identity according to the stages of the sun.[citation needed] Indonesian mythology[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Solar gods have a strong presence in Indonesian mythology. In some cases the Sun is revered as a "father" or "founder" of the tribe. This may apply for the whole tribe or only for the royal and ruling families. This practise is more common in Australia and on the island of Timor, where the tribal leaders are seen as direct heirs to the sun god. Some of the initiation rites include the second reincarnation of the rite's subject as a "son of the Sun", through a symbolic death and a rebirth in the form of a Sun. These rituals hint that the Sun may have an important role in the sphere of funerary beliefs. Watching the Sun's path has given birth to the idea in some societies that the deity of the Sun descends in to the underworld without dying and is capable of returning afterward. This is the reason for the Sun being associated with functions such as guide of the deceased tribe members to the underworld, as well as with revival of perished. The Sun is a mediator between the planes of the living and the dead. Modern mythology[edit] Copernicus describing the Sun mythologically, drawing from Greco-Roman examples: In the middle of all sits the Sun on his throne. In this loveliest of temples, could we place the luminary in any more appropriate place so that he may light the whole simultaneously. Rightly is he called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus entitles him the God Visible. Sophocles' Electra names him the All-seeing. Thus does the Sun sit as upon a royal dais ruling his children the planets which circle about him.[91] The primary local deity in theosophy is the Solar Logos, "the consciousness of the sun".[99] Yazidism[edit] The Yazidis pray facing the sun, as they believe sunlight to be an emanation of God and that the world was created by light.[100] Solar myth[edit] Three theories exercised great influence on nineteenth and early twentieth century mythography, beside the tree worship of Mannhardt and the totemism of J. F. McLennan, the "Sun myth" of Alvin Boyd Kuhn and Max Müller.[citation needed] R. F. Littledale criticized the Sun myth theory when he illustrated that Max Müller on his own principles was himself only a solar myth, whilst Alfred Lyall delivered a still stronger attack on the same theory and its assumption that tribal gods and heroes, such as those of Homer, were mere reflections of the Sun myth by proving that the gods of certain Rajput clans were really warriors who founded the clans not many centuries ago, and were the ancestors of the present chieftains.[101] Solar vessels and sun chariots[edit] Ra in his barque The sun was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the sky in a boat. A prominent example is the solar barque used by Ra in ancient Egyptian mythology. Several Egyptian kings were buried with ships that may have been intended to symbolize the solar barque,[102] including the Khufu ship that was buried at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza.[103] Examples of solar vessels include: Neolithic petroglyphs which (it has been speculated) show solar barges The many early Egyptian goddesses who are related as sun deities and the later gods Ra and Horus depicted as riding in a solar barge. In Egyptian myths of the afterlife, Ra rides in an underground channel from west to east every night so that he can rise in the east the next morning. The Nebra sky disk, which is thought to show a depiction of a solar barge. Nordic Bronze Age petroglyphs, including those found in Tanumshede often contains barges and sun crosses in different constellations. A "sun chariot" (de) is a mythological representation of the Sun riding in a chariot. The concept is younger than that of the solar barge, and typically Indo-European, corresponding with the Indo-European expansion after the invention of the chariot in the 2nd millennium BC. Examples include these: In Norse mythology, the chariot of the goddess Sól, drawn by Arvak and Alsvid. The Trundholm sun chariot dates to the Nordic Bronze Age, more than 2,500 years earlier than the Norse myth, but is often associated with it. Greek Helios (or Apollo) riding in a chariot,[104] (see also Phaëton)[105] Sol Invictus depicted riding a quadriga on the reverse of a Roman coin.[106] Vedic Surya riding in a chariot drawn by seven horses The Sun itself also was compared to a wheel, possibly in Proto-Indo-European, Greek hēliou kuklos, Sanskrit suryasya cakram, Anglo-Saxon sunnan hweogul (PIE *swelyosyo kukwelos). In Chinese culture, the sun chariot is associated with the passage of time. For instance, in the poem Suffering from the Shortness of Days, Li He of the Tang dynasty is hostile and even deviant towards the legendary dragons that drew the sun chariot as a vehicle for the continuous progress of time.[107] The following is the relevant except of that poem: I will cut off the dragon's feet, chew the dragon's flesh, so that they can't turn back in the morning or lie down at night. Left to themselves the old won't die; the young won't cry.[107] Female and male[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The warrior goddess Sekhmet, shown with her sun disk and cobra crown. Goddess Amaterasu Solar deities are usually thought of as male while the lunar deity is female, but the opposite case is also seen. The cobra (of Pharaoh Son of Ra), the lioness (daughter of Ra), the cow (daughter of Ra), the dominant symbols of the most ancient Egyptian deities, carried their relationship to the sun atop their heads; they were female and their cults remained active throughout the history of the culture. Later a sun god (Aten) was established in the eighteenth dynasty on top of the other solar deities, before the "aberration" was stamped out and the old pantheon re-established. When male deities became associated with the sun in that culture, they began as the offspring of a mother (except Ra, King of the Gods who gave birth to himself). In Germanic mythology the Sun is female and the Moon is male. The corresponding Old English name is Siȝel [ˈsɪjel], continuing Proto-Germanic *Sôwilô or *Saewelô. The Old High German Sun goddess is Sunna. In the Norse traditions, Sól rode through the sky on her chariot every day, pulled by two horses named Arvak and Alsvid. Sól also was called Sunna and Frau Sunne. Other cultures that have sun goddesses include the Lithuanians (Saulė) and Latvians (Saule), the Finns (Päivätär, Beiwe) and the related Hungarians. Sun goddesses are found around the world in Australia (Bila, Walo), India (Bisal-Mariamna, Bomong, Sāvitri, Savitā, Suryā, Kn Sgni), among the Hittites (Wurusemu), and Egyptians (Sekhmet), in the Canary Islands (Chaxiraxi)/(Magek), in Native America, among the Cherokee (Unelanuhi), Natchez (Wal Sil), Inuit (Malina), and Miwok (Hekoolas), and in Asia among the Japanese (Amaterasu). See also[edit] Abram Smythe Palmer Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto Ancient Egyptian solar ships Beaivi Black Sun (symbol) Canticle of the Sun Eki (goddess) Fire worship Five Suns Giza Solar boat museum Guaraci Golden hat Heliocentrism July Morning List of solar deities Nature worship Order of the Solar Temple Phoenix Solar symbol Stonehenge Thelema White horses in mythology Zunbils References[edit] ^ In most romance languages the word for "sun" is masculine (e.g. le soleil in French, el sol in Spanish, Il Sole in Italian). In most Germanic languages it is feminine (e.g. Die Sonne in German). In Proto-Indo-European, its gender was inanimate. ^ Ancient Civilizations- Egypt- Land and lives of Pharaohs revealed. Global Book Publishing. 30 October 2005. p. 79. ISBN 1740480562. ^ "Ancient Egyptian Gods & Goddesses Facts For Kids". History for kids. Retrieved 20 January 2021. ^ Kristiansen, Kristian. "The Nebra find and early Indo-European religion".[dead link] ^ Dexter, Miriam Robbins (Fall–Winter 1984). "Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon". Mankind Quarterly. 25 (1 & 2): 137–144. ^ Sick, David H. (2004), "Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun", Numen, 51 (4): 432–467, JSTOR 3270454 ^ "Sun worship." Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009 ^ Teeter, Emily (2011). Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521848558. ^ Frankfort, Henri (2011). Ancient Egyptian Religion: an Interpretation. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486411385. ^ Wilkinson, op. cit., p.195 ^ Herouni, Paris M. (2004). Armenians and old Armenia: archaeoastronomy, linguistics, oldest history. Tigran Metz Publishing House. p. 127. ^ Boettiger, Louis Angelo (1918). Armenian Legends and Festivals. University of Minnesota. ^ González-Garcia, A. César (2014), "Carahunge – A Critical Assessment", in Ruggles, Clive L. N. (ed.), Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 1453–1460, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_140, ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1 ^ Biblioteca Porrúa. Imprenta del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología, ed. (1905). Diccionario de Mitología Nahua (in Spanish). México. pp. 648, 649, 650. ISBN 978-9684327955. ^ "The Sun and the Moon are from among the evidences of God. They do not eclipse because of someone's death or life." Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi, The Life of Muhammad, American Trush Publications, 1976, ISBN 0-89259-002-5 [1] ^ Yoel Natan, Moon-o-theism, Volume I of II, 2006 ^ Julian Baldick (1998). Black God. Syracuse University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0815605226. ^ Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, 1999 – 1181 páginas ^ Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Saule (Baltic deity)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 July 2020.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ^ a b c d Patricia Monaghan, The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore, page 433. ^ Koch, John T., Celtic Culture: Aberdeen breviary-celticism, page 1636. ^ Dexter, Miriam Robbins (Fall–Winter 1984). "Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon". Mankind Quarterly. 25 (1 & 2): 137–144. ^ X., Delamarre (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise : une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental (2e éd. rev. et augm ed.). Paris: Errance. pp. 72 & 183 & 211. ISBN 9782877723695. OCLC 354152038. ^ Media, Adams (2 December 2016). The Book of Celtic Myths: From the Mystic Might of the Celtic Warriors to the Magic of the Fey Folk, the Storied History and Folklore of Ireland, Scotland, Brittany, and Wales. F+W Media, Inc. p. 45. ISBN 9781507200872. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2017. ^ MacCulloch, J. A. (1 August 2005). The Celtic and Scandinavian Religions. Chicago Review Press. p. 31. ISBN 9781613732298. ^ a b MacKillop (1998) pp. 10, 70, 92. ^ Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Errance, 2003, p. 287 ^ Zair, Nicholas, Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic, Brill, 2012, p. 120 ^ Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie. Editions Errance, Paris. pp. 15, 64. ^ Simon Andrew Stirling, The Grail: Relic of an Ancient Religion, 2015 ^ Hamilton, Mae. "Hou Yi". Mythopedia. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Waldek, Stefanie (30 August 2018). "How 5 Ancient Cultures Explaiined Solar Eclipses". History.com. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Hamilton, Mae. "Chang'e". Mythopedia. Retrieved 29 July 2020. ^ Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, Volume 2, p. 270; John Murray, London, 1871; revised edition 1889. ^ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume 3, 1885, T and T Clark, Edinburgh, page 396; see also Volume 4 in the 3rd edition, 1910 (Charles Scribner's Sons, NY). ^ Anderson, Michael Alan (2008). Symbols of Saints. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-54956551-2. ^ "The Day God Took Flesh". Melkite Eparchy of Newton of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. 25 March 2012. ^ Martindale, Cyril (1913). "Christmas" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ Tester, Jim (1999). A History of Western Astrology. Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press. ^ McKnight, Scot (2001). "Jesus and the Twelve" (PDF). Bulletin for Biblical Research. 11 (2): 203–231. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2017. ^ Acharya S/D.M. Murdock (2011). "Origins of Christianity" (PDF). Stellar House Publishing. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017. ^ Nicholas Campion, The Book of World Horoscopes, The Wessex Astrologer, 1999, p. 489 clearly refers to both conventions adopted by many astrologers basing the Ages on either the zodiacal constellations or the sidereal signs. ^ Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The Origins of the Christian Era. Brepols Essays in European Culture. Belgium: Turnhout. ISBN 9782503510507. ^ Kuhn, Alvin Boyd (1996). "The Great Myth of the SUN-GODS". Mountain Man Graphics, Australia. Retrieved 11 September 2017. Note: This is a reprint; Kuhn died in 1963. ^ "Gospel Zodiac". The Unspoken Bible. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017. ^ Elie, Benedict. "Aquarius Pisces Age". Astro Software. Retrieved 11 September 2017. ^ "Origins Zodiac Bible Code". US Bible. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ a b "Aquarius". Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ Albert Amao, Aquarian Age & The Andean Prophecy, AuthorHouse, 2007, p. 56 ^ Carl Friedrich Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament (Eerdmans 1969), vol. 25, p. 468; ^ Ephesians 5:14 ^ Clement of Alexandria, Protreptius 9:84, quoted in David R. Cartlidge, James Keith Elliott, The Art of Christian Legend (Routledge 2001 ISBN 978-0-41523392-7), p. 64 ^ "Loading..." www.saintpetersbasilica.org. ^ Wallraff 2001: 174–177. Hoey (1939: 480) writes: "An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19". The inscription (Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8940) actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (die XIV Kal(endis) Decemb(ribus), i.e. on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December). ^ Text at [2] Parts 6 and 12 respectively. ^ Webb, Matilda (2001). The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome. Sussex Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-90221058-2. ^ Kemp, Martin (2000). The Oxford History of Western Art. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19860012-1., emphasis added ^ Hijmans 2009, p. 567-578. ^ (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155) ^ Michael Alan Anderson, Symbols of Saints (ProQuest 2008 ISBN 978-0-54956551-2), p. 45 ^ "» Feast of the Annunciation". melkite.org. ^ 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia: Christmas: Natalis Invicti ^ a b "Although this view is still very common, it has been seriously challenged" – Church of England Liturgical Commission, The Promise of His Glory: Services and Prayers for the Season from All Saints to Candlemas (Church House Publishing 1991 ISBN 978-0-71513738-3) quoted in The Date of Christmas and Epiphany ^ a b Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article "Christmas" ^ See discussion in the Talmud (Avraham Yaakov Finkel, Ein Yaakov (Jason Aronson 1999 ISBN 978-1-46162824-8), pp. 240–241), and Aryeh Kaplan's chapter, "The Shofar of Mercy", on the apparent contradiction between that tradition and the Jewish celebration of creation on 1 Tishrei. ^ Alexander V. G. Allen, Christian Institutions (Scribner, New York 1897), p. 474 ^ Frank C. Seen, The People's Work (Fortress Press 2010 ISBN 9781451408010), p.72 ^ a b Frank C. Senn, Introduction to Christian Liturgy (Fortress Press 2012 ISBN 978-0-80069885-0), p. 114] ^ William J. Colinge, Historical Dictionary of Catholicism (Scarecrow Press 2012 ISBN 978-0-81085755-1), p. 99] ^ Joseph F. Kelly, The Origins of Christmas (Liturgical Press 2004 ISBN 978-0-81462984-0), p. 60 ^ "Hippolytus and December 25th as the date of Jesus' birth" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018. ^ Christian Worship: Its Origin and Evolution (London: SPCK, 1903), pp 261–265) ^ The Origins of the Liturgical Year (New York: Pueblo, 1986), pp. 87–103 ^ The Flower of Paradise (Oxford University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-19539971-4), p. 87 ^ Waiting for the Coming: The Liturgical Meaning of Advent, Christmas, Epiphany (Washington, D.C.: Pastoral Press, 1993), pp. 46–51 ^ Orthodox Feasts of Jesus Christ & the Virgin Mary (St Vladimir's Seminary Press 1997 ISBN 978-0-88141203-1), p. 20 ^ Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason, Hugh Pyper (editors), The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought (Oxford University Press 2000 ISBN 978-0-19860024-4), p. 114 ^ Susan K. Roll, Toward the Origin of Christmas (Kempen 1995 ISBN 90-390-0531-1), p. 107 ^ a b Weitzmann, Kurt (1979). Age of Spirituality. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-87099179-0. ^ Martin Kemp, The Oxford History of Western Art (Oxford University Press 2000 ISBN 978-0-19860012-1), p. 70 ^ Hijmans (2009), pp. 567–578 ^ Michael Alan Anderson, Symbols of Saints (ProQuest 2008 ISBN 978-0-54956551-2), pp. 45–46 ^ Hijmans (2009), p. 595 ^ Hijmans (2009), p. 588 ^ F. van der Meer, Brian Battershaw, G. R. Lamb, Augustine the Bishop: The Life and Work of a Father of the Church (Sheed & Ward 1961), pp. 292–293 ^ Hartmut Miethe, Hilde Heyduck-Huth, Jesus (Taylor & Francis), p. 104 ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Sermon 26 (Leo the Great)". www.newadvent.org. ^ Matilda Webb, The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome (Sussex Academic Press 2001 ISBN 978-1-90221058-2), p. 18] ^ Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 143. ^ Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 145. ^ a b Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-691-02350-6. ^ Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. p. 137. ^ https://www.loebclassics.com/view/tacitus-germania/1914/pb_LCL035.207.xml ^ Beare, W. "Tacitus on the Germans." Greece & Rome 11, no. 1 (1964): 64-76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642633. ^ O'Gorman, Ellen. “No Place Like Rome: Identity and Difference in the Germania of Tacitus.” Ramus 22, no. 2 (1993): 135–54. doi:10.1017/S0048671X00002484. ^ Jain Chanchreek; K.L. Chanchreek; M.K. Jain (2007). Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals. Shree Publishers. pp. 36–38. ISBN 978-81-8329-191-0. ^ "502 Bad Gateway nginx openresty 208.80.154.49". www.pongal-festival.com. ^ "Tamizhs festival". ntyo.org. Archived from the original on 27 December 2001. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ Powell, A.E. The Solar System London:1930 The Theosophical Publishing House (A Complete Outline of the Theosophical Scheme of Evolution). Lucifer, represented by the sun, the light. ^ "Emerging from Isis genocide, Yazidis in Armenia open religion's biggest ever temple". Independent. 31 October 2019. ^ William Ridgeway (1915). "Solar Myths, Tree Spirits, and Totems, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races". Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–19. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ "Egypt solar boats". solarnavigator.net. ^ Siliotti, Alberto; Hawass, Zahi (1997). Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt. pp. 54–55. ^ "Helios". Theoi.com. Retrieved 22 September 2010. ^ "Helios & Phaethon". Thanasis.com. Retrieved 18 September 2010. ^ Image of Probus Coin ^ a b Bien, Gloria (2012). Baudelaire in China a Study in Literary Reception. Lanham: University of Delaware. p. 20. ISBN 9781611493900. Bibliography[edit] Azize, Joseph (2005) The Phoenician Solar Theology. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-210-6. Olcott, William Tyler (1914/2003) Sun Lore of All Ages: A Collection of Myths and Legends Concerning the Sun and Its Worship Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-96027-7. Hawkes, Jacquetta Man and the Sun Gaithersburg, MD, USA:1962 SolPub Co. Hijmans, Steven E (2009), Sol : the sun in the art and religions of Rome (PDF), ISBN 978-90-367-3931-3, archived from the original on 25 February 2012, retrieved 3 April 2020CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) McCrickard, Janet. "Eclipse of the Sun: An Investigation into Sun and Moon Myths." Gothic Image Publications. ISBN 0-906362-13-X. Monaghan, Patricia. "O Mother Sun: A New View of the Cosmic Feminine." Crossing Press, 1994. ISBN 0-89594-722-6 Ranjan Kumar Singh. Surya: The God and His Abode. Parijat. ISBN 81-903561-7-8 External links[edit] Article about Ra the ancient Egyptian sun god The Worship of the Sun Among the Aryan Peoples of Antiquity by Sir James G. Frazer (from archive.org) The Sun God Ra and Ancient Egypt The Sun God and the Wind Deity at Kizil by Tianshu Zhu, in Transoxiana Eran ud Aneran, Webfestschrift Marshak 2003. Comparison between the Egyptian Hymn of Aten and modern scientific conceptions v t e The Sun Internal structure Core Radiation zone Tachocline Convection zone Atmosphere Photosphere Supergranulation Granule Faculae Sunspot Chromosphere Plage Spicule Moreton wave Corona Transition region Coronal hole Coronal loop Coronal mass ejection Prominence Helmet streamer Supra-arcade downflows Variation Solar cycle List of solar cycles Solar maximum Solar minimum Wolf number Solar wind Flare Helioseismology Heliosphere Current sheet Termination shock Heliosheath Heliopause Bow shock Related Eclipse Heliophysics In culture solar deities Solar activity Solar astronomy Solar dynamo Solar energy Solar neutrino Solar observation Solar phenomena Solar physics Solar radio emission Solar System Solar telescope Solar time Space climate Space weather Standard solar model Star Sunlight radiation Spectral class: G-type main-sequence star Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_deity&oldid=1001785106" Categories: Astronomy templates Solar deities Comparative mythology Mythological archetypes Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2019 CS1 Spanish-language sources (es) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2020 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021 Articles with text in Nahuatl languages Articles needing additional references from December 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020 Articles to be split from December 2019 All articles to be split Articles needing additional references from July 2020 Articles needing additional references from August 2011 Articles needing additional references from February 2013 CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Asturianu भोजपुरी Català Čeština Dansk Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română سنڌي Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2021, at 09:31 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9747	----	Bellerophon - Wikipedia Bellerophon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Bellerophon (disambiguation). Bellerophon on Pegasus spears the Chimera, on an Attic red-figure epinetron, 425–420 BC Bellerophon (/bəˈlɛrəfən/; Ancient Greek: Βελλεροφῶν) or Bellerophontes (Βελλεροφόντης) is a hero of Greek mythology. He was "the greatest hero and slayer of monsters, alongside Cadmus and Perseus, before the days of Heracles",[1] and his greatest feat was killing the Chimera, a monster that Homer depicted with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail: "her breath came out in terrible blasts of burning flame."[2] He is also known for capturing the winged horse Pegasus with the help of Athena’s charmed bridle, and earning the disfavour of the gods after attempting to ride Pegasus to Mount Olympus to join them.[3] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Family 3 Mythology 3.1 Exile in Argos 3.2 Capturing Pegasus 3.3 The slaying of the Chimera 3.4 Flight to Olympus and fall 4 Euripides' Bellerophon 5 Perseus on Pegasus 6 In popular culture 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Etymology[edit] One possible etymology that has been suggested is: Βελλεροφόντης from βέλεμνον, βελόνη, βέλος ("projectile, dart, javelin, needle, arrow") and -φόντης ("slayer") from φονεύω ("to slay"). However, Geoffrey Kirk says that "Βελλεροφόντης means 'slayer of Belleros'".[4] Belleros could have been a Lycian, a local daimon or a Corinthian nobleman—Bellerophon's name "clearly invited all sorts of speculation".[4] Family[edit] Bellerophon was born in Corinth and was the son of the mortal Eurynome by either her husband, Glaucus, or Poseidon. He was the brother of Deliades (also called Peiren or Alcimenes). Bellerophon was the father of Isander (Peisander),[5] Hippolochus, and Laodamia by Philonoe, daughter of King Iobates of Lycia. Philonoe was also known under several other names: Alkimedousa,[6] Anticleia,[7] Pasandra or Cassandra.[8] In some accounts, Bellerophon also fathered Hydissos by Asteria, daughter of Hydeus.[9] Mythology[edit] Veroli Casket panel detail showing Bellerophon with Pegasus, dating from 900–1000 AD. The Iliad vi.155–203 contains an embedded narrative told by Bellerophon's grandson Glaucus, named after his great-grandfather, which recounts Bellerophon's myth. Bellerophon's father was Glaucus,[10] who was the king of Corinth and the son of Sisyphus. Bellerophon's grandsons Sarpedon and the younger Glaucus fought in the Trojan War. In the Epitome of pseudo-Apollodorus, a genealogy is given for Chrysaor ("of the golden sword") that would make him a double of Bellerophon; he too is sometimes called the son of Glaucus (son of Sisyphus). Chrysaor has no myth save that of his birth: from the severed neck of Medusa, who was with child by Poseidon, he and Pegasus both sprang at the moment of her death. "From this moment we hear no more of Chrysaor, the rest of the tale concerning the stallion only ... [who visits the spring of Pirene] perhaps also for his brother's sake, by whom in the end he let himself be caught, the immortal horse by his mortal brother."[11] Exile in Argos[edit] Bellerophon riding Pegasus (1914) Bellerophon's brave journey began in the familiar way,[12] with an exile: he had murdered either his brother, whose name is usually given as Deliades, Peiren or even Alcimenes, or killed a shadowy "enemy", a "Belleros"[13] or "Belleron", a ruler of the Corinthians (though the details are never directly told), and in expiation of his crime arrived as a suppliant to Proetus, king in Tiryns, one of the Mycenaean strongholds of the Argolid. Proetus, by virtue of his kingship, cleansed Bellerophon of his crime. The wife of the king, whether named Anteia[14] or Stheneboea,[15] took a fancy to him, but when he rejected her, she accused Bellerophon of attempting to ravish her.[16] Proetus dared not satisfy his anger by killing a guest (who is protected by xenia), so he sent Bellerophon to King Iobates his father-in-law, in the plain of the River Xanthus in Lycia, bearing a sealed message in a folded tablet: "Pray remove the bearer from this world: he attempted to violate my wife, your daughter."[17] Before opening the tablets, Iobates feasted with Bellerophon for nine days. On reading the tablet's message Iobates too feared the wrath of the Erinyes if he murdered a guest; so he sent Bellerophon on a mission that he deemed impossible: to kill the Chimera, living in neighboring Caria. The Chimera was a fire-breathing monster consisting of the body of a goat, the head of a lion and the tail of a serpent. This monster had terrorized the nearby countryside. On his way he encountered the famous Corinthian seer Polyeidos, who gave him advice about his oncoming battle. Capturing Pegasus[edit] Polyeidos told Bellerophon that he would have need of Pegasus. To obtain the services of the untamed winged horse, Polyeidos told Bellerophon to sleep in the temple of Athena. While Bellerophon slept, he dreamed that Athena set a golden bridle beside him, saying "Sleepest thou, prince of the house of Aiolos? Come, take this charm for the steed and show it to the Tamer thy father as thou makest sacrifice to him of a white bull."[18] It was there when he awoke. Bellerophon had to approach Pegasus while it drank from a well; Polyeidos told him which well —the never-failing Pirene on the citadel of Corinth, the city of Bellerophon's birth. Other accounts say that Athena brought Pegasus already tamed and bridled, or that Poseidon the horse-tamer, secretly the father of Bellerophon, brought Pegasus, as Pausanias understood.[19] Bellerophon mounted his steed and flew off to where the Chimera was said to dwell. The slaying of the Chimera[edit] The eternal fires of Chimera in Lycia (modern-day Turkey) where the Chimera myth takes place. When he arrived in Lycia, the Chimera was truly ferocious, and he could not harm the monster even while riding on Pegasus. He felt the heat of the breath the Chimera expelled, and was struck with an idea. He got a large block of lead and mounted it on his spear. Then he flew head-on towards the Chimera, holding out the spear as far as he could. Before he broke off his attack, he managed to lodge the block of lead inside the Chimera's throat. The beast's fire-breath melted the lead, and blocked its air passage.[20] The Chimera suffocated, and Bellerophon returned victorious to King Iobates.[21] Iobates, on Bellerophon's return, was unwilling to credit his story. A series of daunting further quests ensued: he was sent against the warlike Solymi and then against the Amazons who fought like men, whom Bellerophon vanquished by dropping boulders from his winged horse; when he was sent against a Carian pirate, Cheirmarrhus, an ambush failed, when Bellerophon killed all sent to assassinate him; the palace guards were sent against him, but Bellerophon called upon Poseidon, who flooded the plain of Xanthus behind Bellerophon as he approached. In defense the palace women sent him and the flood in retreat by rushing from the gates with their robes lifted high, offering themselves, to which the modest hero replied by withdrawing.[22] Iobates relented, produced the letter, and allowed Bellerophon to marry his daughter Philonoe, the younger sister of Anteia, and shared with him half his kingdom,[23] with fine vineyards and grain fields. The lady Philonoe bore him Isander (Peisander),[5][24] Hippolochus and Laodamia, who lay with Zeus the Counselor and bore Sarpedon but was slain by Artemis.[25][26][27] Flight to Olympus and fall[edit] As Bellerophon's fame grew, so did his arrogance. Bellerophon felt that because of his victory over the Chimera, he deserved to fly to Mount Olympus, the home of the gods. However, this act of hubris angered Zeus and he sent a gadfly to sting the horse, causing Bellerophon to fall off the horse and back to Earth. Pegasus completed the flight to Olympus where Zeus used him as a pack horse for his thunderbolts.[28] On the Plain of Aleion ("Wandering") in Cilicia, Bellerophon (who had fallen into a thorn bush causing him to become blind) lived out his life in misery, "devouring his own soul," until he died.[29][30] Euripides' Bellerophon[edit] Main article: Bellerophon (play) Enough fragments of Euripides' lost tragedy, Bellerophon, remain embedded as some thirty quotations in surviving texts to give scholars a basis for assessing its theme: the tragic outcome of his attempt to storm Olympus on Pegasus. An outspoken passage—in which Bellerophon seems to doubt the gods' existence from the contrast between the wicked and impious, who live lives of ease, with the privations suffered by the good—is apparently the basis for Aristophanes' imputation of "atheism" to the poet.[31] Perseus on Pegasus[edit] Further information: Perseus The replacement of Bellerophon by the more familiar culture hero Perseus was a development of Classical times that was standardized during the Middle Ages and has been adopted by the European poets of the Renaissance and later.[32] Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea-deities Earth-deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules Labors Achilles Hector Trojan War Odysseus Odyssey Jason Argonauts Golden Fleece Perseus Medusa Gorgon Oedipus Sphinx Orpheus Orphism Theseus Minotaur Bellerophon Pegasus Chimera Daedalus Labyrinth Atalanta Hippomenes Golden apple Cadmus Thebes Aeneas Aeneid Triptolemus Eleusinian Mysteries Pelops Ancient Olympic Games Pirithous Centauromachy Amphitryon Teumessian fox Narcissus Narcissism Meleager Calydonian Boar Otrera Amazons Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal v t e In popular culture[edit] The emblem of the World War II British Airborne Forces - Bellerophon riding the flying horse Pegasus. The first planet discovered orbiting a Sun-like star, 51 Pegasi b, was unofficially named 'Bellerophon'.[33] In The Concept of Anxiety, Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Bellerophon "sat calmly on his Pegasus in the service of the idea but fell when he wanted to misuse Pegasus by riding the horse to a rendezvous with a mortal woman."[34] In the Star Trek universe, the USS Bellerophon is a Federation starship that was destroyed by the Borg[35] and later appears as an Intrepid-class starship in the episode "Inter Arma Enim Silent Leges" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine). Bellerophon was the name of the British man-of-war on which Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered in 1815. In the 1956 film Forbidden Planet, the ship that brought settlers to the distant planet Altair IV twenty years prior to the events of the film was called the Bellerophon. In the 2000 film Mission: Impossible 2, a pharmaceutical company creates a virus called Chimera in order to generate a market demand for the antidote it also created called Bellerophon. In book 3 of the 'Bobiverse' series; 'All These Worlds' (2017) by Dennis E. Taylor, an alien cargo carrier dubbed Bellerophon is tasked with saving humanity from an impending climate disaster. References[edit] ^ Kerenyi 1959, p. 75. ^ Iliad vi.155–203. ^ Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4381-2639-5. ^ a b Kirk 1990, p. 178 ^ a b Strabo, Geographica 12.8.5 & 13.4.16 ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad 6.192 ^ Scholia on Pindar, Olympian Ode 13. 61 ^ Scholia on Homer, Iliad 6.155 ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. Hydissos ^ By some accounts, Bellerophon's father was really Poseidon. Kerenyi 1959 p. 78 suggests that "sea-green" Glaucus is a double for Poseidon, god of the sea, who looms behind many of the elements in Bellerophon's myth, not least as the sire of Pegasus and of Chrysaor, but also as the protector of Bellerophon. ^ Kerenyi 1959 p. 80. ^ See Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, chapter 1, "Separation". ^ The suggestion, made by Kerenyi and others, makes the name "Bellerophontes" the "killer of Belleros", just as Hermes Argeiphontes is "Hermes the killer of Argus". Carpenter, Rhys (1950). "Argeiphontes: A Suggestion". American Journal of Archaeology. 54 (3): 177–183. JSTOR 500295., makes a carefully argued case for Bellerophontes as the "bane-slayer" of the "bane to mankind" in Iliad II.329, derived from a rare Greek word έλλερον, explained by the grammarians as κακόν, "evil". This έλλερον is connected by Katz, J. (1998). "How to be a Dragon in Indo-European: Hittite illuyankas and its Linguistic and Cultural Congeners in Latin, Greek, and Germanic". In Jasanoff; Melchert; Oliver (eds.). Mír Curad. Studies in Honor of Calvert Watkins. Innsbruck. pp. 317–334. ISBN 3851246675. with a Hesychius gloss ελυες "water animal", and an Indo-European word for "snake", or "dragon", cognate to English eel, also found in Hittite Illuyanka, which would make Bellerophon the dragon slayer of Indo-European myth, represented by Indra slaying Vrtra in Indo-Aryan, and by Thor slaying the Midgard Serpent in Germanic. Robert Graves in The Greek Myths rev. ed. 1960 suggested a translation "bearing darts". ^ In Iliad vi. ^ Euripides' tragedies Stheneboia and Bellerophontes are lost. ^ This mytheme is most familiar in the narrative of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. Robert Graves also notes the parallel in the Egyptian Tale of Two Brothers and in the desire of Athamas' wife for Phrixus (Graves 1960, 70.2, 75.1). ^ The tablets "on which he had traced a number of devices with a deadly meaning" constitute the only apparent reference to writing in the Iliad. Such a letter is termed a "bellerophontic" letter; one such figures in a subplot of Shakespeare's Hamlet, bringing offstage death to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Such a letter figures in the earlier story of Sargon of Akkad. ^ Kerenyi 1959, quoting Apollodorus Mythographus, 2.7.4. ^ Description of Greece 2.4.6. ^ Some of the red-figure pottery painters show Bellerophon wielding Poseidon's trident instead (Kerenyi 1959). ^ Hesiod, Theogony 319ff; Bibliotheke, ii.3.2; Pindar, Olympian Odes, xiii.63ff; Pausanias, ii.4.1; Hyginus, Fabulae, 157; John Tzetzes, On Lycophron. ^ Robert Graves, 75.d; Plutarch, On the Virtues of Women. ^ The inheritance of kingship through the king's daughter, with many heroic instances, was discussed by Finkelberg, Margalit (1991). "Royal succession in heroic Greece". The Classical Quarterly. New Series. 41 (2): 303–316. doi:10.1017/s0009838800004481. JSTOR 638900.; compare Orion and Merope. ^ Isander was struck down by Ares in battle with the Solymi (Iliad xvi). ^ Homer, Iliad, 6. 197–205 ^ Oxford Classical Mythology Online. "Chapter 25: Myths of Local Heroes and Heroines". Classical Mythology, Seventh Edition. Oxford University Press USA. Archived from the original on July 15, 2011. Retrieved April 26, 2010. ^ Diodorus Siculus refers to her as Deidamia and makes her wife of Evander, son of Sarpedon the elder and by her father of Sarpedon the younger. Library of History, 5. 79. 3 ^ Parallels are in the myths of Icarus and Phaeton. ^ Homer (1924). The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vol. I (book 6, lines 202-204). Retrieved 2020-06-11. ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes, xiii.87–90, and Isthmian Odes, vii.44; Bibliotheke ii.3.2; Homer, Iliad vi.155–203 and xvi.328; Ovid, Metamorphoses ix.646. ^ Riedweg, Christoph (1990). "The 'atheistic' fragment from Euripides' Bellerophontes (286 N²)". Illinois Classical Studies. 15 (1): 39–53. ISSN 0363-1923. ^ Johnston, George Burke (1955). "Jonson's 'Perseus upon Pegasus'". The Review of English Studies. New Series. 6 (21): 65–67. doi:10.1093/res/VI.21.65. ^ "Stars with Exoplanets". 2010-11-11. ^ The Concept of Anxiety. Princeton University Press. 1980. p. 150. ISBN 0-691-02011-6. ^ "Star Trek Database". 2019-01-15. Further reading[edit] Graves, Robert, 1960. The Greek Myths, revised edition (Harmondsworth: Penguin) Homer, Iliad, book vi.155–203 Kerenyi, Karl, 1959. The Heroes of the Greeks (London: Thames and Hudson) Kirk, G. S., 1990. The Iliad: A Commentary Volume II: books 5-8. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) External links[edit] Media related to Bellerophon at Wikimedia Commons Images of Bellerophon in the Warburg Institute Iconographic Database v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Authority control BNF: cb165572840 (data) GND: 118655078 PLWABN: 9811268199205606 SUDOC: 130472913 VIAF: 54942004 WorldCat Identities: lccn-nb2006020462 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellerophon&oldid=1002626127" Categories: Corinthian mythology Greek mythological heroes Lycia Kings in Greek mythology Children of Poseidon Pegasus Demigods Hidden categories: Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link from Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2021, at 09:22 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9756	----	Odyssey - Wikipedia Odyssey From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about Homer's epic poem. For other uses, see Odyssey (disambiguation). "Homer's Odyssey" redirects here. For The Simpsons episode, see Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons). Epic poem attributed to Homer Odyssey  by Homer 15th-century manuscript of Book I written by scribe John Rhosos (British Museum) Written c. 8th century BCE Language Homeric Greek Genre(s) Epic poetry Published in English 1488 Lines 12,109 Read online "Odyssey" at Wikisource Metre Dactylic hexameter The Odyssey (/ˈɒdəsi/;[1] Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, Odýsseia; Attic Greek: [o.dýs.sej.ja]) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still read by contemporary audiences. As with the Iliad, the poem is divided into 24 books. It follows the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the Trojan War. After the war itself, which lasted ten years, his journey lasts for ten additional years, during which time he encounters many perils and all his crewmates are killed. In his absence, Odysseus is assumed dead, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must contend with a group of unruly suitors who compete for Penelope's hand in marriage. The Odyssey was originally composed in Homeric Greek in around the 8th or 7th century BCE and, by the mid-6th century BCE, had become part of the Greek literary canon. In antiquity, Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently, and the stories themselves formed as part of a long oral tradition. Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos or rhapsode, and more likely to be heard than read. Crucial themes in the poem include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; "return"), wandering, xenia (ξενία; "guest-friendship"), testing, and omens. Scholars still reflect on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such as women and slaves, who have a more prominent role in the epic than in many other works of ancient literature. This focus is especially remarkable when considered beside the Iliad, which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War. The Odyssey is regarded as one of the most significant works of the Western canon. The first English translation of the Odyssey was in the 16th century. Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced across a wide variety of mediums. In 2018, when BBC Culture polled experts around the world to find literature's most enduring narrative, the Odyssey topped the list.[2] Contents 1 Synopsis 1.1 Exposition 1.2 Escape to the Phaeacians 1.3 Odysseus' account of his adventures 1.4 Return to Ithaca 1.5 Slaying of the Suitors 2 Structure 3 Geography 4 Influences 5 Themes and patterns 5.1 Homecoming 5.2 Wandering 5.3 Guest-friendship 5.4 Testing 5.5 Omens 6 Textual history 6.1 Composition 6.2 Textual tradition 6.3 English translations 7 Influence 7.1 Literature 7.2 Film and television adaptations 7.3 Opera and music 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links 11.1 Translations Synopsis Exposition A mosaic depicting Odysseus, from the villa of La Olmeda, Pedrosa de la Vega, Spain, late 4th–5th centuries AD The Odyssey begins after the end of the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), from which Odysseus, king of Ithaca, has still not returned due to angering Poseidon, the god of the sea. Odysseus' son, Telemachus, is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father's house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and "the Suitors," a crowd of 108 boisterous young men who each aim to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage, all the while reveling in the king's palace and eating up his wealth. Odysseus' protectress, the goddess Athena, asks Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent from Mount Olympus. Then, disguised as a chieftain named Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality and they observe the suitors dining rowdily while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them. That night, Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the insolent suitors, who then scoff at Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the Greek mainland, to the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, who resided in Pylos after the war. From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied by Nestor's son. There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who are now reconciled. Both Helen and Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt. There, on the island of Pharos, Menelaus encounters the old sea-god Proteus, who told him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymph Calypso. Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just now realized that Telemachus is gone. Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails back home. Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety. Escape to the Phaeacians Charles Gleyre, Odysseus and Nausicaä In the course of Odysseus' seven years as a captive of the goddess Calypso on an island (Ogygia), she has fallen deeply in love with him, even though he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband and still mourns for home. She is ordered to release him by the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food, and drink by Calypso. When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft but, helped by a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians. Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep. The next morning, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to do so. He appeals for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous. Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home, without knowing who Odysseus is. He remains for several days. Odysseus asks the blind singer Demodocus to tell the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then tells the story of his return from Troy. Odysseus' account of his adventures Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez, 1813–15 Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians. After a failed raid, Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. Odysseus visited the lotus-eaters who gave his men their fruit that caused them to forget their homecoming. Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force. Afterwards, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of the Cyclopes. The men then landed on shore and entered the cave of Polyphemus, where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired. Upon returning home, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men. Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody," plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake. When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him. Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep as they were let out of the cave. As they escaped, however, Odysseus, taunting Polyphemus, revealed himself. The Cyclops prays to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years. After the escape, Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. Just as Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold. The winds flew out and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come. Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus has drawn the ire of the gods, refused to further assist him. After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, he sailed on and reached the island of Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Circe. She turned half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb called moly, making him resistant to Circe's magic. Odysseus forced Circe to change his men back to their human form, and was seduced by her. They remained with her for one year. Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead. Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophet Tiresias and was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his crew from eating the sacred livestock of Helios on the island of Thrinacia and that failure to do so would result in the loss of his ship and his entire crew. For Odysseus' encounter with the dead, see Nekuia. Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of the Siren Painter, c. 480–470 BC (British Museum) Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were advised by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of the Sirens. All of the sailors had their ears plugged up with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song. He told his sailors not to untie him as it would only make him drown himself. They then passed between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis. Scylla claims six of his men. Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the island. Zeus caused a storm which prevented them leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe. While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle of Helios. The Sun God insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck and all but Odysseus drowned. Odysseus clung to a fig tree. Washed ashore on Ogygia, he remained there as Calypso's lover. Return to Ithaca Athena Revealing Ithaca to Ulysses by Giuseppe Bottani (18th century) Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca. She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can see how things stand in his household. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherd Eumaeus, who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus. After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself. Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the Suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus. Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the Suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar. He is ridiculed by the Suitors in his own home, especially Antinous. Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus's recent wanderings. Odysseus's identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, when she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy. Slaying of the Suitors Ulysses and Telemachus kill Penelope's Suitors by Thomas Degeorge (1812) The next day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope maneuvers the Suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow. The man who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the competition himself: he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next arrow. Odysseus kills the other Suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then by swords and spears once both sides armed themselves. Once the battle is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty of betraying Penelope or having sex with the Suitors. Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that he made their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground. Structure The Odyssey is 12,109 lines composed in dactylic hexameter, also called Homeric hexameter.[3][4] It opens in medias res, in the middle of the overall story, with prior events described through flashbacks and storytelling.[5] In the Classical period, some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their own titles: Book 1–4: Telemachy —the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus.[6] Books 9–21: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts.[7] Book 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres, 'suitors' + phónos, 'slaughter').[8] Book 22 concludes the Greek Epic Cycle, though fragments remain of the "alternative ending" of sorts known as the Telegony. The Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet.[9] Geography Main articles: Homer's Ithaca and Geography of the Odyssey The events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus' embedded narrative of his wanderings) have been said to take place in the Peloponnese and in what are now called the Ionian Islands.[10] There are difficulties in the apparently simple identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the same island that is now called Ithakē (modern Greek: Ιθάκη).[11] The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scheria, pose more fundamental problems, if geography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are divided as to whether or not any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return to Ithaca) are real.[12] Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus' journey, but now largely agree that the landscapes, especially of the Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythological aspects as features to be uncontroversially mappable.[13] Classicist Peter T. Struck created an interactive map which plots Odysseus' travels,[14] including his near homecoming which was thwarted by the bag of wind.[13] Influences Terracotta plaque of the Mesopotamian ogre Humbaba, believed to be a possible inspiration for the figure of Polyphemus Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey.[15] Martin West notes substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey.[16] Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the earth, and on their journeys go to the land of the dead.[17] On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, whose is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun.[18] Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is also associated with the sun. Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky.[19] West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey.[20] In 1914, paleontologist Othenio Abel surmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.[21] The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the forehead could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant.[21] Classical scholars, on the other hand, have long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally a folk tale, which existed independently of the Odyssey and which became part of it at a later date. Similar stories are found in cultures across Europe and the Middle East.[22]:127–31 According to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much like Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[22]:127–31 Graham Anderson suggests that the addition about it having only one eye was invented to explain how the creature was so easily blinded.[22]:124–5 Themes and patterns Homecoming Odissea (1794) Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of the Odyssey.[23] Anna Bonafazi of the University of Cologne writes that, in Homer, nostos is "return home from Troy, by sea".[23] Agatha Thornton examines nostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of the Odyssey.[24] For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus.[24] Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope.[24] Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus. It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming. This successful homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death.[24] Wandering Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator. The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home.[25] Calypso's name comes from the Greek word kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.[26] Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home. After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"[27]—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home.[25] Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home.[25] These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes,[28] whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon.[25] Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.[25] Guest-friendship Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ("guest-friendship"), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act.[29][30] The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do. Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last.[30] Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island.[30] Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity. It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property.[30] This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous.[31] According to J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:[32] The arrival and the reception of the guest. Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest. Providing food and drink to the guest. Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host. The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night. The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs. Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home.[29][33] Testing Penelope questions Odysseus to prove his identity. Another theme throughout the Odyssey is testing.[34] This occurs in two distinct ways. Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity. An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home.[34] Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors. After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is.[34] For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him. This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity. For more information on the progression of testing type scenes, read more below.[34] Testing also has a very specific type scene that accompanies it as well. Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern. This pattern is:[34][33] Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others. Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them. The characters reply to Odysseus' questions. Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity. The characters test Odysseus' identity. There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy. Finally, the reconciled characters work together. Omens Odysseus and Eurycleia by Christian Gottlob Heyne Omens occur frequently throughout the Odyssey. Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds.[35] According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests. For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors.[35] Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams.[35] However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen.[36][37] She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus.[35] Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad and the Odyssey.[38] Omens are another example of a type scene in the Odyssey. Two important parts of an omen type scene are the recognition of the omen, followed by its interpretation.[35] In the Odyssey, all of the bird omens — with the exception of the first — show large birds attacking smaller birds.[35][33] Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied.[35] For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance[39] and for Odysseus to be home,[40] Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return,[41] and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus.[42] Textual history Composition The date of the poem is a matter of serious disagreement among classicists. In the middle of the 8th century BCE, the inhabitants of Greece began to adopt a modified version of the Phoenician alphabet to write down their own language.[43] The Homeric poems may have been one of the earliest products of that literacy, and if so, would have been composed some time in the late 8th century.[44] Inscribed on a clay cup found in Ischia, Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from."[45] Some scholars, such as Calvert Watkins, have tied this cup to a description King Nestor's golden cup in the Iliad.[46] If the cup is an allusion to the Iliad, that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BCE.[43] Dating is similarly complicated by the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years.[43] The Odyssey as it exists today is likely not significantly different.[44] Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by the 6th century.[47] In 566 BCE, Peisistratos instituted a civic and religious festival called the Panathenaia, which featured performances of Homeric poems.[47] These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a particular version of the text had become canonised.[48] Textual tradition Portrait by the Italian painter Domenico Ghirlandaio of the Greek Renaissance scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who produced the first printed edition of the Odyssey in 1488 The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely copied and used as school texts in lands where the Greek language was spoken throughout antiquity.[49][50] Scholars may have begun to write commentaries on the poems as early as the time of Aristotle in the 4th century BCE.[49] In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, scholars affiliated with the Library of Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus of Ephesus and Aristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts.[51] The Iliad and the Odyssey remained widely studied and used as school texts in the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages.[49][50] The Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c. 1115-1195/6 CE) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics that became seen by later generations as authoritative;[49][50] his commentary on the Odyssey alone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages in a twentieth-century edition.[49] The first printed edition of the Odyssey, known as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 by the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born in Athens and had studied in Constantinople.[49][50] His edition was printed in Milan by a Greek printer named Antonios Damilas.[50] Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing parts or even entire chapters of the Odyssey have been found in Egypt, with content different from later medieval versions.[52] In 2018, the Greek Cultural Ministry revealed the discovery of a clay tablet near the Temple of Zeus, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey's 14th Rhapsody to Eumaeus. While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the date still needs to be confirmed.[53][54] English translations See also: English translations of Homer The poet George Chapman finished the first complete English translation of the Odyssey in 1614, which was set in rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter.[49] Emily Wilson, a professor of classical studies at the University of Pennsylvania, noted that, as late as the first decade of the 21st century, almost all of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men.[55] She called her experience of translating Homer one of "intimate alienation."[56] Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception of characters and events of the Odyssey,[57] inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language ("sluts" or "whores") [...] The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory language."[57] In the original Greek, the word used is hai, the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people".[58] Influence Front cover of James Joyce's Ulysses The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise because of how greatly they have impacted the popular imagination and cultural values.[59] The Odyssey and the Iliad formed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean society. That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists,[60] meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it.[61] As such, the influence of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millennium of writing. The poem topped a poll of experts by BBC Culture to find literature's most enduring narrative.[2][62] It is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic,[63] and remains one of the oldest works of extant literature commonly read by Western audiences.[64] Literature In Canto XXVI of the Inferno, Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus in the eighth circle of hell, where Odysseus himself appends a new ending to the Odyssey in which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring.[21] Edith Hall suggests that Dante's depiction of Ulysses became understood as a manifestation of Renaissance colonialism and othering, with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean".[29] Irish poet James Joyce's modernist novel Ulysses (1922) was significantly influenced by the Odyssey. Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus in Charles Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the epic poem for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind.[65][66] Ulysses, a re-telling of the Odyssey set in Dublin, is divided into 18 sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly onto the 24 books of the Odyssey.[67] Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed by some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary.[68] The book, and especially its stream of consciousness prose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre.[69] Modern writers have revisited the Odyssey to highlight the poem's female characters. Canadian writer Margaret Atwood adapted parts of the Odyssey for her novella, The Penelopiad (2000). The novella focuses on Odysseus' wife, Penelope,[70] and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the poem's ending, an image which haunted her.[71] Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of a patriarchal system.[71] Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea.[72] As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack of motivation in the original poem, and sought to explain her capriciousness.[73] The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into one of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers.[74] Film and television adaptations Ulysses (1954) is film adaptation starring Kirk Douglas as Ulysses, Silvana Mangano as Penelope and Circe, and Anthony Quinn as Antinous.[75] L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised for its faithful rendering of the original epic.[76] Ulysses 31 (1981) is a Japanese-French anime that updates the ancient setting into a 31st-century space opera. Nostos: The Return (1989) is an Italian film about Odysseus' homecoming. Directed by Franco Piavoli, it relies on visual storytelling and has a strong focus on nature.[77] Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by Theo Angelopoulos, has many of the elements of the Odyssey set against the backdrop of the most recent and previous Balkan Wars.[78] The Odyssey (1997) is a television miniseries directed by Andrei Konchalovsky and starring Armand Assante as Odysseus and Greta Scacchi as Penelope.[79] O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) is a crime comedy-drama film written, produced, co-edited and directed by the Coen Brothers, and is very loosely based on Homer's poem.[80] Opera and music Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, first performed in 1640, is an opera by Claudio Monteverdi based on the second half of Homer's Odyssey.[81] Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction) which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2014.[82] Robert W. Smith's second symphony for concert band, The Odyssey, tells four of the main highlights of the story in the piece's four movements: The Iliad, The Winds of Poseidon, The Isle of Calypso, and Ithaca.[83] See also Ancient Greece portal Religion portal Aeneid Gulliver's Travels English translations of Homer List of literary cycles Odyssean gods Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey Sinbad the Sailor Sunpadh The Voyage of Bran References Citations ^ "Odyssey". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2016-02-29. ^ a b Haynes, Natalie. "The greatest tale ever told?". BBC.com/culture. Archived from the original on 2020-06-19. ^ Myrsiades, Kostas (2019). "1. Telemachus' Journey (Od 1-4)". Reading Homer's Odyssey. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9781684481361. [...] is a long oral narrative poem of 12,109 lines ^ Haslam, M. W. (1976). "Homeric Words and Homeric Metre: Two Doublets Examined (λείβω/εϊβω, γαΐα/αία)". Glotta. 54 (3/4): 203. ISSN 0017-1298. JSTOR 40266365. ^ Foley, John Miles (2007). ""Reading" Homer through Oral Tradition". College Literature. 34 (2): 1–28. ISSN 0093-3139. JSTOR 25115419. ^ Willcock, Malcolm L. (1976). A Companion to The Iliad: Based on the Translation by Richard Lattimore (2007 ed.). New York: Phoenix Books. p. 32. ISBN 978-0226898551. ^ Most, Glenn W. (1989). "The Structure and Function of Odysseus' Apologoi". Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974–). 119: 15–30. doi:10.2307/284257. JSTOR 284257. ^ Cairns, Douglas (2014). Defining Greek Narrative. Edinburgh University Press. p. 231. ISBN 9780748680108. ^ Carne-Ross, D. S. (1998). "The Poem of Odysseus." In The Odyssey, translated by R. Fitzgerald. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52574-3. p. ixi. ^ Strabo, Geographica, 1.2.15, as cited in Finley, Moses. 1976. The World of Odysseus (revised ed.). p. 33. ^ Strabo, Geographica, 1.2.15, cited in Finley, Moses. 1976. The World of Odysseus (revised ed.). p. 33. ^ Lane (2008) summarizes the literature in notes and bibliography. Fox, Robin Lane. 2008. "Finding Neverland." In Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer. ^ a b "The Geography of the Odyssey | Elizabeth Della Zazzera". Lapham’s Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2020-10-08. ^ Struck, Peter T. "Map of Odysseus' Journey". www.classics.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on March 18, 2020. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 403. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. 402–17. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 405. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 406. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. 410. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 417. ^ a b c Mayor, Adrienne (2000). The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton University Press. ^ a b c Anderson, Graham (2000). Fairytale in the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 127–31. ISBN 978-0-415-23702-4. ^ a b Bonifazi, Anna (2009). "Inquiring into Nostos and Its Cognates". The American Journal of Philology. 130 (4): 481–510. ISSN 0002-9475. JSTOR 20616206. ^ a b c d Thornton, Agathe (1970). "The Homecomings of the Achaeans." Pp. 1–15 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen. ^ a b c d e Thornton, Agathe (1970). "The Wanderings of Odysseus." Pp. 16–37 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen. ^ "Calypso and Odysseus Archived 2016-05-02 at the Wayback Machine." Greek Myths & Greek Mythology (2010). Retrieved 5 May 2020. ^ Homer, Odyssey, 8.566. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Homer, Odyssey 6.4–5. (Lattimore 1975) ^ a b c Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ^ a b c d Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Guest-Friendship." Pp. 38–46 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen. ^ Homer, Odyssey, 17.415-44. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Hainsworth, J. B. (December 1972). "The Odyssey – Agathe Thornton: People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Pp. xv+163. London: Methuen, 1970. Cloth, £2·40". The Classical Review. 22 (3): 320–321. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00996720. ISSN 0009-840X. ^ a b c Edwards, Mark W. 1992. "Homer and the Oral Tradition." Oral Tradition 7(2):284–330. ^ a b c d e Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Testing." Pp. 47–51 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen. ^ a b c d e f g Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Omens." Pp. 52–57 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen. ^ Homer, Odyssey 20.103-4. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Homer, Odyssey 21.414. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Kundmueller, Michelle (2013). "Following Odysseus Home: an Exploration of the Politics of Honor and Family in the Iliad, Odyssey, and Plato's Republic". American Political Science. Rochester, NY: 7. SSRN 2301247 ^ Homer, Odyssey 2.143–5. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Homer, Odyssey 15.155–9. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Homer, Odyssey 19.136. (Lattimore 1975) ^ Homer, Odyssey 20.240–43. (Lattimore 1975) ^ a b c Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Composed?". The Odyssey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 21. ISBN 978-0393089059. ^ a b Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Composed?". The Odyssey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 23. ISBN 978-0393089059. ^ "From carnage to a camp beauty contest: the endless allure of Troy". the Guardian. 2019-11-13. Archived from the original on 2020-01-09. ^ Watkins, Calvert (1976). "Observations on the "Nestor's Cup" Inscription". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 80: 25–40. doi:10.2307/311231. ISSN 0073-0688. JSTOR 311231. ^ a b Davison, J. A. (1955). "Peisistratus and Homer". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 86: 1–21. doi:10.2307/283605. ISSN 0065-9711. JSTOR 283605. ^ Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Composed?". The Odyssey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 21. "In 566 BCE, Pisistratus, the tyrant of the city (which was not yet a democracy), instituted a civic and religious festival, the Panathenaia, which included a poetic competition, featuring performances of the Homeric poems. The institution is particularly significant because we are told that the Homeric poems had to be performed “correctly,” which implies the canonization of a particular written text of The Iliad and The Odyssey at this date." ^ a b c d e f g Lamberton, Robert (2010). "Homer". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ a b c d e Browning, Robert (1992). "The Byzantines and Homer". In Lamberton, Robert; Keaney, John J. (eds.). Homer's Ancient Readers: The Hermeneutics of Greek Epic's Earliest Exegetes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 134–148. ISBN 978-0-6916-5627-4. ^ Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413. ISBN 978-1405177689. ^ "Oldest Greek Fragment of Homer Discovered on Clay Tablet". Smithonian. 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-01-23. ^ Tagaris, Karolina (July 10, 2018). Heavens, Andrew (ed.). "'Oldest known extract' of Homer's Odyssey discovered in Greece". Reuters. Archived from the original on March 24, 2019. ^ "Homer Odyssey: Oldest extract discovered on clay tablet". BBC. July 10, 2018. Archived from the original on September 1, 2020. ^ Wilson, Emily (2017-07-07). "Found in translation: how women are making the classics their own". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2020-07-29. ^ Wilson, Emily (2017-07-07). "Found in translation: how women are making the classics their own". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 2020-07-29. ^ a b Wilson, Emily (2018). The Odyssey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 86. ISBN 978-0393356250. For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language (“sluts” or “whores”), suggesting that these women are being punished for a genuinely objectionable pattern of behavior, as if their sexual history actually justified their deaths. The original Greek does not label these slaves with any derogatory language. Many contemporary translators render Helen’s “dog-face” as if it were equivalent to “shameless Helen” (or “Helen the bitch”). I have kept the metaphor (“hounded”), and have also made sure that my Helen, like that of the original, refrains from blaming herself for what men have done in her name. ^ Wilson, Emily (December 8, 2017). "A Translator's Reckoning With the Women of The Odyssey". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. ^ Kenner, Hugh (1971). The Pound Era. University of California Press. p. 50. ^ Hall, Edith (2008). The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer's Odyssey. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-84511-575-3. The two Homeric epics formed the basis of the education of every- one in ancient Mediterranean society from at least the seventh century BCE; that curriculum was in turn adopted by Western humanists. ^ Ruskin, John (1868). The Mystery of Life and its Arts. Cambridge University Press. All Greek gentlemen were educated under Homer. All Roman gentlemen, by Greek literature. All Italian, and French, and English gentlemen, by Roman literature, and by its principles. ^ Bahr, Arthur. "Foundation of Western Literature". MIT Open Courseware. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 6 November 2016. ^ Cartwright, Mark. "Odyssey". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. ^ North, Anna (2017-11-20). "Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job". Vox. Archived from the original on 2020-06-27. ^ Gorman (1939), p. 45. ^ Jaurretche, Colleen (2005). Beckett, Joyce and the art of the negative. European Joyce studies. 16. Rodopi. p. 29. ISBN 978-90-420-1617-0. ^ "Ulysses", The Oxford Companion to English Literature (1995), edited Margaret Drabble. Oxford UP, 1996, p. 1023 ^ Ames, Keri Elizabeth (2005). "Joyce's Aesthetic of the Double Negative and His Encounters with Homer's "Odyssey"". European Joyce Studies. 16: 15–48. ISSN 0923-9855. JSTOR 44871207 – via JSTOR. First of all, Joyce did own and read Homer in the original Greek, but his expertise was so minimal that he cannot justly be said to have known Homer in the original. Any typical young classical scholar in the second year of studying Greek would already possess more faculty with Homer than Joyce ever managed to achieve. ^ The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108–109. ^ Beard, Mary (2005-10-28). "Review: Helen of Troy | Weight | The Penelopiad | Songs on Bronze". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2016-03-26. ^ a b "Margaret Atwood: A personal odyssey and how she rewrote Homer". The Independent. 2005-10-28. Archived from the original on 2020-07-07. ^ "Circe by Madeline Miller review – myth, magic and single motherhood". the Guardian. 2018-04-21. Archived from the original on 2020-06-14. ^ "'Circe' Gets A New Motivation". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 2018-04-25. ^ Messud, Claire (2018-05-28). "December's Book Club Pick: Turning Circe Into a Good Witch (Published 2018)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-09-06. ^ Wilson, Wendy S.; Herman, Gerald H. (2003). World History On The Screen: Film And Video Resources:grade 10–12. Walch Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 9780825146152. Archived from the original on 2020-01-05. ^ Garcia Morcillo, Marta; Hanesworth, Pauline; Lapeña Marchena, Óscar (11 February 2015). Imagining Ancient Cities in Film: From Babylon to Cinecittà. Routledge. p. 139. ISBN 9781135013172. ^ Lapeña Marchena, Óscar (2018). "Ulysses in the Cinema: The Example of Nostos, il ritorno (Franco Piavoli, Italy, 1990)". In Rovira Guardiola, Rosario (ed.). The Ancient Mediterranean Sea in Modern Visual and Performing Arts: Sailing in Troubled Waters. Imagines – Classical Receptions in the Visual and Performing Arts. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-4742-9859-9. ^ Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (2010). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 653. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. ^ Roman, James W. (2005). From Daytime to Primetime: The History of American Television Programs. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 267. ISBN 9780313319723. ^ Siegel, Janice (2007). "The Coens' O Brother, Where Art Thou? and Homer's Odyssey". Mouseion: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada. 7 (3): 213–245. doi:10.1353/mou.0.0029. ISSN 1913-5416. S2CID 163006295. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. ^ "Monteverdi's 'The Return of Ulysses'". NPR. Archived from the original on 2017-02-24. ^ Griffel, Margaret Ross (2018). "Sirenen". Operas in German: A Dictionary. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 448. ISBN 9781442247970. ^ "The Iliad (from The Odyssey (Symphony No. 2))". www.alfred.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-08. Bibliography Lattimore, Richmond, trans. 1975. The Odyssey of Homer. New York: Harper & Row. Library resources about Odyssey Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Further reading Austin, N. 1975. Archery at the Dark of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer’s Odyssey. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clayton, B. 2004. A Penelopean Poetics: Reweaving the Feminine in Homer's Odyssey. Lanham: Lexington Books. — 2011. "Polyphemus and Odysseus in the Nursery: Mother’s Milk in the Cyclopeia." Arethusa 44(3):255–77. Bakker, E. J. 2013. The Meaning of Meat and the Structure of the Odyssey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Barnouw, J. 2004. Odysseus, Hero of Practical Intelligence. Deliberation and Signs in Homer's Odyssey. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Dougherty, C. 2001. The Raft of Odysseus: The Ethnographic Imagination of Homer's Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Press. Fenik, B. 1974. Studies in the Odyssey. Hermes: Einzelschriften 30. Wiesbaden, West Germany: F. Steiner. Griffin, J. 1987. Homer: The Odyssey. Landmarks in World Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Louden, B. 2011. Homer’s Odyssey and the Near East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. — 1999. The Odyssey: Structure, Narration and Meaning. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Minchin, E. 2010. "The Expression of Sarcasm in the 'Odyssey'." Mnemosyne 63(4):533–56. Müller, W. G. 2015. "From Homer’s Odyssey to Joyce’s Ulysses: Theory and Practice of an Ethical Narratology." Arcadia 50(1):9–36. Perpinyà, Núria. 2008. Las criptas de la crítica. Veinte lecturas de la Odisea [The Crypts of Criticism: Twenty Interpretations of the 'Odyssey']. Madrid: Gredos. Lay summary via El Cultural (in Spanish). Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. — 2011. "Toward an Ethnopoetically Grounded Edition of Homer’s Odyssey." Oral Tradition 26:299–326. — 2011. "Penelope's Early Recognition’ of Odysseus from a Neoanalytic and Oral Perspective." College Literature 38(2):101–17. Saïd, S. 2011 [1998].. Homer and the Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Press. Turkeltaub, D. 2014. “Penelope's ‘Stout Hand’ and Odyssean Humour.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 134:103–19. West, E. 2014. “Circe, Calypso, Hiḍimbā.” Journal of Indo-European Studies 42(1):144–74. External links Look up odyssey in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Odyssey Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ὀδύσσεια Wikimedia Commons has media related to Odyssey. Wikiversity has learning resources about The Odyssey The Odyssey (in Ancient Greek) on Perseus Project The Odyssey public domain audiobook at LibriVox BBC audio file — In our time BBC Radio 4 [discussion programme, 45 mins] The Odyssey Comix — A detailed retelling and explanation of Homer's Odyssey in comic-strip format by Greek Myth Comix Images of scenes from Homer's the Odyssey The Odyssey — Annotated text and analyses aligned to Common Core Standards "Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary" by Denton Jaques Snider on Project Gutenberg The Meaning of Tradition in Homer's Odyssey Translations The Odysseys of Homer, together with the shorter poems by Homer, trans. by George Chapman at Project Gutenberg The Odyssey, trans. by Alexander Pope at Project Gutenberg The Odyssey, trans. by William Cowper at Project Gutenberg The Odyssey, trans. by Samuel H. Butcher and Andrew Lang at Project Gutenberg The Odyssey, trans. by Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg Samuel Butler (1900) on Perseus Project The Odyssey, trans. by A. T. Murray (1919) on Perseus Project v t e National epic poems Americas Argentina Martín Fierro Chile La Araucana/The Araucaniad Asia Armenia Sasna Dzrer India Mahabharata Ramayana Indonesia Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa Ramakavaca Kyrgyz Epic of Manas Laos Phra Lak Phra Lam Malaysia Hikayat Hang Tuah Sejarah Melayu Hikayat Seri Rama Persia Shahnameh Thailand Ramakien Europe Finland Kalevala Greece Iliad, Odyssey Portugal Os Lusíadas Italy Divine Comedy, Orlando Furioso v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony v t e Homer's Odyssey (8th century BC) Characters House of Odysseus Penelope (wife) Telemachus (son) Ctimene (sister) Anticlea (mother) Laërtes (father) Autolycus (grandfather) Eurycleia (chief servant) Mentor (advisor) Phemius (musician) Eumaeus (swineherd) Philoetius (cowherd) Melanthius (goatherd) Melantho (maid) Argos (pet-dog) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Helen Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Aeolus (wind god) Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Helios Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Others Achilles Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Mentes Mesaulius Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Suitors of Penelope Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea (1911 Italian) Ulysses (1954 Italian) The Return of Ringo (1965 Italian) Nostos: The Return (1989 Italian) Ulysses' Gaze (1995 Greek) O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) Keyhole (2012) TV The Odyssey (1968) Ulysses 31 (1981) The Odyssey (1997) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists (2007) Star Trek: Odyssey (2007) Literature A True Story (2nd century AD) Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699) The World's Desire (1890) Ulysses (1922) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Human Comedy (1943) Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) Trojan Odyssey (2003) The Penelopiad (2005) The Lost Books of the Odyssey (2010) Poems "Ulysses" (1842) The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel (1938) The Cantos (1962) Pagan Operetta (1998) Stage Current Nobody (play) Cyclops (play) Ithaka (play) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (opera) The Golden Apple (musical) Glam Slam Ulysses (musical) Home Sweet Homer (musical) Song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" (song) "The Odyssey" (song) The Odyssey (symphony) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer "Odysseus' scar" Hermoniakos' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey: The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain (novel) Cold Mountain (film) Homer's Daughter Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey v t e Works related to Homer in antiquity Attributed to Homer Batrachomyomachia Cercopes Cypria Epigrams (Kiln) Epigoni Homeric Hymns Iliad Little Iliad Margites Nostoi Odyssey Capture of Oechalia Phocais Thebaid About Homer Ancient accounts of Homer Contest of Homer and Hesiod Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) v t e Places visited by Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey Ismarus The island of Lotus-eaters The island of Polyphemus Aeolia Telepylos Aeaea The Underworld The Sirens Scylla and Charybdis Thrinacia Ogygia Scheria Ithaca v t e Ancient Greek religion and mythology Classical religious forms Ancient Greek religion Gnosticism Paleo-Balkan mythology Proto-Indo-European religion Hellenistic religion Alchemy Orphism Pythagoreanism Mycenaean deities Mystery religions and sacred mysteries Delos Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Imbrian Mysteries Mithraism Samotracian Mysteries Main beliefs Ages of Man Apotheosis Euhemerism Eusebeia Greek Heroic Age Interpretatio graeca Monism Mythology Nympholepsy Paganism Paradoxography Polytheism Theism Texts/epic poems/odes Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Cyranides Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Ehoiai Greek Magical Papyri Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Interpretation of Dreams (Antiphon) Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis Sibylline Books Telegony The golden verses of Pythagoras Theogony Works and Days Epic Cycle Theban Cycle Rites and practices Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Apotheosis Baptes Curse tablet Daduchos Delphinion Funeral and burial practices Funeral oration Hymns Hero cult Heroon Hierophany Hierophant Hierophylakes Hieros gamos Hypsistarians Iatromantis Interpretatio graeca Kanephoros Kykeon Libations Mystagogue Nekyia Necromancy Necromanteion Nymphaeum Panegyris Pharmakos Prayers Orgia Sacrifices Temenos Thyia Temples Votive offerings Sacred places Oracles, sanctuaries, Necromanteion Aornum Delphi Didymaion Dodona Oracle of Apollo Thyrxeus at Cyaneae Oracle of Artemis at Ikaros island Oracle of Menestheus Tegyra Mountain Cretea Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Lykaion Olympus Caves Cave of Zeus, Aydın Cave of Zeus, Crete Psychro Cave Vari Cave Islands Achilles island Delos Others Athenian sacred ships Eleusis Hiera Orgas Kanathos Olympia Sacred Way Mythical beings Dragons in Greek mythology Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures List of minor Greek mythological figures Deities Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Titans First generation Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Second generation Asteria Astraeus Atlas Eos Epimetheus Helios Leto Menoetius Metis Pallas Perses Prometheus Selene Third generation Hecate Hesperus Phosphorus Twelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Aquatic deities Amphitrite Alpheus Ceto Glaucus Naiads Nereids Nereus Oceanids Phorcys Poseidon Potamoi Potamides Proteus Scamander Thaumas Thetis Triton Love deities Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Himeros Hymen/Hymenaeus Pothos Aphrodite Aphroditus Philotes Peitho War deities Adrestia Alala Alke Amphillogiai Androktasiai Ares Athena Bia Deimos Enyalius Enyo Eris Gynaecothoenas Homados Hysminai Ioke Keres Kratos Kydoimos Ma Machai Nike Palioxis Pallas Perses Phobos Phonoi Polemos Proioxis Chthonic deities Psychopomps Hermanubis Hermes Thanatos Achlys Angelos Hades / Pluto Hecate Hypnos Keres Lampad Macaria Melinoë Persephone Health deities Aceso Aegle Artemis Apollo Asclepius Chiron Eileithyia Epione Hebe Hygieia Iaso Paean Panacea Telesphorus Sleep deities Empusa Epiales Hypnos Pasithea Oneiroi Messenger deities Angelia Arke Hermes Iris Trickster deities Apate Dolos Hermes Momus Magic deities Circe Hecate Hermes Trismegistus Other major deities Azone Eileithyia The Erinyes Harmonia The Muses Nemesis Pan Unknown God Zelus Heroes/heroines Abderus Achilles Actaeon Aeneas Argonauts Ajax the Great Ajax the Lesser Akademos Amphiaraus Amphitryon Antilochus Atalanta Autolycus Bellerophon Bouzyges Cadmus Chrysippus Cyamites Daedalus Diomedes Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) Echetlus Eleusis Erechtheus Eunostus Ganymede Hector Heracles Icarus Iolaus Jason Meleager Odysseus Oedipus Orpheus Pandion Peleus Pelops Penthesilea Perseus Theseus Triptolemus Mythical tribes Amazons Anthropophage Atlantians Bebryces Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Telchines Oracles/seers Aesacus Aleuas Amphiaraus Amphilochus Ampyx Anius Asbolus Bakis Branchus Calchas Carnus Carya Cassandra Delphic Sibyl Elatus Ennomus Epimenides Halitherses Helenus Iamus Idmon Manto Melampus Mopsus Munichus Phineus Polyeidos Polypheides Pythia Sibyl Telemus Theiodamas Theoclymenus Tiresias Magic Apotropaic magic Greek Magical Papyri Pella curse tablet Philia Mythical realms Aethiopia Atlantis Erytheia Hyperborea Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Scheria Scythia Themiscyra Underworld Entrances to the underworld Rivers Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Lakes/swamps Acherusia Avernus Lake Lerna Lake Caves Charoniums Charonium at Aornum Charonium at Acharaca Cave at Cape Matapan Cave at Lake Avernus Cave at Heraclea Pontica Ploutonion Ploutonion at Acharaca Ploutonion at Eleusis Ploutonion at Hierapolis Places Elysium Erebus Fields of Asphodel Fields of Punishment Isles of the Blessed Tartarus Judges Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Guards Campe Cerberus Ferryman Charon Charon's obol Symbols/objects Bident Cap of invisibility Animals, daemons and spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Hade's cattle Mythological wars Amazonomachy Attic War Centauromachy Cranes-Pygmies war Gigantomachy Indian War (it is described at Dionysiaca) Theomachy Titanomachy Trojan War Mythological and religious objects Adamant Aegis Ambrosia Apple of Discord Ara Baetylus Caduceus Cornucopia Dragon's teeth Diipetes Galatea Golden apple Golden Fleece Gorgoneion Greek terracotta figurines Harpe Ichor Lotus tree Minoan seals Moly Necklace of Harmonia Omphalos Orichalcum Palladium Panacea Pandora's box Petasos (Winged helmet) Philosopher's stone Ring of Gyges Rod of Asclepius Sacrificial tripod Sceptre Shield of Achilles Shirt of Nessus Sword of Damocles Talaria Thunderbolt Thymiaterion Thyrsus Trident Trojan Horse Winnowing Oar Wheel of Fortune Wheel of fire Xoanon Symbols Arkalochori Axe Labrys Ouroboros Owl of Athena Mythological powers Divination Eidolon Eternal youth Evocation Fortune-telling Immortality Language of the birds Nympholepsy Magic Ornithomancy Shamanism Shapeshifting Weather modification Storage containers, cups, vases Amphora Calathus Chalice Ciborium Cotyla Hydria Hydriske Kalpis Kantharos Kernos Kylix Lebes Lekythos Loutrophoros Oenochoe Pelike Pithos Skyphos Stamnos Urn Musical Instruments Aulos Barbiton Chelys Cithara Cochilia Crotalum (Castanets) Epigonion Kollops Lyre Pan flute Pandura Phorminx Psaltery Salpinx Sistrum Tambourine Trigonon Tympanum Water organ Games Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Pythian Games Nemean Games Isthmian Games Agon Panathenaic Games Rhieia Festivals/feasts Actia Adonia Agrionia Amphidromia Anthesteria Apellai Apaturia Aphrodisia Arrhephoria Ascolia Bendidia Boedromia Brauronia Buphonia Chalceia Diasia Delphinia Dionysia Ecdysia Elaphebolia Gamelia Haloa Heracleia Hermaea Hieromenia Iolaia Kronia Lenaia Lykaia Metageitnia Munichia Oschophoria Pamboeotia Pandia Plynteria Pyanopsia Skira Synoikia Soteria Tauropolia Thargelia Theseia Thesmophoria Vessels Argo Phaeacian ships Modern offshoot religions Discordianism Gaianism Feraferia Hellenism Modern popular culture Greek mythology in popular culture Authority control BNF: cb120084354 (data) GND: 4193022-8 LCCN: n80008528 MBW work: 79ee2e07-0aa6-4755-ac20-64236ba7f7e1 NKC: aun2006372309 NLI: 001697090 SUDOC: 027271714 VIAF: 214278437 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 214278437 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Odyssey&oldid=1003783647" Categories: Odyssey 8th-century BC books Ancient Greek religion Epic Cycle Poems adapted into films Public domain books Pigs in literature Sequels Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles that link to Wikisource Articles containing 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en-wikipedia-org-9762	----	Myth - Wikipedia Myth From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Mythographer) Jump to navigation Jump to search Type of traditional narrative For other uses, see Myth (disambiguation). Mythology Albanian American Arabian Armenian Aztec Amazigh Celtic Christian Chinese Egyptian French Greek Guarani Hindu Inca Islamic Japanese Jewish Korean Kangleicha Maya Mesopotamian Micronesian Norse Persian Philippine Polynesian Roman Romanian Slavic Turkic See also Religion and mythology Comparative religion Symbolism Theology List of mythologies v t e Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. The main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods, or supernatural humans.[1][2][3] Stories of everyday human beings, although often of leaders of some type, are usually contained in legends, as opposed to myths. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests or priestesses and are closely linked to religion or spirituality.[1] Many societies group their myths, legends, and history together, considering myths and legends to be true accounts of their remote past.[1][2][4][5] In particular, creation myths take place in a primordial age when the world had not achieved its later form.[1][6][7] Other myths explain how a society's customs, institutions, and taboos were established and sanctified.[1][7] There is a complex relationship between recital of myths and the enactment of rituals. The term mythology may either refer to the study of myths in general, or a body of myths regarding a particular subject.[8] The study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato, and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists and later revived by Renaissance mythographers. Today, the study of myth continues in a wide variety of academic fields, including folklore studies, philology, psychology, and anthropology.[9] Moreover, the academic comparisons of bodies of myth are known as comparative mythology. Since the term myth is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrative as a myth can be highly political: many adherents of religions view their religion's stories as true and therefore object to the stories being characterised as myths. Nevertheless, scholars now routinely speak of Jewish mythology, Christian mythology, Islamic mythology, Hindu mythology, and so forth. Traditionally, Western scholarship, with its Judeo-Christian heritage, has viewed narratives in the Abrahamic religions as being the province of theology rather than mythology. Meanwhile, identifying religious stories of colonised cultures, such as stories in Hinduism, as myths enabled Western scholars to imply that they were of lower truth-value than the stories of Christianity. Labelling all religious narratives as myths can be thought of as treating different traditions with parity.[10] Contents 1 Definitions 1.1 Myth 1.2 Mythology 1.3 Mythography 1.4 Mythos 1.5 Mythopoeia 2 Etymology 2.1 Meanings in Ancient Greece 3 Interpreting myths 3.1 Comparative mythology 3.2 Functionalism 3.3 Euhemerism 3.4 Allegory 3.5 Personification 3.6 Myth-ritual theory 4 History of the academic discipline 4.1 Ancient Greece 4.2 European Renaissance 4.3 Nineteenth century 4.3.1 Nature mythology 4.3.2 Myth and ritual 4.4 Twentieth century 4.5 Twenty-first century 5 Modern mythology 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Definitions Ballads of bravery (1877) part of Arthurian mythology See also: Religion and mythology Myth Definitions of myth vary to some extent among scholars, though Finnish folklorist Lauri Honko offers a widely-cited definition:[11] Myth, a story of the gods, a religious account of the beginning of the world, the creation, fundamental events, the exemplary deeds of the gods as a result of which the world, nature, and culture were created together with all parts thereof and given their order, which still obtains. A myth expresses and confirms society's religious values and norms, it provides a pattern of behavior to be imitated, testifies to the efficacy of ritual with its practical ends and establishes the sanctity of cult. Scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways.[12][13][14] In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story,[15][16][17] popular misconception or imaginary entity.[18] However, while myth and other folklore genres may overlap, myth is often thought to differ from genres such as legend and folktale in that neither are considered to be sacred narratives.[19][20] Some kinds of folktales, such as fairy stories, are not considered true by anyone, and may be seen as distinct from myths for this reason.[21][22][23] Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans,[1][2][3] while legends generally feature humans as their main characters.[1] However, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid.[24][25] Moreover, as stories spread between cultures or as faiths change, myths can come to be considered folktales, their divine characters recast as either as humans or demihumans such as giants, elves and faeries.[2][26][27] Conversely, historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time. For example, the Matter of Britain (the legendary history of Great Britain, especially those focused on King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table)[28] and the Matter of France, seem distantly to originate in historical events of the 5th and 8th-centuries respectively, and became mythologised over the following centuries. In colloquial use, the word myth can also be used of a collectively held belief that has no basis in fact, or any false story.[29] This usage, which is often pejorative,[30] arose from labelling the religious myths and beliefs of other cultures as incorrect, but it has spread to cover non-religious beliefs as well.[31] However, as commonly used by folklorists and academics in other relevant fields, such as anthropology, the term myth has no implication whether the narrative may be understood as true or otherwise.[32] Mythology ‹ The template below (Rewrite section) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › ‹ The template below (Cleanup rewrite) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as The first two sentences correspond to a bare dictionary definition not meriting its own section of this article, and the rest of the paragraph appears to be about the word "myth", not the word "mythology".. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (January 2021) "Mythology" redirects here. For the term used to describe the overarching plot of a fictional work (often for television shows), see Mythology (fiction). For other uses, see Mythology (disambiguation). In present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths.[33] For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology, and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures. Folklorist Alan Dundes defines myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Dundes classified a sacred narrative as "a story that serves to define the fundamental worldview of a culture by explaining aspects of the natural world and delineating the psychological and social practices and ideals of a society."[34] Anthropologist Bruce Lincoln defines myth as "ideology in narrative form."[35] Mythography The compilation or description of myths is sometimes known as mythography, a term which can also be used of a scholarly anthology of myths (or, confusingly, of the study of myths generally).[36] Key mythographers in the Classical tradition include:[37] Ovid (43 BCE–17/18 CE), whose tellings of myths have been profoundly influential; Fabius Planciades Fulgentius, a Latin writer of the late-5th to early-6th centuries, whose Mythologies (Latin: Mitologiarum libri III) gathered and gave moralistic interpretations of a wide range of myths; the anonymous medieval Vatican Mythographers, who developed anthologies of Classical myths that remained influential to the end of the Middle Ages; and Renaissance scholar Natalis Comes, whose ten-book Mythologiae became a standard source for classical mythology in later Renaissance Europe. Other prominent mythographies include the thirteenth-century Prose Edda attributed to the Icelander Snorri Sturluson, which is the main surviving survey of Norse Mythology from the Middle Ages. Jeffrey G. Snodgrass (professor of anthropology at the Colorado State University[38]) has termed India's Bhats as mythographers.[39] Mythos "Mythos" redirects here. For other uses, see Myth (disambiguation) and Mythos (disambiguation). Further information: Fictional universe Because myth is sometimes used in a pejorative sense, some scholars have opted to use the term mythos instead.[34] However, mythos now more commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a "plot point" or to a body of interconnected myths or stories, especially those belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition.[40] It is sometimes used specifically for modern, fictional mythologies, such as the world building of H. P. Lovecraft. Mythopoeia Main article: Mythopoeia Mythopoeia (mytho- + -poeia, 'I make myth') was termed by J. R. R. Tolkien, amongst others, to refer to the "conscious generation" of mythology.[41][42] It was notoriously also suggested, separately, by Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg. Etymology Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez, 1813–15 The word myth comes from Ancient Greek μῦθος (mȳthos),[43] meaning 'speech, narrative, fiction, myth, plot'. In Anglicised form, this Greek word began to be used in English (and was likewise adapted into other European languages) in the early 19th century, in a much narrower sense, as a scholarly term for "[a] traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events."[29][40] In turn, Ancient Greek μυθολογία (mythología, 'story,' 'lore,' 'legends,' or 'the telling of stories') combines the word mȳthos with the suffix -λογία (-logia, 'study') in order to mean 'romance, fiction, story-telling.'[44] Accordingly, Plato used mythología as a general term for 'fiction' or 'story-telling' of any kind. The Greek term mythología was then borrowed into Late Latin, occurring in the title of Latin author Fulgentius' 5th-century Mythologiæ to denote what we now call classical mythology—i.e., Greco-Roman etiological stories involving their gods. Fulgentius' Mythologiæ explicitly treated its subject matter as allegories requiring interpretation and not as true events.[45] The Latin term was then adopted in Middle French as mythologie. Whether from French or Latin usage, English adopted the word mythology in the 15th century, initially meaning 'the exposition of a myth or myths,' 'the interpretation of fables,' or 'a book of such expositions'. The word is first attested in John Lydgate's Troy Book (c. 1425).[46][48][49] From Lydgate until the 17th or 18th century, mythology was used to mean a moral, fable, allegory or a parable, or collection of traditional stories,[46][51] understood to be false. It came eventually to be applied to similar bodies of traditional stories among other polytheistic cultures around the world.[46] Thus the word mythology entered the English language before the word myth. Johnson's Dictionary, for example, has an entry for mythology, but not for myth.[54] Indeed, the Greek loanword mythos[56] (pl. mythoi) and Latinate mythus[58] (pl. mythi) both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830.[61] Meanings in Ancient Greece The term μῦθος (mȳthos) appears in the works of Homer and other poets of Homer's era, in which the term had several meanings: 'conversation,' 'narrative,' 'speech,' 'story,' 'tale,' and 'word.'[62] Similar to the related term λόγος (logos), mythos expresses whatever can be delivered in the form of words. These can be contrasted with Greek ἔργον (ergon, 'action,' 'deed,' or 'work').[62] However, the term mythos lacks an explicit distinction between true or false narratives.[62] In the context of Ancient Greek theatre, mythos referred to the myth, narrative, plot, and the story of a play.[63] According to David Wiles, the Greek term mythos in this era covered an entire spectrum of different meanings, from undeniable falsehoods to stories with religious and symbolic significance.[63] According to philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the spirit of a theatrical play was its mythos.[63] The term mythos was also used for the source material of Greek tragedy. The tragedians of the era could draw inspiration from Greek mythology, a body of "traditional storylines" which concerned gods and heroes.[63] David Wiles observes that modern conceptions about Greek tragedy can be misleading. It is commonly thought that the ancient audience members were already familiar with the mythos behind a play, and could predict the outcome of the play. However, the Greek dramatists were not expected to faithfully reproduce traditional myths when adapting them for the stage. They were instead recreating the myths and producing new versions.[63] Storytellers like Euripides (c. 480–406 BCE) relied on suspense to excite their audiences. In one of his works, Merope attempts to kill her son's murderer with an axe, unaware that the man in question is actually her son. According to an ancient description of audience reactions to this work, the audience members were genuinely unsure of whether she would commit filicide or she will be stopped in time. They rose to their feet in terror and caused an uproar.[63] David Wiles points that the traditional mythos of Ancient Greece, was primarily a part of its oral tradition. The Greeks of this era were a literate culture but produced no sacred texts. There were no definitive or authoritative versions of myths recorded in texts and preserved forever in an unchanging form.[64] Instead multiple variants of myths were in circulation. These variants were adapted into songs, dances, poetry, and visual art. Performers of myths could freely reshape their source material for a new work, adapting it to the needs of a new audience or in response to a new situation.[64] Children in Ancient Greece were familiar with traditional myths from an early age. According to the philosopher Plato (c. 428–347 BCE), mothers and nursemaids narrated myths and stories to the children in their charge: David Wiles describes them as a repository of mythological lore.[64] Bruce Lincoln has called attention to the apparent meaning of the terms mythos and logos in the works of Hesiod. In Theogony, Hesiod attributes to the Muses the ability to both proclaim truths and narrate plausible falsehoods (i.e., falsehoods which seem like real things).[65] The verb used for narrating the falsehoods in the text is legein, which is etymologically associated with logos. There are two variants in the manuscript tradition for the verb used to proclaim truths. One variant uses gerusasthai, the other mythesasthai. The latter is a form of the verb mytheomai ('to speak,' 'to tell'), which is etymologically associated with mythos.[65] In the Works and Days, Hesiod describes his dispute with his brother Perses. He also announces to his readers his intention to tell true things to his brother. The verb he uses for telling the truth is mythesaimen, another form of mytheomai.[65] Lincoln draws the conclusion that Hesiod associated the "speech of mythos" (as Lincoln calls it) with telling the truth. While he associated the "speech of logos" with telling lies, and hiding one's true thoughts (dissimulation).[65] This conclusion is strengthened by the use of the plural term logoi (the plural form of logos) elsewhere in Hesiod's works. Three times the term is associated with the term seductive and three times with the term falsehoods.[65] In his genealogy of the gods, Hesiod lists logoi among the children of Eris, the goddess personifying strife. Eris' children are ominous figures, which personify various physical and verbal forms of conflict.[65] Interpreting myths Comparative mythology Main article: Comparative mythology Comparative mythology is a systematic comparison of myths from different cultures. It seeks to discover underlying themes that are common to the myths of multiple cultures. In some cases, comparative mythologists use the similarities between separate mythologies to argue that those mythologies have a common source. This source may inspire myths or provide a common "protomythology" that diverged into the mythologies of each culture.[66] Functionalism A number of commentators have argued that myths function to form and shape society and social behaviour. Eliade argued that one of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for behavior[67][68] and that myths may provide a religious experience. By telling or reenacting myths, members of traditional societies detach themselves from the present, returning to the mythical age, thereby coming closer to the divine.[4][68][69] Honko asserted that, in some cases, a society reenacts a myth in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of the mythical age. For example, it might reenact the healing performed by a god at the beginning of time in order to heal someone in the present.[11] Similarly, Barthes argued that modern culture explores religious experience. Since it is not the job of science to define human morality, a religious experience is an attempt to connect with a perceived moral past, which is in contrast with the technological present.[70] Pattanaik defines mythology as "the subjective truth of people communicated through stories, symbols and rituals."[71] He says, "Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody's truth. Myths are somebody's truth."[72] Euhemerism Main article: Euhemerism See also: Herodotus One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.[73][74] According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the status of gods.[73][74] For example, the myth of the wind-god Aeolus may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds.[73] Herodotus (fifth-century BCE) and Prodicus made claims of this kind.[74] This theory is named euhemerism after mythologist Euhemerus (c. 320 BCE), who suggested that Greek gods developed from legends about human beings.[74][75] Allegory Some theories propose that myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents the sun, Poseidon represents water, and so on.[74] According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite desire, and so on.[74] Müller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally and the sea was then thought of as a raging god.[76] Personification See also: Mythopoeic thought Some thinkers claimed that myths result from the personification of objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshiped natural phenomena, such as fire and air, gradually deifying them.[77] For example, according to this theory, ancients tended to view things as gods, not as mere objects.[78] Thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, giving rise to myths.[79] Myth-ritual theory See also: Myth and ritual According to the myth-ritual theory, myth is tied to ritual.[80] In its most extreme form, this theory claims myths arose to explain rituals.[81] This claim was first put forward by Smith,[82] who argued that people begin performing rituals for reasons not related to myth. Forgetting the original reason for a ritual, they account for it by inventing a myth and claiming the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth.[83] Frazer argued that humans started out with a belief in magical rituals; later, they began to lose faith in magic and invented myths about gods, reinterpreting their rituals as religious rituals intended to appease the gods.[84] History of the academic discipline Historically, important approaches to the study of mythology have included those of Vico, Schelling, Schiller, Jung, Freud, Lévy-Bruhl, Lévi-Strauss, Frye, the Soviet school, and the Myth and Ritual School.[85] Ancient Greece Myths and legends of Babylonia and Assyria (1916) The critical interpretation of myth began with the Presocratics.[86] Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events, though distorted over many retellings. Sallustius divided myths into five categories:[87] theological; physical (or concerning natural law); animistic (or concerning soul); material; and mixed, which concerns myths that show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and are particularly used in initiations. Plato famously condemned poetic myth when discussing education in the Republic. His critique was primarily on the grounds that the uneducated might take the stories of gods and heroes literally. Nevertheless, he constantly referred to myths throughout his writings. As Platonism developed in the phases commonly called Middle Platonism and neoplatonism, writers such as Plutarch, Porphyry, Proclus, Olympiodorus, and Damascius wrote explicitly about the symbolic interpretation of traditional and Orphic myths.[88] Mythological themes were consciously employed in literature, beginning with Homer. The resulting work may expressly refer to a mythological background without itself becoming part of a body of myths (Cupid and Psyche). Medieval romance in particular plays with this process of turning myth into literature. Euhemerism, as stated earlier, refers to the rationalization of myths, putting themes formerly imbued with mythological qualities into pragmatic contexts. An example of this would be following a cultural or religious paradigm shift (notably the re-interpretation of pagan mythology following Christianization). European Renaissance This panel by Bartolomeo di Giovanni relates the second half of the Metamorphoses. In the upper left, Jupiter emerges from clouds to order Mercury to rescue Io.[89][90] Interest in polytheistic mythology revived during the Renaissance, with early works of mythography appearing in the sixteenth century, among them the Theologia Mythologica (1532). Nineteenth century The first modern, Western scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the 19th century[86]—at the same time as the word myth was adopted as a scholarly term in European languages.[29][40] They were driven partly by a new interest in Europe's ancient past and vernacular culture, associated with Romantic Nationalism and epitomised by the research of Jacob Grimm (1785–1863). This movement drew European scholars' attention not only to Classical myths, but also material now associated with Norse mythology, Finnish mythology, and so forth. Western theories were also partly driven by Europeans' efforts to comprehend and control the cultures, stories and religions they were encountering through colonialism. These encounters included both extremely old texts such as the Sanskrit Rigveda and the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, and current oral narratives such as mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas or stories told in traditional African religions.[91] The intellectual context for nineteenth-century scholars was profoundly shaped by emerging ideas about evolution. These ideas included the recognition that many Eurasian languages—and therefore, conceivably, stories—were all descended from a lost common ancestor (the Indo-European language) which could rationally be reconstructed through the comparison of its descendant languages. They also included the idea that cultures might evolve in ways comparable to species.[91] In general, 19th-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete mode of thought, often by interpreting myth as the primitive counterpart of modern science within a unilineal framework that imagined that human cultures are travelling, at different speeds, along a linear path of cultural development.[92] Nature mythology One of the dominant mythological theories of the latter 19th century was nature mythology, the foremost exponents of which included Max Müller and Edward Burnett Tylor. This theory posited that "primitive man" was primarily concerned with the natural world. It tended to interpret myths that seemed distasteful to European Victorians—such as tales about sex, incest, or cannibalism—as being metaphors for natural phenomena like agricultural fertility.[93] Unable to conceive impersonal natural laws, early humans tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, thus giving rise to animism. According to Tylor, human thought evolved through stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas.[94] Müller also saw myth as originating from language, even calling myth a "disease of language." He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages. Anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were in actuality conscious beings or gods.[76] Not all scholars, not even all 19th-century scholars, accepted this view, however: Lucien Lévy-Bruhl claimed that "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind and not a stage in its historical development."[95] Recent scholarship, noting the fundamental lack of evidence for "nature mythology" interpretations among people who actually circulated myths, has likewise abandoned the key ideas of "nature mythology."[96][93] Myth and ritual James George Frazer saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law. this idea was central to the "myth and ritual" school of thought.[97] According to Frazer, humans begin with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When they realize applications of these laws do not work, they give up their belief in natural law in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature, thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally, humans come to realize nature follows natural laws, and they discover their true nature through science. Here again, science makes myth obsolete as humans progress "from magic through religion to science."[84] Segal asserted that by pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories imply modern humans must abandon myth.[98] Twentieth century Prometheus (1868) by Gustave Moreau. In the mythos of Hesiodus and possibly Aeschylus (the Greek trilogy Prometheus Bound, Prometheus Unbound and Prometheus Pyrphoros), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity. The earlier 20th century saw major work developing psychoanalytical approaches to interpreting myth, led by Sigmund Freud, who, drawing inspiration from Classical myth, began developing the concept of the Oedipus complex in his 1899 The Interpretation of Dreams. Jung likewise tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called archetypes. He believed similarities between the myths of different cultures reveals the existence of these universal archetypes.[99] The mid-20th century saw the influential development of a structuralist theory of mythology, led by Lévi-Strauss. Strauss argued that myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of opposites (good/evil, compassionate/callous), rather than unconscious feelings or urges.[100] Meanwhile, Bronislaw Malinowski developed analyses of myths focusing on their social functions in the real world. He is associated with the idea that myths such as origin stories might provide a "mythic charter"—a legitimisation—for cultural norms and social institutions.[101] Thus, following the Structuralist Era (c. 1960s–1980s), the predominant anthropological and sociological approaches to myth increasingly treated myth as a form of narrative that can be studied, interpreted, and analyzed like ideology, history, and culture. In other words, myth is a form of understanding and telling stories that are connected to power, political structures, and political and economic interests. These approaches contrast with approaches, such as those of Joseph Campbell and Eliade, which hold that myth has some type of essential connection to ultimate sacred meanings that transcend cultural specifics. In particular, myth was studied in relation to history from diverse social sciences. Most of these studies share the assumption that history and myth are not distinct in the sense that history is factual, real, accurate, and truth, while myth is the opposite. In the 1950s, Barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book Mythologies, which stood as an early work in the emerging post-structuralist approach to mythology, which recognised myths' existence in the modern world and in popular culture.[102] The 20th century saw rapid secularisation in Western culture. This made Western scholars more willing to analyse narratives in the Abrahamic religions as myths; theologians such as Rudolf Bultmann argued that a modern Christianity needed to demythologize;[103] and other religious scholars embraced the idea that the mythical status of Abrahamic narratives was a legitimate feature of their importance.[98] This, in his appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, and in The Myth of the Eternal Return, Eliade attributed modern humans’ anxieties to their rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred.[citation needed] The Christian theologian Conrad Hyers wrote:[104] [M]yth today has come to have negative connotations which are the complete opposite of its meaning in a religious context... In a religious context, however, myths are storied vehicles of supreme truth, the most basic and important truths of all. By them, people regulate and interpret their lives and find worth and purpose in their existence. Myths put one in touch with sacred realities, the fundamental sources of being, power, and truth. They are seen not only as being the opposite of error but also as being clearly distinguishable from stories told for entertainment and from the workaday, domestic, practical language of a people. They provide answers to the mysteries of being and becoming, mysteries which, as mysteries, are hidden, yet mysteries which are revealed through story and ritual. Myths deal not only with truth but with ultimate truth. Twenty-first century Both in 19th-century research, which tended to see existing records of stories and folklore as imperfect fragments of partially lost myths, and in 20th-century structuralist work, which sought to identify underlying patterns and structures in often diverse versions of a given myth, there had been a tendency to synthesise sources to attempt to reconstruct what scholars supposed to be more perfect or underlying forms of myths. From the late 20th century, however, researchers influenced by postmodernism tended instead to argue that each account of a given myth has its own cultural significance and meaning, and argued that rather than representing degradation from a once more perfect form, myths are inherently plastic and variable.[105] There is, consequently, no such thing as the 'original version' or 'original form' of a myth. One prominent example of this movement was A. K. Ramanujan's essay "Three Hundred Ramayanas".[106][107] Correspondingly, scholars challenged the precedence that had once been given to texts as a medium for mythology, arguing that other media, such as the visual arts or even landscape and place-naming, could be as or more important.[108] Modern mythology 1929 Belgian banknote, depicting Ceres, Neptune and caduceus Scholars in the field of cultural studies research how myth has worked itself into modern discourses. Mythological discourse can reach greater audiences than ever before via digital media. Various mythic elements appear in television, cinema and video games.[109] Although myth was traditionally transmitted through the oral tradition on a small scale, the film industry has enabled filmmakers to transmit myths to large audiences via film.[110] In Jungian psychology myths are the expression of a culture or society’s goals, fears, ambitions and dreams.[111] The basis of modern visual storytelling is rooted in the mythological tradition. Many contemporary films rely on ancient myths to construct narratives. The Walt Disney Company is well-known among cultural study scholars for "reinventing" traditional childhood myths.[112] While many films are not as obvious as Disney fairy tales, the plots of many films are based on the rough structure of myths. Mythological archetypes, such as the cautionary tale regarding the abuse of technology, battles between gods and creation stories, are often the subject of major film productions. These films are often created under the guise of cyberpunk action films, fantasy, dramas and apocalyptic tales.[113] 21st-century films such as Clash of the Titans, Immortals and Thor continue the trend of mining traditional mythology to frame modern plots. Authors use mythology as a basis for their books, such as Rick Riordan, whose Percy Jackson and the Olympians series is situated in a modern-day world where the Greek deities are manifest.[114] See also Myths portal List of mythologies List of mythological objects List of mythology books and sources Magic and mythology Mythopoeia, artificially constructed mythology, mainly for the purpose of storytelling Notes ^ a b c d e f g Bascom 1965, p. 9. ^ a b c d Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud, eds. 2003. "Myths." In A Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191726644. ^ a b Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1975). Hindu Myths. Penguin. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-14-044306-6. I think it can be well argued as a matter of principle that, just as 'biography is about chaps', so mythology is about gods. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 23. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, p. 102. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPettazzoni1984 (help) ^ Dundes 1984, p. 1. ^ a b Eliade 1998, p. 6. ^ "myth | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2021. ^ Von Franz, M. L. (2017). The interpretation of fairy tales: Revised edition. London: Shambhala Publications. ^ David Leeming (2005). "Preface". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0. ^ a b Honko, Lauri (1984). "The Problem of Defining Myth". In Dundes, Alan (ed.). Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. University of California Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780520051928. ^ Dundes 1984, p. 147. ^ Doty 2004, pp. 11–12. ^ Segal 2015, p. 5. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 57. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKirk1984 (help) ^ Kirk 1973, p. 74. ^ Apollodorus 1976, p. 3. ^ "myth". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1993. p. 770. ^ Salamon, Hagar; Goldberg, Harvey E. (2012). "Myth-Ritual-Symbol". In Bendix, Regina F.; Hasan-Rokem, Galit (eds.). A Companion to Folklore. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 125. ISBN 9781405194990. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 7. ^ Bascom 1965, pp. 9, 17. ^ Eliade 1998, pp. 10–11. ^ Pettazzoni 1984, pp. 99–101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPettazzoni1984 (help) ^ Kirk 1973, pp. 22, 32. ^ Kirk 1984, p. 55. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKirk1984 (help) ^ Doty 2004, p. 114. ^ Bascom 1965, p. 13. ^ "romance | literature and performance". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 November 2017. ^ a b c "Myth." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020. § 2. ^ Howells, Richard (1999). The Myth of the Titanic. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-22148-5. ^ Eliade, Mircea. 1967. Myths, Dreams and Mysteries. pp. 23, 162. ^ Winzeler, Robert L. 2012. Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Think, and Question. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 105–06. ^ Kirk 1973, p. 8. ^ a b Grassie, William (March 1998). "Science as Epic? Can the modern evolutionary cosmology be a mythic story for our time?". Science & Spirit. 9 (1). The word 'myth' is popularly understood to mean idle fancy, fiction, or falsehood; but there is another meaning of the word in academic discourse... Using the original Greek term mythos is perhaps a better way to distinguish this more positive and all-encompassing definition of the word. ^ Lincoln, Bruce (2006). "An Early Moment in the Discourse of "Terrorism": Reflections on a Tale from Marco Polo". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 48 (2): 242–59. doi:10.1017/s0010417506000107. JSTOR 3879351. More precisely, mythic discourse deals in master categories that have multiple referents: levels of the cosmos, terrestrial geographies, plant and animal species, logical categories, and the like. Their plots serve to organize the relations among these categories and to justify a hierarchy among them, establishing the rightness (or at least the necessity) of a world in which heaven is above the earth, the lion the king of beasts, the cooked more pleasing than the raw. ^ "Mythography." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020. ^ Chance, Jane. 1994–2000. Medieval Mythography, 2 vols. Gainesville. ^ Horton, Katie (3 August 2015). "Dr. Snodgrass editor of new blog series: Bioculturalism". Colorado State University. Retrieved 28 October 2020. ^ Snodgrass, Jeffrey G. (2004). "Hail to the Chief?: The Politics and Poetics of a Rajasthani 'Child Sacrifice'". Culture and Religion. 5 (1): 71–104. doi:10.1080/0143830042000200364. ISSN 1475-5629. OCLC 54683133. ^ a b c "mythos, n." 2003. In Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ "Mythopoeia." Lexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 31 May 2020. ^ See also: Mythopoeia (poem); cf. Tolkien, J. R. R. [1964] 2001. Tree and Leaf; Mythopoeia; The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-710504-5. ^ "myth | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 January 2021. ^ "-logy, comb. form." In Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1903. ^ Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades (1971). Fulgentius the Mythographer. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-0162-6. ^ a b c "mythology, n.." Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003. Accessed 20 Aug 2014. ^ Lydgate, John. Troyyes Book, Vol. II, ll. 2487. (in Middle English) Reprinted in Henry Bergen's Lydgate's Troy Book, Vol. I, p. 216. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, & Co. (London), 1906. Accessed 20 Aug 2014. ^ "...I [ Paris ] was ravisched in-to paradys. "And Þus Þis god [sc. Mercury], diuers of liknes, "More wonderful Þan I can expresse, "Schewed hym silf in his appearance, "Liche as he is discriued in Fulgence, "In Þe book of his methologies..."[47] ^ Harper, Douglas. 2020. "Mythology." Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Browne, Thomas. Pseudodoxia Epidemica: or, Enquiries into Many Received Tenets and Commonly Presumed Truths, Vol. I, Ch. VIII. Edward Dod (London), 1646. Reprinted 1672. ^ All which [sc. John Mandevil's support of Ctesias's claims] may still be received in some acceptions of morality, and to a pregnant invention, may afford commendable mythologie; but in a natural and proper exposition, it containeth impossibilities, and things inconsistent with truth.[50] ^ Johnson, Samuel. "Mythology" in A Dictionary of the English Language: In which the Words are Deduced from their Originals, and Illustrated in their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers to which are Prefixed a History of the Language and an English Grammar, p. 1345. W. Strahan (London), 1755. ^ Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English Language, p. 1345. W. Strahan (London), 1755. Accessed 20 Aug 2014. ^ Johnson's Dictionary, for example, has entries for mythology,[52] mythologist, mythologize, mythological, and mythologically [53] ^ Shuckford, Samuel. The Creation and Fall of Man. A Supplemental Discourse to the Preface of the First Volume of the Sacred and Profane History of the World Connected, pp. xx–xxi. J. & R. Tonson & S. Draper (London), 1753. Accessed 20 Aug 2014. ^ "That Mythology came in upon this Alteration of their [Egyptians' Theology, is obviouſly evident: for the mingling the Hiſtory of theſe Men when Mortals, with what came to be aſcribed to them when Gods, would naturally occaſion it. And of this Sort we generally find the Mythoi told of them..."[55] ^ Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "On the Prometheus of Æschylus: An Essay, preparatory to a series of disquisitions respecting the Egyptian, in connection with the sacerdotal, theology, and in contrast with the mysteries of ancient Greece." Royal Society of Literature (London), 18 May 1825. Reprinted in Coleridge, Henry Nelson (1836). The Literary Remains of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Shakespeare, with an introductory matter on poetry, the drama, and the stage. Notes on Ben Jonson; Beaumont and Fletcher; On the Prometheus of Æschylus [and others. W. Pickering. pp. 335–. ^ "Long before the entire separation of metaphysics from poetry, that is, while yet poesy, in all its several species of verse, music, statuary, &c. continued mythic;—while yet poetry remained the union of the sensuous and the philosophic mind;—the efficient presence of the latter in the synthesis of the two, had manifested itself in the sublime mythus περὶ γενέσεως τοῦ νοῦ ἐν ἀνθρωποῖς concerning the genesis, or the birth of the νοῦς or reason in man."[57] ^ Abraham of Hekel (1651). "Historia Arabum(History of the Arabs)". Chronicon orientale, nunc primum Latinitate donatum ab Abrahamo Ecchellensi Syro Maronita e Libano, linguarum Syriacae, ... cui accessit eiusdem Supplementum historiae orientalis (The Oriental Chronicles. e Typographia regia. pp. 175–. (in Latin) Translated in paraphrase in Blackwell, Thomas (1748). "Letter Seventeenth". Letters Concerning Mythology. printed in the year. pp. 269–. ^ Anonymous review of Upham, Edward (1829). The History and Doctrine of Budhism: Popularly Illustrated: with Notices of the Kappooism, Or Demon Worship, and of the Bali, Or Planetary Incantations, of Ceylon. R. Ackermann. In the Westminster Review, No. XXIII, Art. III, p. 44. Rob't Heward (London), 1829. Accessed 20 Aug 2014. ^ "According to the rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, Enos, discoursing on the splendor of the heavenly bodies, insisted that, since God had thus exalted them above the other parts of creation, it was but reasonable that we should praise, extol, and honour them. The consequence of this exhortation, says the rabbi, was the building of temples to the stars, and the establishment of idolatry throughout the world. By the Arabian divines, however, the imputation is laid upon the patriarch Abraham; who, they say, on coming out from the dark cave in which he had been brought up, was so astonished at the sight of the stars, that he worshipped Hesperus, the Moon, and the Sun successively as they rose.[59] These two stories are good illustrations of the origin of myths, by means of which, even the most natural sentiment is traced to its cause in the circumstances of fabulous history.[60] ^ a b c Anderson (2004), p. 61 ^ a b c d e f Wiles (2000), pp. 5–6 ^ a b c Wiles (2000), p. 12 ^ a b c d e f Lincoln (1999), pp. 3–5 ^ Littleton 1973, p. 32. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 8. ^ a b Honko 1984, p. 51. ^ Eliade 1998, p. 19. ^ Barthes 1972. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarthes1972 (help) ^ Sinha, Namya (4 July 2016). "No society can exist without myth, says Devdutt Pattanaik". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 April 2020. ^ Shaikh, Jamal (8 July 2018). "Interview: Devdutt Pattanaik" Facts are everybody's truth. Fiction is nobody's truth. Myths are somebody's truth"". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 April 2020. ^ a b c Bulfinch 2004, p. 194. ^ a b c d e f Honko 1984, p. 45. ^ "Euhemerism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 20. ^ Bulfinch 2004, p. 195. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. 4. ^ Frankfort et al. 2013, p. 15. ^ Segal 2015, p. 61. ^ Graf 1996, p. 40. ^ Meletinsky 2014, pp. 19–20. ^ Segal 2015, p. 63. ^ a b Frazer 1913, p. 711. ^ Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p. viii. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 1. ^ "On the Gods and the World." ch. 5; See: Collected Writings on the Gods and the World. Frome: The Prometheus Trust. 1995. ^ Perhaps the most extended passage of philosophic interpretation of myth is to be found in the fifth and sixth essays of Proclus’ Commentary on the Republic (to be found in The Works of Plato I, trans. Thomas Taylor, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1996); Porphyry’s analysis of the Homeric Cave of the Nymphs is another important work in this area (Select Works of Porphyry, Thomas Taylor The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1994). See the external links below for a full English translation. ^ "The Myth of Io". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2015. ^ For more information on this panel, please see Zeri catalogue number 64, pp. 100–101 ^ a b Shippey, Tom. 2005. "A Revolution Reconsidered: Mythography and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century." Pp. 1–28 in The Shadow-Walkers: Jacob Grimm’s Mythology of the Monstrous, edited by T. Shippey. Tempe, AZ: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. pp. 4–13. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 3–4. ^ a b McKinnell, John. 2005. Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend. Cambridge: Brewer. pp. 14-15. ^ Segal 2015, p. 4. ^ Mâche, Francois-Bernard (1992). Music, Myth and Nature, or The Dolphins of Arion. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-7186-5321-8. ^ Dorson, Richard M. 1955. "The Eclipse of Solar Mythology." Pp. 25–63 in Myth: A Symposium, edited by T. A. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ^ Segal 2015, pp. 67–68. ^ a b Segal 2015, p. 3. ^ Boeree. ^ Segal 2015, p. 113. ^ Birenbaum, Harvey. 1988. Myth and Mind. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. pp. 152–53. ^ Barthes, Roland (1972). Mythologies. Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-09-997220-4. ^ Bultmann, Rudolf. 1958. Jesus Christ and Mythology. New York: Scribner. ^ Hyers 1984, p. 107. ^ For example: McKinnell, John. 1994. Both One and Many: Essays on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism, (Philologia: saggi, ricerche, edizioni 1, edited by T. Pàroli). Rome. ^ Ramanujan, A. K. 1991. "Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation." Pp. 22–48 in Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia, edited by P. Richman. Berkeley: University of California Press. ark:13030/ft3j49n8h7/ ^ Ramanujan, A. K. [1991] 2004. "Three Hundred Rāmāyaṇas." Pp. 131–60 in The Collected Essays of A. K. Ramanujan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-566896-4. ^ For example: Dowden, Ken. 1992. The Uses of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge. ^ Ostenson, Jonathan (2013). "Exploring the Boundaries of Narrative: Video Games in the English Classroom" (PDF). www2.ncte.org/. ^ Singer, Irving (2008). Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film. MIT Press. pp. 3–6. ^ Indick, William (2004). "Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero". Journal of Media Psychology. ^ Koven, Michael (2003). Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey. University of Illinois Press. pp. 176–195. ^ Corner 1999, pp. 47–59. ^ Mead, Rebecca (22 October 2014). "The Percy Jackson Problem". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 6 November 2017. References Anderson, Albert A. (2004), "Mythos, Logos, and Telos: How to Regain the Love of Wisdom", in Anderson, Albert A.; Hicks, Steven V.; Witkowski, Lech (eds.), Mythos and Logos: How to Regain the Love of Wisdom, Rodopi, ISBN 978-90-420-1020-8 Apollodorus (1976). "Introduction". Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus. Translated by Simpson, Michael. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-0-87023-206-0. Armstrong, Karen (2010). A Short History of Myth (Myths series). Knopf Canada. ISBN 978-0-307-36729-7. Barthes, Roland (1972). Mythologies. Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-7193-7. Bascom, William Russell (1965). The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives. University of California. Bowker, John (2005). "Euhemerism". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861053-3. Bulfinch, Thomas (2004). Bulfinch's Mythology. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4191-1109-9. Corner, John (1999). Critical Ideas in Television Studies. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-874221-0. Doniger, Wendy (2004). Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-190375-0. Doty, William G. (2004). Myth: A Handbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32696-7. Downing, Christine (1996). The Goddess: Mythological Images of the Feminine. Continuum. Dundes, Alan (1996). "Madness in Method Plus a Plea for Projective Inversion in Myth". In L. L. Patton and W. Doniger (ed.). Myth and Method. University of Virginia Press. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-0-8139-1657-6. — (1997). "Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Levi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect." Western Folklore 56(Winter):39–50. —, ed. (1984). Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05192-8. Honko, Lauri. "The Problem of Defining Myth." Kirk, G. S. "On Defining Myths." Pp. 53–61. Pettazzoni, Raffaele. "The Truth of Myth." Lincoln, Bruce (1999), "The Prehistory of Mythos and Logos", Theorizing Myth: Narrative, Ideology, and Scholarship, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-48202-6 Eliade, Mircea (1960). Myths, dreams, and mysteries: the encounter between contemporary faiths and archaic realities. Translated by Mairet, Philip. Harvill Press. ISBN 978-0-06-131320-2. — (1998). Myth and Reality. Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-0861-5. Fabiani, Paolo "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P. (Florence UP), English edition 2009. PDF Frankfort, Henri; Frankfort, H.A.; Wilson, John A.; Jacobsen, Thorkild; Irwin, William A. (2013). The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay of Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11256-5. Frazer, Sir James George (1913). The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. Macmillan and Company, limited. pp. 10–. Graf, Fritz (1996). Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Translated by Marier, Thomas. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5395-1. Humphrey, Sheryl (2012). The Haunted Garden: Death and Transfiguration in the Folklore of Plants. New York: DCA Art Fund Grant from the Council on the Arts and Humanities for Staten Island and public funding from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs. ISBN 978-1-300-55364-9. Hyers, Conradl (1984). The Meaning of Creation: Genesis and Modern Science. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-8042-0125-4. Indick, William (2004). "Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero". Journal of Media Psychology. 9 (3): 93–95. Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1973). Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02389-5. Koven, Mikel J. (22 May 2003). "Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey". Journal of American Folklore. 116 (460): 176–195. doi:10.1353/jaf.2003.0027. ISSN 1535-1882. S2CID 163091590. Leonard, Scott (August 2007). "The History of Mythology: Part I". Youngstown State University. Retrieved 17 November 2009. Littleton, C. Scott (1973). The New Comparative Mythology: An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumézil. University of California Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-520-02404-5. Matira, Lopamundra (2008). "Children's Oral Literature and Modern Mass Media". Indian Folklore Research Journal. 5 (8): 55–57. Meletinsky, Eleazar M. (2014). The Poetics of Myth. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-59913-3. Olson, Eric L. (May 3, 2011). "Great Expectations: the Role of Myth in 1980s Films with Child Heroes". Virginia Polytechnic Scholarly Library. Virginia Polytechnic Institute And State University. hdl:10919/32929. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 19, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2020. "Myth". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. 21 March 2009. Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud, eds. 2003. "Myths." In A Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191726644. "Basque Mythology." Public Reading Network of the Basque Country. 2018. Northup, Lesley (2006). "Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth." Religious Studies Review 32(1):5–10. doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2006.00018.x. ISSN 1748-0922. Segal, Robert (2015). Myth: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-19-103769-6. Singer, Irving (2010). Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film. MIT Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-262-26484-6. Slattery, Dennis Patrick (2015). Bridge Work: Essays on Mythology, Literature and Psychology. Carpinteria: Mandorla Books. Wiles, David (2000), "Myth", Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64857-8 External links Look up myth or mythology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiversity has learning resources about School:Comparative Mythology Wikimedia Commons has media related to Myths. v t e Folklore genres, types, and subtypes Narrative Animal tale Fable Fairytale/Märchen Legend (Urban legend) Oral tradition Personal narrative Verbal arts Folk etymology Joke Rhyme (Nursery rhyme) Proverb Riddle Saying Word game Foodways Recipe Religion and folk belief Folk religion Myth Old wives' tale Ritual (Legend tripping) Folk music Folk song Folk instrument Art Folk art Outsider art Calendar Holiday Other Ghostlore See also Folklore studies Morphology (folkloristics) Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index Motif-Index of Folk-Literature Storytelling Tradition Authority control GND: 4075159-4 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myth&oldid=1003826226#Mythography" Categories: Myths Mythography Mythology Greek words and phrases Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with Middle English-language sources (enm) Articles with Latin-language sources (la) Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2017 Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from January 2021 All articles needing rewrite Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans Akan العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Ladin Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Rumantsch Русский Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Татарча/tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Українська اردو West-Vlams 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 21:46 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9795	----	Acropolis - Wikipedia Acropolis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Acropolis (disambiguation). See also: Acropolis of Athens Defensive settlement built on high ground The Acropolis of Athens An acropolis (Ancient Greek: ἀκρόπολις, akropolis; from akros (άκρος) or akron (άκρον), "highest, topmost, outermost" and polis (πόλις), "city"; plural in English: acropoles, acropoleis or acropolises)[1] was an ancient Greek settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground—frequently a hill with precipitous sides, chosen for purposes of defense.[2] Acropolises also had a function of a religious sanctuary with sacred springs highlighting its religious significance.[3] Acropolises became the nuclei of large cities of classical antiquity, such as ancient Athens, and for this reason they are sometimes prominent landmarks in modern cities with ancient pasts, such as modern Athens. One well-known acropolis is the Acropolis of Athens, located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and containing the Parthenon. Contents 1 Use in antiquity 2 Metaphorical use in modern times 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Use in antiquity[edit] View of the Acropolis of Pergamon in the background, as seen from Via Tecta at the entrance to the Asclepeion. Acropolis of Assos The word acropolis literally means in Greek "upper city," and though associated primarily with the Greek cities Athens, Argos (with Larissa), Thebes (with Cadmea), and Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels, including Rome, Carthage, Jerusalem, Celtic Bratislava, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Rock in Edinburgh. An example in Ireland is the Rock of Cashel. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists and historians for the urban Castro culture settlements located in Northwestern Iberian hilltops. The most famous example is the Acropolis of Athens,[4] which, by reason of its historical associations and the several famous buildings erected upon it (most notably the Parthenon), is known without qualification as the Acropolis. The Acropolis of Athens achieved its form in the fifth century BC and is currently an archeological site.[3] Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Period Metaphorical use in modern times[edit] Because of its classical Hellenistic style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called the "American Acropolis".[5] Other parts of the world developed other names for the high citadel or alcázar, which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central Italy, many small rural communes still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as la Rocca of the commune. The term acropolis is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and Copán. See also[edit] Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos Asklepieion of Athens Idjang References[edit] ^ acropolis, akros, akron. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. ^ "acropolis – Definition of acropolis in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries – English. ^ a b Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 4. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Acropolis, Athens". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. ^ Davis, Erik (2006). The visionary state : a journey through California's spiritual landscape. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 20. ISBN 0811848353. External links[edit] Media related to Acropolis at Wikimedia Commons The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website) The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website) UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens Acropolis Museum The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture web site) Acropolis: description, photo album The Acropolis: A Walk Through History v t e Ancient Greece Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Crete Cyrenaica Cyprus Doris Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Peloponnesus Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Ephesus Miletus Pergamon Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Thebes Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Cyrene Alexandria Antioch Lissus (Crete) Kingdoms Epirus (ancient 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on 5 February 2021, at 13:58 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9801	----	Cypselus - Wikipedia Cypselus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Tyrant of Corinth Cypselus Tyrant of Corinth Reign 657–627 BC Predecessor Bacchiadae Successor Periander Born prior to 670 BC Corinth Died 627 BC Corinth Consort Cratea Issue Periander Gorgus Greek Κύψελος House Cypselid Father Eëtion Mother Labda Religion Greek polytheism Cypselus (Greek: Κύψελος, Kypselos) was the first tyrant of Corinth in the 7th century BC. With increased wealth and more complicated trade relations and social structures, Greek city-states tended to overthrow their traditional hereditary priest-kings; Corinth, the richest archaic polis, led the way.[1] Like the signori of late medieval and Renaissance Italy, the tyrants usually seized power at the head of some popular support. Often the tyrants upheld existing laws and customs and were highly conservative as to cult practices, thus maintaining stability with little risk to their own personal security. As in Renaissance Italy, a cult of personality naturally substituted for the divine right of the former legitimate royal house. After the last traditional king of Corinth, Telestes, was assassinated by Arieus and Perantas, there were no more kings; instead prytanes taken from the former royal house of the Bacchiadae ruled for a single year each. Cypselus, the son of Eëtion and a disfigured woman named Labda, who was a member of the Bacchiad family, the ruling dynasty, usurped power, became tyrant and expelled the Bacchiadae. According to Herodotus the Bacchiadae heard two prophecies from the Delphic oracle that the son of Eëtion would overthrow their dynasty, and they planned to kill the baby once it was born; however, Herodotus says that the newborn smiled at each of the men sent to kill it, and none of them could go through with the plan. An etiological myth-element, to account for the name Cypselus (cf. κυψέλη, kypsele, "chest") accounted how Labda then hid the baby in a chest, and when the men had composed themselves and returned to kill it, they could not find it. (Compare the infancy of Perseus.) The cedar chest of Cypselus, richly worked with mythological narratives and adorned with ivory and gold, was a votive offering at Olympia, where Pausanias gave it a detailed description in his 2nd century AD travel guide.[2] When Cypselus had grown up, he fulfilled the prophecy. Corinth had been involved in wars with Argos and Corcyra, and the Corinthians were unhappy with their rulers. At the time, around 657 BC, Cypselus was polemarch, the archon in charge of the military, and he used his influence with the soldiery to expel the Bacchiadae. He also expelled his other enemies, but allowed them to set up colonies in northwestern Greece. He also increased trade with the colonies in Italy and Sicily. He ruled for thirty years and in 627 BC was succeeded as tyrant by his son Periander, who was considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece. The treasury Cypselus built at Delphi was apparently still standing in the time of Herodotus. Cypselus' second son Gorgus became tyrant of the Corinthian colony Ambracia, followed after his death by his son Periander of Ambracia. Another known Cypselid from Ambracia was named Archinus, whose wife later married Periander of Athens.[3] While some consider him a tyrant as well,[4] the sources aren't definite about that, and there is no reason to believe Ambracia had any Cypselid tyrants other than the aforementioned two.[5] Cypselus' other grandson by Gorgus was Psammetich, who followed the sage Periander as the last tyrant of Corinth. Notes[edit] ^ J. B. Salmon, Wealthy Corinth. A History of the City to 338 B.C. (Oxford: Clarendon Press) 1984. ^ Pausanias, 5.18.7. ^ http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekTexts&getid=1&query=Arist.%20Ath.%20Pol.%2017.4 ^ https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/timonassa-e1214990?s.num=12&s.au=%22Kinzl%2C+Konrad%22 ^ L. G. Pechatnova, A History of Sparta (Archaic and Classic Periods) External links[edit] Mary McHugh, Brief biography of Cypselus v t e Rulers of Ancient Corinth Heleidae Aeëtes Bounos Epopeus Corinthus Polybus Creon Jason Sisyphidae Sisyphus Glaucus Bellerophon Ornytion Thoas Damophon Propodas two kings at the same time Doridas and Hyanthidas Heracleidae Aletidae Aletes Ixion Agelas I Prymnes Bacchiadae Bacchis Agelas II Eudaemus Aristomedes Agemon Alexander Telestes Automenes Pritanius Cypselid tyrants Cypselus I Periander Psammetichus (Cypselus II) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cypselus&oldid=996000398" Categories: 627 BC deaths Ancient Corinthians Ancient Greek rulers 7th-century BC Greek people Archaic tyrants Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Year of birth unknown Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2020, at 00:26 (UTC). 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en-wikipedia-org-9796	----	Delphi - Wikipedia Delphi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Archaeological site and town in Greece Delphi Δελφοί The Athena temple complex, including the Delphic Tholos, photographed from Route 48 just above it. The background is the Pleistos River Valley. The view is looking upstream. Delphi Shown within Greece Location Phocis, Greece Coordinates 38°28′56″N 22°30′05″E / 38.4823°N 22.5013°E / 38.4823; 22.5013Coordinates: 38°28′56″N 22°30′05″E / 38.4823°N 22.5013°E / 38.4823; 22.5013 Type Ruins of an ancient sacred precinct Height Top of a scarp 500 metres (1,600 ft) maximum off the valley floor History Cultures Ancient Greece Site notes Archaeologists French School at Athens Ownership Hellenic Republic Management Ministry of Culture and Sports Public access Accessible for a fee Website E. Partida (2012). "Delphi". Odysseus. Ministry of Culture and Sports, Hellenic Republic. UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Archaeological Site of Delphi Type Cultural Criteria i, ii, iii, iv and vi Designated 1987 (12th session) Reference no. 393 State Party Greece Region Europe Delphi among the main Greek sanctuaries For other uses, see Delphi (disambiguation). Delphi (/ˈdɛlfaɪ, ˈdɛlfi/; Greek: Δελφοί [ðelˈfi]),[a] in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The oracle was international in character and also fostered sentiments of Greek nationality, even though the nation of Greece was centuries away from realization. The ancient Greeks considered the centre of the world to be in Delphi, marked by the stone monument known as the omphalos (navel). The sacred precinct was in the region of Phocis, but its management had been taken away from the Phocians, who were trying to extort money from its visitors, and had been placed in the hands of an amphictyony, or committee of persons chosen mainly from Central Greece. According to Suda, the Delphi took its name from the Delphyne, the dragon who lived there and was killed by the god Apollo (in other accounts the serpent was called Python).[4][5] The sacred precinct occupies a delineated region on the south-western slope of Mount Parnassus. It is now an extensive archaeological site. Adjacent to the sacred precinct is a small modern town of the same name. The precinct is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in having had a great influence in the ancient world, as evidenced by the various monuments built there by most of the important ancient Greek city-states, demonstrating their fundamental Hellenic unity. It would be impossible to remove the influence of the Delphic oracle from the written history of the times. Contents 1 Geography of the sacred precinct 2 Geology of the Pleistos valley system 2.1 Hellenic orogeny 2.2 Pleistos rift valley 3 Topography of the Pleistos valley 4 Archaeology of the precinct 4.1 The end of Delphi 4.2 Excavation 4.3 Delphi Archaeological Museum 5 Architecture of the precinct 5.1 Temple of Apollo 5.2 Treasuries 5.3 Altar of the Chians 5.4 Stoa of the Athenians 5.5 Sibyl rock 5.6 Theatre 5.7 Tholos 5.8 Gymnasium 5.9 Stadium 5.10 Hippodrome 5.11 Polygonal wall 5.12 Castalian spring 5.13 Athletic statues 6 Myths regarding the origin of the precinct 7 Oracle of Delphi 7.1 The prophetic process 7.2 Religious significance of the oracle 8 History 8.1 Ancient Delphi 8.2 Amphictyonic Council 8.3 The sacred precinct in the Iron Age 8.4 Abandonment and rediscovery 9 Depiction in art 10 Description in literature 11 Gallery 12 See also 13 Footnotes 14 Citations 15 Citation references 16 Further reading 16.1 5th-century evidence 17 External links Geography of the sacred precinct[edit] Pleistos Valley at its upper end, east of Arachova. Pleistos Valley at its lower end, west of Delphi, near Crissa. The trees are olive, the economic staple of the region. Mount Kirphis appears in the background. The two Delphis, old and new, are located on Greek National Road 48 between Amfissa in the west and Livadeia, capital of Voiotia, in the east. The road follows the northern slope of a pass between Mount Parnassus on the north and the mountains of the Desfina Peninsula on the south. The peninsula, triangular in shape, juts into the Gulf of Corinth. The pass is entirely one river valley, that of the river Pleistos, running from east to west, forming a natural boundary across the north of the Desfina Peninsula, and providing an easy route across it. Today, because of human use of the water, the river is not much of a stream. Being intermittent along its entire length it is scarcely visible from above.[b] On the east side the valley joins the north-south valley leading from Davleia to Distomo, both good-sized towns. South of Distomo the valley intersects the Bay of Antikyra, which offers no port at that location. The site is known as Paralia Distomou, "the beach of Distomo," and is a real estate development. Antikyra, the major port of Phocis, is a little down the coast of the peninsula. On the west side the valley joins the north-south valley between Amfissa and Itea. The valley dead-ends at Amphissa. This city is more important today because a route to the Aegean side of Greece has been pushed through the mountain passes. These now strategic locations were the scenes of heavy fighting and reprisals during World War Two. On the north side of the valley junction a spur of Parnassus looming over the valley made narrower by it is the site of ancient Krisa, which once was the ruling power of the entire valley system. Both Amphissa and Krissa are mentioned in the Iliad's Catalogue of Ships.[6] It was a Mycenaean stronghold. Archaeological dates of the valley go back to the Early Helladic. Krisa itself is Middle Helladic.[7] These early dates are comparable to the earliest dates at Delphi, suggesting Delphi was appropriated and transformed by Phocians from ancient Krisa. It is believed that the ruins of Kirra, now part of the port of Itea, were the port of Krisa of the same name as it, and that etymologically Kirra comes from Krisa.[8] In Mycenaean times Krissa was a major Greek land and sea power, perhaps one of the first in Greece, if the Early Helladic date of Kirra is to be believed.[9] The ancient sources indicate that the previous name of the Gulf of Corinth was the "Krisaean Gulf."[10] Like Krisa, Corinth was a Dorian state, and Gulf of Corinth was a Dorian lake, so to speak, especially since the migration of Dorians into the Peloponnesus starting about 1000 BC. Krisa's power was broken finally by the recovered Aeolic and Attic-Ionic speaking states of southern Greece over the issue of access to Delphi. Control of it was assumed by the Amphictyonic League, an organization of states with an interest in Delphi, in the early classical period. Krisa was destroyed for its arrogance. The gulf was given Corinth's name. Corinth by then was like the Ionic states: ornate and innovative, not like the spartan style of the Doric. The Pleistos, or Plistos, enters the Gulf of Itea undramatically through a culvert of the coastal road on the east side of Cirra. A stream a few inches deep leaves the culvert to cross a small delta, geologically of antique origin. This stream is alternately labelled the Pleistos or the Cirra River. On the other side of the road it comes from a wetland passing by St. John's Church. The wetland originates further north from a ravine in Mount Cirphis, but it does not receive any waters above ground from the flow of Pleistos. A few yards to the west of the culvert is another culvert under the same road, but without a delta. Its water comes from an apparent ditch beside the Itea Peripheral Road. Northward this ditch leaves the road and becomes a controlled channel through the olive groves. Along it are private farmhouses and footbridges. The channel is continuous with the stream in the Pleistos Valley. The visible bed is usually empty. If Pleistos means "full" as some say it does, the use must be an irony, as the river is usually "empty." Apparently the hydrologic channels were altered in the management of the groves. They cover the entire non-urban areas of the valley system and are called locally "the sea of olives." The stream with the braided delta must represent the more ancient stream, the original Pleistos. During the reconfiguration of the hydrology, the Pleistos was disconnected from its wetlands and forced to irrigate olive trees. The climate is semi-arid. The wetlands then became the Cirra. A similar nomenclature discrepancy exists on the west side of the valley. The Skitsa River erodes the Amfissa Valley and then courses in a straight, controlled channel to the gulf at Itea, irrigating the west side of the valley. The sources say that it also was formerly named the Plistos, implying that the same Plistos river drained both valleys before different channels were dredged. The upper Pleistos River in its valley, seen from the north slopes. The Pleistos Ravine is at the bottom of a cross-gradient. The upper Pleistos follows the base of Mount Cirphis. There is a gradient across the valley, the high side being on the north. The low side is called by some "the Pleistos ravine." It is joined by a single stream resulting from the merger of the Delphi springs, but does not originate there. The source is a ravine under Arachova, a mountain city on Route 48. The upper Pleistos and its valley are protected: no industrial artefacts are to be seen from Delphi (for example high voltage power lines and the like are routed so as to be invisible from the area of the sanctuary). The stream has been left in its original bed, visible as tracks of bare limestone. A hiking trail on the footprint of the original access road begins on the docks at Cirra, procedes straight up the valley to the upper Pleistos, follows it to the springs, and ascends their stream to the Castalian Spring. The hike takes 3-4 hours. Most visitors take the bus along Route 48. The road at the spring includes a bus park. Geology of the Pleistos valley system[edit] The Pleistos Valley is an outcome of two main standard movements of the crust: the orogeny of Parnassus and the other mountains of Greece, termed the Hellenides, and back-arc extension, a southward-directed movement of the Peloponnesus and Aegean islands. Hellenic orogeny[edit] Graphic summary of the orogenic cycle Orogeny today is considered the result of plate collision. In the theory of continental drift, the surface of the Earth is divided by mid-ocean ridges and oceanic trenches into plates, or "tectonic plates,"[c] which "drift" over the Earth and collide, as though the dense base rock were an ocean and the lighter plates with continents upon them were adrift. The idea of rock drifting over rock impeded the acceptance of continental drift, proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, until the data gethered in the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58 confirmed it. The apparent physical problem was reconciled through a study of the solid-state properties of rock. It is deformable, and the hotter it gets, the more it deforms. Over geologic time the sum of very small deformations under steady pressure gives the impression of a flow. The forces deforming the continental plates across the globe are found in the Earth's mantle, which has a liquid inner portion termed the asthenosphere and an outer, solid but deformable portion, the lithosphere. The liquid arranges itself by density, heaviest on the bottom, but there is a rising temperature gradient from outer to inner. The hot rock becoming less dense rises in plumes. When one reaches the surface it spreads out, forcing the lithosphere apart. New plate is extruded as lava fills the gap. On the other side of the plate the now cooler material dives down, or is subducted, beneath the adjacent plate.[11] Orogenies, therefore, are a result of either divergent boundaries, in which divergence thins and weakens the lithosphere allowing magma to escape, building a chain of volcanoes (Ring of Fire or mid-ocean ridge configuration), or convergent boundaries. In the latter one plate is subducted under another, raising its margin into a mountain chain. The Alpides The Hellenic orogeny is part of a 15,000 km (9,300 mi) zone of convergence called the Alpide belt. If one can imagine the Eurasian Plate as an anvil, a number of other plates hammer against it from the south. The African plate moving northward closes Tethys ocean, the much vaster ancestress of the Mediterranean Sea, and raises the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the mountains of the Balkans. Further east, the Arabian Plate and the Indian Plate raise the Caucasus Mountains and Himalayas. The zone extends as far as Java and Sumatra.[12][d] That part of the zone relevant to Greece, or Hellas, is the alpine orogeny, accounting for the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, and their continuation into Greece.[e] The terms, Dinarides and Hellenides, are in use in geology. The -ides suffix was the innovation of Eduard Suess, author of Das Antlitz der Erde ("The Face of the Earth"), and contemporary of Wegener. The prevalent view of orogeny at the time was the geosynclinal. By the late 19th century movements of the crust during earthquakes had been systematized into tangential and radial with respect to the Earth.[13] Geosynclinal theorists asserted that the cause of the movements was the cooling and contracting of the Earth, causing major wrinkles in the surface.[f] A wrinkle is a syncline, in which the sides "lean together," joining at the bottom, flanked by anticlines, in which they "lean apart." James Dana and James Hall proposed the prefix "geo-." The simplest ideal geosyncline, or geosynclinal, is an original central, or "inner," depression, flanked by "outer" geanticlines on the margins. The latter erode into the center, creating a mass that floats upward by isostasy. It is the "hinterland," while the margins are the "forelands." They may come into modern times as plains, foredeeps, or additional ridges.[14][g] By his own admission, Suess, originally an enthusiastic geosynclinist when he began his work, grew increasingly dissatisfied over the fact that the theory did not take vertical movements, or subsidences, into consideration, and dropped the use of the term in later volumes. He kept "syncline" provided it meant wrinkles from any source.[15] This change in view left him groping in the final volume of his work for the nature of the features he was defining to be in the Earth's face. His conclusion was that they are "long, continuous systems of folds which form the mountain chains of the Earth." The chains are arc-shaped, parallel ridges, which seem to have descended outward along the radius of curvature. They must have the same fold structure, which would be revealed by reconstructed cross-section. They must have the same plan revealed by the "trend-lines," one line being reconstructed from the strike lines of the ridges.[16] Having innovated the concept of systems of folds, to avoid having to list every range in a system, Suess devised a naming method for a system by suffixing -ides to the name of a major range in it: Alps in the system of Alpides. Moreover, systems could contain subsidiary systems. Geology adopted his method and most of his names, even after the change to continental drift.[h] Suess' account of the Mediterranean begins with the "collapse"[i] of a zone across a Mesozoic supercontinent, Pangaea. The zone stretched from the Pacific to the Atlantic, dividing Pangaea into two forelands, Eurasia and Gondwana Land.[j] Suess named the resulting sea Tethys, reusing a local name. All of Tethys was now a syncline. It received sediments from the forelands until at last they floated upward to become roughly parallel mountain chains striking in an E-W direction (with local variants). Suess needed a word for the chains. He named them collectively after one of the chief ranges, the Altai. The Altaides were all the chains across the entire band, the first of Suess's "-ides" units.[18] Pleistos rift valley[edit] The microplates, Aegean and Anatolian, which are still forming by breaking away from the Eurasian plate. The blue line is the zone of subduction, formerly of Africa under Eurasia. The triangles indicate which plate is on top. The red line is the divergent border, caused by extension. The green line is a normal fault region, which will turn into a divergent border. Generation of the Aegean Plate by back-arc extension. The arc is the southern margin of the plate. It is moving to the south as the weakened region to the north extends. The Mediterranean is the remnant of the geologically ancient Tethys Sea being closed by the northward movement of the African Plate against the Eurasian Plate. The line of subduction of Africa under Eurasia runs in a general E-W direction through the Mediterranean. The southern margin of Eurasia rises over the subduction to become the mountains of the Alpide Zone as though they were folded up by compression, and to some extent they are. The subducted plate exerts a pressure on the overriding plate normal to the plane of contact. One should therefore expect to find a tangential compression on the margin of the overriding plate, but this is not entirely the case. The margin is being extended out behind the arc of the raised mountains ("back-arc extension" meaning "in back of the arc"), and this extension, or stretching out, causes faults of the normal type. One of these is the Corinth Rift, which has opened across the NE-SW striking outer Hellenides, dividing them into the mountains of Central Greece and the mountains of the Peloponnesus. The singular nouns, "Corinth Rift," "Eurasian Plate," and other words of vague geologic referents, do not refer to one object but are more like collective plurals, such as Suess' -ides words. The original naive assumption of singularity did not fit the apparent drift movements of land masses in the Mediterranean. Further study, which is still ongoing, has uncovered complexities that help to understand how the drift theory can apply to the closure of Tethys, despite the many contradictions. More recently the back-arc extension theory has filled in much of the gap. The extension occurs as one stage in a chronological sequence of geologic stages. First, the plates must collide and one be subducted under the other at the line of collision. This line is marked by a trench, or foredeep, as the subducted plate dives down. Second, the margin of the overriding, or upper, plate, must be elevated and wrinkled into an arc, which may not be initially an arc. These stages in the Eastern Mediterranean were described in the previous section. The third stage, extension, may or may not occur depending on the geologic conditions: the strike, the dip, the viscosity, the coefficient of friction, and so on. When it does occur, the arc moves in a direction opposite the subduction ("back"), becoming arc-shaped if it is not already, thinning the margin of the overriding plate, creating a volcanic arc behind it, as the magma escapes from the thinner crust, and opening a normal fault zone behind that. There is no generally accepted explanation of back-arc motion.[19][k] Several theories have been proposed; in the literature the one being presented is usually touted as "the explanation." The Eastern Mediterranean is currently in the 3rd stage described above; that is, back-arc extension is required to explain its major features. The results of the Alpine Orogeny are still in place in Northern Greece, but to the south, extension has created two microplates, or subplates, divided from the Eurasianan Plate on the north by divergent borders or normal faults: the Aegean and the Anatolian. Topography of the Pleistos valley[edit] Looking up the Pleistos Valley from Delphi. The north wall appears in profile. At this location, the scarp varies between 40° and 60°. The scree, or tal, is at about 20° and does not extend across the entire valley. Route 48 is in evidence near the top of it. It then ascends to the photographer's position on it. The Pleistos valley is not much of a rift valley. The rift is relatively recent, the separation is slight, and a scarp is still visible all the way from Amphissa to the head of the valley. It is not unmitigated, however. There are few places where the climber might have to ascend a thousand-foot cliff. Most of the scarp has been subject to extensive rockfalls and landslides, which have created a slope of scree up to about 50% of the scarp. The scree extends over the entire valley floor up to the Pleistos ravine. Slopes vary from very slight to up to 60°. The bare scarp varies from 60° to 90° and beyond, if there is an overhang. In general, the scree is on the footwall of the fault, but erosion has produced some overhangs. There is no meander to speak of on the valley floor, and thus no plain, and but little agriculture. The rolling hills that have developed are suitable for dendroculture. There is also no room for any highway or any extensive structures. The surface is laced with dirt roads for access to the olive trees. Many of these ascend the scree. Delphi is not perched on a cliff; all the cliffs are above it. There is no problem ascending to Delphi or descending from it to tend to the trees. All builders, however, found it necessary to create terraces on which to place the structures. The archaeological site features multiple terraces with retaining walls. The Sacred Way must ascend to the terraces on ramps. Photographs from above showing the edges of the terraces are apt to be misleading. There is no drop-off. A grassy slope leads downward. In modern times the access problem was solved by leveling the top of the scree and building a road there. The highway is good, two-lane, hard-top road, which gains or loses altitude in a few places by some hairpin legs. A highway fence lines the outside of the road. Many parking areas for viewing have been excavated into the scarp or placed on filled extensions to the width. The Sacred Precinct in particular has been provided with a large bus park. The road goes right through the middle of the site, creating an upper and a lower site. Most pictures, however, never show the road. They give the illusion of the scree merging directly to the bare scarp, which only happens at the top of the upper site. Archaeology of the precinct[edit] The end of Delphi[edit] Most cursory accounts of Delphi include a phase they call the end of Delphi. After all, ruins are in evidence, so there must have been a time when the structures they represent were unruined. Many give the impression that the emperor's sheriff drove up the hill with a bulldozer and a wrecking ball, or a least an army of wreckers, and went back down the hill the same day having levelled the site, and that from then on it remained uninhabited. Although such a sudden event is possible with the equipment of modern times, it did not generally happen that way in ancient times, except in unusual cases, such as the fall of Carthage, when the Romans leveled the city and sowed the bare ground with salt so that nothing would grow there. Even so, the city was rebuilt. Such was never the case for Delphi. It transitioned from phase to phase. There may never have been a time when the site had no inhabitants or structures, and no one was interested in living there. It had the spring and the view. The ruins in evidence date from the ancient classical period with some in the late antique period. In order to place them in evidence, the first excavators, the French School of Athens, had to clear away many tons of rubble. But that rubble contained the habitation levels of post-classical settlements, which were sacrificed in favor of the earlier ruins. The lack of this transitional material also gives the impression of a sudden ruination, which is false. History portrays Delphi as a very popular site. Once in a century or two it was burned by some interloper, and then promptly rebuilt better than before. After Hellenic society transitioned from pagan to Christian, Delphi remained just as popular as it had been. Still pagan, it often honored the Christian emperors, while they allowed it to stand. Both religions were practiced there side-by-side. Finally, however, use of the oracle fell off to such a degree that it could no longer be maintained. The other aspects went on: the games, the worship of Apollo in the temple. Regretfully the Christian emperors dealt with all the pagan sites as a loose end. Delphi transitioned to a secular site in which churches were built. Without the oracle, there was not much point in frequenting a high-altitude, out-of-the-way place. The population fell off to a small village. The place had not ended, however. Archaeology and tourism infused it with a whole new life. It may well be frequented by just as many people as frequented it in classical days. It earns its own revenue. The geologic problems are just as bad as they were in ancient times: faults, slippery slopes, earthquakes, rockslides, runoff. As at all major archaeological sites, the effort to maintain the ruins rivals the original effort to maintain the structures. The classical site had flourished because of its popularity. After the change of religion, popularity and frequentation fell off sharply. The oracle could no longer cover operating expenses. After a line of Christian emperors, Julian, reigning 361-363 (not long), rejecting Christianity in favor of neoplatonism, for which he is called Julian the Apostate, attempted to restore the prior religions, paganism and Judaism. He sent his physician to Delphi to rebuild the Temple of Apollo, and received an oracle for his efforts that "the speaking water has been silenced," which became known as "the last oracle" and is recorded by George Kedrenos.[20][l] Excavation[edit] Main article: Excavations at Delphi The polygonal wall, 1902 The site was first briefly excavated in 1880 by Bernard Haussoullier (1852-1926) on behalf of the French School at Athens, of which he was a sometime member. The site was then occupied by the village of Kastri, about 100 houses, 200 people. Kastri ("fort") had been there since the destruction of the place by Theodosius I in 390. He probably left a fort to make sure it was not repopulated, except that the fort became the new village. They were mining the stone for re-use in their own buildings. British and French travellers visiting the site suspected it was ancient Delphi. Before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, the village had to be relocated but the residents resisted. The opportunity to relocate the village occurred when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site. In 1893 the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of Athena Pronoia along with thousands of objects, inscriptions and sculptures.[21] During the Great Excavation were discovered architectural members from a 5th-century Christian basilica, when Delphi was a bishopric. Other important Late Roman buildings are the Eastern Baths, the house with the peristyle, the Roman Agora, the large cistern usw. At the outskirts of the city there were located late Roman cemeteries. To the southeast of the precinct of Apollo lay the so-called Southeastern Mansion, a building with a 65-meter-long façade, spread over four levels, with four triclinia and private baths. Large storage jars kept the provisions, whereas other pottery vessels and luxury items were discovered in the rooms. Among the finds stands out a tiny leopard made of mother of pearl, possibly of Sassanian origin, on display in the ground floor gallery of the Delphi Archaeological Museum. The mansion dates to the beginning of the 5th century and functioned as a private house until 580, later however it was transformed into a potters' workshop.[22] It is only then, in the beginning of the 6th century, that the city seems to decline: its size is reduced and its trade contacts seem to be drastically diminished. Local pottery production is produced in large quantities:[23] it is coarser and made of reddish clay, aiming at satisfying the needs of the inhabitants. The Sacred Way remained the main street of the settlement, transformed, however, into a street with commercial and industrial use. Around the agora were built workshops as well as the only intra muros early Christian basilica. The domestic area spread mainly in the western part of the settlement. The houses were rather spacious and two large cisterns provided running water to them.[24] Delphi Archaeological Museum[edit] Main article: Delphi Archaeological Museum Archaeological Museum of Delphi, designed by Alexandros Tombazis The Delphi Archaeological Museum is at the foot of the main archaeological complex, on the east side of the village, and on the north side of the main road. The museum houses artifacts associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the Charioteer of Delphi, Kleobis and Biton, golden treasures discovered beneath the Sacred Way, the Sphinx of Naxos, and fragments of reliefs from the Siphnian Treasury. Immediately adjacent to the exit is the inscription that mentions the Roman proconsul Gallio. Entries to the museum and to the main complex are separate and chargeable. A reduced rate ticket gets entry to both. There is a small cafe, and a post office by the museum. Architecture of the precinct[edit] Site plan of the upper Sacred Precinct, Delphi. Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the 6th century BC.[25] Temple of Apollo[edit] Main article: Temple of Apollo (Delphi) The ruins of the Temple of Delphi visible today date from the 4th century BC, and are of a peripteral Doric building. It was erected by Spintharus, Xenodoros, and Agathon on the remains of an earlier temple, dated to the 6th century BC which itself was erected on the site of a 7th-century BC construction attributed in legend to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes.[26] Ancient tradition accounted for four temples that successively occupied the site before the 548/7 BC fire, following which the Alcmaeonids built a fifth. The poet Pindar celebrated the Alcmaeonids' temple in Pythian 7.8-9 and he also provided details of the third building (Paean 8. 65-75). Other details are given by Pausanias (10.5.9-13) and the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (294 ff.). The first temple was said to have been constructed out of olive branches from Tempe. The second was made by bees out of wax and wings but was miraculously carried off by a powerful wind and deposited among the Hyperboreans. The third, as described by Pindar, was created by the gods Hephaestus and Athena, but its architectural details included Siren-like figures or "Enchantresses", whose baneful songs eventually provoked the Olympian gods to bury the temple in the earth (according to Pausanias, it was destroyed by earthquake and fire). In Pindar's words (Paean 8.65-75, Bowra translation), addressed to the Muses: Muses, what was its fashion, shown By the skill in all arts Of the hands of Hephaestus and Athena? Of bronze the walls, and of bronze Stood the pillars beneath, But of gold were six Enchantresses Who sang above the eagle. But the sons of Cronus Opened the earth with a thunderbolt And hid the holiest of all things made. Away from their children And wives, when they hung Their lives on the honey-hearted words. The fourth temple was said to have been constructed from stone by Trophonius and Agamedes.[27] However, a new theory gives a completely new explanation of the above myth of the four temples of Delphi.[28] Treasuries[edit] The reconstructed Treasury of the Athenians, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon. Main articles: Athenian Treasury, Cnidian Treasury, Siphnian Treasury, Sicyonian Treasury, Boeotian Treasury, and Theban Treasury From the entrance of the upper site, continuing up the slope on the Sacred Way almost to the Temple of Apollo, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous so-called treasuries. These were built by many of the Greek city-states to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice, which was thought to have contributed to those victories. These buildings held the offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a "tithe" or tenth of the spoils of a battle. The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The Siphnian Treasury was dedicated by the city of Siphnos whose citizens gave a tithe of the yield from their silver mines until the mines came to an abrupt end when the sea flooded the workings. One of the largest of the treasuries was that of Argos. Having built it in the late classical period, the Argives took great pride in establishing their place at Delphi amongst the other city-states. Completed in 380 BC, the treasury seems to draw inspiration mostly from the Temple of Hera located in the Argolis. However, recent analysis of the Archaic elements of the treasury suggest that its founding preceded this. Other identifiable treasuries are those of the Sikyonians, the Boeotians and the Thebans. Boeotians Cnidians Sicyonians Siphnians Altar of the Chians[edit] Main article: Altar of the Chians Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios. It is dated to the 5th century BC by the inscription on its cornice. Made entirely of black marble, except for the base and cornice, the altar would have made a striking impression. It was restored in 1920.[21] View of the Athenian Treasury; the Stoa of the Athenians on the right. Stoa of the Athenians[edit] Main article: Stoa of the Athenians The stoa, or open-sided, covered porch, is placed in an approximately E-W alignment along the base of the polygonal wall retaining the terrace on which the Temple of Apollo sits. There is no archaeological suggestion of a connection to the temple. The stoa opened to the Sacred Way. The nearby presence of the Treasury of the Athenians suggests that this quarter of Delphi was used for Athenian business or politics, as stoas are generally found in market-places. Although the architecture at Delphi is generally Doric, a plain style, in keeping with the Phocian traditions, which were Doric, the Athenians did not prefer the Doric. The stoa was built in their own preferred style, the Ionic order, the capitals of the columns being a sure indicator. In the Ionic order they are floral and ornate, although not as much as the Corinthian, which is in deficit there. The remaining porch structure contains seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns were constructed from a series of discs joined together). The inscription on the stylobate indicates that it was built by the Athenians after their naval victory over the Persians in 478 BC, to house their war trophies. At that time the Athenians and the Spartans were on the same side. Sibyl rock[edit] Main article: Sibyl rock The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the Stoa of the Athenians upon the sacred way which leads up to the temple of Apollo in the archaeological area of Delphi. It is claimed to be where an ancient Sibyl pre-dating the Pythia of Apollo sat to deliver her prophecies. Or, the Pythia might have stood there, or an acolyte whose function was to deliver the final prophecy. The rock seems ideal for public speaking. Theatre[edit] The theatre at Delphi (as viewed near the top seats) The ancient theatre at Delphi was built further up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below.[29] It was originally built in the 4th century BC but was remodeled on several occasions, particularly in 160/159 B.C. at the expenses of king Eumenes II of Pergamon and in 67 A.D. on the occasion of emperor Nero's visit.[30] The koilon (cavea) leans against the natural slope of the mountain whereas its eastern part overrides a little torrent that led the water of the fountain Cassotis right underneath the temple of Apollo. The orchestra was initially a full circle with a diameter measuring 7 meters. The rectangular scene building ended up in two arched openings, of which the foundations are preserved today. Access to the theatre was possible through the parodoi, i.e. the side corridors. On the support walls of the parodoi are engraved large numbers of manumission inscriptions recording fictitious sales of the slaves to the god. The koilon was divided horizontally in two zones via a corridor called diazoma. The lower zone had 27 rows of seats and the upper one only 8. Six radially arranged stairs divided the lower part of the koilon in seven tiers. The theatre could accommodate about 4,500 spectators.[31] On the occasion of Nero's visit to Greece in 67 A.D. various alterations took place. The orchestra was paved and delimited by a parapet made of stone. The proscenium was replaced by a low pedestal, the pulpitum; its façade was decorated with scenes from Hercules' myth in relief. Further repairs and transformations took place in the 2nd century A.D. Pausanias mentions that these were carried out under the auspices of Herod Atticus. In antiquity, the theatre was used for the vocal and musical contests which formed part of the programme of the Pythian Games in the late Hellenistic and Roman period.[32] The theatre was abandoned when the sanctuary declined in Late Antiquity. After its excavation and initial restoration it hosted theatrical performances during the Delphic Festivals organized by A. Sikelianos and his wife, Eva Palmer, in 1927 and in 1930. It has recently been restored again as the serious landslides posed a grave threat for its stability for decades.[33][34] Tholos[edit] The Tholos at the base of Mount Parnassus: 3 of 20 Doric columns. Athena Pronaia Sanctuary at Delphi Main article: Tholos of Delphi The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronoia (Ἀθηνᾶ Πρόνοια, "Athena of forethought") is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Tholos is located approximately a half a mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi (at 38°28′49″N 22°30′28″E / 38.48016°N 22.50789°E / 38.48016; 22.50789). Three of the Doric columns have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs. The architect of the "vaulted temple at Delphi" is named by Vitruvius, in De architectura Book VII, as Theodorus Phoceus (not Theodorus of Samos, whom Vitruvius names separately).[35] Gymnasium[edit] Main article: Gymnasium at Delphi The gymnasium The gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi. The building consisted of two levels: a stoa on the upper level providing open space, and a palaestra, pool and baths on lower floor. These pools and baths were said to have magical powers, and imparted the ability to communicate to Apollo himself.[21] Stadium[edit] The mountain-top stadium at Delphi, far above the temples-theater below Main article: Stadium of Delphi The stadium is located further up the hill, beyond the via sacra and the theatre. It was originally built in the 5th century BC but was altered in later centuries. The last major remodelling took place in the 2nd century AD under the patronage of Herodes Atticus when the stone seating was built and (arched) entrance. It could seat 6500 spectators and the track was 177 metres long and 25.5 metres wide.[36] Hippodrome[edit] It was at the Pythian games that prominent political leaders, such as Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sikyon, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, competed with their chariots. The hippodrome where these events took place was referred to by Pindar,[37] and this monument was sought by archaeologists for over two centuries. Its traces have recently been found at Gonia in the plain of Krisa in the place where the original stadium was sited.[38] Polygonal wall[edit] Section of polygonal wall at Delphi, behind a pillar from the Athenian Stoa The retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC. Its name is taken from the polygonal masonry of which it is constructed. At a later date, from 200 BC onwards, the stones were inscribed with the manumission contracts of slaves who were consecrated to Apollo. Approximately a thousand manumissions are recorded on the wall.[39] Castalian spring[edit] Main article: Castalian Spring The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades. The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring date to the Archaic period and the Roman, with the latter cut into the rock. The Charioteer of Delphi, 478 or 474 BC, Delphi Museum. Athletic statues[edit] Delphi is famous for its many preserved athletic statues. It is known that Olympia originally housed far more of these statues, but time brought ruin to many of them, leaving Delphi as the main site of athletic statues.[40] Kleobis and Biton, two brothers renowned for their strength, are modeled in two of the earliest known athletic statues at Delphi. The statues commemorate their feat of pulling their mother's cart several miles to the Sanctuary of Hera in the absence of oxen. The neighbors were most impressed and their mother asked Hera to grant them the greatest gift. When they entered Hera's temple, they fell into a slumber and never woke, dying at the height of their admiration, the perfect gift.[40] The Charioteer of Delphi is another ancient relic that has withstood the centuries. It is one of the best known statues from antiquity. The charioteer has lost many features, including his chariot and his left arm, but he stands as a tribute to athletic art of antiquity.[40] Myths regarding the origin of the precinct[edit] Vulva of the Earth, with the two Phaedriades above like breasts. In this drawing the village of Castro still occupies the site. The footprint of the modern road is in the foregound. The village was thus entirely on the upper site. Below the road is the Marmoria, or "marble quarry," where the villagers mined structural stone. The picture below shows the site after the removal of the village. A myth is a story based on fantasy or belief rather than known fact. Ancient Greek culture used them frequently in many different contexts. They are only known to moderns through mention in ancient Greek writings. A writer typically had access to writings at a library or private archive, unless he was wealthy enough to have his own copies made. All books were hand-written. Authors referred to other authors whose books they had before them, or had taken notes from. Often the source of the story was not identified, but even if it was, the source may have taken it from some other book. Sometimes authors wrote down myths related to them orally. It is thus not possible to date myths. They could have come from any prior time. Often the date of the book relating the myth cannot be determined within centuries. A myth cannot with any certainty be attributed to any century, although the written source may be. Scholars are not entirely without dating methods, however. The content of the myth may resemble or imply circumstances of known or probable provenience. The Iliad, for example, most likely relates myths passed down from the Trojan War, a known Late Bronze Age event. The Greeks were aided and abetted in their myth-making by the oracles in which they typically devoutly believed. When asked a question, an oracle never gave a direct answer, but spoke in allegories with "hidden meanings" and "ambiguities," said Plutarch, priest of Apollo and historian.[41] It was then incumbent on the inquiring party to interpret them. As the prophecy was regarded as the true word of divinity, the actual meaning, if it could be known, must be historical truth. Believing this principle to be true, many of the best historians spent time trying to intepret oracular myths as actual circumstances. Some Temple of Apollo appears in the Homeric Literature. In the Iliad, Achilles would not accept Agamemnon's peace offering even if it included all the wealth in the "stone floor" of "rocky Pytho" (I 404). In the Odyssey (θ 79) Agamemnon crosses a "stone floor" to receive a prophecy from Apollo in Pytho, the first known of proto-history.[42] Hesiod also refers to Pytho "in the hollows of Parnassus" (Theogony 498). These references imply that the earliest known date of the oracle's existence is the 8th century BC, the probable date of composition of the Homeric works. Earlier times of existence cannot be excluded if the written poems are adaptations of earlier oral ones. Beyond these proto-historic tidbits[m] the main myths of Delphi are given in three literary loci.[43] H.W Parke, the Delphi scholar, complained that they are self-contradictory,[n] thus unconsciously falling into the Plutarchian epistemology, that they reflect some common, objective historic reality against which the accounts can be compared. Missing is the reality, nor can it be assumed ever to have existed. There is no Apollo, no Zeus, no Hera, and certainly never was a great, dragon-like Python. Not having existed, he did not rot. The myths are pure, Plutarchian figures of speech. meant to be aetiologies of some oracular tradition. Homeric Hymn 3, "To Apollo," is the oldest of the three loci, dating to the 7th century BC (estimate).[o] Apollo travels about after his birth on Delos seeking a place for an oracle. He is advised by Telephus to choose Crissa "below the glade of Parnassus," which he does, and has a temple built. Killing the she-dragon that guards the spring, he leaves her to rot, from which the name Pytho, "rotten." Subsequently, some Cretans from Knossos sail up on a mission to reconnoitre Pylos. Changing into a dolphin, Apollo casts himself on deck. The Cretans do not dare to remove him but sail on. Apollo guides the ship around Greece, ending back at Crisa, where the ship grounds. Apollo enters his shrine, with the Cretans to be its priests, worshipping him as Delphineus, "of the dolphin." Zeus determined the site of Delphi when he sought to find the centre of his "Grandmother Earth" (Gaia). He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, or navel of Gaia was found.[44][28] According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the Eumenides, the oracle had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaea, a view echoed by H.W. Parke.[p] One tale of the sanctuary's discovery states that a goatherd, who grazed his flocks on Parnassus, one day observed his goats playing with great agility upon nearing a chasm in the rock; the goatherd noticing this held his head over the chasm causing the fumes to go to his brain; throwing him into a strange trance.[46] The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been Krisa.[47] Others relate that it was named Pytho (Πυθώ) and that Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, was chosen from their ranks by a group of priestesses who officiated at the temple. Apollo was said to have slain Python, a "drako" a serpent or a dragon who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth.[48] "Python" (derived from the verb πύθω (pythō),[49] "to rot") is claimed by some to be the original name of the site in recognition of Python which Apollo defeated.[50] The name Delphi comes from the same root as δελφύς delphys, "womb" and may indicate archaic veneration of Gaia at the site.[q][r] Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος Delphinios, "the Delphinian". The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is Pytho (Πυθώ).[53] Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel (also known as bay tree) which he considered to be a sacred plant. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the temple. Oracle of Delphi[edit] The prophetic process[edit] Main articles: Pythia and Delphic Sibyl Coin (obol) struck at Delphi, 480 BC. Obverse: Short tripod. Reverse: Pellet within circle (omphalos or phiale). Delphi is perhaps best known for its oracle, the Pythia, or sibyl, the duty priestess prophecying from the tripod in the sunken adyton of the Temple of Apollo. Apollo spoke through his oracle. She had to be an older woman of blameless life chosen from among the peasants of the area. Alone in an enclosed inner sanctum (Ancient Greek adyton – "do not enter") she sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth (the "chasm"). According to legend, when Apollo slew Python its body fell into this fissure and fumes arose from its decomposing body. Intoxicated by the vapours, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit. In this state she prophesied. The oracle could not be consulted during the winter months, for this was traditionally the time when Apollo would live among the Hyperboreans. Dionysus would inhabit the temple during his absence.[54] The time to consult pythia for an oracle during the year is determined from astronomical and geological grounds related to the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus but[clarification needed] the hydrocarbon vapours emitted from the chasm.[55] Similar practice was followed in other Apollo oracles too.[56] While in a trance the Pythia "raved" – probably a form of ecstatic speech – and her ravings were "translated" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters. It has been speculated that the ancient writers, including Plutarch who had worked as a priest at Delphi, were correct in attributing the oracular effects to the sweet-smelling pneuma (Ancient Greek for breath, wind or vapour) escaping from the chasm in the rock. That exhalation could have been high in the known anaesthetic and sweet-smelling ethylene or other hydrocarbons such as ethane known to produce violent trances. Though this theory remains debatable the authors put up a detailed answer to their critics.[57][58][59] Ancient sources describe the priestess using “laurel” to inspire her prophecies. Several alternative plant candidates have been suggested including Cannabis, Hyoscyamus, Rhododendron and Oleander. Harissis claims that a review of contemporary toxicological literature indicates that oleander causes symptoms similar to those shown by the Pythia, and his study of ancient texts shows that oleander was often included under the term "laurel". The Pythia may have chewed oleander leaves and inhaled their smoke prior to her oracular pronouncements and sometimes dying from the toxicity. The toxic substances of oleander resulted in symptoms similar to those of epilepsy, the “sacred disease,” which may have been seen as the possession of the Pythia by the spirit of Apollo.[60] Fresco of Delphic sibyl painted by Michaelangelo at the Sistine Chapel. The Delphic oracle exerted considerable influence throughout the Greek world, and she was consulted before all major undertakings including wars and the founding of colonies.[s] She also was respected by the Greek-influenced countries around the periphery of the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt. The oracle was also known to the early Romans. Rome's seventh and last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, after witnessing a snake near his palace, sent a delegation including two of his sons to consult the oracle.[62] In 83 BCE a Thracian tribe raided Delphi, burned the temple, plundered the sanctuary and stole the "unquenchable fire" from the altar. During the raid, part of the temple roof collapsed.[63] The same year, the temple was severely damaged by an earthquake, thus it fell into decay and the surrounding area became impoverished. The sparse local population led to difficulties in filling the posts required. The oracle's credibility waned due to doubtful predictions.[64] The oracle flourished again in the second century CE during the rule of emperor Hadrian, who is believed to have visited the oracle twice and offered complete autonomy to the city.[63] By the 4th century, Delphi had acquired the status of a city.[65] Constantine the Great looted several monuments, most notably the Tripod of Plataea, which he used to decorate his new capital, Constantinople.[citation needed] Despite the rise of Christianity across the Roman Empire, the oracle remained a religious centre throughout the 4th century, and the Pythian Games continued to be held at least until 424 CE;[65] however, the decline continued. The attempt of Emperor Julian to revive polytheism did not survive his reign.[63] Excavations have revealed a large three-aisled basilica in the city, as well as traces of a church building in the sanctuary's gymnasium.[65] The site was abandoned in the 6th or 7th centuries, although a single bishop of Delphi is attested in an episcopal list of the late 8th and early 9th centuries.[65] Religious significance of the oracle[edit] Ruins of the ancient temple of Apollo at Delphi, overlooking the valley of Phocis. Delphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias. Carved into the temple were three phrases: γνῶθι σεαυτόν (gnōthi seautón = "know thyself") and μηδὲν ἄγαν (mēdén ágan = "nothing in excess"), and Ἑγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτη (engýa pára d'atē = "make a pledge and mischief is nigh"),[66] In antiquity, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece by authors such as Plato[67] and Pausanias.[68] Additionally, according to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the "E at Delphi"—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E.[69] Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5. However, ancient as well as modern scholars have doubted the legitimacy of such inscriptions.[70] According to one pair of scholars, "The actual authorship of the three maxims set up on the Delphian temple may be left uncertain. Most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages."[71] According to the Homeric hymn to the Pythian Apollo, Apollo shot his first arrow as an infant which effectively slew the serpent Pytho, the son of Gaia, who guarded the spot. To atone the murder of Gaia's son, Apollo was forced to fly and spend eight years in menial service before he could return forgiven. A festival, the Septeria, was held every year, at which the whole story was represented: the slaying of the serpent, and the flight, atonement, and return of the god.[72] The Pythian Games took place every four years to commemorate Apollo's victory.[72] Another regular Delphi festival was the "Theophania" (Θεοφάνεια), an annual festival in spring celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea. The culmination of the festival was a display of an image of the gods, usually hidden in the sanctuary, to worshippers.[73] The theoxenia was held each summer, centred on a feast for "gods and ambassadors from other states." Myths indicate that Apollo killed the chthonic serpent Python guarding the Castalian Spring and named his priestess Pythia after her. Python, who had been sent by Hera, had attempted to prevent Leto, while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis, from giving birth.[74] This spring flowed toward the temple but disappeared beneath, creating a cleft which emitted chemical vapors that purportedly caused the oracle at Delphi to reveal her prophecies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since he was a child of Gaia. The shrine dedicated to Apollo was originally dedicated to Gaia and shared with Poseidon.[72] The name Pythia remained as the title of the Delphic oracle. Erwin Rohde wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the omphalos, and that it is a case of one deity setting up a temple on the grave of another.[75] Another view holds that Apollo was a fairly recent addition to the Greek pantheon coming originally from Lydia.[citation needed] The Etruscans coming from northern Anatolia also worshipped Apollo,[76] and it may be that he was originally identical with Mesopotamian Aplu, an Akkadian title meaning "son", originally given to the plague God Nergal, son of Enlil.[citation needed] Apollo Smintheus (Greek Απόλλων Σμινθεύς), the mouse killer[77] eliminates mice, a primary cause of disease, hence he promotes preventive medicine. History[edit] Occupation of the site at Delphi can be traced back to the Neolithic period with extensive occupation and use beginning in the Mycenaean period (1600–1100 BC). Ancient Delphi[edit] Earlier myths [78][28] include traditions that Pythia, or the Delphic oracle, already was the site of an important oracle in the pre-classical Greek world (as early as 1400 BC) and, rededicated from about 800 BC, when it served as the major site during classical times for the worship of the god Apollo. Speculative illustration of ancient Delphi by French architect Albert Tournaire. Delphi was since ancient times a place of worship for Gaia, the mother goddess connected with fertility. The town started to gain pan-Hellenic relevance as both a shrine and an oracle in the 7th century BC. Initially under the control of Phocaean settlers based in nearby Kirra (currently Itea), Delphi was reclaimed by the Athenians during the First Sacred War (597–585 BC). The conflict resulted in the consolidation of the Amphictyonic League, which had both a military and a religious function revolving around the protection of the Temple of Apollo. This shrine was destroyed by fire in 548 BC and then fell under the control of the Alcmaeonids banned from Athens. In 449–448 BC, the Second Sacred War (fought in the wider context of the First Peloponnesian War between the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta and the Delian-Attic League led by Athens) resulted in the Phocians gaining control of Delphi and the management of the Pythian Games. In 356 BC the Phocians under Philomelos captured and sacked Delphi, leading to the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), which ended with the defeat of the former and the rise of Macedon under the reign of Philip II. This led to the Fourth Sacred War (339 BC), which culminated in the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) and the establishment of Macedonian rule over Greece. In Delphi, Macedonian rule was superseded by the Aetolians in 279 BC, when a Gallic invasion was repelled, and by the Romans in 191 BC. The site was sacked by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 86 BC, during the Mithridatic Wars, and by Nero in 66 AD. Although subsequent Roman emperors of the Flavian dynasty contributed towards to the restoration of the site, it gradually lost importance. In the course of the 3rd century mystery cults became more popular than the traditional Greek pantheon. Christianity, which started as yet one more mystery cult, soon gained ground, and this eventually resulted in the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. The anti-pagan legislation of the Flavian dynasty deprived ancient sanctuaries of their assets.[citation needed] The emperor Julian attempted to reverse this religious climate, yet his "pagan revival" was particularly short-lived. When the doctor Oreibasius visited the oracle of Delphi, in order to question the fate of paganism, he received a pessimistic answer: Εἴπατε τῷ βασιλεῖ, χαμαὶ πέσε δαίδαλος αὐλά, οὐκέτι Φοῖβος ἔχει καλύβην, οὐ μάντιδα δάφνην, οὐ παγὰν λαλέουσαν, ἀπέσβετο καὶ λάλον ὕδωρ. [Tell the king that the flute has fallen to the ground. Phoebus does not have a home any more, neither an oracular laurel, nor a speaking fountain, because the talking water has dried out.] It was shut down during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire by Theodosius I in 381 AD.[79] Amphictyonic Council[edit] The Amphictyonic Council was a council of representatives from six Greek tribes that controlled Delphi and also the quadrennial Pythian Games. They met biannually and came from Thessaly and central Greece. Over time, the town of Delphi gained more control of itself and the council lost much of its influence. The sacred precinct in the Iron Age[edit] Excavation at Delphi, which was a post-Mycenaean settlement of the late 9th century, has uncovered artifacts increasing steadily in volume beginning with the last quarter of the 8th century BC. Pottery and bronze as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in contrast to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for a wide range of worshippers, but the large quantity of valuable goods, found in no other mainland sanctuary, encourages that view. Apollo's sacred precinct in Delphi was a Panhellenic Sanctuary, where every four years, starting in 586 BC[80] athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four Panhellenic Games, precursors of the Modern Olympics. The victors at Delphi were presented with a laurel crown (stephanos) which was ceremonially cut from a tree by a boy who re-enacted the slaying of the Python.[80] (These competitions are also called stephantic games, after the crown.) Delphi was set apart from the other games sites because it hosted the mousikos agon, musical competitions.[50] These Pythian Games rank second among the four stephantic games chronologically and in importance.[80] These games, though, were different from the games at Olympia in that they were not of such vast importance to the city of Delphi as the games at Olympia were to the area surrounding Olympia. Delphi would have been a renowned city regardless of whether it hosted these games; it had other attractions that led to it being labeled the "omphalos" (navel) of the earth, in other words, the centre of the world.[80][81] In the inner hestia (hearth) of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned. After the battle of Plataea, the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi.[82] Abandonment and rediscovery[edit] Section of the frieze from the Treasury of the Siphnians, now in the museum. The Ottomans finalized their domination over Phocis and Delphi in about 1410CE. Delphi itself remained almost uninhabited for centuries. It seems that one of the first buildings of the early modern era was the monastery of the Dormition of Mary or of Panagia (the Mother of God) built above the ancient gymnasium at Delphi. It must have been towards the end of the 15th or in the 16th century that a settlement started forming there, which eventually ended up forming the village of Kastri. Ottoman Delphi gradually began to be investigated. The first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi was Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli (Cyriacus of Ancona), a 15th-century merchant turned diplomat and antiquarian. He visited Delphi in March 1436 and remained there for six days. He recorded all the visible archaeological remains based on Pausanias for identification. He described the stadium and the theatre at that date as well as some freestanding pieces of sculpture. He also recorded several inscriptions, most of which are now lost. His identifications however were not always correct: for example he described a round building he saw as the temple of Apollo while this was simply the base of the Argives' ex-voto. A severe earthquake in 1500 caused much damage. In 1766 an English expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti included the Oxford epigraphist Richard Chandler, the architect Nicholas Revett, and the painter William Pars. Their studies were published in 1769 under the title Ionian Antiquities,[83] followed by a collection of inscriptions,[84] and two travel books, one about Asia Minor (1775),[85] and one about Greece (1776).[86] Apart from the antiquities, they also related some vivid descriptions of daily life in Kastri, such as the crude behaviour of the Turco-Albanians who guarded the mountain passes. In 1805 Edward Dodwell visited Delphi, accompanied by the painter Simone Pomardi.[87] Lord Byron visited in 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hobhouse: Yet there I've wandered by the vaulted rill; Yes! Sighed o'er Delphi's long deserted shrine, where, save that feeble fountain, all is still. He carved his name on the same column in the gymnasium as Lord Aberdeen, later Prime Minister, who had visited a few years before. Proper excavation did not start until the late 19th century (see "Excavations" section) after the village had moved. Depiction in art[edit] View of Delphi with Sacrificial Procession by Claude Lorrain From the 16th century onward, West Europe developed an interest in Delphi. In the mid-15th century, Strabo was first translated into Latin. The earliest depictions of Delphi were totally imaginary, created by the German N. Gerbel, who published in 1545 a text based on the map of Greece by N. Sofianos. The ancient sanctuary was depicted as a fortified city.[citation needed] The first travelers with archaeological interests, apart from the precursor Cyriacus of Ancona, were the British George Wheler and the French Jacob Spon, who visited Greece in a joint expedition in 1675–1676. They published their impressions separately. In Wheler's "Journey into Greece", published in 1682, a sketch of the region of Delphi appeared, where the settlement of Kastri and some ruins were depicted. The illustrations in Spon's publication "Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, 1678" are considered original and groundbreaking. Travelers continued to visit Delphi throughout the 19th century and published their books which contained diaries, sketches, views of the site as well as pictures of coins. The illustrations often reflected the spirit of romanticism, as evident by the works of Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, where, apart from the landscapes (La Grèce. Vues pittoresques et topographiques, Paris 1834) are depicted also human types (Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne dessinés sur les lieux, Paris 1828). The philhellene painter W. Williams has comprised the landscape of Delphi in his themes (1829). Influential personalities such as F.Ch.-H.-L. Pouqueville, W.M. Leake, Chr. Wordsworth and Lord Byron are amongst the most important visitors of Delphi. Delphi by Edward Lear features the Phaedriades. After the foundation of the modern Greek state, the press became also interested in these travelers. Thus "Ephemeris" writes (17 March 1889): In the Revues des Deux Mondes Paul Lefaivre published his memoirs from an excursion to Delphi. The French author relates in a charming style his adventures on the road, praising particularly the ability of an old woman to put back in place the dislocated arm of one of his foreign traveling companions, who had fallen off the horse. "In Arachova the Greek type is preserved intact. The men are rather athletes than farmers, built for running and wrestling, particularly elegant and slender under their mountain gear." Only briefly does he refer to the antiquities of Delphi, but he refers to a pelasgian wall 80 meters long, "on which innumerable inscriptions are carved, decrees, conventions, manumissions."[citation needed] Gradually the first travelling guides appeared. The revolutionary "pocket" books invented by Karl Baedeker, accompanied by maps useful for visiting archaeological sites such as Delphi (1894) and the informed plans, the guides became practical and popular. The photographic lens revolutionized the way of depicting the landscape and the antiquities, particularly from 1893 onwards, when the systematic excavations of the French Archaeological School started. However, artists such as Vera Willoughby, continued to be inspired by the landscape.[citation needed] Delphic themes inspired several graphic artists. Besides the landscape, Pythia/Sibylla become an illustration subject even on Tarot cards.[88] A famous example constitutes Michelangelo's Delphic Sibyl (1509),[89][90][91] the 19th-century German engraving Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, as well as the recent ink on paper drawing "The Oracle of Delphi" (2013) by M. Lind.[92] Modern artists are inspired also by the Delphic Maxims. Examples of such works are displayed in the "Sculpture park of the European Cultural Center of Delphi" and in exhibitions taking place at the Archaeological Museum of Delphi.[citation needed] Description in literature[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Delphi inspired literature as well. In 1814 W. Haygarth, friend of Lord Byron, refers to Delphi in his work "Greece, a Poem". In 1888 Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle published his lyric drama L’Apollonide, accompanied by music by Franz Servais. More recent French authors used Delphi as a source of inspiration such as Yves Bonnefoy (Delphes du second jour) or Jean Sullivan (nickname of Joseph Lemarchand) in L'Obsession de Delphes (1967), but also Rob MacGregor's Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi (1991). The presence of Delphi in Greek literature is very intense. Poets such as Kostis Palamas (The Delphic Hymn, 1894), Kostas Karyotakis (Delphic festival, 1927), Nikephoros Vrettakos (return from Delphi, 1957), Yannis Ritsos (Delphi, 1961–62) and Kiki Dimoula (Gas omphalos and Appropriate terrain 1988), to mention only the most renowned ones. Angelos Sikelianos wrote The Dedication (of the Delphic speech) (1927), the Delphic Hymn (1927) and the tragedy Sibylla (1940), whereas in the context of the Delphic idea and the Delphic festivals he published an essay titled "The Delphic union" (1930). The nobelist George Seferis wrote an essay under the title "Delphi", in the book "Dokimes".[citation needed] The importance of Delphi for the Greeks is significant. The site has been recorded on the collective memory and have been expressed through tradition. Nikolaos Politis, the famous Greek ethnographer, in his Studies on the life and language of the Greek people - part A, offers two examples from Delphi: a) the priest of Apollo (176) When Christ was born a priest of Apollo was sacrificing below the monastery of Panayia, on the road of Livadeia, on a site called Logari. Suddenly he abandoned the sacrifice and says to the people: "in this moment was born the son of God, who will be very powerful, like Apollo, but then Apollo will beat him". He didn't have time to finish his speech and a thunder came down and burnt him, opening the rock nearby into two. [p. 99][citation needed] b)The Mylords (108) The Mylords are not Christians, because nobody ever saw them cross themselves. They originate from the old pagan inhabitants of Delphi who kept their property in castle called Adelphi, named after the two brother princes who built it. When Christ and his mother came to the site, and all people around converted to Christianity they thought that they should better leave; thus the Mylords left for the West and took all their belongings with them. The Mylords come here now and worship these stones. [p. 59][citation needed] Gallery[edit] The theatre at Delphi Ruins of the theatre at Delphi Stacked stones See also[edit] Aristoclea, Delphic priestess of the 6th century BC, said to have been tutor to Pythagoras Delphi Archaeological Museum Ex voto of the Attalids (Delphi) Franz Weber (activist) - made an honorary citizen of Delphi in 1997 Greek art List of traditional Greek place names Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Delphi Footnotes[edit] ^ In English, the name Delphi is pronounced either as /ˈdɛlfaɪ/ or, in a more Greek-like manner, as /ˈdɛlfiː/. The bottom line on the etymology is that Delphoi is related to delphus, "womb," which is consistent with the omphalos stone there being considered the "navel" of the universe. The delphis, or "dolphin" connection, is an accidental result of the dolpins being named from their uterus-like appearance. The full etymology is to be found in Frisk.[1] The inscriptional variants, Dalphoi, Dolphoi, Derphoi,[2] might appear to be dialects, especially Dalphoi, usually taken as Phocian, as the Phocians spoke Doric. Frisk labels them as secondary developments, including the apparent Doric original a in Dalphoi. It could well be Phocian, but was not originally Doric. The true dialect form, Aeolic Belphoi, with Delphoi, must be reflexes of a Bronze Age *Gwelphoi, which does not have an original "a."[3] Frisk's Proto-Indoeuropean is *gwelbh-u-, with a -u- extension. Without the extension there is no relation between Delphoi and delphus. However, Frisk, a major Indo-Europeanist, cites some parallels of -woi- to -oi- in other words. The evidence from mythology adds strength to his hypothesis. Without the w, Delphoi is not related to Delphus, but only seems so. The etymology of dolphin is fairly standard. ^ Some of the photographs taken from Delphi depict a glistening river coursing toward a glistening Gulf of Corinth. While the gulf may glisten, the apparent glisten of the river is an illusion. Either the photograph has been retouched for "postcard" purposes or the limestone bed is shown glistening. The gradient is too steep for any meandering river bed. Much of the river courses through underground channels eroded in the Karst topography. ^ "Tectonic" is a term referring to roofs in architecture ^ Cimmerides is "the orogenic system related to the obliteration of Paleo-Tethys". Alpides is "that generated during the closure of Neo-Tethys." Tethysides is the both together. The idea is that within the same orogenic zones the Alpides exist superimposed on the older Cimmerides. ^ Alpide cannot be used as a synonym for Alpine. The latter refers only to the Alps, Carpathians, Dinaric Alps, and Hellenides. They are also Alpides by virtue of being in the Alpide system. But, not every Alpide is Alpine. The uniting factor is that the Alpides were thrown up on the shore of Neo-Tethys, which went across what is now Eurasia to the Pacific. Moreover, although there was an Alpine orogeny, there was never an Alpide orogeny, the Alpide being a system of orogenies named something else. ^ "The dislocations visible in the rocky crust of the Earth are the result of movements which are produced by a decrease in the volume of our planet." The theory failed finally on the discovery by more precise methods that the planet is not decreasing and has not decreased since the loss of the moon from it. ^ Use of "foreland" has tended to be free and innovative. Anything not hinterland is foreland. Suess refers to all of northern Europe as foreland to the Alps. In contrast to the continental drift theorists, he regarded this foreland as moving south to squeeze up the Alps. ^ The "-ides" names are innovated freely by geologists studying the rocks of specific regions. They are to a large extent produced words, which are words innovated from elements of known meanings to produce another meaning readily understood from its elements; e.g., ductile and ductibility. ^ Suess regarded the oceans as compressional subsidences reducing tangential distance by tilting them into the vertical.[17] ^ A larger Africa, named by Suess from the beds in Gondwana of Central India. ^ Moderately technical article, highly condensed. The authors summarize and criticize three models, the first of which is covered in this note. In the "Slab Pull Model" the slab (overriding plate) "rolls back"; i.e., moves opposite to the direction of subduction. The foredeep offers a vacuum of balancing compressional forces, so the newly raised arc slides into it, at the same time pushing it back. The authors argue that the coefficient of friction is too high for such a rollback. They oppose subduction-related causes in favor of non-subduction-related ones, such as the Extrusion Theory, in which an originally wide-spread arc is squeezed or extruded into a narrower area, weakening the crust around it. The question asked by their title underscores the difficulty in finding a model that will fit all the different types of subduction. ^ The "speaking water" is much criticised because it is the Pythia that speaks, not the water. However, a standard feature of oracular response from Apollo is the requirement that the priestess drink from a spring of fresh water, considered sacred. It is certain that the spring captured at the chasm was piped to the adyton in the temple. ^ Those who argue for an entirely literary manufacture of the poems do not recognize any proto-history in them. The prevalent archaeological view is that with regards to geographic detail they are in fact mainly proto-historic. ^ "All three versions, instead of being simple and traditional, are already selective and tendentious. They disagree with each other...." ^ The poem has two parts, "To Delian Apollo" and "To Pythian Apollo." The Pytho myth is only in the latter. ^ The foundation of the oracle is described by three early writers: the author of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Aeschylus in the prologue to the Eumenides, and Euripides in a chorus in the Iphigeneia in Tauris. Parke goes on to say, "This version [Euripides] evidently reproduces in a sophisticated form the primitive tradition which Aeschylus for his own purposes had been at pains to contradict: the belief that Apollo came to Delphi as an invader and appropriated for himself a previously existing oracle of Earth. The slaying of the serpent is the act of conquest which secures his possession; not as in the Homeric Hymn, a merely secondary work of improvement on the site. Another difference is also noticeable. The Homeric Hymn, as we saw, implied that the method of prophecy used there was similar to that of Dodona: both Aeschylus and Euripides, writing in the fifth century, attribute to primeval times the same methods as used at Delphi in their own day. So much is implied by their allusions to tripods and prophetic seats. ... [continuing on p. 6] ... Another very archaic feature at Delphi also confirms the ancient associations of the place with the Earth goddess. This was the Omphalos, an egg-shaped stone which was situated in the innermost sanctuary of the temple in historic times. Classical legend asserted that it marked the 'navel' (Omphalos) or center of the Earth and explained that this spot was determined by Zeus who had released two eagles to fly from opposite sides of the earth and that they had met exactly over this place". On p.7 he writes further, "So Delphi was originally devoted to the worship of the Earth goddess whom the Greeks called Ge, or Gaia. Themis, who is associated with her in tradition as her daughter and partner or successor, is really another manifestation of the same deity: an identity that Aeschylus himself recognized in another context. The worship of these two, as one or distinguished, was displaced by the introduction of Apollo. His origin has been the subject of much learned controversy: it is sufficient for our purpose to take him as the Homeric Hymn represents him – a northern intruder – and his arrival must have occurred in the dark interval between Mycenaean and Hellenic times. His conflict with Ge for the possession of the cult site was represented under the legend of his slaying the serpent.[45] ^ Such was its prestige that most Hellenes after 500 BCE placed its foundation in the earliest days of the world: before Apollo took possession, they said, Ge (Earth) (Gaia) and her daughter Themis had spoken oracles at Pytho. Such has been the strength of the tradition that many historians and others have accepted as historical fact the ancient statement that Ge and Themis spoke oracles before it became Apollo's establishment, yet nothing but the myth supports this statement. In the earliest account known of the Delphic oracle's beginnings, the story found in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (281–374), there was no oracle before Apollo came and killed the great she-dragon, Pytho's only inhabitant. This was apparently the Delphic myth of the sixth century.[51] ^ The earth is the abode of the dead, therefore the earth-deity has power over the ghostly world: the shapes of dreams, which often foreshadowed the future, were supposed to ascend from the world below, therefore the earth-deity might acquire an oracular function, especially through the process of incubation, in which the consultant slept in a holy shrine with his ear upon the ground. That such conceptions attached to Gaia is shown by the records of her cults at Delphi, Athens, and Aegae. A recently discovered inscription speaks of a temple of Ge at Delphi. ... As regards Gaia, we also can accept it. It is confirmed by certain features in the latter Delphic divination, and also by the story of the Python.[52] ^ Because the founding of the city was for the Greeks, as it had been for earlier cultures, primarily a religious act, Delphi naturally assumed charge of the new foundations; and especially in the early period of colonization, the Pythian Apollo gave specific advice that dispatched new colonies in every direction, under the aegis of Apollo himself. Few cities would undertake such an expedition without consulting the oracle. Thus at a moment when the growth of population might have led to congestion within the city, to random emigration, or to conflicts for arable land in the more densely populated regions, Delphi, willy-nilly, faced the problem and conducted a program of organized dispersal.[61] Citations[edit] ^ Frisk, Hjalmar (1960). "δελφίς, Δελφοί, δελφύς". Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Band I. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. ^ Also given in Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott; Henry Stuart Jones (1940). "Δελφοί". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. ^ Alice Mouton; Ian Rutherford; Ilya Yakubovich (2013). Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean. Leiden: Brill. p. 66. ^ Suda, pi,3137 ^ Suda, delta,210 ^ Kase 1970, pp. 1-2 ^ Kase 1970, pp. 4-5 ^ Kase 1970, p. 5 ^ Kase 1970, pp. 16-17 ^ Kase 1970, pp. 28-29 ^ Peltier, W.R. (1989). "Chapter 1 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics: the Emergence Paradigm in Global Geodynamics". In Peltier, W.R. (ed.). Mantle Convection: Plate Tectonics and Global Dynamics. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. pp. 1–2. ^ Şengör, A. M. Celâl (1984). "The Definition of the Terms Alpide, Cimmeride, and Tethyside, and the Purpose of This Paper". The Cimmeride orogenic system and the tectonics of Eurasia. Special Paper 195. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. pp. 11–13. Translation from the Turkish. ^ Suess 1904, p. 107, Part I Chapter 3 "Dislocations" ^ "Geosynclinal Theory". The Emergence and Evolution of Plate Tectonics. University of Illinois. 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2020. ^ Suess 1909, pp. 626-627, Part V, Chapter XVII ^ Suess 1908, pp. 1-4, Part IV, Chapter 1, Introduction ^ Suess 1906, p. 536, Part 2, Chapter 14, "The Oceans" ^ Suess 1908, pp. 196-197, Part 4, Chapter 5, "The Altaides" ^ E. Mantovani; M. Vivi; D. Babbucci; C. Tamburelli; D. Albarell (2001). "Back arc extension: which driving mechanism?" (PDF). Journal of the Virtual Explorer. 3 (Paper 25): 4–21. doi:10.3809/jvirtex.2001.00025. Retrieved 4 December 2020. ^ Gregory, Timothy E. (1983). "Julian and the last oracle at Delphi". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 24 (4). ^ a b c Delphi Archived 2005-04-01 at the Wayback Machine, Hellenic Ministry of Culture. ^ Petrides, P., 1997, «Delphes dans l’Antiquité tardive : première approche topographique et céramologique», BCH 121, 681-695 ^ Petrides, P., 2003, «Αteliers de potiers protobyzantins à Delphes », in Χ. ΜΠΑΚΙΡΤΖΗΣ (ed.), 7ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο Μεσαιωνικής Κεραμικής της Μεσογείου, Θεσσαλονίκη 11-16 Οκτωβρίου 1999, Πρακτικά, Αθήνα, 443-446 ^ Petrides, P., 2005, «Un exemple d’architecture civile en Grèce: les maisons protobyzantines de Delphes (IVe–VIIe s.)», Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mémoires 15, Paris, pp.193-204. ^ Sakoulas, Thomas. "Delphi Archaeological Site". Ancient-Greece.org. Retrieved 16 November 2020. ^ Sakoulas, Thomas. "Temple of Apollo at Delphi". Ancient-Greece.org. Retrieved 28 November 2016. ^ Bowra, C.M. (2000). Pindar. Oxford University Press. pp. 373–75. ^ a b c Harissis 2019 ^ Bommelaer, J.-F. (1991). Guide de Delphes: Le site. Paris: Laroche, D. pp. 207–212. ^ Delphi Theater at Ancient-Greece.org. ^ Bommelaer, J.-F. «Das Theater», in Maas, M. (ed), Delphi. Orakel am Nabel der Welt, Karlsruhe 1996, pp.95-105 ^ Mulliez, D., “Οι πυθικοί αγώνες. Οι μαρτυρίες των επιγραφών”, in Κολώνια, Ρ. (ed.), Αρχαία Θέατρα της Στερεάς Ελλάδας, Διάζωμα, Αθήνα 2013, 147-154 ^ http://www.diazoma.gr/200-Stuff-06-Theatres/DataSheet_Delfon.pdf ^ Χλέπα, Ε.-Α., Παπαντωνόπουλος, Κ., «Τεκμηρίωση και αποκατάσταση του αρχαίου θεάτρου Δελφών», in Κολώνια, Ρ. (ed.), Αρχαία Θέατρα της Στερεάς Ελλάδας, Διάζωμα, Αθήνα 2013, 173-198 ^ "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio: de Architectura, Book VII". University of Chicago. Retrieved 14 June 2017. ^ Delphi Stadium at Ancient-Greece.org. ^ Pindar: Pythian 3 ^ "Hippodrome of ancient Delphi located". archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 14 April 2018. ^ Manumission Wall at Ashes2Art; Manumission of female slaves at Delphi at attalus.org. ^ a b c Miller 2004, p. 98. ^ Harissis 2019, p. 89 ^ Lloyd-Jones 1976, p. 60 ^ Parke 1939, p. 6 ^ Graves, Robert (1993), "The Greek Myths: Complete Edition" (Penguin, Harmondsworth) ^ Herbert William Parke, The Delphic Oracle, v. 1, p. 3. ^ William Godwin (1876). Lives of the Necromancers. London, F. J. Mason. p. 11. ^ Hymn to Pythian Apollo, l. 254–74: Telphousa recommends to Apollo to build his oracle temple at the site of "Krisa below the glades of Parnassus". ^ Konstaninou, Ioanna "Delphi: the Oracle and its Role in the Political and Social Life of the Ancient Greeks" (Hannibal Publishing House, Athens) ^ LSJ s.v. πύθω. ^ a b Miller 2004, p. 95. ^ Fontenrose, Joseph (1978). The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations, with a Catalogue of Responses, pp. 3–4. ^ Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, v. III, pp. 8–10, onwards. ^ Odyssey, VIII, 80 ^ See e.g. Fearn 2007, p. 182 ^ Liritzis, I.; Castro, B. (2013). "Delphi and Cosmovision: Apollo's absence at the land of the hyperboreans and the time for consulting the oracle". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 16 (2): 184. Bibcode:2013JAHH...16..184L. ^ Castro, Belen; Liritzis, Ioannis; Nyquist, Anne (2015). "Oracular Functioning And Architecture of Five Ancient Apollo Temples Through Archaeastronomy: Novel Approach And Interpretation". Interpretation Nexus Network Journal, Architecture & Mathematics. 18 (2): 373. doi:10.1007/s00004-015-0276-2. ^ Spiller, Henry A.; Hale, John R.; de Boer, Jelle Z. (2002). "The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory" (PDF). Clinical Toxicology. 40 (2): 189–196. doi:10.1081/clt-120004410. PMID 12126193. S2CID 38994427. ^ John Roach (14 August 2001). "Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors". National Geographic. Retrieved 8 March 2007. ^ Spiller, Henry; de Boer, Jella; Hale, John R.; Chanton, Jeffery (2008). "Gaseous emissions at the site of the Delphic Oracle: Assessing the ancient evidence". Clinical Toxicology. 46 (5): 487–488. doi:10.1080/15563650701477803. PMID 18568810. S2CID 12441885. ^ Harissis, Haralampos V. (2014). "A Bittersweet Story: The True Nature of the Laurel of the Oracle of Delphi". Perspect. Biol. Med. 57 (3): 351–360. doi:10.1353/pbm.2014.0032. PMID 25959349. S2CID 9297573. Retrieved 27 November 2016. ^ Lewis Mumford, The City in History. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961; p. 140. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.56 ^ a b c Lampsas Giannis (1984) Dictionary of the Ancient World (Lexiko tou Archaiou Kosmou), Vol. I, Athens, Domi Publications, pp. 761-762 ^ Wood, Michael (2003). The road to Delphi : the life and afterlife of oracles (1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52610-9. OCLC 52090516. ^ a b c d Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Delphi". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. London; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 602. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. ^ Plato, Charmides 164d–165a. ^ Plato, Protagoras 343a–b at the Perseus Project. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Phocis and Ozolian Locri, 10.24.1 at the Perseus Project. ^ Hodge, A. Trevor. "The Mystery of Apollo's E at Delphi," American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 85, No. 1. (Jan., 1981), pp. 83–84. ^ H. Parke and D. Wormell, The Delphic Oracle, (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, pp. 387–389. ^ Parke & Wormell, p. 389. ^ a b c Cf. Seyffert, Dictionary of Classic Antiquities, article on "Delphic Oracle" ^ James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, pp 70–71, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0719539714 ^ Michael Grant; John Hazel (2 August 2004). Who's Who in Classical Mythology. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-134-50943-0. ^ Rodhe, E (1925), "Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks", trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000). p.97. ^ Stevens, Natalie L. C. (2009). "A New Reconstruction of the Etruscan Heaven". American Journal of Archaeology. 113 (2): 153–164. doi:10.3764/aja.113.2.153. JSTOR 20627565. ^ Entry: σμινθεύς Archived 2009-12-02 at the Wayback Machine at Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon ^ Pausanias 10.12.1 ^ Grecia. Guida d'Europa (in Italian). Milano: Touring Club Italiano. 1977. p. 126. ^ a b c d Miller 2004, p. 96. ^ Miller 2004, p. 97. ^ Burkert 1985, pp. 61, 84. ^ Chandler, R, Revett, N., Pars, W., Ionian Antiquities, London 1769 ^ Chandler, R, Revett, N., Pars, W., Inscriptiones antiquae, pleraeque nondum editae, in Asia Minore et Graecia, praesertim Athensis, collectae, Oxford, 1774 ^ Chandler, R, Revett, N., Pars, W., Travels in Asia Minor, Oxford, 1775. ^ Chandler, R, Revett, N., Pars, W., Travels in Greece, Oxford, 1776. ^ A classical and topographical tour through Greece, London 1819 ^ "Tarot of Delphi". www.aeclectic.net. Retrieved 14 April 2018. ^ Michelangelo (1509). Delphic Sibyl. Wikimedia Commons (painting). ^ John Collier (1891). The Priestess of Delphi (painting). ^ John William Waterhouse (1882). Consulting the Oracle. JWWaterhouse.com (painting). ^ Malin Lind (22 January 2013). The Oracle of Delphi. theshapeshifter.wordpress.com (ink on paper). Delphi – Art, creation of life. Retrieved 14 April 2018. Citation references[edit] Broad, William J. The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind its Lost Secrets, New York : Penguin, 2006. ISBN 1-59-420081-5. Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Connelly, Joan Breton, Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece, Princeton University Press, 2007. ISBN 0691127468 Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 (2018) "Ancient Evil" Dempsey, T., Reverend, The Delphic oracle, its early history, influence and fall, Oxford: B.H. Blackwell, 1918. Castro Belen, Liritzis Ioannis and Nyquist Anne (2015) Oracular Functioning And Architecture of Five Ancient Apollo Temples Through Archaeastronomy: Novel Approach And Interpretation Nexus Network Journal, Architecture & Mathematics, 18(2), 373-395 (DOI:10.1007/s00004-015-0276-2) Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, in five volumes, Clarendon Press, 1896–1909. (Cf. especially, volume III and volume IV on the Pythoness and Delphi). Fearn, David (2007). Bacchylides: Politics, Performance, Poetic Tradition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199215508. Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, The Delphic oracle, its responses and operations, with a catalogue of responses, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. ISBN 0520033604 Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python; a study of Delphic myth and its origins, New York, Biblio & Tannen, 1974. ISBN 081960285X Goodrich, Norma Lorre, Priestesses, New York: F. Watts, 1989. ISBN 0531151131 Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, The Greeks and their Gods, 1955. Hall, Manly Palmer, The Secret Teachings of All Ages, 1928. Ch. 14 cf. Greek Oracles, www, PRS Harissis H. 2015. “A Bittersweet Story: The True Nature of the Laurel of the Oracle of Delphi” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. Volume 57, Number 3, Summer 2014, pp. 295-298. Harissis, H. (2019). "Pindar's Paean 8 and the birth of the myth of the first temples of Delphi". Acta Classica: Proceedings of the Classical Association of South Africa. 62 (1): 78 - 123. Herodotus, The Histories Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo Kase, Edward W. (1970). A Study of the Role of Krisa in the Mycenaean Era (Master's Thesis). Loyola University. Docket 2467. Liritzis, I; Castro, Β (2013). "Delphi and Cosmovision: Apollo's absence at the land of the hyperboreans and the time for consulting the oracle". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 16 (2): 184–206. Bibcode:2013JAHH...16..184L. Lloyd-Jones, Hugh (1976). "The Delphic Oracle". Greece & Rome. 23 (1): 60–73. doi:10.1017/S0017383500018283. Manas, John Helen, Divination, ancient and modern, New York, Pythagorean Society, 1947. Miller, Stephen G. (2004). Ancient Greek Athletics. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Parke, Herbert William (1939). A history of the Delphic oracle. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Plutarch "Lives" Rohde, Erwin, Psyche, 1925. Seyffert, Oskar, "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities", London: W. Glaisher, 1895. Spiller, Henry A., John R. Hale, and Jelle Z. de Boer. "The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory." Clinical Toxicology 40.2 (2000) 189–196. Suess, Eduard (1904). Sollas, W J (ed.). The face of the earth (Das antlitz der erde). Volume I. Translated by Sollas, Hertha B C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Suess, Eduard (1906). Sollas, W J (ed.). The face of the earth (Das antlitz der erde). Volume II. Translated by Sollas, Hertha B C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Suess, Eduard (1908). Sollas, W J (ed.). The face of the earth (Das antlitz der erde). Volume III. Translated by Sollas, Hertha B C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Suess, Eduard (1909). Sollas, W J (ed.). The face of the earth (Das antlitz der erde). Volume IV. Translated by Sollas, Hertha B C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. West, Martin Litchfield, The Orphic Poems, 1983. ISBN 0-19-814854-2. Further reading[edit] Adornato, G (2008). "Delphic Enigmas? The Γέλας ἀνάσσων, Polyzalos, and the Charioteer Statue". American Journal of Archaeology. 112 (1): 29–55. doi:10.3764/aja.112.1.29. Davies, J. K. (1998). Finance, Administrations, and Realpolitik: The Case of Fourth-Century Delphi. In Modus Operandi: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey Rickman. Edited by M. Austin, J. Harries, and C. Smith, 1–14. London: Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Suppl. 71. Davies, John. (2007). "The Origins of the Festivals, especially Delphi and the Pythia." In Pindar’s Poetry, Patrons, and Festivals: From Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Catherine Morgan, 47–69. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Kindt, Julia. (2016). Revisiting Delphi: Religion and Storytelling in Ancient Greece. Cambridge Classical Studies. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Maurizio, Lisa (1997). "Delphic Oracles as Oral Performances: Authenticity and Historical Evidence". Classical Antiquity. 16 (2): 308–334. doi:10.2307/25011067. JSTOR 25011067. McInerney, Jeremy (2011). "Delphi and Phokis: A Network Theory Approach". Pallas. 87 (87): 95–106. doi:10.4000/pallas.1948. McInerney, Jeremy (1997). "Parnassus, Delphi, and the Thyiades". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 38 (3): 263–284. Morgan, Catherine. (1990). Athletes and Oracles. The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. Partida, Elena C. (2002). The Treasuries at Delphi: An Architectural Study. Jonsered, Denmark: Paul Åströms. Scott, Michael, Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014). ISBN 978-0-691-15081-9 Scott, Michael. (2010). Delphi and Olympia: The Spatial Politics of Panhellenism in the Archaic and Classical Periods. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Temple, Robert K.G., "Fables, Riddles, and Mysteries of Delphi", Proceedings of 4th Philosophical Meeting on Contemporary Problems, No 4, 1999 (Athens, Greece) In Greek and English. Weir, Robert G. (2004). Roman Delphi and its Pythian games. BAR Series 1306. Oxford: Hadrian. 5th-century evidence[edit] Petrides, P., 2010, La céramique protobyzantine de Delphes. Une production et son contexte, École française d’Athènes, Fouilles de Delphes V, Monuments figurés 4, Paris – Athènes. Petrides, P., Déroche, V., Badie, A., 2014,Delphes de l’Antiquité tardive. Secteur au Sud-est du Péribole, École française d’Athènes, Fouilles de Delphes II, Topographie et Architecture 15, Paris-Athènes. Petrides, P., 1997, «Delphes dans l’Antiquité tardive : première approche topographique et céramologique», BCH 121, pp. 681–695. Petrides, P., 2003, «Αteliers de potiers protobyzantins à Delphes », in Χ. ΜΠΑΚΙΡΤΖΗΣ (ed.), 7ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο Μεσαιωνικής Κεραμικής της Μεσογείου, Θεσσαλονίκη 11-16 Οκτωβρίου 1999, Πρακτικά, Αθήνα, pp. 443–446. Petrides, P., 2005, «Un exemple d’architecture civile en Grèce : les maisons protobyzantines de Delphes (IVe–VIIe s.)», Mélanges Jean-Pierre Sodini, Travaux et Mémoires 15, Paris, pp. 193–204. Petrides, P., Demou, J., 2011, « La redécouverte de Delphes protobyzantine », Pallas 87, pp. 267–281. External links[edit] Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Delphi. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Delphi. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Britannica 1911, Delphi E. Partida (2012). "Delphi Archaeological Museum". Odysseus. 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Administrative division of the Central Greece Region Area 15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi) Population 547,390 (as of 2011) Municipalities 25 (since 2011) Capital Lamia Regional unit of Boeotia Aliartos Distomo-Arachova-Antikyra Livadeia Orchomenos Tanagra Thebes Regional unit of Euboea Chalcis Dirfys-Messapia Eretria Istiaia-Aidipsos Karystos Kymi-Aliveri Mantoudi-Limni-Agia Anna Skyros Regional unit of Evrytania Agrafa Karpenisi Regional unit of Phocis Delphi Dorida Regional unit of Phthiotis Amfikleia-Elateia Domokos Lamia Lokroi Makrakomi Molos-Agios Konstantinos Stylida Regional governor Kostas Bakoyannis (since 2014) Decentralized Administration Thessaly and Central Greece v t e Subdivisions of the municipality of Delphi Municipal unit of Amfissa Agia Efthymia Agios Georgios Agios Konstantinos Amfissa Drosochori Elaionas Prosilio Sernikaki Municipal unit of Delphi Chrisso Delphi Municipal unit of Desfina Desfina Municipal unit of Galaxidi Agioi Pantes Galaxidi Penteoria Vounichora Municipal unit of Gravia Apostolias Gravia Kaloskopi Kastellia Mariolata Oinochori Sklithro Vargiani Municipal unit of Itea Itea Kirra Tritaia Municipal unit of Kallieis Athanasios Diakos Kastriotissa Mavrolithari Mousounitsa Panourgia Pyra Stromi Municipal unit of Parnassos Eptalofos Lilaia Polydrosos Authority control BNF: cb12010656x (data) GND: 4011390-5 LCCN: n85048705 NKC: ge128996 NLG: 288488 NLI: 001007460 PLWABN: 9810578652405606 SUDOC: 028228138 VIAF: 159033290 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n85048705 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delphi&oldid=999722921" Categories: World Heritage Sites in Greece Delphi Cities in ancient Greece Ancient Greek sanctuaries in Greece Classical oracles Temples of Apollo Former theatres in Greece Archaeological sites in Central Greece Tourist attractions in Central Greece Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Greece Phocis Ancient Delphi Populated places in Phocis Hidden categories: CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Articles containing Greek-language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019 Articles needing additional references from December 2019 All articles needing additional references Commons category link is locally defined Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC 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en-wikipedia-org-9918	----	Template talk:Greek myth (Hades) - Wikipedia Template talk:Greek myth (Hades) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome (Rated Template-class) v t e This template is within the scope of WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome, a group of contributors interested in Wikipedia's articles on classics. If you would like to join the WikiProject or learn how to contribute, please see our project page. If you need assistance from a classicist, please see our talk page.Classical Greece and RomeWikipedia:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeTemplate:WikiProject Classical Greece and RomeClassical Greece and Rome articles  Template  This template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.   Contents 1 Program 2 Percy Jackson??? 3 Possible glitch 4 Plutus and Zagreus are Residents Program[edit] But somthing is wrong with the program; the category box pushes up on the 2 revision before this one. So there's something wrong with the graphics.96.53.149.117 (talk) 17:08, 15 December 2008 (UTC) Percy Jackson???[edit] Should Percy Jackson really be counted among such people as Heracles and Odysseus? Even though he did visit the underworld, he isn't a Greek mythological figure. And if I am wrong and we are including EVERYBODY, classical or not, to have visited the underworld, shouldn't Homer Simpson be on the list as well? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.97.225.171 (talk) 16:08, 5 February 2012 (UTC) Possible glitch[edit] When Sisyphus is clicked on, it moves to the other side. I don't know why this is happening or how to correct this.DinoD123 (talk) 01:00, 25 February 2015 (UTC) I can't duplicate that. What exactly moves to the other side? Can you try to describe the problem with more details? When I click on the entry for Sisyphus in Template:Greek myth (Hades), my browser opens the article on that mythological figure. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 05:42, 25 February 2015 (UTC) Plutus and Zagreus are Residents[edit] This edit request has been answered. Set the |answered= or |ans= parameter to no to reactivate your request. I was hoping that Plutus and Zagreus could be added to the "Residents" section. Seeing as they are both considered to be children of Hades it only makes sense that they were probably born in the Underworld, or at the very least spent some time there. 161.29.246.205 (talk) 07:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC) Not done for now - the respective articles claim disputed parentage. Please raise this issue for each of therm on their respective article's talk page. Once there is consensus to do so, any "auto-confirmed" editor can modify this template. davidwr/(talk)/(contribs) 22:14, 15 November 2020 (UTC) Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Greek_myth_(Hades)&oldid=988896267" Categories: Template-Class Classical Greece and Rome articles NA-importance Classical Greece and Rome articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Template Talk Variants Views Read Edit New section View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages This page was last edited on 15 November 2020, at 22:14 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9925	----	J. Nigro Sansonese - Wikipedia J. Nigro Sansonese From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search J. Nigro Sansonese is the pen name of author Joseph Sansonese (born 13 May 1946). Biography[edit] J. Nigro Sansonese was born Joseph Sansonese in Buffalo, NY, where he attended Canisius High School. He was trained in physics and mathematics at Fordham University (Sc.B 1968) (Bronx, NY) and Brown University (Providence, RI). In 1996–97, he taught a course in the history of science at Stonehill College (Easton, MA) and from 2001–2009 courses in mathematics and science on St. Croix at the University of the Virgin Islands (Kingshill, VI). Over the course of 30 years he also taught mathematics and science at various high schools, public and private, in the United States and its territories. He retired from teaching in 2012. His main published work is The Body of Myth: Mythology, Shamanic Trance, and the Sacred Geography of the Body, ISBN 0-89281-409-8, a nonfiction work of some 400 pages on the relationship between mythology and human biology,[1] that appeared in 1994. He was co-screenwriter of Hurricane Festival, a 1997 feature film, with Chi Y. Lee.[2] His plays include The House on the Point, produced at the Hult Center for the Performing Arts, Eugene, OR, November 1985, and The Mill at Tour d'Ivoire, read at the Interstate Firehouse Cultural Center, North Portland, OR, September 1984, and the Greene Street Theater, New York City, April 1986. Works[edit] In addition to his work in print Sansonese has discussed his theory of mythopoesis (Gk., "story making") in a lengthy 1994 video interview with San Francisco psychologist Dr. Jeffrey Mishlove of Thinking Allowed (PBS).[3] Nigro Sansonese's mythology, elaborated in The Body of Myth: Mythology, Shamanic Trance, and the Sacred Geography of the Body (1994), might be summarized as follows: Early myth-making (before, say, 1000 BC) among archaic peoples—especially but not exclusively Indo-European speakers—may have originated in an esoteric oral cephelosophy or "skull wisdom" automatically imparted, primarily to young men at the age of puberty, in secret initiation rituals, during which a venerated ancestral skull may have been displayed for purposes of illustrating the meaning of a particular myth. The aboriginal inspiration for myth, Sansonese argues, lay in heightened awareness (see proprioception) of certain internal bodily activities important in religiously oriented meditation. The means of heightening proprioception are closely guarded meditative techniques orally communicated from teacher (adept) to student, in particular, techniques associated with respiration. Subject to numerous cultural contingencies, the techniques likely first appeared in history many thousands of years ago in the trance-inducing practices of shamans but became ever more systematized, refined, and clarified over time. Because the activities attended to in many meditative traditions, for example, respiration and heart rate, are physiologically fundamental to all human bodies everywhere, an explicit argument of the book is that a proprioceptive interpretation probably applies to all mythologies that are sufficiently archaic in origin, which he defines as no later than approximately 800 BC. About a quarter of the book focuses on interpreting the biblical narratives of Judaism and Christianity. A myth, then, according to Sansonese is a veiled, culturally conditioned description of a trance-inducing technique and resulting proprioceptions. Myths, therefore, on this view are (very) early attempts at articulating what, in 1945, Aldous Huxley called Perennial Philosophy, and simultaneously mystical and practical in their origins. Much of the practical aim of a myth is instruction in what Sansonese calls "the art of dying," a narrative prefiguring of the literal experience of somatic death, which is a matter of the practical mastery of an endocrinal event that he suggestively describes as a "pituitary catastrophe," in the sense that the pituitary gland initiates it. In Nigro Sansonese's view, death is an event triggered by the endocrine system.[4] In sum, Nigro Sansonese defines an "authentic myth" as "an esoteric description of a heightened proprioception,"[5] meaning a verbal description, albeit a necessarily imperfect one, of a literal experience undergone by an adept while in a trance state, which, very critically, must be distinguished from mere symbolism or metaphor. Understanding religious practice (praxis) eclipses understanding religious belief (dogma) in its importance for understanding both the origin and the meaning of a specific myth of sufficient antiquity (see also his lengthy discussion of the Eleusinian Mysteries). In deep meditation the region of the cranial sinciput, or forehead, is in emphasis, particularly the glabella, a fissure between the brows esoterically described in myth, Sansonese claims, as a portal or entry such as the Scæan Gate into Troy (see Book VI of The Iliad and passim) or the Hellespont on the way to Colchis, mythic locale of the Golden Fleece, to give just two of numerous examples cited. Another vivid illustration is the mythical figure Sisyphus (Greek: Σίσυφος, Sísyphos), king of Corinth, whose myth Sansonese explores in detail, and whose name, he suggests, is literally an onomatopoetic rendering of the sussurant sound ("siss phuss") the moving breath makes in the nostrils, the breath of course being an important object of meditative concentration (a bija in yoga). Repetitive inhalation–exhalation are described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and the boulder on a hill. Various animals, particularly strenuous breathers such as horses, swine, and asses, describe respiration in myth. The principle is widely distributed. For example, Jesus' entry into Jerusalem while riding on an ass' colt is a Semitic myth equivalent to Odysseus' entry into Troy inside a horse. As a compendium Sansonese provides five axioms to guide the interpretation of archaic mythopoesis. A critical contention of the book is that myths are not so much symbols natural to human ideation, as Carl Jung proposed in 1933, as they are culture-specific, esoteric descriptions of somatic activity proprioceived during exalted trance states, for example, those attained through, but not limited to, yoga (see also samyama and pranayama).[6] Nigro Sansonese's work also has relevance to the scientific study of consciousness, specifically, by proposing that an implicit epistemology—namely, a description of knowledge that is in its nature, i.e., essentially, a priori, also known as consciousness—unavoidably orders the fundamental laws of physics differentially, from the (macroscopically) perceived and proprioceived 17th-century mechanics of Isaac Newton to the indispensability of mathematics in the 20th-century quantum mechanics of Werner Heisenberg. That development was interpreted by Sansonese as one of successively elaborating a physics originally based on empirical knowledge obtained via proprioception and perception into a physics that is a conformal map onto the psychodynamics of cognition. A succinct summary of that assertion would be "Ontology is epistemology: Every state of being is ipso facto a state of knowing." On such a view, quantum mechanics arguably might be said to be more "meta-physics" than physics.[7] References[edit] ^ Yoga Journal. Active Interest Media, Inc. March–April 1995. p. 136. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ "Hurricane Festival (1998) - Cast and Crew". AllMovie. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ Dr. Jeffrey Mishlove (December 1994). "Excerpt from Interview with J. Nigro Sansonese". Retrieved September 11, 2013. ^ Interviewed by Joshua Schrei on The Emerald, Nos. 12, 23 (2019), 30 (2020). [1] ^ Dr. Georg Feuerstein (Autumn 1995), review: The Body of Myth, Quest (Theosophical magazine), 8:3, p. 91. ^ http://junginvermont.blogspot.com/2010/02/body-and-archetype-presentation.html. Clinical Perspectives: Body and Archetype, Luanne Sberna, February 1, 2010 (The C.G. Jung Society of Vermont), Retrieved April 29, 2014. ^ Dr. Michael F. Heiman (December 1997). "Book Forum: The Body of Myth" (PDF). Am J Psychiatry. pp. 1782–1784. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2013. Retrieved September 11, 2013. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J._Nigro_Sansonese&oldid=990089549" Categories: 1946 births Living people Writers from Buffalo, New York 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers American male non-fiction writers 20th-century American dramatists and playwrights American male dramatists and playwrights Fordham University alumni Brown University alumni Stonehill College University of the Virgin Islands faculty Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages Add links This page was last edited on 22 November 2020, at 19:20 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikipedia-org-9938	----	Classicism - Wikipedia Classicism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Art movement and architectural style For the branch of study in the humanities, see Classics. Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784, an icon of Neoclassicism in painting Part of a series on Classicism Classical antiquity Greco-Roman world Age of Enlightenment Neoclassicism Economics Music Physics 20th-century neoclassicism Between World War I and II Ballet Economics Music Philosophy v t e Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. In its purest form, classicism is an aesthetic attitude dependent on principles based in the culture, art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, with the emphasis on form, simplicity, proportion, clarity of structure, perfection, restrained emotion, as well as explicit appeal to the intellect.[1] The art of classicism typically seeks to be formal and restrained: of the Discobolus Sir Kenneth Clark observed, "if we object to his restraint and compression we are simply objecting to the classicism of classic art. A violent emphasis or a sudden acceleration of rhythmic movement would have destroyed those qualities of balance and completeness through which it retained until the present century its position of authority in the restricted repertoire of visual images."[2] Classicism, as Clark noted, implies a canon of widely accepted ideal forms, whether in the Western canon that he was examining in The Nude (1956), or the literary Chinese classics or Chinese art, where the revival of classic styles is also a recurring feature. Classicism is a force which is often present in post-medieval European and European influenced traditions; however, some periods felt themselves more connected to the classical ideals than others, particularly the Age of Enlightenment,[3] when Neoclassicism was an important movement in the visual arts. Contents 1 General term 2 In the theatre 3 In architecture 4 In the fine arts 5 Political philosophy 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links General term[edit] Fountain of the Four Rivers, Bernini, 1651. Classicist door in Olomouc, The Czech Republic. Classicism is a specific genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources and an emphasis on society. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism[4] of the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. There was another, more durable revival in the Italian renaissance when the fall of Byzantium and rising trade with the Islamic cultures brought a flood of knowledge about, and from, the antiquity of Europe. Until that time, the identification with antiquity had been seen as a continuous history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, and formalism. Importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or "paganism", and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to, a different sense of what was "classical" in the 16th and 17th centuries. In this period, classicism took on more overtly structural overtones of orderliness, predictability, the use of geometry and grids, the importance of rigorous discipline and pedagogy, as well as the formation of schools of art and music. The court of Louis XIV was seen as the center of this form of classicism, with its references to the gods of Olympus as a symbolic prop for absolutism, its adherence to axiomatic and deductive reasoning, and its love of order and predictability. This period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm. Examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals and divided works into Tragedy [5] and Comedy. Studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. The Renaissance also explicitly returned to architectural models and techniques associated with Greek and Roman antiquity, including the golden rectangle[6] as a key proportion for buildings, the classical orders of columns, as well as a host of ornament and detail associated with Greek and Roman architecture. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, and used the classical naturalism as the foundation of drawing, painting and sculpture. The Age of Enlightenment identified itself with a vision of antiquity which, while continuous with the classicism of the previous century, was shaken by the physics of Sir Isaac Newton, the improvements in machinery and measurement, and a sense of liberation which they saw as being present in the Greek civilization, particularly in its struggles against the Persian Empire. The ornate, organic, and complexly integrated forms of the baroque were to give way to a series of movements that regarded themselves expressly as "classical" or "neo-classical", or would rapidly be labelled as such. For example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art.[7] The 19th century saw the classical age as being the precursor of academicism, including such movements as uniformitarianism in the sciences, and the creation of rigorous categories in artistic fields. Various movements of the Romantic period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity, for example the Pre-Raphaelites.[8] By this point, classicism was old enough that previous classical movements received revivals; for example, the Renaissance was seen as a means to combine the organic medieval with the orderly classical. The 19th century continued or extended many classical programs in the sciences, most notably the Newtonian program to account for the movement of energy between bodies by means of exchange of mechanical and thermal energy. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts and sciences. Classicism was used both by those who rejected, or saw as temporary, transfigurations in the political, scientific, and social world and by those who embraced the changes as a means to overthrow the perceived weight of the 19th century. Thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled "classical" and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. In the present day philosophy classicism is used as a term particularly in relation to Apollonian over Dionysian impulses in society and art; that is a preference for rationality, or at least rationally guided catharsis, over emotionalism. In the theatre[edit] Molière in classical dress, by Nicolas Mignard, 1658. Classicism in the theatre was developed by 17th century French playwrights from what they judged to be the rules of Greek classical theatre, including the "Classical unities" of time, place and action, found in the Poetics of Aristotle. Unity of time referred to the need for the entire action of the play to take place in a fictional 24-hour period Unity of place meant that the action should unfold in a single location Unity of action meant that the play should be constructed around a single 'plot-line', such as a tragic love affair or a conflict between honour and duty. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Molière. In the period of Romanticism, Shakespeare, who conformed to none of the classical rules, became the focus of French argument over them, in which the Romantics eventually triumphed; Victor Hugo was among the first French playwrights to break these conventions.[9] The influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and William Congreve would have been familiar with them. William Shakespeare and his contemporaries did not follow this Classicist philosophy, in particular since they were not French and also because they wrote several decades prior to their establishment. Those of Shakespeare's plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest,[10] probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. In architecture[edit] Main articles: Classical architecture and Outline of classical architecture Villa Rotonda, Palladio, 1591 Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and the work of Filippo Brunelleschi.[11] It places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical antiquity and, in particular, the architecture of Ancient Rome, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders and Andrea Palladio's legacy evolved into the long tradition of Palladian architecture. Building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones[12] and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture. In the fine arts[edit] For Greek art of the 5th century B.C.E., see Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting[13] and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realized product with Raphael's School of Athens during the High Renaissance. The themes continued largely unbroken into the 17th century, when artists such as Nicolas Poussin and Charles Le Brun represented of the more rigid classicism. Like Italian classicizing ideas in the 15th and 16th centuries, it spread through Europe in the mid to late 17th century. Later classicism in painting and sculpture from the mid-18th and 19th centuries is generally referred to as Neoclassicism. Political philosophy[edit] Classicism in political philosophy dates back to the ancient Greeks. Western political philosophy is often attributed to the great Greek philosopher Plato. Although political theory of this time starts with Plato, it quickly becomes complex when Plato's pupil, Aristotle, formulates his own ideas.[14] "The political theories of both philosophers are closely tied to their ethical theories, and their interest is in questions concerning constitutions or forms of government."[14] However, Plato and Aristotle are not the seedbed but simply the seeds that grew from a seedbed of political predecessors who had debated this topic for centuries before their time. For example, Herodotus sketched out a debate between Theseus, a king of the time, and Creon's messenger. The debate simply shows proponents of democracy, monarchy, and oligarchy and how they all feel about these forms of government. Herodotus' sketch is just one of the beginning seedbeds for which Plato and Aristotle grew their own political theories.[14] Another Greek philosopher who was pivotal in the development of Classical political philosophy was Socrates. Although he was not a theory-builder, he often stimulated fellow citizens with paradoxes that challenged them to reflect on their own beliefs.[14] Socrates thought "the values that ought to determine how individuals live their lives should also shape the political life of the community."[14] he believed the people of Athens involved wealth and money too much into the politics of their city. He judged the citizens for the way they amassed wealth and power over simple things like projects for their community.[14] Just like Plato and Aristotle, Socrates did not come up with these ideas alone. Socrates ideals stem back from Protagoras and other 'sophists'. These 'teachers of political arts' were the first to think and act as Socrates did. Where the two diverge is in the way they practiced their ideals. Protagoras' ideals were loved by Athens. Whereas Socrates challenged and pushed the citizens and he was not as loved.[14] In the end, ancient Greece is to be credited with the foundation of Classical political philosophy. See also: Classical republicanism See also[edit] Classical tradition Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns Weimar Classicism References[edit] ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 112. ^ Clark, The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form 1956:242 ^ Walters, Kerry (September 2011). "JOURNAL ARTICLE Review". Church History. 80 (3): 691–693. doi:10.1017/S0009640711000990. JSTOR 41240671. ^ Johnson, James William (1969). "What Was Neo-Classicism?". Journal of British Studies. 9 (1): 49–70. doi:10.1086/385580. JSTOR 175167. ^ Bakogianni, Anastasia (2012). "Theatre of the Condemned. Classical Tragedy on Greek Prison Islands by G. VAN STEEN". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 132: 294–296. doi:10.1017/S0075426912001140. JSTOR 41722362. ^ Palmer, Lauren (2015-10-02). "History of the Golden Ratio in Art". artnet News. Retrieved 2019-10-28. ^ Galitz, Kathryn (October 2004). "The Legacy of Jacques Louis David (1748–1825)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2019-10-28. ^ "JOURNAL ARTICLE The Pre-Raphaelites". Bulletin of the Fogg Art Museum. 10 (2): 62–63. November 1943. JSTOR 4301128. ^ NASH, SUZANNE (2006). "Casting Hugo into History". Nineteenth-Century French Studies. 35 (1): 189–205. ISSN 0146-7891. JSTOR 23538386. ^ Pierce, Robert B. (Spring 1999). "Understanding "The Tempest"". New Literary History. 30 (2): 373–388. doi:10.1353/nlh.1999.0028. JSTOR 20057542. S2CID 144654529. ^ Department of European Paintings (October 2002). "Architecture in Renaissance Italy". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2019-10-28. ^ Anderson, Christy (1997). "Masculine and Unaffected: Inigo Jones and the Classical Ideal". Art Journal. 56 (2): 48–54. doi:10.2307/777678. ISSN 0004-3249. JSTOR 777678. ^ Larsen, Michael (March 1978). "Italian Renaissance Painting by John Hale". Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. 126 (5260): 243–244. JSTOR 41372753. ^ a b c d e f g Devereux, Daniel (2011-09-02). Klosko, George (ed.). "Classical Political Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199238804.003.0007. Further reading[edit] Kallendorf, Craig (2007). A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405122948. Retrieved 2012-05-06. Essays by various authors on topics related to historical periods, places, and themes. 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en-wikipedia-org-9977	----	Sisyphus (dialogue) - Wikipedia Sisyphus (dialogue) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy The dialogues of Plato Early: Apology Charmides Crito Euthyphro Hippias Minor Ion Laches Lysis Transitional and middle: Cratylus Euthydemus Gorgias Menexenus Meno Phaedo Protagoras Symposium Later middle: Parmenides Phaedrus Republic Theaetetus Late: Critias Laws Philebus Sophist Statesman Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity: Axiochus Clitophon Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Other works of doubtful authenticity: Definitions Epigrams Epistles Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e The Sisyphus (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Greek: Σίσυφος) is purported to be one of the dialogues of Plato. The dialogue is extant and was included in the Stephanus edition published in Geneva in 1578. It is now generally acknowledged to be spurious. The work probably dates from the fourth century BCE, and the author was presumably a pupil of Plato.[1] Contents 1 Synopsis 2 Dating 3 Notes 4 External links Synopsis[edit] It is a dialogue between Socrates and Sisyphus. Sisyphus believes that deliberation allows one to find the best course of action, but Socrates is puzzled by what deliberation is, and why it is supposed to be different from guesswork. By the end of the dialogue, it becomes clear that Sisyphus does not know what deliberation is.[1] The dialogue seems to engage with an idea of good deliberation (euboulia) for which Isocrates was a noted exponent.[1][2] The author uses the term dialegesthai[3] in an un-Platonic fashion to refer, not to dialectic, but to what Plato considered eristic.[4] Dating[edit] Carl Werner Müller [de] argues that the Sisyphus can be dated securely to the middle third of the fourth century BC, and, assuming that the reference to "Callistratus"[5] is to Callistratus of Aphidnae, to the period between Callistratus' death sentence in 361 and his execution (by 350), when no one needed to ask "Who is Callistratus?" but Callistratus' constantly changing location in exile made "Where is Callistratus?" a real question.[6] Francesco Aronadio also dates the work to Plato's lifetime and places it within the circle of the Academy.[7] Schleiermacher had opined that the Sisyphus could perhaps have been produced in the Megarian school.[8] The dialogue is freely paraphrased in Dio Chrysostom's On Deliberation (oration 26), the earliest instance of a famous author making reference to a work of the Appendix Platonica (notheuomenoi).[9] Notes[edit] ^ a b c D.S. Hutchinson, introduction to "Sisyphus," in John M. Cooper and D. S. Hutchinson (eds.), Plato, Complete works, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997, pp. 1707-8. ^ Carl Werner Müller, Die Kurzdialoge der Appendix Platonica, Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1975, pp. 79-82. ^ Pseudo-Plato, Sisyphus, 338d8, 390b6 ^ Müller 1975, p. 104 ^ Pseudo-Plato, Sisyphus, 388c ^ Müller 1975, p. 103 ^ John M. Dillon, review of F. Aronadio, Dialoghi spuri di Platone (Turin, 2008), in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.03.05. ^ Friedrich Schleiermacher, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988, part 1 (Schriften und Entwürfe), vol. 3 (Schriften aus der Berliner Zeit, 1800-1802), p. 366. ^ C.W. Müller, "Appendix Platonica und Neue Akademie: Die pseudoplatonischen Dialoge Über die Tugend und Alkyon," in Döring, Erler, and Schorn (eds.), Pseudoplatonica (Stuttgart, 2005), p. 155. External links[edit] Sisyphus translated by George Burges Free public domain audiobook version of Sisyphus translated by George Burges Apocrypha public domain audiobook at LibriVox. Collection includes Sisyphus. George Burges, translator (1855). v t e Socrates General Trial of Socrates Concepts Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning Legacy Socratic problem Socratici viri Phrases "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" Related Euthyphro dilemma Form of the Good Peritrope Religious skepticism Family Sophroniscus (father) Phaenarete (mother) Xanthippe (wife) Lamprocles (son) Menexenus (son) Myrto (wife) Works about Socrates Art Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd century sculpture) The Death of Socrates (1787 painting) Socrates (1950 sculpture) Stage The Clouds (423 BC play) Der geduldige Socrates (1721 opera) Socrates (1759 play) Socrate (1919 oratorio) Socrates on Trial (2007 play) Literature De genio Socratis (1st century essay) On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis) The Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel) Other Barefoot in Athens (1966 film) Socrates (1971 film) Dialogues Plato Apology Axiochus Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hipparchus Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Laws Lysis Menexenus Meno Minos On Justice On Virtue Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Theages Timaeus Xenophon Apology Memorabilia Oeconomicus Symposium Other Halcyon Socratic Letters Category v t e Plato General Early life Concepts Platonism Platonic epistemology Platonic idealism Platonic realism Innatism Platonic love Cardinal virtues Demiurge Theory of Forms Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Theory of soul Philosopher king Platonic solid True name Agathos kai sophos Khôra Metaxy Peritrope Philotimon Poiesis Psychagogy Sophrosyne Theia mania Topos hyperuranios Legacy Unwritten doctrines Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Works Uncontested Apology Charmides Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro Gorgias Hippias Minor Ion Laches Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228 Laws Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 23 Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 229 Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtful authenticity Axiochus Clitophon Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Letter I II IV V VI VII IX X XI XII Eryxias First Alcibiades Halcyon Hipparchus Hippias Major Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Allegorical interpretations of Plato Family Ariston of Athens (father) Pyrilampes (stepfather) Perictione (mother) Adeimantus of Collytus (brother) Glaucon (brother) Antiphon (brother) Potone (sister) Speusippus (nephew) Related Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Plato's Dream Poitier Meets Plato List of speakers in Plato's dialogues List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Authority control GND: 4477529-5 LCCN: no2004101681 VIAF: 305856929 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 305856929 This article about a philosophy-related book is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus_(dialogue)&oldid=992283701" Categories: Dialogues of Plato Socratic dialogues Philosophy book stubs Hidden categories: Articles containing Greek-language text Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers All stub articles Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Català Deutsch Français Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Português Edit links This page was last edited on 4 December 2020, at 13:49 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikiquote-org-158	----	Sisyphus - Wikiquote Sisyphus From Wikiquote Jump to navigation Jump to search The fight itself towards the summits suffices to fill a heart of man; it is necessary to imagine Sisyphus happy. ~ Albert Camus In Greek mythology Sisyphus (Greek: Σίσυφος) was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down, repeating this action for eternity. This theme article is a stub. You can help Wikiquote by expanding it. Quotes[edit] The history of philosophy records a series of defeats, resulting in final and complete disaster. Twenty centuries of herculean labors, performed by the greatest intellects the race produced during that period, and philosophy ends where philosophy began — the will-o'-the-wisp it pursues is as far beyond the reach of Kant as it was of Plato. Round and round it moves in a fatal circle from which there is no exit. It builds its imposing temples on foundations of sand, and no sooner is the capstone planted in triumph than the entire superstructive falls into ruin. Philosophy, never daunted, rolls her Sisyphus stone to the very summit of the mountain and then, when victory seems assured, back it tumbles to the starting point. Arthur M. Lewis, Ten blind leaders of the blind 1910 p. 47 We spend our lives fighting to get people very slightly more stupid than ourselves to accept truths that the great men have always known. They have known for thousands of years that to lock a sick person into solitary confinement makes him worse. They have known for thousands of years that a poor man who is frightened of his landlord and of the police is a slave. They have known it. We know it. But do the great enlightened mass of the British people know it? No. It is our task, Ella, yours and mine, to tell them. Because the great men are too great to be bothered. They are already discovering how to colonise Venus and to irrigate the moon. That is what is important for our time. You and I are the boulder-pushers. All our lives, you and I, we’ll put all our energies, all our talents into pushing a great boulder up a mountain. The boulder is the truth that the great men know by instinct, and the mountain is the stupidity of mankind. Doris Lessing, The Golden Notebook (1962), p. 182 The Myth of Sisyphus (1942)[edit] Opinions differ as to the reasons why he became the futile laborer of the underworld. To begin with, he is accused of a certain levity in regard to the gods. "The Myth of Sisyphus ", essay in The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) by Albert Camus The gods had condemned Sisyphus to ceaselessly rolling a rock to the top of a mountain, whence the stone would fall back of its own weight. They had thought with some reason that there is no more dreadful punishment than futile and hopeless labor. Opinions differ as to the reasons why he became the futile laborer of the underworld. To begin with, he is accused of a certain levity in regard to the gods. He stole their secrets. Homer tells us also that Sisyphus had put Death in chains. Pluto could not endure the sight of his deserted, silent empire. He dispatched the god of war, who liberated Death from the hands of her conqueror. You have already grasped that Sisyphus is the absurd hero. He is, as much through his passions as through his torture. His scorn of the gods, his hatred of death, and his passion for life won him that unspeakable penalty in which the whole being is exerted toward accomplishing nothing. This is the price that must be paid for the passions of this earth. Nothing is told us about Sisyphus in the underworld. Myths are made for the imagination to breathe life into them. I leave Sisyphus at the foot of the mountain! One always finds one's burden again. But Sisyphus teaches the higher fidelity that negates the gods and raises rocks. He too concludes that all is well. This universe henceforth without a master seems to him neither sterile nor futile. Each atom of that stone, each mineral flake of that night filled mountain, in itself forms a world. The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy. Original French: La lutte elle-même vers les sommets suffit à remplir un cœur d'homme; il faut imaginer Sisyphe heureux. Variant translation: The fight itself towards the summits suffices to fill a heart of man; it is necessary to imagine Sisyphus happy. External links[edit] Wikipedia has an article about: Sisyphus Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sisyphus Retrieved from "https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=2744392" Category: Theme stubs Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Village pump Recent changes Random page Help Donate Contact Wikiquote Wikiquote links People Literary works Proverbs Films TV shows Themes Categories Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia In other languages Italiano Lietuvių Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 18 February 2020, at 03:47. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikiquote Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikiquote-org-7561	----	Sisyphus - Wikiquote Sisyphus From Wikiquote Jump to navigation Jump to search The fight itself towards the summits suffices to fill a heart of man; it is necessary to imagine Sisyphus happy. ~ Albert Camus In Greek mythology Sisyphus (Greek: Σίσυφος) was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down, repeating this action for eternity. This theme article is a stub. You can help Wikiquote by expanding it. Quotes[edit] The history of philosophy records a series of defeats, resulting in final and complete disaster. Twenty centuries of herculean labors, performed by the greatest intellects the race produced during that period, and philosophy ends where philosophy began — the will-o'-the-wisp it pursues is as far beyond the reach of Kant as it was of Plato. Round and round it moves in a fatal circle from which there is no exit. It builds its imposing temples on foundations of sand, and no sooner is the capstone planted in triumph than the entire superstructive falls into ruin. Philosophy, never daunted, rolls her Sisyphus stone to the very summit of the mountain and then, when victory seems assured, back it tumbles to the starting point. Arthur M. Lewis, Ten blind leaders of the blind 1910 p. 47 We spend our lives fighting to get people very slightly more stupid than ourselves to accept truths that the great men have always known. They have known for thousands of years that to lock a sick person into solitary confinement makes him worse. They have known for thousands of years that a poor man who is frightened of his landlord and of the police is a slave. They have known it. We know it. But do the great enlightened mass of the British people know it? No. It is our task, Ella, yours and mine, to tell them. Because the great men are too great to be bothered. They are already discovering how to colonise Venus and to irrigate the moon. That is what is important for our time. You and I are the boulder-pushers. All our lives, you and I, we’ll put all our energies, all our talents into pushing a great boulder up a mountain. The boulder is the truth that the great men know by instinct, and the mountain is the stupidity of mankind. Doris Lessing, The Golden Notebook (1962), p. 182 The Myth of Sisyphus (1942)[edit] Opinions differ as to the reasons why he became the futile laborer of the underworld. To begin with, he is accused of a certain levity in regard to the gods. "The Myth of Sisyphus ", essay in The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) by Albert Camus The gods had condemned Sisyphus to ceaselessly rolling a rock to the top of a mountain, whence the stone would fall back of its own weight. They had thought with some reason that there is no more dreadful punishment than futile and hopeless labor. Opinions differ as to the reasons why he became the futile laborer of the underworld. To begin with, he is accused of a certain levity in regard to the gods. He stole their secrets. Homer tells us also that Sisyphus had put Death in chains. Pluto could not endure the sight of his deserted, silent empire. He dispatched the god of war, who liberated Death from the hands of her conqueror. You have already grasped that Sisyphus is the absurd hero. He is, as much through his passions as through his torture. His scorn of the gods, his hatred of death, and his passion for life won him that unspeakable penalty in which the whole being is exerted toward accomplishing nothing. This is the price that must be paid for the passions of this earth. Nothing is told us about Sisyphus in the underworld. Myths are made for the imagination to breathe life into them. I leave Sisyphus at the foot of the mountain! One always finds one's burden again. But Sisyphus teaches the higher fidelity that negates the gods and raises rocks. He too concludes that all is well. This universe henceforth without a master seems to him neither sterile nor futile. Each atom of that stone, each mineral flake of that night filled mountain, in itself forms a world. The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy. Original French: La lutte elle-même vers les sommets suffit à remplir un cœur d'homme; il faut imaginer Sisyphe heureux. Variant translation: The fight itself towards the summits suffices to fill a heart of man; it is necessary to imagine Sisyphus happy. External links[edit] Wikipedia has an article about: Sisyphus Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sisyphus Retrieved from "https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=2744392" Category: Theme stubs Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Village pump Recent changes Random page Help Donate Contact Wikiquote Wikiquote links People Literary works Proverbs Films TV shows Themes Categories Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia In other languages Italiano Lietuvių Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 18 February 2020, at 03:47. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikiquote Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-3234	----	The New International Encyclopædia/Sisyphus - Wikisource, the free online library The New International Encyclopædia/Sisyphus From Wikisource < The New International Encyclopædia Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Śiśupāla The New International Encyclopædia Sisyphus Sītā→ Edition of 1905. See also Sisyphus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer. 2074858The New International Encyclopædia — Sisyphus SIS′YPHUS (Lat., from Gk. Σίσυφος). In Greek legend, the son of Æolus and Enarete. According to the earlier myth he was married to Merope, but later tradition made him the father of Odysseus by Anticlea. From this the patronymic Sisyphides was applied to the hero of the Odyssey. He is said to have been the founder and King of Ephyra, afterwards Corinth, and became notorious as a fraudulent, avaricious, and wicked ruler. For this wickedness during life he was punished in the lower world by being condemned to roll from the bottom to the summit of a hill an immense boulder which, whenever it reached the top, rolled down again, and compelled him to begin his task anew. Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_New_International_Encyclopædia/Sisyphus&oldid=6289424" Hidden categories: NIE no volume Subpages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 20 June 2016, at 20:54. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikisource Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wikisource-org-3245	----	1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sisyphus - Wikisource, the free online library 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sisyphus From Wikisource < 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Jump to navigation Jump to search ←Sistrum 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 25 Sisyphus Sitapur→ sister projects: Wikidata item. See also Sisyphus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. 4072371911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 25 — Sisyphus ​SISYPHUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus and Enarete, and king of Ephyra (Corinth). He was the father of the sea-god Glaucus and (in post-Homeric legend) of Odysseus. He was said to have founded the Isthmian games in honour of Melicertes, whose body he found lying on the shore of the Isthmus of Corinth (Apollodorus iii. 4). He promoted navigation and commerce, but was avaricious and deceitful. From Homer onwards Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. When Death came to fetch him, Sisyphus put him into fetters, so that no one died till Ares came and freed Death, and delivered Sisyphus into his custody. But Sisyphus was not yet at the end of his resources. For before he died he told his wife that when he was gone she was not to offer the usual sacrifice to the dead. So in the under world he complained that his wife was neglecting her duty, and he persuaded Hades to allow him to go back to the upper world and expostulate with her. But when he got back to Corinth he positively refused to return, until forcibly carried off by Hermes (Schol. on Pindar, Ol. i. 97). In the under world Sisyphus was compelled to roll a big stone up a steep hill; but before it reached the top of the hill the stone always rolled down, and Sisyphus had to begin all over again (Odyssey, xi. 593). The reason for this punishment is not mentioned in Homer, and is obscure; according to some, he had revealed the designs of the gods to mortals, according to others, he was in the habit of attacking and murdering travellers. The subject was a commonplace of ancient writers, and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi (Pausanias x. 31). According to the solar theory, Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day and then sinks below the horizon. Others see in him a personification of the waves rising to a height and then suddenly falling, or of the treacherous sea. It is suggested by Welcker that the legend is symbolical of the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge. The name Sisyphus is generally explained as a reduplicated form of σοφός ( = “the very wise”); Gruppe, however, thinks it may be connected with σίσυς (“a goat's skin”), the reference being to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used. S. Reinach (Revue archéologique, 1904) finds the origin of the story in a picture, in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone up Acrocorinthus, symbolical of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. When a distinction was made between the souls in the under world, Sisyphus was supposed to be rolling up the stone perpetually as a punishment for some offence committed on earth; and various reasons were invented to account for it. The way in which Sisyphus cheated Death is not unique in folk-tales. Thus in a Venetian story the ingenious Beppo ties up Death in a bag and keeps him there for eighteen months; there is general rejoicing; nobody dies, and the doctors are in high feather. In a Sicilian story an innkeeper corks up Death in a bottle; so nobody dies for years, and the long white beards are a sight to see. In another Sicilian story a monk keeps Death in his pouch for forty years (T. F. Crane, Italian Popular Tales, 1885). The German parallel is Gambling Hansel, who kept Death up a tree for seven years, during which no one died (Grimm, Household Tales). The Norse parallel is the tale of the Master Smith (E. W. Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse). For a Lithuanian parallel, see A. Schleicher, Litauische Märchen, Sprichworte, Rätsel und Lieder (1857); for Slavonic parallels, F. S. Krauss, Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven, ii. Nos. 125, 126; see also Frazer's Pausanias, iii. p. 33; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021, note 2. Retrieved from "https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Sisyphus&oldid=10507394" Category: EB1911:Culture:Mythology Hidden category: Subpages Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Central discussion Recent changes Subject index Authors Random work Random author Random transcription Help Donate Display Options Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Download/print Compile a book Printable version Download EPUB Download MOBI Download PDF Other formats In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 14 October 2020, at 22:00. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. 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en-wiktionary-org-3768	----	futile - Wiktionary futile Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 English 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Pronunciation 1.3 Adjective 1.3.1 Synonyms 1.3.2 Antonyms 1.3.3 Related terms 1.3.4 Translations 2 French 2.1 Etymology 2.2 Pronunciation 2.3 Adjective 2.3.1 Related terms 2.4 Further reading 3 Italian 3.1 Etymology 3.2 Pronunciation 3.3 Adjective 3.3.1 Derived terms 3.3.2 Related terms 3.4 Anagrams 3.5 References 4 Latin 4.1 Etymology 1 4.1.1 Alternative forms 4.1.2 Adverb 4.1.2.1 Synonyms 4.2 Etymology 2 4.2.1 Adjective 4.3 References English[edit] Etymology[edit] From Middle French futile, from Latin fūtilis. Pronunciation[edit] (UK) IPA(key): /ˈfjuː.taɪl/ (US) IPA(key): /ˈfju.taɪ.əl/, /ˈfju.təl/ Rhymes: -uːtəl (US) Adjective[edit] futile (comparative more futile, superlative most futile) Incapable of producing results; doomed not to be successful; not worth attempting. 1898, Winston Churchill, chapter 4, in The Celebrity: No matter how early I came down, I would find him on the veranda, smoking cigarettes, or […] . And at last I began to realize in my harassed soul that all elusion was futile, and to take such holidays as I could get, when he was off with a girl, in a spirit of thankfulness. 1915, G[eorge] A. Birmingham [pseudonym; James Owen Hannay], chapter I, in Gossamer, New York, N.Y.: George H. Doran Company, OCLC 5661828: There is an hour or two, after the passengers have embarked, which is disquieting and fussy. […] Stewards, carrying cabin trunks, swarm in the corridors. Passengers wander restlessly about or hurry, with futile energy, from place to place. 2011 December 15, Marc Higginson, “Shamrock Rovers 0-4 Tottenham”, in BBC Sport: Goals from Steven Pienaar, Andros Townsend, Jermain Defoe and Harry Kane sealed the win, but Rubin Kazan's 1-1 draw against PAOK Salonika rendered Spurs' efforts futile. Synonyms[edit] useless, see also Thesaurus:futile Antonyms[edit] effectual effective fruitful Related terms[edit] futility futilitarian Translations[edit] incapable of producing results Arabic: عَقِيم‎ (ʿaqīm) Armenian: please add this translation if you can Belarusian: бескары́сны (be) (bjeskarýsny), дарэ́мны (be) (darémny) Bulgarian: безполе́зен (bg) (bezpolézen), напра́зен (bg) (naprázen), безуспе́шен (bg) (bezuspéšen) Burmese: အချည်းနှီးဖြစ်သေ (a.hkyany:hni:hpracse), အလဟဿဖြစ်သော (a.la.ha.ssa.hpracsau:) Catalan: fútil (ca) Cherokee: ᎤᏚᎩᏄᏛᎾ (uduginudvna) Chinese: Mandarin: 無用 (zh), 无用 (zh) (wúyòng), 枉然 (zh) (wǎngrán), 無益 (zh), 无益 (zh) (wúyì) Czech: jalový Danish: nytteløs (da) Dhivehi: please add this translation if you can Dutch: nutteloos (nl) Esperanto: please add this translation if you can Estonian: kasutu, tulutu Faroese: nyttuleysur Finnish: turha (fi), tulokseton (fi), toivoton (fi); katteeton (fi) (of a promise) French: futile (fr) Galician: fútil (gl) Georgian: ფუჭი (puč̣i), ამაო (amao) German: sinnlos (de), vergeblich (de) Gothic: 𐌷𐌰𐌻𐌺𐍃 (halks) Greek: μάταιος (el) (mátaios) Ancient: μάταιος (mátaios) Hindi: फ़ज़ूल (fazūl), अकारथ (hi) (akārath) Ido: vana (io) Italian: futile (it) Japanese: 無用 (ja) (むよう, muyō), 無駄 (ja) (むだ, muda), 無益 (むえき, mueki) Khmer: អសារ (km) (a’saa) Latin: futilis Malay: sia-sia Maori: mūhore, papakore, huakore Mirandese: please add this translation if you can Mongolian: please add this translation if you can Navajo: chʼééh Norwegian: Bokmål: nytteløs, nyttelaus Nynorsk: nyttelaus Occitan: futil Persian: عبث‎ (fa), بی فایده‎ (fa), پوچ‎ (fa) (puč) Polish: daremny (pl) m Portuguese: fútil (pt) Russian: бесполе́зный (ru) (bespoléznyj), тще́тный (ru) (tščétnyj), беспло́дный (ru) (besplódnyj), напра́сный (ru) (naprásnyj) Scottish Gaelic: dìomhain, faoin Slovak: márny (sk), zbytočný, nepatrný Spanish: inútil (es), vano (es) m Swedish: meningslös (sv), lönlös (sv), fåfäng (sv) Thai: เปล่าประโยชน์ Ukrainian: некори́сний (nekorýsnyj), даре́мний (darémnyj) Vietnamese: please add this translation if you can Volapük: please add this translation if you can French[edit] Etymology[edit] Borrowed from Latin fūtilis. Pronunciation[edit] IPA(key): /fy.til/ Audio (file) Rhymes: -il Adjective[edit] futile (plural futiles) futile Related terms[edit] futilité Further reading[edit] “futile” in Trésor de la langue française informatisé (The Digitized Treasury of the French Language). Italian[edit] Etymology[edit] From Latin fūtilis (“futile, worthless”, literally “that easily pours out”). Pronunciation[edit] IPA(key): /ˈfu.ti.le/, [ˈfuːt̪il̺e] Rhymes: -utile Hyphenation: fù‧ti‧le Adjective[edit] futile (masculine and feminine plural futili) futile, frivolous, worthless Derived terms[edit] futilmente Related terms[edit] futilità Anagrams[edit] fluite References[edit] futile in Treccani.it – Vocabolario Treccani on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana Latin[edit] Etymology 1[edit] Alternative forms[edit] futtile Adverb[edit] fūtile (not comparable) in vain Synonyms[edit] frustrā in cassum Etymology 2[edit] Adjective[edit] fūtile nominative neuter singular of fūtilis accusative neuter singular of fūtilis vocative neuter singular of fūtilis References[edit] futile in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press futile in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers futile in Gaffiot, Félix (1934) Dictionnaire Illustré Latin-Français, Hachette Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=futile&oldid=61616215" Categories: English terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵʰew- English terms derived from Middle French English terms derived from Latin English 2-syllable words English terms with IPA pronunciation English 3-syllable words English lemmas English adjectives English terms with quotations French terms borrowed from Latin French terms derived from Latin French 2-syllable words French terms with IPA pronunciation French terms with audio links French lemmas French adjectives Italian terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵʰew- Italian terms derived from Latin Italian 3-syllable words Italian terms with IPA pronunciation Italian lemmas Italian adjectives Latin lemmas Latin adverbs Latin uncomparable adverbs Latin non-lemma forms Latin adjective forms Hidden categories: etyl cleanup/en/frm etyl cleanup/en/la Requests for translations into Armenian Requests for translations into Dhivehi Requests for translations into Esperanto Requests for translations into Mirandese Requests for translations into Mongolian Requests for translations into Vietnamese Requests for translations into Volapük Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Français 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kurdî Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം မြန်မာဘာသာ 日本語 Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ᏣᎳᎩ اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 This page was last edited on 20 January 2021, at 19:53. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wiktionary Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wiktionary-org-4297	----	Sisyphean - Wiktionary Sisyphean Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 English 1.1 Alternative forms 1.2 Etymology 1.3 Pronunciation 1.4 Adjective 1.4.1 Quotations 1.4.2 Synonyms 1.4.3 Translations English[edit] WOTD – 15 January 2007 Alternative forms[edit] Sisyphusean sisyphean Sisyphian Sysyphean sisyphic sisiphic Etymology[edit] From Sisyphus, from Ancient Greek Σίσυφος (Sísuphos). Sisyphus was a Greek mythological figure who was doomed to endlessly roll a boulder up a hill in Hades. Pronunciation[edit] enPR: sīs'əfēʹən, IPA(key): /ˌsɪsəˈfiːən/ Audio (US) (file) Adjective[edit] English Wikipedia has an article on:Sisyphean Wikipedia Sisyphean (not comparable) Incessant or incessantly recurring, but futile. 2013 August 10, “A new prescription”, in The Economist, volume 408, number 8848: As the world's drug habit shows, governments are failing in their quest to monitor every London window-box and Andean hillside for banned plants. But even that Sisyphean task looks easy next to the fight against synthetic drugs. No sooner has a drug been blacklisted than chemists adjust their recipe and start churning out a subtly different one. Sisyphean labors Relating to Sisyphus. Quotations[edit] Edith Wharton (1862–1937), The Torch-Bearer The Sisyphean load of little lives,\\Becomes the globe and sceptre of the great. 1959, Leo Strauss, What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies In spite of its highness or nobility, it [philosophy] could appear as Sisyphean or ugly, when one contrasts its achievement with its goal. 2006, Hannah Tucker, Entertainment Weekly, no. 888 (28 July), p. 50 Rob Paulsen won an Emmy as the voice of Pinky, who was responsible for supporting Brain (Maurice LaMarche) in his Sisyphean quest for world domination […] "How Life Imitates Chess" by Garry Kasparov, Bloomsbury USA publishing, 2007/2008: pg. 145 (Chapter 12, "The Inner Game"): "You can't overestimate the importance of psychology in chess, and as much as some players try to downplay it, I believe that winning requires a constant and strong psychology not just at the board but in every aspect of your life...It begins with intense preparation, which requires that you motivate yourself to work long, grueling, lonely hours. It often feels like a Sisyphean task, since you know that perhaps only ten percent of your analysis will ever see the light of day." Synonyms[edit] (recurring but futile): like herding cats like painting the Forth Bridge Translations[edit] incessant or incessantly recurring, but futile Czech: sisyfovský Finnish: sisyfolainen (fi) French: sisyphéen (fr), sisyphien (fr) Hungarian: sziszifuszi Polish: syzyfowy (pl) Russian: си́зифов (ru) (sízifov) relating to Sisyphus Finnish: sisyfolainen (fi), Sisyfoon Hungarian: sziszifuszi Polish: syzyfowy (pl) Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphean&oldid=60194426" Categories: English terms derived from Ancient Greek English 4-syllable words English terms with IPA pronunciation English terms with audio links English lemmas English adjectives English uncomparable adjectives English terms with quotations English terms with usage examples English eponyms Hidden categories: Word of the day archive Finnish redlinks Finnish redlinks/t+ Russian redlinks Russian redlinks/t+ Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Eesti ქართული Polski Русский Suomi This page was last edited on 1 September 2020, at 02:02. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wiktionary Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
en-wiktionary-org-9291	----	laborious - Wiktionary laborious Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary Jump to navigation Jump to search Contents 1 English 1.1 Alternative forms 1.2 Etymology 1.3 Pronunciation 1.4 Adjective 1.4.1 Synonyms 1.4.2 Derived terms 1.4.3 Related terms 1.4.4 Translations English[edit] Alternative forms[edit] labourious (obsolete) laborous (obsolete) labourous (obsolete) Etymology[edit] From Old French laborios, from Latin laboriosus. Pronunciation[edit] IPA(key): /ləˈbɔːɹiəs/ Audio (UK) (file) Audio (US) (file) Rhymes: -ɔːɹiəs Adjective[edit] laborious (comparative more laborious, superlative most laborious) Requiring much physical effort; toilsome. 1945 August 17, George Orwell [pseudonym; Eric Arthur Blair], chapter 1, in Animal Farm: A Fairy Story, London: Secker & Warburg, OCLC 3655473: Let us face it, our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. Mentally difficult; painstaking. Industrious. 1697, “The Fourth Book of the Georgics”, in John Dryden, transl., The Works of Virgil: Containing His Pastorals, Georgics, and Æneis. […], London: […] Jacob Tonson, […], OCLC 403869432, lines 241–242, page 129: All, with united Force, combine to drive / The lazy Drones from the laborious Hive. Synonyms[edit] (requiring effort): painstaking, toilsome, worksome Derived terms[edit] laboriously Related terms[edit] labor, labour Translations[edit] requiring much physical effort Bulgarian: труден (bg) (truden), напрегнат (bg) (napregnat) Catalan: laboriós Czech: pracný Dutch: bewerkelijk (nl), arbeidsintensief (nl), laborieus (nl) French: laborieux (fr) German: arbeitsintensiv Greek: Ancient: ἐπίπονος (epíponos), μογερός (mogerós) Irish: saothrach Italian: laborioso (it) Latin: labōriōsus Old English: earfoþe Polish: pracochłonny (pl), mozolny (pl) Portuguese: laborioso (pt), trabalhoso (pt) Romanian: laborios (ro) Russian: трудоёмкий (ru) (trudojómkij), тру́дный (ru) (trúdnyj), тяжёлый (ru) (tjažólyj), напряжённый (ru) (naprjažónnyj), утоми́тельный (ru) (utomítelʹnyj) Spanish: laborioso (es) Swedish: mödosam (sv), tung (sv) mentally difficult Bulgarian: мъчен (bg) (mǎčen) Russian: кропотли́вый (ru) (kropotlívyj) industrious — see industrious The translations below need to be checked and inserted above into the appropriate translation tables, removing any numbers. Numbers do not necessarily match those in definitions. See instructions at Wiktionary:Entry layout § Translations. Translations to be checked Norman: (please verify) pénibl'ye (Jersey) Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=laborious&oldid=61648048" Categories: English terms derived from Old French English terms derived from Latin English 3-syllable words English terms with IPA pronunciation English terms with audio links English lemmas English adjectives English terms with quotations Hidden categories: etyl cleanup/en/fro etyl cleanup/en/la Requests for review of Norman translations Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Entry Discussion Variants Views Read Edit History More Search Navigation Main Page Community portal Preferences Requested entries Recent changes Random entry Help Glossary Donations Contact us Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages العربية Català Čeština Cymraeg Eesti Español Français Հայերեն Ido Interlingua Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Magyar മലയാളം မြန်မာဘာသာ Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 This page was last edited on 24 January 2021, at 23:56. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wiktionary Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
eo-wikipedia-org-6384	----	Sizifo - Vikipedio Sizifo El Vikipedio, la libera enciklopedio Salti al navigilo Salti al serĉilo Sizifo Verko Hades The Myth of Sisyphus Informoj Eble sama Wu Gang Sekso vira Patro Eolo (praulo) Patrino Enareto Gefratoj Periero Edzo/Edzino Meropa • Tiro Kunulo Antiklejo Infanoj Ornytion • Metapontus • Glafcos • Thersander • Almus • Sinono • Odiseo v • d • r Sizifo (Σίσυφος) laŭ greka mitologio estis viro por puno devigata suprenruli rokegon, kiu ĉiam denove malsuprenruliĝas. Sisifo estis filo de Eolo (Ajolos) kaj Enarete; li fondis la urbon Efira (posta Korinto) kaj estis ties reĝo. Li estis konsiderata la plej ruza, sagaca kaj mensogema el ĉiuj homoj; li perfidis la planojn de la dioj kaj sukcesis kateni la morton (Tanatos), tiel ke dum certa tempo neniu povis morti. Li atakis kaj murdis vojaĝantojn kaj pro tio estis mortigita de Tezeo. En la submondo (Hadeso) li ricevis la menciitan punon. Pri tio raportas la Odiseado. Odiseo laŭdire estis eksteredzeca filo de Sizifo (kun Antiklejo) kaj heredis de li la ruzecon. Vidu ankaŭ[redakti | redakti fonton] Sizifa laboro Albert Camus Sizifo en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Kategorio Sizifo en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Kategorio Sizifo en la Vikimedia Komunejo (Multrimedaj datumoj) Bibliotekoj PeEnEo: 29675 GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 VIAF: 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 67258418, 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: 12078609k NKC: jo2016908762 Elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizifo&oldid=7009343" Kategorioj: Mitaj reĝoj de Korinto Tartaro Navigada menuo Personaj iloj Ne ensalutinta Diskuto Kontribuoj Krei konton Ensaluti Nomspacoj Artikolo Diskuto Variantoj Vidoj Legi Redakti Redakti fonton Vidi historion Pli Serĉi Navigado Ĉefpaĝo Komunuma portalo Diskutejo Aktualaĵoj Lastaj ŝanĝoj Novaj paĝoj Hazarda paĝo Helpo Donaci Iloj Ligiloj ĉi tien Rilataj ŝanĝoj Alŝuti dosieron Specialaj paĝoj Konstanta ligilo Informoj pri la paĝo Citi ĉi tiun artikolon Vikidatumoj‑ero Presi/elporti Krei libron Elŝuti kiel PDF Presebla versio En aliaj projektoj Vikimedia Komunejo En aliaj lingvoj Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Redakti ligilojn Ĉi tiu paĝo estis lastafoje redaktita je 20:55, 17 aŭg. 2020. La teksto disponeblas laŭ la permesilo Krea Komunaĵo Atribuite-Samkondiĉe 3.0 Neadaptita; eble aldonaj kondiĉoj aplikeblas. Vidu la uzkondiĉojn por detaloj. Regularo pri respekto de la privateco Pri Vikipedio Malgarantioj Poŝtelefona vido Programistoj Statistikoj Deklaro pri kuketoj 
es-wikipedia-org-9535	----	Sísifo - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Sísifo De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre Ir a la navegación Ir a la búsqueda Para el cuadro de Tiziano, véase Sísifo (Tiziano). Sísifo Sísifo por Tiziano (1576) Familia Padres Eolo Enareta Cónyuge Mérope Tiro Pareja Anticlea Hijos Glauco Sinón Odiseo Información profesional Cargos ocupados Rey de Corinto [editar datos en Wikidata] En la mitología griega, Sísifo (Σίσυφος) fue fundador y rey de Corinto. Era hijo de Eolo y Enareta, y marido de Mérope. Hay tradiciones que indican que fue padre de Odiseo con Anticlea, antes de que esta se casase con su último marido, Laertes. Es conocido por su castigo: empujar cuesta arriba por una montaña una piedra que, antes de llegar a la cima, volvía a rodar hacia abajo, repitiéndose una y otra vez el frustrante y absurdo proceso.[1]​ El término «trabajo de Sísifo», que se utiliza en la actualidad para describir un trabajo duro que debe de hacerse una y otra vez, tiene su origen en el castigo de Sísifo.[2]​ Índice 1 Descripción 2 El castigo de Sísifo 3 Teoría solar 4 Otras interpretaciones 5 Véase también 6 Enlaces externos 7 Referencias Descripción[editar] Se decía que había fundado los Juegos Ístmicos en honor a Melicertes, cuyo cuerpo había encontrado tendido en la playa del istmo de Corinto. Fue promotor de la navegación y el comercio, pero también avaro y mentiroso. Recurrió a medios ilícitos, entre los que se contaba el asesinato de viajeros y caminantes, para incrementar su riqueza. Desde los tiempos de Homero, Sísifo tuvo fama de ser el más astuto y sabio de los hombres. El castigo de Sísifo[editar] Ánfora griega de Perséfone y Sísifo empujando su roca en el inframundo. El motivo del castigo al que fue sometido Sísifo no es mencionado por Homero, pero otras fuentes indican que Sísifo había revelado al dios fluvial Asopo que el autor del rapto de su hija Egina había sido Zeus;[1]​ o que el castigo había sido a causa de su impiedad;[3]​ o bien se debió a su hábito de atacar y asesinar viajeros.[4]​ Cuando, por orden de Zeus o Hades, Tánatos (la muerte) fue a buscar a Sísifo, este lo engañó y le puso grilletes a Tánatos, por lo que nadie murió en la Tierra hasta que Ares lo liberó, entonces, como castigo, este puso a Sísifo bajo su custodia en el inframundo. Pero Sísifo aún no había agotado todos sus recursos: antes de morir le dijo a su esposa que cuando él se marchase no ofreciera el sacrificio habitual a los muertos y ella así lo hizo, así que en el infierno se quejó de que su esposa no estaba cumpliendo con sus deberes, y convenció a Hades (o a Perséfone, dependiendo de la versión del mito) para que le permitiese volver al mundo superior y así castigarla. Pero cuando estuvo de nuevo en Corinto, rehusó volver de forma alguna al inframundo, viviendo varios años más en la Tierra hasta que murió de forma natural, ya anciano. En el inframundo, Sísifo fue obligado a cumplir su castigo, que consistía en empujar una piedra enorme cuesta arriba por una ladera empinada, pero antes de que alcanzase la cima de la colina la piedra siempre rodaba hacia abajo, y Sísifo tenía que empezar de nuevo desde el principio, una y otra vez. Así se cuenta en la Odisea.[5]​ También se dice que aún viejo y ciego seguiría con su castigo. Este asunto fue un tema frecuente en los escritores antiguos, y fue representado por el pintor Polignoto en sus frescos sobre la Nekyia, en la galería pública o lesque (λέσχη) de Delfos.[6]​ Teoría solar[editar] De acuerdo con la teoría solar, Sísifo es el disco del sol que sale cada mañana y después se hunde bajo el horizonte. Otros ven en él una personificación de las olas subiendo hasta cierta altura y entonces cayendo bruscamente, o del traicionero mar. Welcker ha sugerido que la leyenda fuera un símbolo de la vana lucha del hombre por alcanzar la sabiduría. Salomón Reinach[7]​ sitúa el origen de la historia en una pintura, en la que Sísifo era representado subiendo una enorme piedra por el Acrocorinto, símbolo del trabajo y el talento involucrado en la construcción del Sisífeo. Cuando se hizo una distinción entre las almas del infierno, se supuso que Sísifo estaba empujando perpetuamente la piedra cuesta arriba como castigo por alguna ofensa cometida en la Tierra, y se inventaron varias razones para explicarla.[8]​[9]​ Otras interpretaciones[editar] Sísifo, copia del original de José de Ribera (Museo del Prado) En el siglo I a.C., Lucrecio interpretó el mito como los políticos que aspiran a un cargo, con la búsqueda del poder como una "cosa vacía", se asemeja a rodar la roca arriba del cerro.[10]​ Albert Camus consideraba a Sísifo personificando el absurdo de la vida humana, pero concluye que «uno debe imaginar a Sísifo feliz», como «la lucha de sí mismo hacia las alturas es suficiente para llenar el corazón del hombre». Camus menciona poéticamente que la razón de su castigo obedece a su ligereza con los dioses, revelando sus secretos y prefiriendo "la bendición del agua a los rayos celestes". Véase también[editar] Hades. Inframundo griego. Sísifo, pintura de Tiziano. El mito de Sísifo, ensayo de Albert Camus. Sysyphus Obra musical de Pink Floyd. Enlaces externos[editar] Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Sísifo. Pseudo-Apolodoro: Biblioteca mitológica, I, 9, 3. I, 9, 3: texto italiano. I, 9, 2 - 6: texto francés. I, 9, 3: texto inglés con índice electrónico en el Proyecto Perseus; ed. de 1921 de James George Frazer. En la parte superior derecha se encuentran los rótulos activos "focus" (para cambiar al texto griego) y "load" (para el texto bilingüe). I: texto griego en Wikisource. Ovidio: Las metamorfosis, IV, 460 y ss. Texto español en Wikisource. Texto latino con índice electrónico en el Proyecto Perseus. Pueden emplearse los rótulos activos "focus" (para cambiar al texto inglés de 1567 de Arthur Golding o al de 1922 de Brookes More) y "load" (para la comparación entre los textos ingleses o para el texto bilingüe). Empleando el rótulo "load" de la etiqueta "Vocabulary Tool", se obtiene ayuda en inglés con el vocabulario latino del texto. IV: Texto latino en Wikisource. Higino: Fábulas (Fabulae). 60: Sísifo y Salmoneo (Sisyphus et Salmoneus). Texto italiano. Texto inglés en el sitio Theoi. Texto latino en el sitio de la Bibliotheca Augustana (Augsburgo). Ed. de 1872 en Internet Archive: texto latino en facsímil electrónico. Sobre Sísifo, en el sitio Iconos, de la Cátedra de Iconografía e Iconología del Departamento de Historia del Arte de la Facultad de Ciencias Humanas de la Universidad de Roma "La Sapienza"; en italiano. Iconografía y referencias, en el mismo sitio. Sísifo, en el Proyecto Perseus. Referencias[editar] ↑ a b Apolodoro, Biblioteca mitológica I,9,3. ↑ «Leyendas y mitos de la antigua Grecia. El mito de Sísifo». es.ilovevaquero.com. Consultado el 6 de marzo de 2020.  ↑ Higino, Fábulas 60. ↑ Lactancio Plácido, Tebaida II,380. ↑ Homero: Odisea, XI, 593 y ss. Odisea, XI: texto español en Wikisource; véanse los vv. 593 - 600. Texto griego. ↑ Pausanias: Descripción de Grecia, X. 31, 10. X, 31: texto francés. Texto griego. X, 31, 10: texto inglés en el Proyecto Perseus. Texto griego en el Proyecto Perseus. ↑ S. Reinach (Revue archéologique, 1904) ↑ «Sísifo». Consultado el 24 de agosto de 2011.  ↑ «Sísifo, el eterno trabajador.». Consultado el 24 de agosto de 2011.  ↑ De rerum natura III Control de autoridades Proyectos Wikimedia Datos: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus Identificadores WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 BNF: 12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 Diccionarios y enciclopedias Britannica: url Datos: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sísifo&oldid=132877441» Categorías: Reyes de la mitología griega Las metamorfosis Personajes de la Odisea Sombras del Tártaro Personajes de la mitología griega Categorías ocultas: Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores VIAF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores BNF Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores GND Wikipedia:Artículos con identificadores LCCN Menú de navegación Herramientas personales No has accedido Discusión Contribuciones Crear una cuenta Acceder Espacios de nombres Artículo Discusión Variantes Vistas Leer Editar Ver historial Más Buscar Navegación Portada Portal de la comunidad Actualidad Cambios recientes Páginas nuevas Página aleatoria Ayuda Donaciones Notificar un error Herramientas Lo que enlaza aquí Cambios en enlazadas Subir archivo Páginas especiales Enlace permanente Información de la página Citar esta página Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir En otros proyectos Wikimedia Commons En otros idiomas Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Editar enlaces Esta página se editó por última vez el 1 feb 2021 a las 22:04. El texto está disponible bajo la Licencia Creative Commons Atribución Compartir Igual 3.0; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. Al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad. Wikipedia® es una marca registrada de la Fundación Wikimedia, Inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro. Política de privacidad Acerca de Wikipedia Limitación de responsabilidad Versión para móviles Desarrolladores Estadísticas Declaración de cookies 
et-wikipedia-org-975	----	Sisyphos – Vikipeedia Sisyphos Allikas: Vikipeedia Mine navigeerimisribale Mine otsikasti Tizian. Sisyphos. 1549 Sisyphos oli vanakreeka mütoloogias Korinthose linna rajaja ja kuningas, kes ei hoolinud jumalatest ega surmast. Ta oli tuntud oma auahnuse ja salakavaluse poolest. Kui Thanatos (surm) tuli Zeusi käsul teda Hadesesse viima, aheldas Sisyphos Thanatose ning pääses ise vabadusse. Thanatose vangistus tähendas, et inimesed enam ei surnud. Selle peale pahandas sõjajumal Ares, kelle võitlused kaotasid oma võlu, kuna keegi ei saanud surma. Ares vabastas Thanatose, kes viis Sisyphose uuesti allilma. Hadeses kavaldas Sisyphos surma uuesti üle ning sai loa naasta elavate sekka. Kui pettus ilmsiks tuli, pidi Sisyphos surnuteriiki tagasi minema ning talle määrati ränk karistus: veeretada ülesmäge hiiglaslikku kivikamakat, mis mäetipust alati uuesti alla varises, ning Sisyphos pidi tehtud tööd lõpmatuseni kordama. Essees "Sisyphose müüt" analüüsib prantsuse filosoof Albert Camus Sisyphose loole tuginedes inimeksistentsi absurdsust. Pildid, videod ja helifailid Commonsis: Sisyphos Pärit leheküljelt "https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=5270504" Kategooria: Vanakreeka mütoloogia tegelaskujud Navigeerimismenüü Personaalsed tööriistad Sisse logimata Arutelu Kaastöö Loo konto Logi sisse Nimeruumid Artikkel Arutelu Variandid vaatamisi Vaata Muuda Muuda lähteteksti Näita ajalugu Veel Otsing Navigeerimine Esileht Üldine arutelu Sündmused maailmas Viimased muudatused Juhuslik lehekülg Juhend Annetused Kontakt Trüki või ekspordi Koosta raamat Laadi alla PDF-failina Prinditav versioon Tööriistad Lingid siia Seotud muudatused Erileheküljed Püsilink Lehekülje teave Viita leheküljele Andmeüksus Teistes projektides Commons Teistes keeltes Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bahasa Indonesia বাংলা Беларуская Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 中文 Redigeeri linke Selle lehekülje viimane muutmine: 09:11, 8. aprill 2019. Tekst on kasutatav vastavalt Creative Commonsi litsentsile "Autorile viitamine + jagamine samadel tingimustel"; sellele võivad lisanduda täiendavad tingimused. Täpsemalt vaata Wikimedia kasutamistingimustest. Andmekaitse Tiitelandmed Lahtiütlused Mobiilivaade Arendajad Arvandmed Küpsiste avaldus 
eu-wikipedia-org-628	----	Sisifo - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea. Jump to content Toggle sidebar Bilatu Tresna pertsonalak Saioa hasi gabe Eztabaida Ekarpenak Sortu kontua Hasi saioa Nabigazioa Azala Txikipedia Txokoa Albisteak Aldaketa berriak Ausazko orria Laguntza Dohaintza egin Tresnak Honanzko lotura duten orriak Lotutako orrietako aldaketak Fitxategia igo Orri bereziak Lotura iraunkorra Orri honen datuak Artikulu hau aipatu Wikidata itema Inprimatu/esportatu Liburu bat sortu PDF gisa jaitsi Inprimatzeko bertsioa Beste proiektuetan Wikimedia Commons Beste hizkuntzak Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Aldatu loturak Nabigazio menua Izen-tarteak Artikulua Eztabaida Aldaerak Ikusketak Irakurri Aldatu Aldatu iturburu kodea Ikusi historia Gehiago Sisifo Wikipedia, Entziklopedia askea Sisifo Ezaugarriak Sexua gizonezkoa Baliokideak Wu Gang (en) Familia Aita Aiolos (en) Ama Enarete (en) Ezkontidea(k) Merope (en) eta Tyro (en) Bikotekidea(k) Anticlea (en) Seme-alabak Ornytion (en) , Metapontus (en) , Glauko, Thersander (en) , Almus (en) , Sinon (en) eta Ulises Anai-arrebak Perieres Sisifo[1] (antzinako grezieraz: Σίσυφος, Sísyphos), Greziar mitologian, Eolo eta Enareteren semea eta Meroperen senarra zen. Efirako (Korintoren antzinako izena) fundatzailea eta erregea izan zen. Eduki-taula 1 Mitoa 2 Sisiforen lana 3 Erreferentziak 4 Kanpo estekak Mitoa[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Merkataritza eta nabigazioa sustatu zituen, baina zeken eta gezurtia zen. Homeroren garaitik gizonik maltzurrena izatearen ospea zuen. Tanatos bila joan zitzaionean, Sisifok girgiluz lotu zuen eta ez zen inor hil, harik eta Aresek Tanatos askatu zuen arte. Sisiforen amarruak, ordea, ez ziren horretan amaitu. Hil aurrean, hilen alde eskaini ohi zen oparia ez emateko eskatu zion emazteari. Geroago, infernuan zegoela, emaztea bere eginbeharrak ez zela egiten ari kexatu zen eta Hadesek etxera joateko baimena eman zion. Baina, behin Korintora iritsita, uko egin zion azpimundura itzultzeari eta Hermesek bortxaz eraman behar izan zuen. Infernuan harritzar bat maldan gora eramatera zigortu zuten. Malda oso pikoa baitzen, gailurrera iritsi baino lehenago harria gainbehera amiltzen zitzaion eta Sisifok behin eta berriz hasi behar izaten zuen. Sisiforen lana[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Sisiforen mitoan oinarrituta, "Sisiforen lana" edo "Sisiforen lanak" egiteak esan nahi du sekula amaitzen ez den egiteko batek kateatuta zauzkala. Esate baterako, Harkaitz Cano idazleak idatzitako lan bat, Sisiforen paperak antzezlana (Euskaldunon Egunkaria kasuari buruzkoa), ideia horretan oinarritzen da: "Egunkari bat egitea bera oso Sisiforen lana da: egunero egiten ari zara, baina inoiz ez zara egiten ari, gaur biharkoa eta bihar etzikoa."[2] Erreferentziak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] ↑ Euskaltzaindiaren 82. araua: Grezia eta Erromako pertsonaia mitologikoak ↑ Berria.eus. «Sisiforen beste aldapak» Berria Noiz kontsultatua: 2018-05-09. Kanpo estekak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] Autoritate kontrola Wikimedia proiektuak Datuak: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus Identifikadoreak WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 BNF: 12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 Hiztegiak eta entziklopediak Britannica: url Datuak: Q102561 Multimedia: Sisyphus "https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifo&oldid=7953921"(e)tik eskuratuta Kategoriak: Greziar mitologiako pertsonaiak Izaki mitologiko tranpatiak Ezkutuko kategoriak: Testuan antzinako greziera duten artikuluak Wikipedia:VIAF identifikatzailea duten artikuluak Wikipedia:BNF identifikatzailea duten artikuluak Wikipedia:GND identifikatzailea duten artikuluak Wikipedia:LCCN identifikatzailea duten artikuluak Orriaren azken aldaketa: 5 ekaina 2020, 16:54. Testua Creative Commons Aitortu-PartekatuBerdin 3.0 lizentziari jarraituz erabil daiteke; baliteke beste klausularen batzuk ere aplikatu behar izatea. Xehetasunen berri izateko, ikus erabilera-baldintzak. Pribazitate politika Wikipediari buruz Lege oharra Mugikorreko bista Garatzaileak Statistics Cookie adierazpena 
fa-wikipedia-org-7488	----	سیزیف - ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد پرش به محتوا جمع و باز کردن نوار کناری جستجو ابزارهای شخصی به سامانه وارد نشده‌اید بحث مشارکت‌ها ایجاد حساب کاربری ورود بازدید محتوا صفحهٔ اصلی رویدادهای کنونی مقالهٔ تصادفی کمک مالی همکاری تغییرات اخیر ویکی‌نویس شوید! راهنما تماس با ویکی‌پدیا ابزارها پیوندها به این صفحه تغییرات مرتبط بارگذاری پرونده صفحه‌های ویژه پیوند پایدار اطلاعات صفحه یادکرد پیوند این مقاله آیتم ویکی‌داده نسخه‌برداری ایجاد کتاب دریافت به‌صورت PDF نسخهٔ قابل چاپ در دیگر پروژه‌ها ویکی‌انبار به زبان‌های دیگر Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 ویرایش پیوندها منوی ناوبری فضاهای نام مقاله بحث گویش‌ها بازدیدها خواندن ویرایش نمایش تاریخچه بیشتر سیزیف از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد اساطیر یونان باستان سیزیف (سیسیفوس) یونانی: Σίσυφος جنسیت: مذکر پدر: آیولوس مادر: انارته همسر: مروپه فرزندان: ادیسه موضوع‌های اساطیر یونان باستان آ ا ب پ ت ج چ خ د ر ز ژ س ش ف ک گ ل م ن و ه ی سیزیِف یا سیسیفوس (به یونانی: Σίσυφος)؛(به انگلیسی: Sisyphus) قهرمانی در اساطیر یونان است. او فرزند آیولوس پادشاه تسالی و انارته و همچنین همسر مروپه است. سیزیف پایه‌گذار و پادشاه حکومت افیرا (کورینتوس کنونی) و مروج بازی‌های ایسمی (Isthmian Games بازی‌هایی که از لحاظ اهمیت در ردهٔ بازی‌های المپیک قرار داشتند و هر دو سال یکبار برگزار می‌شدند) به حساب می‌آید. او به علت خودبزرگ‌بینی و حیله‌گری به مجازاتی بی‌حاصل و بی‌پایان محکوم شد که در آن می‌بایست سنگ بزرگی را تا نزدیک قله‌ای ببرد و قبل از رسیدن به پایان مسیر، شاهد بازغلتیدن آن به اول مسیر باشد؛ و این چرخه تا ابد برای او ادامه داشت. به همین دلیل و از طریق تأثیر آثار کلاسیک یونانی بر فرهنگ مدرن امروزه انجام وظایفی که در عین دشواری، بی‌معنی و تمام نشدنی نیز هستند را گاهی «سیزیف‌وار» خطاب می‌کنند. محتویات ۱ ریشه‌شناسی ۲ اسطوره‌شناسی ۳ تفسیرها ۴ منابع ریشه‌شناسی[ویرایش] رابرت بیکز یک ریشه پیشایونانی را پیشنهاد می‌کند و معتقد به ارتباطی بین ریشه واژه سوفوس به معنای حکمت و افسانه ذکر شده‌است. اخیراً نیگرو سانسونز چنین اندیشیده‌است که واژه «سیزیف» از صدای تنفس طبیعی انسان که متناوباً انجام می‌شود گرفته شده‌است و ریشه در تکنیک‌های کهن کنترل تنفس دارد. اسطوره‌شناسی[ویرایش] پرسفونه بر سیزیف در جهان زیرزمینی نظارت می‌کند، آتیکا گلدان سیاه‌گون آهفرا، ح. ۵۳۰ پیش از میلاد، موزه ستااتلیچه انتیکنسمملونگن، مونیخ، آلمان سیزیف فرزند شاه آئولوس تسالی و انارته بود. وی بنیان‌گذار و اولین پادشاه افیرا بود. او از طریق مروپه پدر گالوسوس، اورینتیون، آلموس و ترزاندر بود، وی همچنین برادر سالمونوس و پدربزرگ بلروفون بوداز طریق گلایوس. سیزیف کشتیرانی و تجارت را رونق بخشید اما بسیار حریص و حیله‌گر بود. او همچنین مسافران و مهمانان را کشت، و به ژنیا که تحت تسلط زئوس بود تجاوز کرد. او از این کشتارها لذت می‌برد زیرا او را به عنوان یک رهبر مقتدر ابقا می‌کرد. سیزیف و برادرش سالمنوس از یکدیگر متنفر بودند، و سیزیف با هاتف دلفی مشورت کرد تا راهی برای کشتن برادرش بدون تحمل شکنجه و عواقب آن بیاید. بر طبق گزارش هومر، سیزیف به‌عنوان حیله‌گرترین افراد مشهور بود. او دختر سالومون را فریفت تا یکی از نقشه‌هایش را برای کشتن برادرش عملی کند. او تصمیم به قتل فرزندان تیرو گرفت زمانی که وی متوجه شد که نقشه سیزیف استفاده از فرزندانش برای عزل پدرش است. سیزیف به زئوس نیز خیانت کرد. او محل اژینا را که توسط زئوس ربوده شده بود برای پدرش آسوپوس خدای رودها فاش ساخت و در ازای آن رودی در شهر کورینتوس روان شد. سپس زئوس به تاناتوس، خدای مرگ، فرمان داد تا سیزیف را در تارتاروس به بند بکشد. سیزیف کنجکاو بود که چرا هرمس که وظیفه‌اش هدایت ارواح به دنیای زیرین بود، در این موقعیت ظاهر نشده‌است. سیزیف مزورانه از تاناتوس خواست تا به او روش کار زنجیرها را نشان بدهد. زمانی که تاناتوس خواسته او را اجابت می‌کرد، سیزیف از موقعیت استفاده کرد و تاناتوس را به زنجیر کشید. زمانی که مرگ به زنجیر کشیده شد دیگر کسی بر روی زمین نمی‌مرد؛ و این بلوایی را خصوصاً برای آرس بر پا نمود زیرا نبردهای او به دلیل اینکه دشمنانش از دنیا نمی‌رفتند بدون جذابیت شده بودند؛ و به همین دلیل در این امر مداخله کرد. آرس خشمگین تاناتوس را نجات و شاه سیزیف را مجدداً زیر سلطه وی قرار داد. در نسخه‌ای دیگر، هادس برای به زنجیر کشیدن سیزیف فرستاده می‌شود اما خود به بند می‌افتد. تا زمانی که وی دربند بود کسی نمی‌مرد. به همین دلیل قربانی کردن برای خدایان غیرممکن بود و پیران و بیماران رنج و عذاب بسیار می‌کشیدند. سرانجام خدایان سیزیف را به چنان سیه روزی در زندگی تهدید کردند که وی آرزوی مرگ کند و به این ترتیب او چاره‌ای غیر از رهاسازی هادس نداشت. قبل از مرگ، سیزیف به همسرش دستور داد تا بدن عریان او را در میدان عمومی شهر بیفکند و ظاهراً این گفته را برای امتحان علاقه همسرش به خود بیان کرد. همین باعث شد تا وی در کرانه رود استیکس رها شود. سپس به پرسفونه شکایت کرد که این کار نشانه بی‌احترامی همسرش بوده‌است؛ و او را متقاعد کرد تا اجازه بازگشت به جهان بالایی را به او بدهد. زمانی که روح شاه به کورینتوس برگشت، همسرش را به دلیل عدم تدفین و برگزار نکردن مراسم سوگواری مناسب، چنانچه یک زن عاشق می‌بایست انجام می‌داد، سرزنش کرد. زمانی که شاه سیزیف از بازگشت به جهان زیرین سرپیچی کرد توسط هرمس و به زور به آنجا برده شد. در نسخه‌ای دیگر چنین آمده‌است که پرسفونه الهه جهان زیرین توسط سیزیف فریفته شد که او را اشتباهاً به جهان زیرین برده‌اند و به همین خاطر دستور رهاسازی شاه را داد. در فیلوکتتس سوفوکلس ارجاعی است به پدر اودیسیوس (شایعه است که سیزیف پدر او بوده‌است، نه لائرتس، که در اودیسه به عنوان پدر اودیسیوس می‌شناسیم) درست زمانی که از مرگ بازمی‌گردد. به عنوان مجازاتی برای فریبکاری‌هایش، شاه سیزیف مجبور به حمل تخته سنگی بزرگ به بالای شیبی تند گردید. تدارک یک تنبیه عجیب و وحشتناک برای سیزیف به این دلیل بود که وی گستاخانه عقیده داشت که در زیرکی از زئوس نیز پیشی گرفته‌است. بر این اساس زئوس زیرکی خود را در طلسم کردن صخره نشان می‌دهد تا قبل از رسیدن به قله دوباره به پایین بغلتد و به این طریق سیزیف را به تلاشی بی‌حاصل و بی‌پایان و یک ناکامی ابدی می‌سپارد. شاه سیزیف موضوعی مشترک برای نویسندگان باستان بود و تصویر وی توسط پلیگنوتوس بر دیوار لشه در معبد دلفی رسم شده‌است. تفسیرها[ویرایش] بر طبق نظریه خورشیدی، سیزیف، لوح خورشیدی است که هر روز از شرق برمی‌خیزد و در مغرب فرومی‌رود. برخی دیگر او را تجسم شخصیت امواج می‌دانند یا دریای خائن. در سده یکم پیش از میلاد، لوکرتیوس فیلسوف اپیکوری، اسطوره سیزیف را نشانگر سیاستمدارانی دانست که پیوسته در انتخابات شکست می‌خورند. سورن کیرکگارد اسطوره را در واقع نمایانگر علاقه مفرط یک شخص به چیزی خاص می‌داند. «مضحک است اگر شخصی با اختلال ذهنی، تکه‌ای از گرانیت را با خود حمل کند و بپندارد که آن پول است، یا اینکه دون خوان ۱۰۰۳ معشوقه داشته باشد، زیرا اعداد بیانگر غیر واقعی بودن داستان هستند.» فردریش ولکر داستان را نمادی از جستجوی بیهوده انسان در پی علم می‌داند؛ و سالمون ریناخ معتقد است که تنبیه سیزیف برای آن است که وی ساختمانی عظیم بنا کرد و با گستاخی خود را بالاتر از خدایان دانست. البر کامو در مقاله‌ای به سال ۱۹۴۲ سیزیف را نمایانگر پوچی زندگی انسان دانست، اما در پایان چنین نتیجه می‌گیرد «باید سیزیف را شاد تصور کرد زیرا تلاش و جدال برای دستیابی به قله‌ها به تنهایی برای پر کردن دل انسان کافیست». کامو می‌گوید: «سیزیف از این طریق که از همهٔ آنچه که ورای تجربهٔ مستقیم او قرار دارد چشم پوشی می‌کند و به دنبال علت و فایدهٔ عمیق‌تری نمی‌گردد، پیروز است.» [۱] منابع[ویرایش] ویکی‌پدیای آلمانی ↑ براین گرین، ماده‌ای که سازندهٔ کهکشان است، صفحهٔ ۳۷ ن ب و ایزدان و پهلوانان اساطیر یونان باستان ایزدان نخستین آنانکی· آیتر· اربوس· اروس· اورانوس· پونتوس/تالاسا· تارتاروس· خائوس· خرونوس· گایا· مویرای (اتروپوس . لاخسیس . کلوتو)· نوکس· همرا دوازده ایزد المپ‌نشین آپولون· آتنا· آرتمیس· آرس· آفرودیته· پوزئیدون· دمتر· زئوس· هرا· هرمس· هستیا· هفائستوس دیگر ایزدان اطلس· ائوس· پن (پان)· پرسفونه· پروتئوس·پرومته· دیونیسوس· ستو· سلنه· فبوس· لتو· مایا· هادس· هارمونیا· هبه· هلیوس· هایجیا تیتان‌ها   اوکئانوس· تئا· تتیس· تمیس· رئا· فوبه· کئوس· کرونوس· کریوس· منه‌موزین· هیپریون· یاپتوس گروه‌ها   آرگونوت‌ها· آمازون‌ها· الهه‌های انتقام· بورئاس· ساتیر· سانتور· سایکلاپس‌ها· سیرن· خاریتس· گیگانت‌ها· میوزها· مویرای· نرئیدها· نیمف· هارپی· هکاتونکایر دیگر موجودات نخستین   پگاسوس· پولیفموس· سربروس· شیمر· کیرون· گروئون· لادون· مدوسا· مینوتور· هیدرا پهلوانان میرا و نیمه‌خدایان   آتالانته· آسکلپیوس· آشیل· آنتیوپ· اودیسئوس· اورفئوس· اودیپ· ایکاروس· بلروفون· پانته‌زیله· پرسئوس· پلئوس· پنلوپه· تانتالوس· تسئوس·دایدالوس· سیزیف· هرکول· هیپولیتا· یاسون مکان‌های مقدس   المپوس· المپیا· الوزیس· دلفی· دلوس· دودونا اساطیر یونانی ·رده:اساطیر یونانی داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای WorldCat Identities VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (داده‌ها) NKC: jo2016908762 برگرفته از «https://fa.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=سیزیف&oldid=26328279» رده‌ها: اسطوره‌شناسی یونانی بنیان‌گذاران شهر پادشاهان اساطیر یونانی شاهان کورینتوس رده‌های پنهان: مقاله‌های دارای الگوهای زبان ناشناخته ایزو ۶۳۹ مقاله‌های دارای واژگان به زبان انگلیسی مقاله‌های دارای مستندات مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های VIAF مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های LCCN مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های GND مقاله‌های ویکی‌پدیا همراه شناسه‌های BNF این صفحه آخرین‌بار در ‏۳۱ مهٔ ۲۰۱۹ ساعت ‏۱۰:۴۷ ویرایش شده‌است. همهٔ نوشته‌ها تحت مجوز Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike در دسترس است؛ برای جزئیات بیشتر شرایط استفاده را بخوانید. ویکی‌پدیا® علامتی تجاری متعلق به سازمان غیرانتفاعی بنیاد ویکی‌مدیا است. سیاست محرمانگی دربارهٔ ویکی‌پدیا تکذیب‌نامه‌ها نمای تلفن همراه توسعه‌دهندگان آمار اظهارنامهٔ کوکی 
fi-wikipedia-org-1345	----	Sisyfos – Wikipedia Sisyfos Wikipediasta Siirry navigaatioon Siirry hakuun Franz von Stuck, Sisyfos. Sisyfos oli Kreikan mytologiassa Korintin perustaja ja kuningas,[1] joka ei piitannut jumalista eikä kuolemasta. Kun kuolema (Thanatos) tuli Zeuksen käskystä noutamaan Sisyfosta, tämä vangitsi kuoleman köysillä ja pani hänet lukkojen taakse. Zeus lähetti Areen vapauttamaan kuoleman, ja Sisyfos joutui manalaan. Manalassa Sisyfos petkutti kuolemaa uudelleen ja sai palata takaisin elämään. Petkutuksen paljastuttua kuolema tuli jälleen hakemaan häntä. Jouduttuaan takaisin manalaan Sisyfos sai tehtäväkseen vierittää ikuisesti kivenlohkaretta ylös jyrkkää rinnettä. Kun lohkare oli melkein huipulla, se vierikin takaisin alas, ja Sisyfoksen täytyi aloittaa työ alusta. Sisyfos oli päähenkilönä muun muassa satyyrinäytelmässä Sisyfos, joka on pantu sekä Kritiaan että Euripideen nimiin.[1] Filosofi Albert Camus käsitteli Sisyfoksen myyttiä samannimisessä esseessään. Lähteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] ↑ a b Kuokkanen, Suvi: Pahojen aikeiden haltuunotto - Ihmisluonnosta, oikeudenmukaisuudesta ja uskonnon alkuperästä Sisyfos-fragmentissa. Niin & näin, 2013, nro 2, s. 107-113. Aiheesta muualla[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] Wikimedia Commonsissa on kuvia tai muita tiedostoja aiheesta Sisyfos. Albert Camus: The Myth of Sisyphus (englanniksi) Tämä mytologiaan liittyvä artikkeli on tynkä. Voit auttaa Wikipediaa laajentamalla artikkelia. Noudettu kohteesta ”https://fi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=19308195” Luokka: Kreikkalainen mytologia Piilotetut luokat: Mytologiatyngät Uskontoon liittyvät artikkelit Navigointivalikko Henkilökohtaiset työkalut Et ole kirjautunut Keskustelu Muokkaukset Luo tunnus Kirjaudu sisään Nimiavaruudet Artikkeli Keskustelu Kirjoitusjärjestelmät Näkymät Lue Muokkaa Muokkaa wikitekstiä Näytä historia Muut Haku Valikko Etusivu Tietoja Wikipediasta Kaikki sivut Satunnainen artikkeli Osallistuminen Ohje Kahvihuone Ajankohtaista Tuoreet odottavat muutokset Tuoreet muutokset Lahjoitukset Työkalut Tänne viittaavat sivut Linkitettyjen sivujen muutokset Toimintosivut Ikilinkki Sivun tiedot Viitetiedot Wikidata-kohde Tulosta tai vie Lataa PDF-tiedostona Tulostettava versio Muissa hankkeissa Wikimedia Commons Muilla kielillä Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bahasa Indonesia বাংলা Беларуская Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 中文 Muokkaa linkkejä Sivua on viimeksi muutettu 7. marraskuuta 2020 kello 11.55. Teksti on saatavilla Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike -lisenssillä; lisäehtoja voi sisältyä. Katso käyttöehdot. Wikipedia® on Wikimedia Foundationin rekisteröimä tavaramerkki. Ongelma artikkelissa? Tietosuojakäytäntö Tietoja Wikipediasta Vastuuvapaus Mobiilinäkymä Kehittäjät Tilastot Evästekäytäntö 
foundation-wikimedia-org-1517	----	Privacy policy - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Privacy policy From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search العربية azərbaycanca تۆرکجه беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ български روچ کپتین بلوچی বাংলা bosanski català нохчийн کوردی čeština català Cymraeg Deutsch Deutsch (Sie-Form)‎ Zazaki Ελληνικά emiliàn e rumagnòl English Canadian English British English Esperanto español euskara فارسی suomi français Nordfriisk Frysk galego Avañe'ẽ עברית हिन्दी hrvatski magyar Bahasa Indonesia italiano 日本語 ქართული ភាសាខ្មែរ 한국어 Ripoarisch Кыргызча Lëtzebuergesch Ligure lietuvių Basa Banyumasan македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Napulitano norsk bokmål नेपाली Nederlands nl-formal Diné bizaad occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plautdietsch polski پښتو português português do Brasil română русский Scots سنڌي ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး සිංහල Soomaaliga shqip српски / srpski svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் తెలుగు тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkçe удмурт українська اردو Tiếng Việt მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 中文 中文（简体）‎ 中文（繁體）‎ This policy is approved by the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees to apply to all Wikimedia projects. It may not be circumvented, eroded, or ignored by local policies. Want to help translate? Translate the missing messages. Privacy Policy This is a summary of the Privacy Policy. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Privacy Policy and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full Privacy Policy. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to our Privacy Policy. Because we believe that you shouldn’t have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement, you may: Read, edit, or use any Wikimedia Site without registering an account. Register for an account without providing an email address or real name. Because we want to understand how Wikimedia Sites are used so we can make them better for you, we collect some information when you: Make public contributions. Register an account or update your user page. Use the Wikimedia Sites. Send us emails or participate in a survey or give feedback. We are committed to: Describing how your information may be used or shared in this Privacy Policy. Using reasonable measures to keep your information secure. Never selling your information or sharing it with third parties for marketing purposes. Only sharing your information in limited circumstances, such as to improve the Wikimedia Sites, to comply with the law, or to protect you and others. Retaining your data for the shortest possible time that is consistent with maintaining, understanding, and improving the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under law. Be aware: Any content you add or any change that you make to a Wikimedia Site will be publicly and permanently available. If you add content or make a change to a Wikimedia Site without logging in, that content or change will be publicly and permanently archived in the public interest; your content or change will be attributed to the IP address used at the time rather than a username. Our community of volunteer editors and contributors is a self-policing body. Certain administrators of the Wikimedia Sites, who are chosen by the community, use tools that grant them limited access to nonpublic information about recent contributions so they may protect the Wikimedia Sites and enforce policies. This Privacy Policy does not apply to all sites and services run by the Wikimedia Foundation, such as sites or services that have their own privacy policy (like the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (like third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). As part of our commitment to education and research around the world, we occasionally release public information and aggregated or non-personal information to the general public through data dumps and data sets. For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Introduction Use of info Sharing Protection Important info Contents Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Welcome! 1.1.1 Definitions 1.1.2 What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover 2 Collection & Use of Info 2.1 Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It 2.1.1 Your Public Contributions 2.1.2 Account Information & Registration 2.1.3 Location Information 2.1.3.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.1.3.2 Metadata 2.1.3.3 IP Addresses 2.2 Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites 2.2.1 Information We Receive Automatically 2.2.2 Information We Collect 2.3 How We Use Information We Receive From You 2.4 Other 2.4.1 Location Information 2.4.1.1 GPS & Other Location Technologies 2.4.1.2 Metadata 2.4.1.3 IP Addresses 3 Sharing 3.1 When May We Share Your Information? 3.1.1 With Your Permission 3.1.2 For Legal Reasons 3.1.3 If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) 3.1.4 To Protect You, Ourselves & Others 3.1.5 To Our Service Providers 3.1.6 To Understand & Experiment 3.1.7 Because You Made It Public 4 Protection 4.1 How Do We Protect Your Data? 4.2 How Long Do We Keep Your Data? 5 Important info 5.1 Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? 5.2 Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals 5.3 Changes to This Privacy Policy 5.4 Contact Us 5.5 Thank You! Introduction Welcome! The Wikimedia Foundation is the nonprofit organization that operates collaborative, free knowledge websites, like Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, and Wiktionary. This Policy explains how we collect, use, and share your personal information. We collect very little personal information about you. We do not rent or sell your information to third parties. By using Wikimedia Sites, you consent to this Policy. The Wikimedia movement is founded on a simple, but powerful principle: we can do more together than any of us can do alone. We cannot work collectively without gathering, sharing, and analyzing information about our users as we seek new ways to make the Wikimedia Sites more usable, safer, and more beneficial. We believe that information-gathering and use should go hand-in-hand with transparency. This Privacy Policy explains how the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, like Wikipedia, collects, uses, and shares information we receive from you through your use of the Wikimedia Sites. It is essential to understand that, by using any of the Wikimedia Sites, you consent to the collection, transfer, processing, storage, disclosure, and use of your information as described in this Privacy Policy. That means that reading this Policy carefully is important. We believe that you shouldn't have to provide nonpublic personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement. You do not have to provide things like your real name, address, or date of birth to sign up for a standard account or contribute content to the Wikimedia Sites. We do not sell or rent your Personal Information, nor do we give it to others to sell you anything. We use it to figure out how to make the Wikimedia Sites more engaging and accessible, to see which ideas work, and to make learning and contributing more fun. Put simply: we use this information to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you. After all, it's people like you, the champions of free knowledge, who make it possible for the Wikimedia Sites to not only exist, but also grow and thrive. Definitions Back to top We recognize that only a minority of you are familiar with technical terms like “tracking pixels” and “cookies” used in the Privacy Policy. Whether you are brand new to privacy terminology or you are an expert who just wants a refresher, you might find our Glossary of Key Terms helpful. Because everyone (not just lawyers) should be able to easily understand how and why their information is collected and used, we use common language instead of more formal terms throughout this Policy. To help ensure your understanding of some particular key terms, here is a table of translations: When we say... ... we mean: "the Wikimedia Foundation" / "the Foundation" / "we" / "us" / "our" The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., the non-profit organization that operates the Wikimedia Sites. "Wikimedia Sites" / "our services" Wikimedia websites and services (regardless of language), including our main projects, such as Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons, as well as mobile applications, APIs, emails, and notifications; excluding, however, sites and services listed in the "What This Privacy Policy Doesn't Cover" section below. "you" / "your" / "me" You, regardless of whether you are an individual, group, or organization, and regardless of whether you are using the Wikimedia Sites or our services on behalf of yourself or someone else. "this Policy" / "this Privacy Policy" This document, entitled the "Wikimedia Foundation Privacy Policy". "contributions" Content you add or changes you make to any Wikimedia Sites. "personal information" Information you provide us or information we collect from you in the context of your use of the Wikimedia Sites that could be used to personally identify you. To be clear, while we do not necessarily collect all of the following types of information, we consider at least the following to be Personal Information if it can be used to identify you: (a) name, address, phone number, email address, username, password, identification number on government-issued ID, IP addresses, user-agent information, and credit card number; and; (b) when associated with an identifiable person, any sensitive data such as date of birth, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origins, marital or familial status, genetic and biometric data, medical conditions or disabilities, political affiliation, and religion. "third party" / "third parties" Individuals, entities, websites, services, products, and applications that are not controlled, managed, or operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. This includes other Wikimedia users and independent organizations or groups who help promote the Wikimedia movement such as Wikimedia chapters, thematic organizations, and user groups as well as volunteers, employees, directors, officers, grant recipients, and contractors of those organizations or groups. What This Privacy Policy Does & Doesn't Cover Except as explained below, this Privacy Policy applies to our collection and handling of information about you that we receive as a result of your use of any of the Wikimedia Sites. This Policy also applies to information that we receive from our partners or other third parties. To understand more about what this Privacy Policy covers, please see below. Examples of What This Privacy Policy Covers For the sake of clarity, this Privacy Policy covers, regardless of language: All of our major sites (found at list of major projects), such as Wikipedia, including user pages, discussion pages, and noticeboards. Our blogs and APIs (unless we have provided a separate policy for those services). Official Wikimedia Foundation mobile applications. Emails, SMS, and notifications from us or sent to us from you. This Privacy Policy, however, does not cover some situations where we may gather or process information. For example, some uses may be covered by separate privacy policies (like those of the Wikimedia Shop) or sites or services run by third parties (such as third-party developer projects on Wikimedia Cloud Services). To understand more about what this Privacy Policy does not cover, please see below. More on what this Privacy Policy doesn’t cover This section is part of the Privacy Policy and is meant to explain in detail which situations are not covered by our Privacy Policy. Wikimedia Sites and Tools with alternative policies Some Wikimedia Foundation websites or tools have alternative privacy policies or provisions that differ from this Privacy Policy. These websites include: Wikimedia Shop (covered by the shop's policy); donate.wikimedia.org, including the donation process, such as clicking on a donation banner (covered by the Donor Privacy Policy); and the Wikipedia Reading Lists Browser Extension, which is governed by a separate Privacy Policy. This separate policy will also be made available where the Extension can be downloaded. If a Wikimedia Foundation website is governed by an alternative privacy policy, it will link to such policy. When a Wikimedia Foundation tool is governed by an alternative privacy policy, the page where the tool may be downloaded or enabled will include a link to that policy. Community members The Wikimedia Sites are collaborative labors of love that are constantly maintained and updated by a global community of volunteers. As a result, some volunteers have access to certain Personal Information, and use of that Personal Information may not be governed by this Privacy Policy. Volunteers that have such access include: Administrative volunteers, such as CheckUsers or Stewards. These are volunteers who enforce Wikimedia Site policies and ensure the safety of the Wikimedia Sites. When these administrators access Personal Information that is nonpublic, they are required to comply with our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy, as well as other, tool-specific policies. Tool providers. Tool providers. We support platforms for third-party developers to experiment and develop new tools and sites, such as wmflabs.org. When you use one of the tools developed by these volunteers, you may transfer information to them. When these volunteers access nonpublic information or Personal Information, they are required to comply with the terms governing the particular platform the tool is available on. Other users. We provide several tools that allow users to communicate with each other. The communications may be covered by this Policy while they pass through our systems, but the users who receive these communications, and what they do with the communications once they receive them, are not covered by this Policy. Examples include: posting to Foundation-hosted email lists; requesting support from volunteers through our online ticketing system (email sent to info[at]wikimedia.org goes to this system); emailing other users through the Wikimedia Sites (for example, by using the "Email this user" feature); and chatting on IRC (such as on the #wikipedia channel). Third parties This Privacy Policy only covers the way the Wikimedia Foundation collects, uses and discloses Personal Information and does not address the practices of third parties. For example, this Privacy Policy does not address the practices of: Websites run by other organizations, like websites linked to from the “References” sections of Wikipedia, or run by Wikimedia chapters or other movement organizations. These organizations may receive information from you if you visit their websites after using one of the Wikimedia Sites. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Mobile applications provided by other organizations or individuals. These organizations or individuals may receive information from you if you use those applications to access the Wikimedia Sites or Wikimedia Site content. They are governed by their own privacy policies. Sometimes, volunteers may place a data-collecting tool, such as a script, gadget, tracking pixel, or share button, on a Wikimedia Site without our knowledge. This Policy does not cover how third parties handle the information they receive as a result of such a tool. If you come across such a third-party tool, and you believe it violates this Policy, you can remove the tool yourself, or report it to privacy[at]wikimedia.org so we can investigate. Where community policies govern information, such as the CheckUser policy, the relevant community may add to the rules and obligations set out in this Policy. However, they are not permitted to create new exceptions or otherwise reduce the protections offered by this Policy. Collection & Use of Info Types of Information We Receive From You & How We Get It Your Public Contributions Whatever you post on Wikimedia Sites can be seen and used by everyone. When you make a contribution to any Wikimedia Site, including on user or discussion pages, you are creating a permanent, public record of every piece of content added, removed, or altered by you. The page history will show when your contribution or deletion was made, as well as your username (if you are signed in) or your IP address (if you are not signed in). We may use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. Publicly Visible Information Unless this Policy says otherwise, you should assume that information that you actively contribute to the Wikimedia Sites, including Personal Information, is publicly visible and can be found by search engines. Like most things on the Internet, anything you share may be copied and redistributed throughout the Internet by other people. Please do not contribute any information that you are uncomfortable making permanently public, like revealing your real name or location in your contributions. You should be aware that specific data made public by you or aggregated data that is made public by us can be used by anyone for analysis and to infer further information, such as which country a user is from, political affiliation and gender. Back to top Account Information & Registration You do not need to create an account to use any Wikimedia Site. If you do create an account, you do not need to give us your name or email address. If you do not create an account, your contributions will be publicly attributed to your IP address. Want to create an account? Great! Don't want to create an account? No problem! You are not required to create an account to read or contribute to a Wikimedia Site, except under rare circumstances. However, if you contribute without signing in, your contribution will be publicly attributed to the IP address associated with your device. If you want to create a standard account, in most cases we require only a username and a password. More on Usernames Your username will be publicly visible, so please be careful about using your real name as your username. Your password is only used to verify that the account is yours. Your IP address is also automatically submitted to us, and we record it temporarily to help prevent abuse. No other personal information is required: no name, no email address, no date of birth, no credit card information. Once created, user accounts cannot be removed entirely (although you can usually hide the information on your user page if you choose to). This is because your public contributions must be associated with their author (you!). In some circumstances, the Wikimedia communities can assist users with removing additional information related to their account from the projects. To gain a better understanding of the demographics of our users, to localize our services and to learn how we can improve our services, we may ask you for more demographic information, such as gender or age, about yourself. We will tell you if such information is intended to be public or private, so that you can make an informed decision about whether you want to provide us with that information. Providing such information is always completely optional. If you don't want to, you don't have to—it's as simple as that. Back to top Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies Some features we offer work better if we know what area you are in. If you consent, we can use GPS (and other technologies commonly used to determine location) to show you more relevant content. We keep information obtained by these technologies confidential, except as provided in this Policy. You can learn more by checking out the list of examples of how we use these technologies in our FAQ. Back to top Metadata Sometimes, we automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you want to upload a photo on the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, we may receive metadata, such as the place and time you took the photo, automatically from your device. Please be aware that, unlike location information collected using GPS signals described above, the default setting on your mobile device typically includes the metadata in your photo or video upload to the Wikimedia Sites. If you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses Finally, when you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. Back to top Information Related to Your Use of the Wikimedia Sites We use certain technologies to collect information about how you use Wikimedia Sites. Like other websites, we receive some information about you automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. We also use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to collect information regarding how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We want to make the Wikimedia Sites better for you by learning more about how you use them. Examples of this might include how often you visit the Wikimedia Sites, what you like, what you find helpful, how you get to the Wikimedia Sites, and whether you would use a helpful feature more if we explained it differently. We also want this Policy and our practices to reflect our community's values. For this reason, we keep information related to your use of the Wikimedia Sites confidential, except as provided in this Policy. Back to top Information We Receive Automatically Because of how browsers work, we receive some information automatically when you visit the Wikimedia Sites. This information includes the type of device you are using (possibly including unique device identification numbers, for some beta versions of our mobile applications), the type and version of your browser, your browser's language preference, the type and version of your device's operating system, in some cases the name of your internet service provider or mobile carrier, the website that referred you to the Wikimedia Sites, which pages you request and visit, and the date and time of each request you make to the Wikimedia Sites. Put simply, we use this information to enhance your experience with Wikimedia Sites. For example, we use this information to administer the sites, provide greater security, and fight vandalism; optimize mobile applications, customize content and set language preferences, test features to see what works, and improve performance; understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites, and analyze trends. Back to top Information We Collect We use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. We actively collect some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. We realize that some of these technologies do not have the best reputation in town and can be used for less-than-noble purposes. So we want to be as clear as we can about why we use these methods and the type of information we collect with them. Depending on which technology we use, locally stored data can be anything from text, pictures, and whole articles (as we explain further below) to Personal Information (like your IP address) and information about your use of the Wikimedia Sites (like your username or the time of your visit). We use this information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. We will never use third-party cookies, unless we get your permission to do so. If you ever come across a third-party data collection tool that has not been authorized by you (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report it to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. More on Locally Stored Data Locally stored data, JavaScript, and tracking pixels help us do things like: Provide you with a customizable experience, such as using cookies to know your language preference, to remember the user preferences you set so we can provide you with the customized look and feel that you want, and to tell you about interesting Wikimedia issues and events in your area. Deliver more relevant content to you faster. For example, we use local storage to store your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly. Also, we use cookies to learn about the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites, so that we know what works and what is useful. For example, we might use cookies to learn about the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Understand how you use the Wikimedia Sites across different devices, so that we can make our varied Wikimedia Sites more efficient and effective for you. Make the Wikimedia Sites more convenient to use, such as by using cookies to maintain your session when you log in or to remember your username in the login field. Want to know even more? You can read more about some of the specific cookies we use, when they expire, and what we use them for in our FAQ. We believe this data collection helps improve your user experience, but you may remove or disable some or all locally stored data through your browser settings, depending on your browser. You can learn more about some options you have in our FAQ. While locally stored data may not be necessary to use our sites, some features will not function properly if you disable locally stored data. While the examples above concerning information about you collected through the use of data collection tools are kept confidential in accordance with this Policy, please note that some information about the actions taken by your username is made publicly available through public logs alongside actions taken by other users. For example, a public log may include the date your account was created on a Wikimedia Site along with the dates that other accounts were created on a Wikimedia Site. Back to top How We Use Information We Receive From You We and our service providers use your information for the legitimate purpose of pursuing our charitable mission, including: Operating the Wikimedia Sites, sharing your contributions and administering our Services. To help you share your knowledge with the world and add new features to our Services. To arrange access to your account and provide you with related service. To send administrative information to you, such as changes to our policies. To allow you to send messages to another person if you choose to do so. Direct communications between users (such as messages sent through the "Email this user" feature), to the extent such communications are nonpublic and stored in or in transit through Wikimedia Foundation systems, are kept confidential by us, except as provided in this Policy. We engage in these activities to manage our relationship with you, because we have a legitimate interest and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Providing customized Services. To provide to you custom content, notices and settings and to enhance your experience with the Wikimedia Sites. We will customize the Services, in some instances, at your direction; in all instances, in keeping with our legitimate charitable purpose of pursuing our mission. Sending emails with news updates, surveys and communications about items we believe may be of interest to you. To let you know about things that are happening with the Wikimedia Foundation, the Wikimedia Sites or the Wikimedia movement. To alert you when there has been a change to an article that you have decided to follow. We will send these types of emails to you only with your consent. We do not sell, rent, or use your email address to advertise third-party products or services to you. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Sending optional surveys and requesting feedback. We will always tell you, at the time we give you an opportunity to share your thoughts, how we plan on using your answers and any personal information you provide. Your responses to our surveys and feedback requests are always optional. We will email these types of requests to you only with your consent. You can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your Notifications Preferences. You can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our FAQ. Improving the Wikimedia Sites and making your user experience safer and better. To use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the Wikimedia Sites are used. For research and analytics. To fight spam, identity theft, malware and other kinds of abuse. To optimize mobile and other applications. To test features to see what works, understand how users interact with the Wikimedia Sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different Wikimedia Sites and analyze trends. We engage in these activities to further our legitimate charitable purpose and/or to comply with our legal obligations. Back to top Other Location Information GPS & Other Location Technologies As stated above, we can use commonly-used location technologies to show you more relevant content. For example, our mobile apps can identify articles from the Wikimedia sites about points of interest near your location. As a reminder, you can deactivate our access to these location technologies at any time, and still use the Wikimedia Sites. Back to top Metadata As stated above, we may automatically receive location data from your device. For example, if you upload a photo using the Wikimedia Commons mobile app, please be aware that the default setting on your mobile device typically results in the metadata associated with your photo being included in the upload. As a reminder, if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. Back to top IP Addresses When you visit any Wikimedia Site, we automatically receive the IP address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the Internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. We keep IP addresses confidential, except as provided in this Policy. If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we may use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. We use this location information to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. For example, we use this information to provide greater security, optimize mobile applications, and learn how to expand and better support Wikimedia communities. We also use Personal Information in the manner described in the sections of this Policy titled "For Legal Reasons" and "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others." Back to top Sharing When May We Share Your Information? We may share your information when you give us specific permission to do so, for legal reasons, and in the other circumstances described below. With Your Permission We share your information when you give us specific permission to do so. We share your information for a particular purpose, if you agree. You can find more information in the list of examples in our FAQ. Back to top For Legal Reasons We will disclose your information in response to an official legal process only if we believe it to be legally valid. We will notify you of such requests when possible. We will access, use, preserve, and/or disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to satisfy a valid and legally enforceable warrant, subpoena, court order, law or regulation, or other judicial or administrative order. However, if we believe that a particular request for disclosure of a user's information is legally invalid or an abuse of the legal system and the affected user does not intend to oppose the disclosure themselves, we will try our best to fight it. We are committed to notifying you via email at least ten (10) calendar days, when possible, before we disclose your Personal Information in response to a legal demand. However, we may only provide notice if we are not legally restrained from contacting you, there is no credible threat to life or limb that is created or increased by disclosing the request, and you have provided us with an email address. Nothing in this Privacy Policy is intended to limit any legal objections or defenses you may have to a third party's request (whether it be civil, criminal, or governmental) to disclose your information. We recommend seeking the advice of legal counsel immediately if such a request is made involving you. For more information, see our Subpoena FAQ. Back to top If the Organization is Transferred (Really Unlikely!) In the unlikely event that the ownership of the Foundation changes, we will provide you 30 days’ notice before any personal information is transferred to the new owners or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. In the extremely unlikely event that ownership of all or substantially all of the Foundation changes, or we go through a reorganization (such as a merger, consolidation, or acquisition), we will continue to keep your Personal Information confidential, except as provided in this Policy, and provide notice to you via the Wikimedia Sites and a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list at least thirty (30) calendar days before any Personal Information is transferred or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. Back to top To Protect You, Ourselves & Others We, or users with certain administrative rights, may disclose information that is reasonably necessary to: enforce or investigate potential violations of the Wikimedia Foundation or community-based policies; protect our organization, infrastructure, employees, contractors, or the public; or prevent imminent or serious bodily harm or death to a person. We, or particular users with certain administrative rights as described below, may need to share your Personal Information if it is reasonably believed to be necessary to enforce or investigate potential violations of our Terms of Use, this Privacy Policy, or any Wikimedia Foundation or user community-based policies. We may also need to access and share information to investigate and defend ourselves against legal threats or actions. Wikimedia Sites are collaborative, with users writing most of the policies and selecting from amongst themselves people to hold certain administrative rights. These rights may include access to limited amounts of otherwise nonpublic information about recent contributions and activity by other users. They use this access to help protect against vandalism and abuse, fight harassment of other users, and generally try to minimize disruptive behavior on the Wikimedia Sites. These various user-selected administrative groups have their own privacy and confidentiality guidelines, but all such groups are supposed to agree to follow our Access to Nonpublic Information Policy. These user-selected administrative groups are accountable to other users through checks and balances: users are selected through a community-driven process and overseen by their peers through a logged history of their actions. However, the legal names of these users are not known to the Wikimedia Foundation. We hope that this never comes up, but we may disclose your Personal Information if we believe that it's reasonably necessary to prevent imminent and serious bodily harm or death to a person, or to protect our organization, employees, contractors, users, or the public. We may also disclose your Personal Information if we reasonably believe it necessary to detect, prevent, or otherwise assess and address potential spam, malware, fraud, abuse, unlawful activity, and security or technical concerns. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ for more information.) Back to top To Our Service Providers We may disclose personal information to our third party service providers or contractors to help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites and provide services in support of our mission. As hard as we may try, we can't do it all. So sometimes we use third-party service providers or contractors who help run or improve the Wikimedia Sites for you and other users. We give access to your Personal Information to these providers or contractors as needed to perform their services for us or to use their tools and services. We put requirements, such as confidentiality agreements, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with, and no less protective of your privacy than, the principles of this Policy. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) If you are visiting Wikimedia Sites with your mobile device, we use your IP address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. Back to top To Understand & Experiment We give volunteer developers and researchers access to systems that contain your information to allow them to protect, develop, and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. We also share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with third parties interested in studying the Wikimedia Sites. When we share information with third parties for these purposes, we put reasonable technical and contractual protections in place to protect your information consistent with this Policy. The open-source software that powers the Wikimedia Sites depends on the contributions of volunteer software developers, who spend time writing and testing code to help it improve and evolve with our users' needs. To facilitate their work, we give some developers limited access to systems that contain your Personal Information, but only as reasonably necessary for them to develop and contribute to the Wikimedia Sites. Similarly, we share non-Personal Information or aggregated information with researchers, scholars, academics, and other interested third parties who wish to study the Wikimedia Sites. Sharing this information helps them understand usage, viewing, and demographics statistics and patterns. They then can share their findings with us and our users so that we can all better understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites. When we give access to personal information to third-party developers or researchers, we put requirements, such as reasonable technical and contractual protections, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with the principles of this Policy and in accordance with our instructions. If these developers or researchers later publish their work or findings, we ask that they not disclose your personal information. Please note that, despite the obligations we impose on developers and researchers, we cannot guarantee that they will abide by our agreement, nor do we guarantee that we will regularly screen or audit their projects. (You can learn more about re-identification in our FAQ.) Back to top Because You Made It Public Information that you post is public and can been seen and used by everyone. Any information you post publicly on the Wikimedia Sites is just that – public. For example, if you put your mailing address on your talk page, that is public, and not protected by this Policy. And if you edit without registering or logging into your account, your IP address will be seen publicly. Please think carefully about your desired level of anonymity before you disclose Personal Information on your user page or elsewhere. Back to top Protection How Do We Protect Your Data? We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures to help protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We strive to protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. We use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures (such as access control procedures, network firewalls, and physical security) designed to protect our systems and your Personal Information. Unfortunately, there's no such thing as completely secure data transmission or storage, so we can't guarantee that our security will not be breached (by technical measures or through violation of our policies and procedures). We will never ask for your password by email (but may send you a temporary password via email if you have requested a password reset). If you ever receive an email that requests your password, please let us know by sending it to privacy@wikimedia.org, so we can investigate the source of the email. Back to top How Long Do We Keep Your Data? Except as otherwise stated in this policy, we only keep your Personal Information as long as necessary to maintain, understand and improve the Wikimedia Sites or to comply with U.S. law. Once we receive Personal Information from you, we keep it for the shortest possible time that is consistent with the maintenance, understanding, and improvement of the Wikimedia Sites, and our obligations under applicable U.S. law. Non-personal information may be retained indefinitely. (Check out the list of examples in our FAQ.) Please remember that certain information, such as your IP address (if you edit while not logged in) and any public contributions to the Wikimedia Sites, is archived and displayed indefinitely by design; the transparency of the projects’ contribution and revision histories is critical to their efficacy and trustworthiness. To learn more about our data retention practices, see our data retention guidelines. For further information about how you may request access to or deletion of your Personal Information, or other rights you may have with respect to your Personal Information, see our FAQ. Back to top Important info For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this Privacy Policy, you may not use the Wikimedia Sites. Where is the Foundation & What Does That Mean for Me? The Wikimedia Foundation is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California, with servers and data centers located in the U.S. If you decide to use Wikimedia Sites, whether from inside or outside of the U.S., you understand that your Personal Information will be collected, transferred, stored, processed, disclosed and otherwise used in the U.S. as described in this Privacy Policy. You also understand that your information may be transferred by us from the U.S. to other countries, which may have different or less stringent data protection laws than your country, in connection with providing services to you. Back to top Our Response to Do Not Track (DNT) signals We do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited. We do not share your data with third parties for marketing purposes. We are strongly committed to not sharing nonpublic information and Personal Information with third parties. In particular, we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited (including analytics services, advertising networks, and social platforms), nor do we share your Personal Information with any third parties for marketing purposes. Under this Policy, we may share your information only under particular situations, which you can learn more about in the “When May We Share Your Information” section of this Privacy Policy. Because we protect all users in this manner, we do not change our behavior in response to a web browser's "do not track" signal. For more information regarding Do Not Track signals and how we handle them, please visit our FAQ. Back to top Changes to This Privacy Policy Substantial changes to this Policy will not be made until after a public comment period of at least 30 days. Because things naturally change over time and we want to ensure our Privacy Policy accurately reflects our practices and the law, it may be necessary to modify this Privacy Policy from time to time. We reserve the right to do so in the following manner: In the event of substantial changes, we will provide the proposed changes to our users in at least three (3) languages (selected at our discretion) for open comment period lasting at least thirty (30) calendar days. Prior to the start of any comment period, we will provide notice of such changes and the opportunity to comment via the Wikimedia Sites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L or a similar mailing list. For minor changes, such as grammatical fixes, administrative or legal changes, or corrections of inaccurate statements, we will post the changes and, when possible, provide at least three (3) calendar days' prior notice via WikimediaAnnounce-L or similar mailing list. We ask that you please review the most up-to-date version of our Privacy Policy. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after this Privacy Policy becomes effective constitutes acceptance of this Privacy Policy on your part. Your continued use of the Wikimedia Sites after any subsequent version of this Privacy Policy becomes effective, following notice as outlined above, constitutes acceptance of that version of the Privacy Policy on your part. Contact Us If you have questions or suggestions about this Privacy Policy, or the information collected under this Privacy Policy, please email us at privacy@wikimedia.org or contact us directly. Depending on your jurisdiction, you also may have the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority competent for your country or region. Thank You! Thank you for reading our Privacy Policy. We hope you enjoy using the Wikimedia Sites and appreciate your participation in creating, maintaining, and constantly working to improve the largest repository of free knowledge in the world. Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Back to top This version was approved by Katherine Maher on May 17, 2018, pursuant to the Delegation of policy-making authority by the Board, and went into effect on May 24, 2018. Previous versions can be found below: Privacy policy (June 2014 - May 2018): effective from June 6, 2014 until May 24, 2018 Privacy policy (November 2008 - June 2014): effective from November 25, 2008 until June 6, 2014 Privacy policy (August 2008 - November 2008): effective from August 19, 2008 until November 25, 2008. Privacy policy (June 2006 - August 2008): effective from June 21, 2006 until August 19, 2008. Privacy policy (April 2005 to June 2006): effective from April 2005 until June 21, 2006 Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this Privacy Policy and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. ± Privacy-related pages Privacy policy · FAQ · Glossary of key terms · Wikimedia blog privacy policy · Subpoena FAQ · Access to nonpublic information · Data retention guidelines · Donor policy · Requests for user information Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privacy_policy&oldid=123545" Categories: Privacy policy Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 8 October 2020, at 00:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-2469	----	Cookie statement - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Cookie statement From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search In other languages English  · español As stated in our Privacy Policy, Wikimedia believes strongly in the values of privacy and transparency. To that end, we’ve created this Cookie Statement as a clear reference guide to the use of cookies on Wikimedia Sites. This Cookie Statement explains how we use cookies (and other locally stored data technologies), how we use third-party cookies, and how you can manage your cookie options. For more information on our privacy practices, please visit our Privacy Policy. The Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the Wikimedia Sites, actively collects some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. These generally include tracking pixels, JavaScript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. Contents 1 What is a cookie? 2 What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? 3 What are my cookie options? 4 Where can I find more information? What is a cookie? A “cookie” is a tiny data file that we transfer onto your computer, mobile phone, or any other device that you use to access the Wikimedia Sites, and is generally used for authentication and tracking. Every cookie expires after a certain period of time, but that period varies depending on what the cookie is used for and how your browser is configured. Cookies are often categorized based on how long they remain active before they expire. A “session” cookie is one that generally expires when you close your web browser or mobile application. A “persistent” cookie is one that remains in your device, even after you close your browser or mobile application.  A persistent cookie expires according to the duration set by us, or when you delete it manually. You can learn more about cookies on Wikipedia. You may remove or disable cookies through your browser settings. For more information on how to manage your cookie options, please see Section 3 of this Cookie Statement below. For more information on this and other key terms that may be relevant, please read through our Privacy Policy Glossary. What types of cookies does Wikimedia use and for what purposes? Cookies are not required in order to read or edit the Wikimedia Sites. We use the information we receive from cookies and other locally-stored data technologies to make your experience with the Wikimedia Sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and interactions with the Wikimedia Sites, and to generally improve our services. Cookies are required in order to login and for your edits to be associated to a user account; without cookies, your edits will be anonymous and unassociated with an account. We use cookies, JavaScript, tracking pixels, and other locally-stored data technologies to accomplish different purposes. Below is a list of the categories of cookies we use and what they are used for. Functionality: These cookies help the Wikimedia Sites work and are essential in order to enable you to move around the Wikimedia site and use their features. These cookies are useful for remembering your username in the login field, maintaining your session and remembering previous actions, keeping you logged in (if selected), and more. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralauth_Token {$wgCookiePrefix}* Token 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise omitted. Functionality Provides ‘Keep me logged in’ functionality. {$wgCookiePrefix}* UserID, UserName 365 days, if the user chooses ‘Keep me logged in’. Otherwise 30 days. Functionality Helps identify you to the wiki, and keeps you logged in. loginnotify_prevlogins 180 days Functionality Verifies that you are logging in from a known device. This affects the threshold for how many unsuccessful login attempts trigger a notification to the user. centralauth_Session {$wgCookiePrefix}* Session When user exits browser Functionality Manage sessions. Provides functionality such as logging in to Wikimedia Projects. Preferences: These cookies store your preferences, so that they can be remembered the next time you use the Wikimedia Sites, for a more customized experience.  These cookies are useful for recognizing and maintaining your language preference, remembering changes you have made to text size, fonts and other display preferences, so we can provide you with the look and feel that you want, and more.   Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? stopMobileRedirect 30 days Preferences Tells us not to redirect to the mobile site if you don’t like that. uls-preferences Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Allows you to set preferences for the Universal Language Selector functionality. hidewatchlistmessage- [watchlistMessageId] ● where watchlistMessageld is the Id of the message being hidden 28 days Preferences Allows a user to hide a watchlist message. userFontSize Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred font size on the mobile site. preferredEditor Local Storage, not a cookie Preferences Keeps track of your preferred editor on the mobile site. Performance and Analysis: These cookies count the number of visitors and collect information about how you use the Wikimedia Sites. This allows us to better understand your user experience on the Wikimedia Sites and helps us improve them for you and other users — for instance, by making sure users are finding what they need easily. Other examples include: remembering pages visited, and actions taken on the Wikimedia sites so we can optimize the pages; remembering if users get error messages from web pages; storing your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly; remembering the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you; remembering the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. Here are a few examples: Name Expires Category What does it do? centralnotice_bucket 7 days Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of notices provided to users through the CentralNotice extension. For more details, see https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:CentralNotice ext.popups.core.previewCount Local Storage, not a cookie Performance and Analysis Helps us understand the effectiveness of Hovercards. WMF-Last-Access 30 days Performance and Analysis Helps us calculate Unique devices accessing our site. See: https://blog.wikimedia.org/2016/03/30/unique-devices-dataset/ Third-Party: We will never use third-party cookies on our wikis unless we get your permission to do so. These cookies would allow us to render services provided by third parties, such as “like” and “share” buttons. When a third party provides these kinds of services, they may require the use of a cookie in order to provide their services. If you ever come across a third-party cookie transferred to your device during your access of the Wikimedia wiki sites, where you did not take any action to authorize the use and/or transfer of that cookie  (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report that cookie to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. A note about Wikimedia sites hosted by WordPress: Some non-wiki Wikimedia Foundation sites are hosted by a third-party service provider, WordPress VIP. These sites may have the WordPress Stats module enabled. Stats is a service that allows us to understand how many visitors we get to our WordPress-hosted non-wiki sites, their location by country, and which pages, posts and links are the most popular. Only the Wikimedia Foundation and the service provider, Automattic/WordPress, have access to the raw Stats data, which is retained for a maximum of 30 days. For more information about Stats, see WordPress’ support page on the module. What are my cookie options? While this is not a comprehensive list, below are some of the things that you can do to limit use of cookies and other locally-stored data technologies on your device. While cookies and other locally-stored data technologies may not be necessary to use our sites, some features may not function properly if you disable them. You can: remove or disable specific locally-stored data on your browser’s settings (you can reset your web browser to refuse all cookies or to indicate when a cookie is being sent); use a browser that can block third-party cookies; or install a plug-in to block locally-stored data, if one is available. Turning off the browser’s cookies will prevent tracking pixels from tracking your specific activity. A tracking pixel may still record an anonymous visit from your IP address, but unique information will not be recorded. If you do not want to receive tracking pixels, you will need to disable HTML images in your browser-based email client, and that may affect your ability to view images in other emails that you receive. Where can I find more information? Please read through our Privacy Policy for more information. If you have any further questions, contact privacywikimedia.org. Thanks! Please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original English version of this document and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cookie_statement&oldid=123646" Category: Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 3 February 2021, at 19:45. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
foundation-wikimedia-org-4272	----	Terms of Use - Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki Terms of Use From the Wikimedia Foundation Governance Wiki < Terms of Use(Redirected from Terms of Use) Jump to navigation Jump to search In other languages English  · العربية · asturianu · беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ · български · বাংলা · català · čeština · Deutsch · English · español · suomi · français · galego · עברית · Bahasa Indonesia · italiano · 日本語 · 한국어 · македонски · മലയാളം · Nederlands · polski · português do Brasil · русский · ไทย · українська · Tiếng Việt This is a summary of the Terms of Use. To read the full terms, scroll down or click here. Terms of Use This is a human-readable summary of the Terms of Use. Disclaimer: This summary is not a part of the Terms of Use and is not a legal document. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the full terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the legal language of our Terms of Use. Part of our mission is to: Empower and Engage people around the world to collect and develop educational content and either publish it under a free license or dedicate it to the public domain. Disseminate this content effectively and globally, free of charge. You are free to: Read and Print our articles and other media free of charge. Share and Reuse our articles and other media under free and open licenses. Contribute To and Edit our various sites or Projects. Under the following conditions: Responsibility – You take responsibility for your edits (since we only host your content). Civility – You support a civil environment and do not harass other users. Lawful Behavior – You do not violate copyright or other laws. No Harm – You do not harm our technology infrastructure. Terms of Use and Policies – You adhere to the below Terms of Use and to the applicable community policies when you visit our sites or participate in our communities. With the understanding that: You License Freely Your Contributions – you generally must license your contributions and edits to our sites or Projects under a free and open license (unless your contribution is in the public domain). No Professional Advice – the content of articles and other projects is for informational purposes only and does not constitute professional advice. Our Terms of Use Imagine a world in which every single human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. That's our commitment. – Our Vision Statement Welcome to Wikimedia! The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (“we” or “us”), is a nonprofit charitable organization whose mission is to empower and engage people around the world to collect and develop content under a free license or in the public domain, and to disseminate it effectively and globally, free of charge. To support our vibrant community, we provide the essential infrastructure and organizational framework for the development of multilingual wiki Projects and their editions (as explained here) and other endeavors which serve this mission. We strive to make and keep educational and informational content from the Projects available on the internet free of charge, in perpetuity. We welcome you (“you” or the “user”) as a reader, editor, author, or contributor of the Wikimedia Projects, and we encourage you to join the Wikimedia community. Before you participate, however, we ask that you please read and agree to the following Terms of Use (“Terms of Use”). Overview These Terms of Use tell you about our public services at the Wikimedia Foundation, our relationship to you as a user, and the rights and responsibilities that guide us both. We want you to know that we host an incredible quantity of educational and informational content, all of which is contributed and made possible by users like yourself. Generally we do not contribute, monitor, or delete content (with the rare exception of policies like these Terms of Use or legal compliance for DMCA notices). This means that editorial control is in the hands of you and your fellow users who create and manage the content. We merely host this content. The community – the network of users who are constantly building and using the various sites or Projects – are the principal means through which the goals of the mission are achieved. The community contributes to and helps govern our sites. The community undertakes the critical function of creating and enforcing policies for the specific Project editions (such as the different language editions for the Wikipedia Project or the Wikimedia Commons multi-lingual edition). You are welcome to join as a contributor, editor, or author, but you should follow the policies that govern each of the independent Project editions. The largest of our Projects is Wikipedia, but we host other Projects too, each with different objectives and work methods. Each Project edition has a team of contributors, editors or authors who work together to create and manage the content on that Project edition. You are welcome to join these teams and work with them to improve these Projects. Because we are dedicated to making content freely accessible to the public, we generally require that all content you contribute is available under a free license or in the public domain. Please be aware that you are legally responsible for all of your contributions, edits, and re-use of Wikimedia content under the laws of the United States of America and other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content). This means it is important that you use caution when posting content. In light of this responsibility, we have some rules about what you cannot post, most of which is either for your own protection or for the protection of other users like yourself. Please keep in mind that the content we host is for general informational purposes only, so if you need expert advice for a particular question (such as medical, legal, or financial issues), you should seek the help of a licensed or qualified professional. We also include other important notices and disclaimers, so please read these Terms of Use in their entirety. For clarity, other organizations, such as local Wikimedia chapters and associations, that may share in the same mission are nevertheless legally independent and separate from the Wikimedia Foundation and have no responsibility for the operations of the website or its content. Contents 1 Our Terms of Use 2 Overview 3 1. Our Services 4 2. Privacy Policy 5 3. Content We Host 6 4. Refraining from Certain Activities 7 5. Password Security 8 6. Trademarks 9 7. Licensing of Content 10 8. DMCA Compliance 11 9. Third-party Websites and Resources 12 10. Management of Websites 13 11. Resolutions and Project Policies 14 12. Termination 15 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction 16 14. Disclaimers 17 15. Limitation on Liability 18 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use 19 17. Other Terms 20 Thank You! 1. Our Services The Wikimedia Foundation is dedicated to encouraging the growth, development and distribution of free multilingual content, and to hosting the full content of these wiki-based Projects for the public free of charge. Our role is to host some of the largest collaboratively edited reference Projects in the world, which can be found here. However, we act only as a hosting service, maintaining the infrastructure and organizational framework that allows our users to build the Wikimedia Projects by contributing and editing content themselves. Because of our unique role, there are a couple of things you should be aware of when considering our relationship to you, the Projects, and the other users: We do not take an editorial role: Because the Wikimedia Projects are collaboratively edited, all of the content that we host is provided by users like yourself, and we do not take an editorial role. This means that we generally do not monitor or edit the content of the Project websites, and we do not take any responsibility for this content. Similarly, we do not endorse any opinions expressed via our services, and we do not represent or guarantee the truthfulness, accuracy, or reliability of any submitted community content. Instead, we simply provide access to the content that your fellow users have contributed and edited. You are responsible for your own actions: You are legally responsible for your edits and contributions on Wikimedia Projects, so for your own protection you should exercise caution and avoid contributing any content that may result in criminal or civil liability under any applicable laws. For clarity, applicable law includes at least the laws of the United States of America. Although we may not agree with such actions, we warn editors and contributors that authorities may seek to apply other country laws to you, including local laws where you live or where you view or edit content. WMF generally cannot offer any protection, guarantee, immunity or indemnification. 2. Privacy Policy We ask that you review the terms of our Privacy Policy, so that you are aware of how we collect and use your information. Because our services are used by people all over the world, personal information that we collect may be stored and processed in the United States of America or any other country in which we or our agents maintain facilities. By using our services, you consent to any such transfer of information outside your country. 3. Content We Host You may find some material objectionable or erroneous: Because we provide a wide array of content that is produced or gathered by fellow users, you may encounter material that you find offensive, erroneous, misleading, mislabeled, or otherwise objectionable. We therefore ask that you use common sense and proper judgment when using our services. Our content is for general informational purposes only: Although we host a great deal of information that pertains to professional topics, including medical, legal, or financial issues, this content is presented for general informational purposes only. It should not be taken as professional advice. Please seek independent professional counseling from someone who is licensed or qualified in the applicable area in lieu of acting on any information, opinion, or advice contained in one of the Project websites. 4. Refraining from Certain Activities The Projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation only exist because of the vibrant community of users like you who collaborate to write, edit, and curate the content. We happily welcome your participation in this community. We encourage you to be civil and polite in your interactions with others in the community, to act in good faith, and to make edits and contributions aimed at furthering the mission of the shared Project. Certain activities, whether legal or illegal, may be harmful to other users and violate our rules, and some activities may also subject you to liability. Therefore, for your own protection and for that of other users, you may not engage in such activities on our sites. These activities include: Harassing and Abusing Others Engaging in harassment, threats, stalking, spamming, or vandalism; and Transmitting chain mail, junk mail, or spam to other users. Violating the Privacy of Others Infringing the privacy rights of others under the laws of the United States of America or other applicable laws (which may include the laws where you live or where you view or edit content); Soliciting personally identifiable information for purposes of harassment, exploitation, violation of privacy, or any promotional or commercial purpose not explicitly approved by the Wikimedia Foundation; and Soliciting personally identifiable information from anyone under the age of 18 for an illegal purpose or violating any applicable law regarding the health or well-being of minors. Engaging in False Statements, Impersonation, or Fraud Intentionally or knowingly posting content that constitutes libel or defamation; With the intent to deceive, posting content that is false or inaccurate; Attempting to impersonate another user or individual, misrepresenting your affiliation with any individual or entity, or using the username of another user with the intent to deceive; and Engaging in fraud. Committing Infringement Infringing copyrights, trademarks, patents, or other proprietary rights under applicable law. Misusing Our Services for Other Illegal Purposes Posting child pornography or any other content that violates applicable law concerning child pornography; Posting or trafficking in obscene material that is unlawful under applicable law; and Using the services in a manner that is inconsistent with applicable law. Engaging in Disruptive and Illegal Misuse of Facilities Posting or distributing content that contains any viruses, malware, worms, Trojan horses, malicious code, or other device that could harm our technical infrastructure or system or that of our users; Engaging in automated uses of the site that are abusive or disruptive of the services and have not been approved by the Wikimedia community; Disrupting the services by placing an undue burden on a Project website or the networks or servers connected with a Project website; Disrupting the services by inundating any of the Project websites with communications or other traffic that suggests no serious intent to use the Project website for its stated purpose; Knowingly accessing, tampering with, or using any of our non-public areas in our computer systems without authorization; and Probing, scanning, or testing the vulnerability of any of our technical systems or networks unless all the following conditions are met: such actions do not unduly abuse or disrupt our technical systems or networks; such actions are not for personal gain (except for credit for your work); you report any vulnerabilities to MediaWiki developers (or fix it yourself); and you do not undertake such actions with malicious or destructive intent. Paid contributions without disclosure These Terms of Use prohibit engaging in deceptive activities, including misrepresentation of affiliation, impersonation, and fraud. As part of these obligations, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation. You must make that disclosure in at least one of the following ways: a statement on your user page, a statement on the talk page accompanying any paid contributions, or a statement in the edit summary accompanying any paid contributions. Applicable law, or community and Foundation policies and guidelines, such as those addressing conflicts of interest, may further limit paid contributions or require more detailed disclosure. A Wikimedia Project community may adopt an alternative paid contribution disclosure policy. If a Project adopts an alternative disclosure policy, you may comply with that policy instead of the requirements in this section when contributing to that Project. An alternative paid contribution policy will only supersede these requirements if it is approved by the relevant Project community and listed in the alternative disclosure policy page. For more information, please read our FAQ on disclosure of paid contributions. We reserve the right to exercise our enforcement discretion with respect to the above terms. 5. Password Security You are responsible for safeguarding your own password and should never disclose it to any third party. 6. Trademarks Although you have considerable freedoms for re-use of the content on the Project websites, it is important that, at the Wikimedia Foundation, we protect our trademark rights so that we can protect our users from fraudulent impersonators. Because of this, we ask that you please respect our trademarks. All Wikimedia Foundation trademarks belong to the Wikimedia Foundation, and any use of our trade names, trademarks, service marks, logos, or domain names must be in compliance with these Terms of Use and in compliance with our Trademark Policy. 7. Licensing of Content To grow the commons of free knowledge and free culture, all users contributing to the Projects are required to grant broad permissions to the general public to re-distribute and re-use their contributions freely, so long as that use is properly attributed and the same freedom to re-use and re-distribute is granted to any derivative works. In keeping with our goal of providing free information to the widest possible audience, we require that when necessary all submitted content be licensed so that it is freely reusable by anyone who cares to access it. You agree to the following licensing requirements: Text to which you hold the copyright: When you submit text to which you hold the copyright, you agree to license it under: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (“CC BY-SA”), and GNU Free Documentation License (“GFDL”) (unversioned, with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). (Re-users may comply with either license or both.) The only exception is if the Project edition or feature requires a different license. In that case, you agree to license any text you contribute under that particular license. For example, at the publication of this version of the Terms of Use, English Wikinews mandates that all text content is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (CC BY 2.5) and does not require a dual license with GFDL. Please note that these licenses do allow commercial uses of your contributions, as long as such uses are compliant with the terms. Attribution: Attribution is an important part of these licenses. We consider it giving credit where credit is due – to authors like yourself. When you contribute text, you agree to be attributed in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the article to which you contributed (since each article has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). Importing text: You may import text that you have found elsewhere or that you have co-authored with others, but in such case you warrant that the text is available under terms that are compatible with the CC BY-SA 3.0 license (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the Project edition or feature)("CC BY-SA"). Content available only under GFDL is not permissible. You agree that, if you import text under a CC BY-SA license that requires attribution, you must credit the author(s) in a reasonable fashion. Where such credit is commonly given through page histories (such as Wikimedia-internal copying), it is sufficient to give attribution in the edit summary, which is recorded in the page history, when importing the text. The attribution requirements are sometimes too intrusive for particular circumstances (regardless of the license), and there may be instances where the Wikimedia community decides that imported text cannot be used for that reason. Non-text media: Non-text media on the Projects are available under a variety of different licenses that support the general goal of allowing unrestricted re-use and re-distribution. When you contribute non-text media, you agree to comply with the requirements for such licenses as described in our Licensing Policy, and also comply with the requirements of the specific Project edition or feature to which you are contributing. Also see the Wikimedia Commons Licensing Policy for more information on contributing non-text media to that Project. No revocation of license: Except as consistent with your license, you agree that you will not unilaterally revoke or seek invalidation of any license that you have granted under these Terms of Use for text content or non-text media contributed to the Wikimedia Projects or features, even if you terminate use of our services. Public domain content: Content that is in the public domain is welcome! It is important however that you confirm the public domain status of the content under the law of the United States of America as well as the laws of any other countries as required by the specific Project edition. When you contribute content that is in the public domain, you warrant that the material is actually in the public domain, and you agree to label it appropriately. Re-use: Re-use of content that we host is welcome, though exceptions exist for content contributed under "fair use" or similar exemptions under copyright law. Any re-use must comply with the underlying license(s). When you re-use or re-distribute a text page developed by the Wikimedia community, you agree to attribute the authors in any of the following fashions: Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to the page or pages that you are re-using (since each page has a history page that lists all authors and editors); Through hyperlink (where possible) or URL to an alternative, stable online copy that is freely accessible, which conforms with the license, and which provides credit to the authors in a manner equivalent to the credit given on the Project website; or Through a list of all authors (but please note that any list of authors may be filtered to exclude very small or irrelevant contributions). If the text content was imported from another source, it is possible that the content is licensed under a compatible CC BY-SA license but not GFDL (as described in “Importing text,” above). In that case, you agree to comply with the compatible CC BY-SA license and do not have the option to re-license it under GFDL. To determine the license that applies to the content that you seek to re-use or re-distribute, you should review the page footer, page history, and discussion page. In addition, please be aware that text that originated from external sources and was imported into a Project may be under a license that attaches additional attribution requirements. Users agree to indicate these additional attribution requirements clearly. Depending on the Project, such requirements may appear for example in a banner or other notations pointing out that some or all of the content was originally published elsewhere. Where there are such visible notations, re-users should preserve them. For any non-text media, you agree to comply with whatever license under which the work has been made available (which can be discovered by clicking on the work and looking at the licensing section on its description page or reviewing an applicable source page for that work). When re-using any content that we host, you agree to comply with the relevant attribution requirements as they pertain to the underlying license or licenses. Modifications or additions to material that you re-use: When modifying or making additions to text that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content under CC BY-SA 3.0 or later (or, as explained above, another license when exceptionally required by the specific Project edition or feature). When modifying or making additions to any non-text media that you have obtained from a Project website, you agree to license the modified or added content in accordance with whatever license under which the work has been made available. With both text content and non-text media, you agree to clearly indicate that the original work has been modified. If you are re-using text content in a wiki, it is sufficient to indicate in the page history that you made a change to the imported text. For each copy or modified version that you distribute, you agree to include a licensing notice stating which license the work is released under, along with either a hyperlink or URL to the text of the license or a copy of the license itself. 8. DMCA Compliance The Wikimedia Foundation wants to ensure that the content that we host can be re-used by other users without fear of liability and that it is not infringing the proprietary rights of others. In fairness to our users, as well as to other creators and copyright holders, our policy is to respond to notices of alleged infringement that comply with the formalities of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Pursuant to the DMCA, we will terminate, in appropriate circumstances, users and account holders of our system and network who are repeat infringers. However, we also recognize that not every takedown notice is valid or in good faith. In such cases, we strongly encourage users to file counter-notifications when they appropriately believe a DMCA takedown demand is invalid or improper. For more information on what to do if you think a DMCA notice has been improperly filed, you may wish to consult the Chilling Effects website. If you are the owner of content that is being improperly used on one of the Projects without your permission, you may request that the content be removed under the DMCA. To make such a request, please email us at legalwikimedia.org or snail mail our designated agent at this address. Alternatively, you may make a request to our community, which often handles copyright issues faster and more effectively than prescribed under the DMCA. In that case, you can post a notice explaining your copyright concerns. For a non-exhaustive and non-authoritative list of the relevant processes for the different Project editions, look here. Before filing a DMCA claim, you also have the option of sending an email to the community at infowikimedia.org. 9. Third-party Websites and Resources You are solely responsible for your use of any third-party websites or resources. Although the Projects contain links to third-party websites and resources, we do not endorse and are not responsible or liable for their availability, accuracy, or the related content, products, or services (including, without limitation, any viruses or other disabling features), nor do we have any obligation to monitor such third-party content. 10. Management of Websites The community has the primary role in creating and enforcing policies applying to the different Project editions. At the Wikimedia Foundation, we rarely intervene in community decisions about policy and its enforcement. In an unusual case, the need may arise, or the community may ask us, to address an especially problematic user because of significant Project disturbance or dangerous behavior. In such cases, we reserve the right, but do not have the obligation to: Investigate your use of the service (a) to determine whether a violation of these Terms of Use, Project edition policy, or other applicable law or policy has occurred, or (b) to comply with any applicable law, legal process, or appropriate governmental request; Detect, prevent, or otherwise address fraud, security, or technical issues or respond to user support requests; Refuse, disable, or restrict access to the contribution of any user who violates these Terms of Use; Ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access for actions violating these Terms of Use, including repeat copyright infringement; Take legal action against users who violate these Terms of Use (including reports to law enforcement authorities); and Manage otherwise the Project websites in a manner designed to facilitate their proper functioning and protect the rights, property, and safety of ourselves and our users, licensors, partners, and the public. In the interests of our users and the Projects, in the extreme circumstance that any individual has had his or her account or access blocked under this provision, he or she is prohibited from creating or using another account on or seeking access to the same Project, unless we provide explicit permission. Without limiting the authority of the community, the Wikimedia Foundation itself will not ban a user from editing or contributing or block a user's account or access solely because of good faith criticism that does not result in actions otherwise violating these Terms of Use or community policies. The Wikimedia community and its members may also take action when so allowed by the community or Foundation policies applicable to the specific Project edition, including but not limited to warning, investigating, blocking, or banning users who violate those policies. You agree to comply with the final decisions of dispute resolution bodies that are established by the community for the specific Project editions (such as arbitration committees); these decisions may include sanctions as set out by the policy of the specific Project edition. Especially problematic users who have had accounts or access blocked on multiple Project editions may be subject to a ban from all of the Project editions, in accordance with the Global Ban Policy. In contrast to Board resolutions or these Terms of Use, policies established by the community, which may cover a single Project edition or multiple Projects editions (like the Global Ban Policy), may be modified by the relevant community according to its own procedures. The blocking of an account or access or the banning of a user under this provision shall be in accordance with Section 12 of these Terms of Use. 11. Resolutions and Project Policies The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees releases official policies from time to time. Some of these policies may be mandatory for a particular Project or Project edition, and, when they are, you agree to abide by them as applicable. 12. Termination Though we hope you will stay and continue to contribute to the Projects, you can stop using our services any time. In certain (hopefully unlikely) circumstances it may be necessary for either ourselves or the Wikimedia community or its members (as described in Section 10) to terminate part or all of our services, terminate these Terms of Use, block your account or access, or ban you as a user. If your account or access is blocked or otherwise terminated for any reason, your public contributions will remain publicly available (subject to applicable policies), and, unless we notify you otherwise, you may still access our public pages for the sole purpose of reading publicly available content on the Projects. In such circumstances, however, you may not be able to access your account or settings. We reserve the right to suspend or end the services at any time, with or without cause, and with or without notice. Even after your use and participation are banned, blocked or otherwise suspended, these Terms of Use will remain in effect with respect to relevant provisions, including Sections 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9-15, and 17. 13. Disputes and Jurisdiction Highlighted for emphasis We hope that no serious disagreements arise involving you, but, in the event there is a dispute, we encourage you to seek resolution through the dispute resolution procedures or mechanisms provided by the Projects or Project editions and the Wikimedia Foundation. If you seek to file a legal claim against us, you agree to file and resolve it exclusively in a state or federal court located in San Francisco County, California. You also agree that the laws of the State of California and, to the extent applicable, the laws of the United States of America will govern these Terms of Use, as well as any legal claim that might arise between you and us (without reference to conflict of laws principles). You agree to submit to the personal jurisdiction of, and agree that venue is proper in, the courts located in San Francisco County, California, in any legal action or proceeding relating to us or these Terms of Use. To ensure that disputes are dealt with soon after they arise, you agree that regardless of any statute or law to the contrary, any claim or cause of action you might have arising out of or related to use of our services or these Terms of Use must be filed within the applicable statute of limitations or, if earlier, one (1) year after the pertinent facts underlying such claim or cause of action could have been discovered with reasonable diligence (or be forever barred). 14. Disclaimers Highlighted for emphasis At the Wikimedia Foundation, we do our best to provide educational and informational content to a very wide audience, but your use of our services is at your sole risk. We provide these services on an "as is" and "as available" basis, and we expressly disclaim all express or implied warranties of all kinds, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement. We make no warranty that our services will meet your requirements, be safe, secure, uninterrupted, timely, accurate, or error-free, or that your information will be secure. We are not responsible for the content, data, or actions of third parties, and you release us, our directors, officers, employees, and agents from any claims and damages, known and unknown, arising out of or in any way connected with any claim you have against any such third parties. No advice or information, whether oral or written, obtained by you from us or through or from our services creates any warranty not expressly stated in these Terms of Use. Any material downloaded or otherwise obtained through your use of our services is done at your own discretion and risk, and you will be solely responsible for any damage to your computer system or loss of data that results from the download of any such material. You agree that we have no responsibility or liability for the deletion of, or the failure to store or to transmit, any content or communication maintained by the service. We retain the right to create limits on use and storage at our sole discretion at any time with or without notice. Some states or jurisdictions do not allow the types of disclaimers in this section, so they may not apply to you either in part or in full depending on the law. 15. Limitation on Liability Highlighted for emphasis The Wikimedia Foundation will not be liable to you or to any other party for any direct, indirect, incidental, special, consequential or exemplary damages, including but not limited to, damages for loss of profits, goodwill, use, data, or other intangible losses, regardless of whether we were advised of the possibility of such damage. In no event shall our liability exceed one thousand U.S. dollars (USD 1000.00) in aggregate. In the case that applicable law may not allow the limitation or exclusion of liability or incidental or consequential damages, the above limitation or exclusion may not apply to you, although our liability will be limited to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law. 16. Modifications to these Terms of Use Just as the Wikimedia community's input is essential for the growth and maintenance of the Projects, we believe that community input is essential for these Terms of Use to properly serve our users. It is also essential for a fair contract. Therefore, we will provide these Terms of Use, as well as any substantial future revisions of these Terms of Use, to the community for comment at least thirty (30) days before the end of the comment period. If a future proposed revision is substantial, we will provide an additional 30 days for comments after posting a translation of the proposed revision in at least three languages (selected at our discretion). The community will be encouraged to translate the proposed revision in other languages as appropriate. For changes for legal or administrative reasons, to correct an inaccurate statement, or changes in response to community comments, we will provide at least three (3) days' notice. Because it may be necessary to modify these Terms of Use from time to time, we will provide notice of such modifications and the opportunity to comment via the Project websites, and via a notification on WikimediaAnnounce-L. However, we ask that you please periodically review the most up-to-date version of these Terms of Use. Your continued use of our services after the new Terms of Use become official following the notice and review period constitutes an acceptance of these Terms of Use on your part. For the protection of the Wikimedia Foundation and other users like yourself, if you do not agree with our Terms of Use, you cannot use our services. 17. Other Terms These Terms of Use do not create an employment, agency, partnership, or joint venture relationship between you and us, the Wikimedia Foundation. If you have not signed a separate agreement with us, these Terms of Use are the entire agreement between you and us. If there is any conflict between these Terms of Use and a signed written agreement between you and us, the signed agreement will control. You agree that we may provide you with notices, including those regarding changes to the Terms of Use, by email, regular mail, or postings on Project websites. If in any circumstance, we do not apply or enforce any provision of these Terms of Use, it is not a waiver of that provision. You understand that, unless otherwise agreed to in writing by us, you have no expectation of compensation for any activity, contribution, or idea that you provide to us, the community, or the Wikimedia Projects or Project editions. Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary in these Terms of Use, we (the Wikimedia Foundation) and you agree not to modify the applicable terms and requirements of any free license that is employed on the Projects or Project editions when such free license is authorized by these Terms of Use. These Terms of Use were written in English (U.S.). While we hope that translations of these Terms of Use are accurate, in the event of any differences in meaning between the original English version and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. If any provision or part of a provision of these Terms of Use is found unlawful, void, or unenforceable, that provision or part of the provision is deemed severable from these Terms of Use and will be enforced to the maximum extent permissible, and all other provisions of these Terms of Use will remain in full force and effect. Thank You! We appreciate your taking the time to read these Terms of Use, and we are very happy to have you contributing to the Projects and using our services. Through your contributions, you are helping to build something really big – not only an important collection of collaboratively edited reference Projects that provides education and information to millions who might otherwise lack access, but also a vibrant community of like-minded and engaged peers, focused on a very noble goal. These Terms of Use went into effect on June 16, 2014. Previous versions of the terms: Terms of Use (2012–2014): effective from May 24, 2012 until June 16, 2014 Terms of Use (2009): effective from 2009 until May 24, 2012. In the event of any differences in meaning between the original English version and a translation, the original English version takes precedence. Retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terms_of_Use/en&oldid=123089" Categories: Terms of Use Policy Hidden category: Governance wiki Navigation menu Personal tools English Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read Feedback View history More Search About Wikimedia Home Official website Contact us Wikimedia Blog Questions for Wikimedia? Support Donate Volunteering Wikimedia Shop Corporate Bylaws Values Policies Resolutions Annual Report Financial reports and Form 990 Fundraising reports Movement affiliates Wiki Give feedback Recent changes Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 7 June 2019, at 19:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. 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fr-wikipedia-org-3981	----	Sisyphe — Wikipédia Aller au contenu Afficher / masquer  la barre latérale Rechercher Outils personnels Non connecté Discussion Contributions Créer un compte Se connecter Navigation Accueil Portails thématiques Article au hasard Contact Contribuer Débuter sur Wikipédia Aide Communauté Modifications récentes Faire un don Outils Pages liées Suivi des pages liées Téléverser un fichier Pages spéciales Lien permanent Informations sur la page Citer cette page Élément Wikidata Imprimer / exporter Créer un livre Télécharger comme PDF Version imprimable Dans d’autres projets Wikimedia Commons Dans d’autres langues Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Modifier les liens Menu de navigation Espaces de noms Article Discussion Variantes Affichages Lire Modifier Modifier le code Voir l’historique Plus Sisyphe Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Cette page contient des caractères spéciaux ou non latins. Si certains caractères de cet article s’affichent mal (carrés vides, points d’interrogation, etc.), consultez la page d’aide Unicode. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Sisyphe (homonymie). Perséphone surveillant Sisyphe dans les Enfers, amphore attique à figures noires, v. 530 av. J.-C., Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 1494). Dans la mythologie grecque, Sisyphe (en grec ancien Σίσυφος / Sísuphos), fils d'Éole (le fils d'Hellen) et d'Énarété, est le fondateur mythique de Corinthe. Certains textes de l'Antiquité le nomment "Sesephos". Il est l'époux de la Pléiade Mérope, fille d'Atlas et de Pléioné, de qui il a trois enfants : Ornytion, Sinon et Glaucos, qui devint le grand-père de Bellérophon. Pausanias en cite deux autres : Almos et Thersandre. Certains récits font de lui le père d'Ulysse après avoir violé Anticlée[1]. Sisyphe est surtout connu pour son châtiment, consistant à pousser une pierre au sommet d'une montagne, d'où elle finit toujours par retomber. Sommaire 1 Mythe 2 Interprétation 3 Notes et références 4 Sources 5 Voir aussi 5.1 Bibliographie 5.2 Liens internes 5.3 Liens externes Mythe[modifier | modifier le code] Sisyphe est le fils d'Éole et d'Énarété. Son ascendance et sa descendance sont citées dans l'Iliade. Il est considéré comme le fondateur mythique de Corinthe. Selon Pierre Brunel, c'est parce que Sisyphe aurait construit un palais démesuré sur l'Acrocorinthe, que son châtiment dans les enfers aurait plus tard consisté à rouler un rocher au sommet d'une montagne[2]. De son vivant, Sisyphe fonda les Jeux isthmiques en l'honneur de Mélicerte dont il avait trouvé le corps gisant sur l'isthme de Corinthe. Dans les poèmes d'Homère, Sisyphe est le plus astucieux des hommes. Mais à partir d'Aristote ou d'Horace, il devient un personnage « fourbe » et trompeur[3]. Chez Euripide (Iphigénie à Aulis) ou chez Hygin (Fables), il devient le père d'Ulysse à la place de Laërte. Ce rapprochement vient certainement du fait que les deux personnages symbolisent tous les deux la ruse[4]. Hygin ou Plutarque racontent en effet que Sisyphe possédait un beau troupeau dans l'isthme de Corinthe. Non loin de lui vivait Autolycos, fils de Chioné, dont le frère jumeau Philammon était né des œuvres d'Apollon, alors qu'Autolycos se disait fils d'Hermès. Autolycos avait reçu de son père l'art de voler sans jamais être pris ; Hermès lui avait donné le pouvoir de métamorphoser toutes les bêtes qu'il volait. Ainsi, et bien que Sisyphe eût remarqué que ses propres troupeaux diminuaient tous les jours alors que ceux d'Autolycos augmentaient, il fut tout d'abord dans l'incapacité de l'accuser de vol ; un jour, donc, il grava sous le sabot d'un de ses animaux son monogramme. La nuit venue, Autolycos se servit dans son troupeau, comme à l'ordinaire. À l'aube, les empreintes des sabots sur la route fournirent à Sisyphe des preuves suffisamment concluantes pour convoquer les voisins et les prendre à témoin du vol. Il inspecta l'étable d'Autolycos, reconnut les animaux qui lui avaient été volés à leurs sabots gravés et, laissant aux témoins le soin de punir le voleur, il fit le tour de la maison, y pénétra et viola la fille d'Autolycos, Anticlée. Anticlée, enceinte à la suite du viol, épousa Laërte puis fut conduite à Alalcomène, en Béotie, où elle mit Ulysse au monde[5]. Sisyphe est surtout connu pour avoir déjoué la mort, le dieu Thanatos. En échange d'une source qui ne tarirait jamais, Sisyphe révéla au dieu-fleuve Asopos où se trouvait sa fille Égine, enlevée par Zeus, qui la désirait et avait pris la forme d'un aigle. Asopos fit fuir Zeus, mais ce dernier en voulut à Sisyphe ; il envoya Thanatos le punir. Cependant, lorsque le génie de la Mort vint le chercher, Sisyphe lui proposa de lui montrer l'une de ses inventions : des menottes. Il enchaîna Thanatos, si bien que ce dernier ne put l'emporter aux Enfers. S'apercevant que plus personne ne mourait, Zeus envoya Arès délivrer Thanatos et emmener Sisyphe aux Enfers. Mais Sisyphe avait préalablement convaincu sa femme de ne pas lui faire de funérailles adéquates. Il put ainsi convaincre Hadès de le laisser repartir chez les vivants pour régler ce problème. Une fois revenu à Corinthe, il refusa de retourner parmi les morts. Thanatos (ou même Hermès, selon certaines traditions) dut alors venir le chercher de force. Pour avoir osé défier les dieux, Sisyphe fut condamné, dans le Tartare, à faire rouler éternellement jusqu'en haut d'une colline un rocher qui en redescendait chaque fois avant de parvenir au sommet (Odyssée, chant XI). Ce mythe n'est pas exclusif des traditions gréco-romaines. Il existe d'autres exemples de personnages qui parviennent à capturer la Mort en l'attachant dans un sac, ou encore en la cachant dans une bouteille de sorte que personne ne mourait durant des années. Interprétation[modifier | modifier le code] Sisyphe, par Franz von Stuck, 1920. Le châtiment de Sisyphe a fait l'objet de plusieurs interprétations. Selon une interprétation naturaliste du mythe, contestée par plusieurs critiques[6], Sisyphe représenterait le soleil qui s'élève chaque jour pour plonger à nouveau le soir sous l'horizon. Cette interprétation vient sans doute de l'analogie avec le scarabée sacré dans la mythologie égyptienne. Kirsti Simonsuuri y voit la personnification des marées ou des vagues qui montent pour soudainement redescendre[7]. Selon une interprétation morale, le châtiment de Sisyphe vient sanctionner son hybris en symbolisant la vanité des ambitions humaines. François Noël déclare ainsi que "ce rocher qu'on lui fait rouler incessamment est l'emblème d'un prince ambitieux qui roula longtemps dans sa tête des desseins qui n'eurent point d'exécution"[8]. Abordé d'un point de vue existentiel, le châtiment peut servir de métaphore à la vie elle-même où cette punition signifiait qu'il n'y avait de châtiment plus terrible que le travail inutile et vain, qu'un homme aussi astucieux soit condamné à s'abrutir à rouler un rocher éternellement. On perçoit l'absurdité du personnage tant dans le désespoir de tenter d'échapper à une mort inévitable, que dans la tentative d'achever un travail interminable. Le spécialiste des langues et de la civilisation indo-européennes Jean Haudry voit dans le mythe de Sisyphe le châtiment d'un héros qui a tenté d'échapper à la mort (il réussit par ruse à revenir des Enfers) et qui a échoué à conquérir l'immortalité. La pierre gigantesque qu'il est condamné à hisser figurerait l'Année entre le solstice d'hiver et celui d'été qui retomberait aussitôt vers le solstice d'hiver. Sisyphe est voué à mimer éternellement le cycle annuel dont il voulait sortir[9]. Au-delà des mythologues, plusieurs philosophes se sont emparés du mythe pour en proposer une interprétation personnelle : Dans son deuxième essai philosophique, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, Camus qualifie Sisyphe d'ultime héros absurde. Il y établit pourquoi la vie, malgré l'absurdité du destin, vaut la peine d'être vécue : « il n'est guère de passion sans lutte », « il faut imaginer Sisyphe heureux » dit Camus - une phrase d'abord prononcée par Kuki Shūzō. En effet, Camus considère Sisyphe comme seul maître de son destin : « Son rocher est sa chose ». Dans son Guide des égarés, Jean d'Ormesson évoque le mythe de Sisyphe et de sa pierre. C'est une métaphore du devoir de l'acquisition de la justice parfaite. Notes et références[modifier | modifier le code] ↑ François Sabbathier, « Dictionnaire pour l'intelligence des auteurs classiques, grecs et latins… », sur books.google.fr (consulté le 5 décembre 2010). ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.25. ↑ Sur cette transformation, voir Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p. 30. ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.30-31. ↑ Hygin, Fables, 60, 201, 250, 273, éd. de Leyde, 1933 ; Plutarque, Questions grecques (question 43). ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.12-13. ↑ Kirsti Simonsuuri, "La résurgence de Sisyphe", dans Opuscula III, Rome, Bardi editore, 1986, p. 66. ↑ François Noël, Dictionnaire de la Fable, 1801, t. II, p. 569. ↑ Jean Haudry, La Religion cosmique des Indo-européens, Milan et Paris, Archè / Les Belles lettres, « Études indo-européennes », 1987, p. 215. Sources[modifier | modifier le code] Apollodore, Bibliothèque [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (I, 7, 3 et 9, 3 ; III, 4, 3; III, 12, 6). Homère, Iliade [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (VI, 153 et suiv.), Odyssée [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (XI, 592-600). Hygin, Fables [détail des éditions] [(la) lire en ligne] (LX). Pausanias, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (II, 3 et 4 ; IX, 34, 10 ; X, 31 ). Voir aussi[modifier | modifier le code] Sur les autres projets Wikimedia : Sisyphe, sur Wikimedia Commons Bibliographie[modifier | modifier le code] Albert Camus, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, Gallimard, Paris, 1942. Pierre Brunel et Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe. Figures et Mythes, Éditions du Rocher, 2004. François Rachline, Sisyphe, roi de Corinthe, Albin Michel, 2002. Robert Merle, Sisyphe et la mort, Gallimard, 1950. Pierre Grimal, Dictionnaire de la mythologie grecque et romaine, SPADEC, 1969. Salomon Reinach, Cultes, Mythes et Religions, Robert Laffont collection Bouquins, Sisyphe aux enfers et quelques autres damnés pages 716 à 750, (ISBN 2-221-07348-7) Liens internes[modifier | modifier le code] Rat race Liens externes[modifier | modifier le code] Sisyphe : Histoire d'une liberté. La version grecque du châtiment comme illustration de la pensée camusienne, par Maggy Collard. v · m Généalogie des héros corinthiens Ancêtres de Bellérophon Sisyphe (ép. Mérope) · Glaucos (ép. Eurynomé) · Bellérophon (ép. Philonoé) Enfants et petits-enfants de Bellérophon Isandros · Hippoloque (Glaucos) · Laodamie (Sarpédon) Corinthe v · m Souverains de Corinthe Souverains mythiques Éétès · Bounos · Épopée · Corinthos · Polybe · Créon · Jason · Sisyphe · Glaucos · Bellérophon · Ornytion · Thoas · Damophon · Propodas · Doridas et Hyanthidas Bacchiades / Héraclides Alétès · Ixion · Agélas Ier · Prymnès · Bacchis · Agélas II · Eudaémos · Aristomède · Agémon · Alexandre de Corinthe · Télestès · Automénès Tyrans Cypsélos · Périandre · Psammétique Portail de la mythologie grecque Ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphe&oldid=179630606 ». Catégories : Roi de Corinthe Enfers grecs Personnage cité dans les Métamorphoses (Ovide) Éponyme d'un objet céleste Catégories cachées : Catégorie Commons avec lien local identique sur Wikidata Portail:Mythologie grecque/Articles liés Portail:Mythologie/Articles liés Portail:Religions et croyances/Articles liés Portail:Grèce antique/Articles liés Wikipédia:Article biographique Portail:Biographie/Articles liés/Religions et croyances La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 6 février 2021 à 11:43. Droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. Voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. En cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence. 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ga-wikipedia-org-3914	----	Sisifeas - Vicipéid Sisifeas Ón Vicipéid, an chiclipéid shaor. Jump to navigation Jump to search Sisifeas I miotaseolaíocht na Gréige is ionann Sisifeas ( nó Sisyphus)(fuaimniú /ˈsɪsəfəs/; Gréigis: Σίσυφος sísypʰos [ˈsisifos]) agus rí ar cuireadh de phíonós air bollán ollmhór a bhrú go barr cnoic, le ligean dó rothlú síos go bun arís agus leanacht ar an nós seo ar feadh na síoraíochta. Déantar tagairt don duine céanna i miotaseolaíocht na Róimhe. Aisghafa ó "https://ga.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifeas&oldid=771984" Catagóirí: Miotaseolaíocht na Gréige Miotaseolaíocht na Róimhe Ríthe Roghchlár nascleanúna Do chuid uirlisí Níl tú logáilte isteach Plé Dréachtaí Cruthaigh cuntas Logáil isteach Ainmspásanna Alt Plé Leaganacha Malartacha Radhairc Léigh Cuir in eagar Cuir foinse in eagar Féach ar stair More Cuardaigh Nascleanúint Príomhleathanach Tairseach chomhphobail Cúrsaí reatha Athruithe deireanacha Leathanach fánach Cabhair Síntiúis Uirlisí Cad a nascann anseo Athruithe gaolmhara Uaslódáil comhad Leathanaigh speisialta Nasc buan Eolas faoin leathanach Luaigh an lch seo Mír Wikidata Priontáil/easpórtáil Cruthaigh leabhar Íoslódáil mar PDF Leagan inphriontáilte I dtionscadail eile Wikimedia Commons I dteangacha eile Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Athraigh naisc Tugadh an leathanach seo cothrom le dáta an 29 Meitheamh 2015 ag 15:24. Tá an téacs ar fáil faoi réir an Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; féadann téarmaí eile a bheith i bhfeidhm sa bhreis. Féach ar Téarmaí Úsáide le sonraí a fháil. Trádmharc cláraithe is ea Wikipedia® de chuid Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., eagraíocht neamhbhrabúis. Polasaí príobháideachais Maidir le Vicipéid Séanadh Amharc móibíleach Forbróirí Statistics Cookie statement 
gl-wikipedia-org-9205	----	Sísifo - Wikipedia, a enciclopedia libre Sísifo Na Galipedia, a Wikipedia en galego. Saltar ata a navegación Saltar á procura Perséfone supervisando o castigo de Sísifo (ánfora ática do 530 a.C. Sísifo, na mitoloxía grega, rei de Éfira (hoxe Corinto), era fillo de Eolo e Enarete e estaba considerado o máis astuto entre os homes e o menos escrupuloso [1]. Casou con Mérope (filla de Atlas), coa que tivo tres fillos: Glauco (pai de Belerofonte), Ornitión e Sinón. Índice 1 Zeus 2 Ulises 3 Notas 4 Véxase tamén 4.1 Bibliografía Zeus[editar | editar a fonte] Unha das moitas amantes de Zeus foi Exina, a filla do deus do río Asopo, e cando a levaba cara Enone, Sísifo viunos pasar. Ó pouco apareceu Asopo preguntando pola filla e Sísifo prometeu dicirlle o nome do raptor se abría un manancial permanente en Éfira. Asopo accedeu e creou a fonte Pirene, e Sísifo díxolle que fora Zeus quen lle levara á filla. Sísifo no Averno (Franz von Stuck, 1920) Como era de esperar, Zeus enfadouse e castigouno, cun castigo exemplar e eterno, que se fixo famoso na mitoloxía grega, para o que existen dúas versións. A primeira é que Zeus lanzouno ós infernos, onde debía empurrar unha enorme pedra monte arriba ata o cume pero que, ó chegar, caía pola aba do monte ata abaixo, e tiña que repetir o traballo unha e outra vez ata conseguir o disposto polos Xuíces do Inframundo: subir a rocha e soltala costa abaixo pola outra ladeira. E así por toda a eternidade. A segunda versión, da man de Ferécides, conta que Zeus mandoulle á Morte (Tánatos) para que o matase. Cando Tánatos chegou na súa procura, Sísifo sorprendeuno apresándoo con grillóns, co conto de querer ensinarlle cómo funcionaban, o que motivou que ninguén morría no Mundo. Zeus ordenou a Sísifo que soltara a Tánatos para que este puidese seguir co seu traballo, e o primeiro que morreu foi o propio Sísifo [2]. Pero este, antes de marchar, díxolle á súa muller que non fixera ofrendas fúnebres ós deuses trala súa morte. A muller obedeceuno e, ó chegar ó inferno, acusouna de impiedade ante Hades e convenceuno para que lle deixase regresar ó mundo dos vivos durante tres días, e así poder castigar á muller e asegurarse de que cumpría cos rituais debidos. Hades (ou Perséfone) estaba indignado contra a muller de Sísifo e non podía estar no inferno ó non estar enterrado, polo que lle permitiu volver, pero Sísifo, unha vez na casa, negouse a regresar ó infernos e viviu tan tranquilo durante moitos anos. Cando finalmente Tánatos chamouno definitivamente (ou Hermes foi por el), Hades impúxolle este castigo do que non tiña posibilidades de fuxir. Sísifo (Tiziano, 1548-1549, Museo do Prado) Hixino recolle outra versión do mito, aínda que de forma incompleta. Sísifo quería matar ó seu irmán Salmoneo, que se fixera co reino de Tesalia á morte de Eolo [3], e preguntoulle cómo facelo ó oráculo. Apolo contestoulle que o vingarían os fillos que tivese coa súa sobriña Tiro, e así o fixo, seducindo á súa sobriña, coa que tivo dous fillos xemelgos. Pero Tiro tivo coñecemento do oráculo e, para evitar a morte do seu pai, prefiriu matar ós fillos sendo aínda meniños. Perdeuse o texto de Hixino co que puido facer Sísifo nesta situación, e cando continúa está no Hades subindo a pedra ó cume do monte. "Dise que el, agora nos infernos, a causa da súa impiedade, fai rodar unha rocha cos seus ombros monte arriba, pero cada vez aque chega ó cume, retreocede rodando de novo cara abaixo tras el". (Hixino: Fábulas 60) Pero Robert Gaves continúa dicindo que Sísifo mostrou os cadáveres dos meniños no mercado e acusou a Salmoneo de incesto e de asasinato, co que conseguiu que o expulsaran da cidade [4]. Ulises[editar | editar a fonte] Conta a lenda que Autólico lle roubou o rabaño a Sísifo [5]. Este, que gravara o seu nome (ou as iniciais SS [6]) nos pezuños dos animais ó comprobar como lle ían faltando reses, puido demostrar ante tódolos veciños que o gando era seu e reclamou a devolución. Pero ese mesmo día casaban Anticlea, a filla de Autólico, e Laertes, e Sísifo entrou na casa e maquinou ata conseguir seducir á noiva esa noite, enxendrando así ó heroe Ulises [7]. Claro que tamén se di que Autólico entregou voluntariamente a filla a Sísifo porque desexaba ter un neto tan astuto como este. Notas[editar | editar a fonte] ↑ Grimal, s. v. Sísifo. ↑ Ou ben foi Ares quen liberou a Tánatos e despois entregoulle a Sísifo. Ares, deus da guerra, estaba naturalmente interesado en que a xente seguise morrendo. ↑ Salmoneo era outro impostor famoso que se facía pasar polo mesmo Zeus. ↑ Graves, px. 240. ↑ Autólico ten sona na mitoloxía grega de experto ladrón. Podía transformar o gando roubado como quixer, para que non puidese ser recoñecido polos donos. ↑ Algúns autores din que mandara gravar as palabras "Roubado por Autólico" (Graves, 239). ↑ Así, a astucia de Ulises viría do seu pai Sísifo. Véxase tamén[editar | editar a fonte] Wikimedia Commons ten máis contidos multimedia na categoría: Sísifo Bibliografía[editar | editar a fonte] GRAVES, Robert: Los mitos griegos, Ed. Gredos, 1ª ed. 2019, 239-243. GRIMAL, Pierre: Diccionario de mitología griega y romana. Ed. Paidós, 1981. HIXINO: Fábulas mitológicas. Tradución, introdución e notas de Francisco Miguel del Rincón Sánchez. Alianza Editorial 2009, 60; 201. PSEUDO-APOLODORO: Biblioteca mitológica. Tradución e notas de Julia García Moreno. Alianza Editorial 3ª ed. 2016, I, 9, 3 [a numeración segue a utilizada neste texto]. Control de autoridades : Q102561 WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 BMT: 60394 BNF: 12078609k BRE: 3661302 CERL: cnp00567273 EBID: ID GEC: 0062974 GiantBomb: 3005-20265 GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 Treccani: Sisifo Traído desde "https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sísifo&oldid=5691176" Categoría: Homes na mitoloxía grega Menú de navegación Ferramentas persoais Non accedeu ao sistema Conversa Contribucións Crear unha conta Acceder ao sistema Espazos de nomes Artigo Conversa Variantes Vistas Ler Editar Editar a fonte Ver o historial Mais Procura Navegación Portada Portal da comunidade A Taberna Actualidade Cambios recentes Artigos de calidade Páxina aleatoria Axuda Doazóns Ferramentas Páxinas que ligan con esta Cambios relacionados Páxinas especiais Ligazón permanente Información da páxina Citar esta páxina Elemento de Wikidata Imprimir/exportar Crear un libro Descargar como PDF Versión para imprimir Noutros proxectos Wikimedia Commons Outras linguas Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Editar as ligazóns A última edición desta páxina foi o 4 de febreiro de 2021 ás 21:38. 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he-wikipedia-org-7160	----	סיזיפוס – ויקיפדיה לדלג לתוכן שינוי מצב סרגל צד חיפוש כלים אישיים לא בחשבון שיחה תרומות יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון ניווט עמוד ראשי ברוכים הבאים שינויים אחרונים ערכים מומלצים פורטלים ערך אקראי תרומה לוויקיפדיה קהילה שער הקהילה עזרה ייעוץ מזנון כיכר העיר חדשות לוח מודעות יצירת קשר ספר אורחים כלים דפים המקושרים לכאן שינויים בדפים המקושרים דפים מיוחדים קישור קבוע מידע על הדף ציטוט דף זה פריט ויקינתונים הדפסה/ייצוא יצירת ספר הורדה כ־PDF גרסה להדפסה במיזמים אחרים ויקישיתוף דף זה בשפות אחרות English Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 עריכת הקישורים תפריט ניווט מרחבי שם ערך שיחה גרסאות שפה צפיות קריאה עריכת קוד מקור עריכה גרסאות קודמות עוד סיזיפוס מתוך ויקיפדיה, האנציקלופדיה החופשית המלך סיזיפוס מאת מתיאס לודר סיזיפוס (ביוונית: Σίσυφος) הוא דמות במיתולוגיה היוונית, מייסדה ומלכה הראשון של קורינתוס.[1] הוא מתואר במקורות השונים כמלך רשע וערמומי. סיזיפוס מוכר בעיקר מהמיתוס על העונש שקיבל לאחר מותו. נגזר עליו לגלגל סלע ענק במעלה הר רק כדי להגיע לפסגה ולצפות בו נופל חזרה למטה. עונשו של סיזיפוס הוא המקור לביטוי "עבודה סיזיפית", שמשמעותו עבודה מפרכת ואינסופית ללא תכלית. תוכן עניינים 1 מיתוסים 1.1 משפחה 1.2 סכסוכו עם זאוס 1.3 התחמקויות מהמוות 1.4 עונשו של סיזיפוס 2 אזכורים בתרבות 3 קישורים חיצוניים 4 הערות שוליים מיתוסים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] משפחה[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] אביו של סיזיפוס הוא איולוס שליט תסליה ואמו היא הנימפה אנרטה.[2] הוא נשא לאישה את מרופה, אחת הפליאדות בנות לוויתה של ארטמיס. יחד עם מרופה הוא הביא מספר בנים, ביניהם גלואוקוס ששלט בקורינתוס אחריו. בנו של גלאוקוס, בלרופון, הוא נכדו של סיזיפוס ואחד מגדולי הגיבורים במיתולוגיה היוונית.[3] מסופר שבין סיזיפוס לאחיו, סלמוניאוס, שררה שנאה עזה. סיזיפוס הערמומי רצה להרוג את אחיו והלך לאורקל בדלפי בכדי לטכס עצה. נאמר לו שעליו להביא ילד עם בתו של סלמוניאוס, טירו, ושילד זה עתיד להרוג את סבו. סיזיפוס פיתה את טירו והביא עמה ילד, אך טירו גילתה את תוכניתו של סיזיפוס והרגה את ילדה בכדי להציל את אביה. אח מוכר נוסף של סיזיפוס וסלמוניאוס הוא קרתאוס, שהביא יחד עם טירו אחייניתו את איסון. המחזה פילוקטטס מאת סופוקלס מציג גרסה של המיתוס בה סיזיפוס הוא אביו האמיתי של אודיסיאוס. סיזיפוס רצה להערים על אבטוליקוס הידוע כתחבולן בעצמו ופיתה את בתו אנתיקליאה שילדה את אודיסיאוס. אולם, גרסה זו של הסיפור מוכרת רק מהמחזה והגרסה המקובלת היא המופיעה באודיסיאה ובמיתוסים אחרים, שאנתיקליאה הרתה את אודיסיאוס לבעלה לארטס. סכסוכו עם זאוס[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] סיזיפוס מתואר כמלך רע וערמומי. מסופר עליו שנהג לגרום למטיילים ואורחים שהגיעו לקורינתוס לטעות בדרכם ולהרוג אותם. בכך פגע בערך ה"קסניה" היווני שקובע שהכנסת אורחים היא ערך עליון. והחל את סכסוכו עם שליט האלים, זאוס, הידוע גם כמגנם של האורחים. עונשו המפורסם של סיזיפוס בשאול ניתן לו על שחשף את מקומו של זאוס לאל הנהר אזופוס.[1] זאוס חטף את בתו של אזופוס, אגינה. כאשר אזופוס הגיע בחיפושיו לקורינתוס, סיזיפוס גילה לו את מיקומה של בתו. בסופו של דבר, זאוס הצליח להבריח את אזופוס עם ברק והביא עם אגינה את בנם איאקוס. התחמקויות מהמוות[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] בעקבות המקרה עם אזופוס אל הנהר, זאוס פנה לתנטוס וציווה עליו לכבול את סיזיפוס בשאול. סיזיפוס חשד כאשר הגיע אליו תנטוס ולא האל הרמס שתפקידו ללוות את המתים לשאול. על כן, הוא הערים על תנטוס וכבל אותו תחתיו. בעקבות כליאתו של תנטוס המוות הפסיק לפעול בעולם. לא היה ניתן להעלות עולות או לאכול בשר והזקנים והגוססים סבלו בלי שיגיע הקץ. המצב ליבה את חמתו של ארס, אל המלחמה, ששחרר לבסוף את תנטוס.[4] סיזיפוס הבין בשלב זה שייאלץ לחזור לשאול. הוא ביקש מאשתו מרופה שלא תשים על עיניו מטבעות כמנהג הקבורה ביוון. כך, בהגיעו לשאול עמד על נהר הסטיקס ולא יכול לשלם למשיט המעבורת כארון כדי לעבור את הנהר. האדס אל השאול (בגרסאות אחרות מדובר באשתו, פרספונה) אפשר לו לחזור לעולם החיים כדי לבקש מאשתו לבצע את הקבורה כראוי. על ידי תחבולה זו חזר סיזיפוס לעולם החיים ומת כעבור שנים בשיבה טובה.[4] עונשו של סיזיפוס[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] סיזיפוס מאת טיציאן 1549 כעונש על תחבולותיו של סיזיפוס נגזר עליו לגלגל סלע ענק במעלה הר בשאול. זאוס גרם לכך שבכל פעם, כמעט לפני שסיזיפוס מגיע לפסגה, הסלע מתגלגל חזרה למטה ומצריך את סיזיפוס לחזור על הפעולה. סיזיפוס נידון לנצח למאמץ חסר תועלת וייאוש ללא סוף. גַּם אֶת-סִיזִיפוֹס רָאִיתִי בְּעֹצֶר עִנּויָיו הַגְּדוֹלִים: גּוֹלֵל בִּשְׁתַּיִם כַּפּוֹתָיו אֶבֶן-הַמִּדּוֹת הַגְּדוֹלָה. וְהָיָה בְּגָלְלוֹ הָאֶבֶן, נֶאֱחָז בְּיָדָיו וּבְרַגְלָיו, עַד פְּנֵי הָרָמָה יְבִיאֶנָּה, כְּבָר יֹאמַר לְגוֹלֵל אֶל-עֵבֶר שִׂיא אוֹתוֹ הָר, וְהַכֹּחַ הַגָּדוֹל הוּא יַהַפְכֶנָּה. שׁוּב תִּתְגּוֹלֵל הָאֶבֶן זוֹ הַנּוֹכֶלֶת לַשָּׂדֶה. שׁוּב יַסִּיעֶנָּה מִמְּקוֹמָהּ מִתְמַתַּח מְלֹא אָרְכּוֹ, אֲבָרָיו יִזְּלוּ שִׁפְעַת זֵעָה, וְאָבָק יְכַסֶּה אֶת-רֹאשׁוֹ. — אודיסיאה 11 ש' 593-600 תרגום: שאול טשרניחובסקי ישנו אזכור אחד בו סיזיפוס עצר ממלאכת עונשו. בספר העשירי של מטמורפוזות מאת אובידיוס מובא סיפורם של אורפאוס ואאורידיקה. אורפאוס ידוע כנגן שמצליח לשבות את כל שומעיו. בעת נגינתו להאדס בשאול ישנו תיאור כיצד כל הפעילות בשאול עצרה מלכת, שם מסופר כי אפילו סיזיפוס נח, נשען על הסלע והקשיב.[5] אזכורים בתרבות[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] טרגדיה יוונית עתיקה בשם "סיזיפוס", כנראה מאת קריטיאס, לא שרדה אלא בציטוט קטע חלקי. בספרו של אלבר קאמי "המיתוס של סיזיפוס", תוהה הגיבור, מה המשמעות לחיים בעולם מודרני של אבסורד, שבו אין ערכים מוחלטים. שאלתו היא מה הטעם לבכר קיום כזה על פני התאבדות. הוא השווה את חייו של האדם המודרני לגורלו של סיזיפוס שנגזר עליו לגלגל במעלה ההר אבן כבדה מבלי שיצליח להשלים את משימתו לעולם. הוא כותב: "די במאבק אל הפסגה כשלעצמו, כדי למלא בשמחה את לב האדם. יש לחשוב על סיזיפוס שמח". ריצ'רד רייט, קלידן להקת פינק פלויד, תרם לאלבום של הלהקה Ummagumma (בה כל חבר להקה מבצע יצירה שלו) יצירה אינסטרומנטלית משלו בשם "Sysyphus" (אף על פי שמאייתים את השם באנגלית כ-"Sisyphus") יצירת רוק מתקדם ואוונגרד בת 13 דקות המחולקות לארבעה חלקים. כל חלק מבוסס על חלק מסיפורו של סיזיפוס. קישורים חיצוניים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] מדיה וקבצים בנושא סיזיפוס בוויקישיתוף יעל רנן, סיזיפוס: מהומרוס עד קאמי. מתוך: ספרות המערב - קובץ מסות. סיזיפוס, באתר אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה (באנגלית) הערות שוליים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] ^ 1 2 ביבליותקה (פסאודו-אפולודורוס) 1.9.3 (באנגלית) ^ ביבליותקה (פסאודו-אפולודורוס) 1.7.3 (באנגלית) ^ איליאדה ספר VI שורות 155-206 ^ 1 2 המדריך האינטרנטי של אוקספורד למיתולוגיה הקלאסית. פרק 25 ^ מטמורפוזות ספר 10 ש' 44 אוחזר מתוך "https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=סיזיפוס&oldid=30504929" קטגוריה: מלכים מהמיתולוגיה היוונית דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־09:20, 29 בינואר 2021. הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון Creative Commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה 3.0; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר' את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. מדיניות הפרטיות אודות ויקיפדיה הבהרות משפטיות תצוגת מכשירים ניידים מפתחים סטטיסטיקות הצהרה על עוגיות 
hr-wikipedia-org-7941	----	Sizif – Wikipedija Sizif Izvor: Wikipedija Prijeđi na navigaciju Prijeđi na pretraživanje Franz von Stuck: Sizif, 1920. Sizif (grč. Σίσυφος, Sísuphos) u grčkoj mitologiji Eolov je i Enaretin sin. Prema nekim izvorima bio je Odisejev otac, prije nego što se Odisejeva majka Antikleja udala za Laerta. Poznat je po personifikaciji uzaludnog posla. Naime, Sizif je bio osuđen da veliku kamenu gromadu gura uz planinsku strminu da bi ju postavio na vrh. No, svaki put kada bi se primaknuo vrhu, kamena bi mu kugla izmaknula i sunovratila se u podnožje brda. Sizif je tako pokušavao, iznova i iznova, ali neuspješno. Sadržaj 1 Mitologija 1.1 Život 1.2 Sizifov posao 2 Literatura 3 Vanjske poveznice Mitologija[uredi | uredi kôd] Život[uredi | uredi kôd] Sizif gura kamenu gromadu, 1732. godina Sizif je bio osnivač i kralj Efira (Korinta). Promicao je navigaciju i trgovinu, ali bio je pohlepan i sklon prijevari te je ubijao putnike i goste. Zaveo je svoju nećakinju, preuzeo bratovo prijestolje i izdao Zeusovu tajnu - da je silovao Eginu, kćer riječnog boga Azopa ili, u drugoj inačici mita, Eola. Zeus je naredio Hadu da ga okuje u paklu. Sizif je ondje pitao Tanatosa da isproba lance da vidi kako rade, a kad je to učinio, Sizif ga je ostavio okovanog i prijetio Hadu. Budući da je Tanatos bio bog smrti, nitko nije mogao umrijeti sve dok se nije umiješao Ares. Naime, Aresa je živciralo to što ga bitke i ratovi nisu zabavaljali jer nije bilo smrti pa je oslobodio Tanatosa i poslao Sizifa u Tartar. No, prije nego što je Sizif umro, bio je rekao svojoj ženi da ne prinosi uobičajene žrtve kad bude mrtav. Potom se u Hadu požalio Perzefoni da ga žena zanemaruje i nagovorio je da ga pusti na zemaljski svijet da je zatraži da učini svoje dužnosti. Kad je Sizif stigao u Korint, odbio se vratiti te ga je na posljetku Hermes vratio u Tartar. Sizifov posao[uredi | uredi kôd] Bogovi su ga za sve njegove prijevare kaznili. Morao je gurati veliku stijenu do vrha brijega, ali prije nego što bi stigao do vrha, kamen bi se otkotrljao te je morao početi iznova. O ovome priča i Homer u svojoj Odiseji. Stoga se danas koristi metafora "Sizifov posao" za uzaludan posao ili besmislene radnje. Prema solarnoj teoriji, Sizif je Sunčev disk koji se svakoga dana diže na istoku, a potom pada na zapadu. Drugo učenje tvrdi da je Sizif personifikacija čovjekove borbe u potrazi za znanjem. Literatura[uredi | uredi kôd] Apolodor: Biblioteka (I./7.3, 9.3; III./4.3, 12.6) Homer: Ilijada (VI./153.) Homer: Odiseja (XI./592. - 600.) Higin, Gaj Julije: Fabulae (LX.) Pauzanije: Opis Grčke (I./3., 4.; IX./34.10; X./31.) Vanjske poveznice[uredi | uredi kôd] Na Zajedničkom poslužitelju postoje datoteke vezane uz: Sizif Sizif u grčkoj mitologiji (engl.) Dobavljeno iz "https://hr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizif&oldid=5231280" Kategorija: Mitološki Grci Navigacijski izbornik Osobni alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor Doprinosi Stvori račun Prijavi se Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Inačice Pogledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi kôd Vidi povijest Više Traži Orijentacija Glavna stranica Kafić Novosti Nedavne promjene Slučajna stranica Pomoć Donacije Pomagala Što vodi ovamo Povezane promjene Postavi datoteku Posebne stranice Trajna poveznica Podatci o stranici Citiraj ovu stranicu Stavka (Wikipodatci) Ispis/izvoz Stvori knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Inačica za ispis Wikimedijini projekti Zajednički poslužitelj Drugi jezici Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Uredi međuwikije Ova stranica posljednji je put uređivana 27. ožujka 2019. u 16:05. Tekst je dostupan pod licencijom Creative Commons Imenovanje/Dijeli pod istim uvjetima; dodatni uvjeti mogu se primjenjivati. Pogledajte Uvjete upotrebe za detalje. Zaštita privatnosti Impresum Odricanje od odgovornosti Prikaz za mobilne uređaje Razvojni programeri Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
hu-wikipedia-org-5848	----	Sziszüphosz – Wikipédia Sziszüphosz A Wikipédiából, a szabad enciklopédiából Ez a közzétett változat, ellenőrizve: 2019. december 4. Pontosság ellenőrzött Ugrás a navigációhoz Ugrás a kereséshez Tiziano – Sziszüphosz (1548-1549) Sziszüphosz (antik vázakép) - balra Perszephoné, jobbra Hadész Sziszüphosz (görög betűkkel Σίσυφος, latinul: Sisyphos) Aiolosz thesszáliai király és Enareté fia, aki agyafúrtságáról volt híres. Több híres mitológiai alakkal köthető össze; egyesek szerint ő Odüsszeusz biológiai apja, mivel elcsábította Antikleiát – szomszédja, Autolükosz lányát -, aki Láertész felesége lett. Sziszüphosz kifecsegte Zeusz egyik szerelmi kalandját – így az istenek magánéletéről szóló titkok egyikét árulta el –, Thanatosznak le kellett volna őt vinnie a Tartaroszba és örök időkre megbüntetni. Sziszüphosz viszont kicselezte Thanatoszt: alázatosan megkérte, hogy mutassa meg a saját csuklóján, hogyan kell felrakni a bilincseket, aztán egy gyors mozdulattal rákattintotta őket, s így foglyul ejtette az istent. Amíg Thanatosz Sziszüphosznál raboskodott, senki sem halt meg a Földön. A képtelen helyzetet végül Arész, a hadisten segített megoldani, aki kiszabadította őt és átadta neki Sziszüphoszt. A Holtak Bírái egy hatalmas kőszikla elé vitték a ravaszságáról elhíresült királyt és utasították, hogy gurítsa fel egy dombra, majd a másik oldalon gurítsa le. Azonban, mikor Sziszüphosz már majdnem felért a domb csúcsára, ereje elfogyott és a szikla visszazuhant eredeti helyére. És ez a folyamat állandóan ismétlődik: Sziszüphoszt arra ítélték, hogy örök időkre hiábavaló erőfeszítéseket tegyen, mivel minden erejét összeszedve, verejtékezve görgeti fel a súlyos követ a hegyre, ám mielőtt a csúcsra érne, a kő mindig visszagurul. Innen ered a „sziszifuszi munka” kifejezés, az emberi teljesítőképességet már-már meghaladó és hiábavaló munka elnevezése. Sziszüphoszt a görög mitológia az egyik legnagyobb gazemberként tartja számon, ugyanakkor elismeréssel adózik neki, mivel ő alapította Korinthosz városát és sokat tett a kereskedelem és a hajózás felvirágoztatásáért. Források[szerkesztés] Littleton, C. Scott. Gods, goddesses, and mythology (angol nyelven). Marshall Cavendish, 1307-1308. o. (2005). ISBN 0761475591. Hozzáférés ideje: 2012. március 18.  Pareja, Reynaldo. Sisyphus (angol nyelven). Xlibris Corporation, 11. o. (2010). ISBN 1456808478. Hozzáférés ideje: 2012. március 18.  Sablon:Görög mitológia m v sz Görög mitológia Teremtés Aithér · Gaia · Khaosz · Khronosz · Nüx · Uranosz Titánok Titaniszok Második generációs titánok Hüperión · Iapetosz · Koiosz · Kriosz · Kronosz · Ókeanosz Mnémoszüné · Phoibé · Rhea · Téthüsz · Theia · Themisz · (Dióné) Aszteria · Asztraiosz · Atlasz · Éósz · Epimétheusz · Héliosz · Létó · Menoitiosz  · Pallasz · Perszész · Prométheusz · Szeléné Gigászok Agriosz · Alküóneusz · Damüszosz · Enkeladosz · Ekhión · Ephialtész · Eurütosz · Gratión · Hippolütosz · Klütosz · Mimasz · Pallasz · Palléneusz · Pelórosz · Polübótész · Porphürión · Thoón Olümposzi istenek Aphrodité · Apollón · Arész · Artemisz · Démétér · Héphaisztosz · Héra · Hermész · Hesztia · Pallasz Athéné · Poszeidón · Zeusz Istenek, nimfák Aiolosz · Akhelóosz · Aszklépiosz · Boreasz · Dionüszosz · Eileithüia · Ekhó · Éósz · Erósz · Eurosz · Hadész · Hébé · Hekaté · Héliosz · Irisz · Nótusz · Pán · Perszephoné · Szeléné · Thetisz · Zephürosz · khariszok · moirák · múzsák · nimfák · ókeaniszok Félistenek, héroszok Akhilleusz  · Antigoné · Bellerophón · Daidalosz · Héraklész · Iaszón · Ikarosz · Médeia · Minósz · Minótaurosz · Oidipusz · Órión · Pégaszosz · Perszeusz · Thészeusz · argonauták  · epigonok Eposzok, költemények Thébai epikus ciklus · Oidipodeia · Thébaisz · Alkmaiónisz · Iliasz · Odüsszeia · Oikhaliasz ostroma · Asszonykatalógus · Danaida tetralógia · Dionüsziaka · Minüasz-eposz · Naupaktia-eposz · Phókaia-eposz · Héraklész pajzsa · Titanomakhia · Gigantomakhia · Kéükoszi esküvő Kultusz eleusziszi misztériumok · herma · pánhellén játékok · Parthenón · Braurónia · Dódóné · orákulum · Delphoi Nemzetközi katalógusok WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 NKCS: jo2016908762 BNF: cb12078609k Ókorportál • összefoglaló, színes tartalomajánló lap A lap eredeti címe: „https://hu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sziszüphosz&oldid=22000705” Kategória: Görög mitológiai alakok Rejtett kategóriák: Wikipédia-szócikkek VIAF azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek LCCN azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek GND azonosítóval Wikipédia-szócikkek BNF azonosítóval Navigációs menü Személyes eszközök Nem vagy bejelentkezve Vitalap Közreműködések Fiók létrehozása Bejelentkezés Névterek Szócikk Vitalap Változatok Nézetek Olvasás Szerkesztés Laptörténet Több Keresés Navigáció Kezdőlap Tartalom Kiemelt szócikkek Friss változtatások Lap találomra Tudakozó Részvétel Kezdőknek Segítség Közösségi portál Kapcsolatfelvétel Adományok Eszközök Mi hivatkozik erre? Kapcsolódó változtatások Speciális lapok Hivatkozás erre a változatra Lapinformációk Hogyan hivatkozz erre a lapra? 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hy-wikipedia-org-9852	----	Սիզիփոս - Վիքիպեդիա՝ ազատ հանրագիտարան Սիզիփոս Վիքիպեդիայից՝ ազատ հանրագիտարանից Jump to navigation Jump to search Սիսիփոս (հին հունարեն՝ Σίσυφος), ըստ հին հունական առասպելաբանության՝ եղել է Կորնթոս քաղաքի հիմնադիրը և թագավորը։ Եղել է խարդախ և շահախնդիր, ուստի և մահից հետո աստվածների կողմից պատժվել է իր հանցանքների համար։ Աստվածները նրան դատապարտել են հավերժորեն սարն ի վեր գլորել ծանր մի ժայռ, որը հազիվ գագաթին հասած, դարձյալ գլորվում էր ցած և նա ստիպված էր ամբողջ աշխատանքն սկսել սկզբից։ Այստեղից էլ առաջացել է «Սիզիփոսյան աշխատանք» արտահայտությունը՝ անօգուտ աշխատանք իմաստով։ Մեկնաբանություններ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] Ըստ արեգակնային տեսության Սիզիփոս թագավորը ամեն օր արևելքում ծագող արևի սկավառակն է, որը երեկոյան մայր է մտնում արևմուտքում[1]։ Այլ փիլիսոփաներ նրան համեմատում են վեր բարձրացող և թափվող ալիքների կամ ալեկոծության հետ[1]։ Մ․թ․ա․ 1-ին դարում, էպիկուրյան փիլիսոփա Լուկեցիոսը մեկնաբանում է պատմությունը որպես իշխանափոխության և փառքի փոփոխություն[2]։ Սյորեն Կիերկեգորը գտնում է, որ Սիզիփոսի պատմությունը վերաբերվում է այն ամենին, ինչ անձը սիրում է՝ «Զվարճալի է, որ հոգեկան հիվանդություն ունեցող անձը կարող է պատահական քար վերցնել և համարել այն փող ու միևնույն ժամանակ Դոն Ժուանը կարող է ունենալ 1003 սիրեկան, որոնց քանակը նշանակում է, որ նրանք արժեք չունեն։ Դրա համար «սեր» բառը տարբեր նշանակություն ունի բոլորի համար»[3]։ Ֆրիդրիխ Ուելքերը համարում է, որ այս պատմությունը խորհրդանշում է մարդու գիտելիքի ձգտման անհուսալիությունը, իսկ Սողոմոն Ռայնախը[4] գտնում է որ Սիզիփոսի քարը խորհրդանշում է Սիզիփեումի (Կորնթոսի ամրոցի) կառուցումը։ 1942 թվականի իր «Սիզիփոսի առասպելը։ Էսսե աբսուրդի մասին» էսսեում, Ալբեր Կամյուն Սիզիփոսի մեջ տեսնում է մարդու կյանքի և գոյության աբսուրդային բնույթը․ Կամյուն եզրակացնում է՝ «Սիզիփոսին պետք է երջանիկ պատկերացնել», քանի որ «հենց միայն գագաթներ նվաճելու համար թափված ջանքերը բավական են, որ լցնեն մարդու սիրտը»։ Տրված հանձնարարության իմաստի կորստի հետևանքով աշխատողների ունեցած վիճակն անվանում են «սիզիփոսյան վիճակ»։ Գիտափորձերից կատարած երկու հիմնական եզրակացությունները հետևյալն են՝ մարդիկ ավելի լավ են աշխատում, եթե աշխատանքը իմաստալից է թվում և մարդիկ թերագնահատում են իմաստի և մոտիվացիայի միջև եղած հարաբերությունը[5]։ Ծանոթագրություններ[խմբագրել | խմբագրել կոդը] ↑ 1,0 1,1  Chisholm Hugh, ed. (1911)։ «Sisyphus»։ Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.)։ Cambridge University Press  ↑ De Rerum Natura III ↑ Stages on Life's Way, 1845 p. 293 ↑ Revue archéologique, 1904 ↑ Ariely Dan (2010)։ The Upside of Irrationality։ ISBN 0-06-199503-7  Ստացված է «https://hy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Սիզիփոս&oldid=6904285» էջից Կատեգորիաներ: Հին հունական առասպելաբանություն Քաղաք հիմնադրած անձինք Նավարկման ցանկ Անձնական գործիքներ Դուք չեք մտել համակարգ Քննարկում Ներդրումներ Ստեղծել մասնակցային հաշիվ Մուտք գործել Անվանատարածքներ Հոդված Քննարկում Տարբերակներ Դիտումները Կարդալ Խմբագրել Խմբագրել կոդը Դիտել պատմությունը Ավելին Որոնել Նավարկում Գլխավոր էջ Կատեգորիաներ Պատահական հոդված Նոր էջեր Ընթացիկ իրադարձություններ Մասնակցել Էությունը Խորհրդարան Վերջին փոփոխություններ Օգնություն Նվիրաբերել Գործիքներ Այստեղ հղվող էջերը Կապված փոփոխություններ Սպասարկող էջեր Մշտական հղում Էջի վիճակագրություն Մեջբերել այս էջը Վիքիտվյալների տարր Տպել/արտահանել Ստեղծել գիրք Ներբեռնել որպես PDF Տպելու տարբերակ Այլ նախագծերում Վիքիպահեստ Այլ լեզուներով Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Փոխել հղումները Այս էջը վերջին անգամ փոփոխվել է 1 Մայիսի 2020-ի ժամը 18:28-ին: Տեքստը հասանելի է Քրիեյթիվ Քոմոնս Հղման-Համանման տարածման թույլատրագրի ներքո, առանձին դեպքերում հնարավոր են հավելյալ պայմաններ։ Մանրամասնությունների համար այցելեք՝ Օգտագործման պայմաններ։ Գաղտնիության քաղաքականություն Վիքիպեդիայի մասին Հրաժարագրեր Տեսքը բջջայինով Ծրագրավորողներ Վիճակագրություն Cookie statement 
id-loc-gov-9840	----	Sisyphus, King of Corinth (Mythological character) - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress skip navigation Library of Congress Search Everything Audio Recordings Books/Printed Material Films, Videos Legislation Manuscripts/Mixed Material Maps Notated Music Newspapers Periodicals Personal Narratives Photos, Prints, Drawings Software, E-Resources Archived Web Sites Web Pages 3D Objects Suggestions enabled. Search Search toggle menu Discover Services Visit Education Connect About Ask a Librarian Help Contact Search Online Catalog Copyright.gov Congress.gov The Library of Congress > Linked Data Service > LC Name Authority File (LCNAF) Sisyphus, King of Corinth (Mythological character) URI(s) http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/no2014082839 Instance Of MADS/RDF PersonalName MADS/RDF Authority SKOS Concept Scheme Membership(s) Library of Congress Name Authority File Collection Membership(s) Names Collection - Authorized Headings LC Names Collection - General Collection Variants Sísif, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sisifeas, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sísifo, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sisifos, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sísifu, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sisyfos, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sisyphe, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sisyphos, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sizif, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sizifas, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sizifo, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sizyfos, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Syzyf, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sziszüphosz, King of Corinth (Mythological character) 西西弗斯, King of Corinth (Mythological character) シーシュポス, King of Corinth (Mythological character) סיזיפוס, King of Corinth (Mythological character) 시시포스, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Сизиф, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Сізіф, King of Corinth (Mythological character) سيزيف, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Σίσυφος, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Additional Information http://id.loc.gov/rwo/agents/no2014082839 Descriptor Mythological character Associated Locale (naf) Corinth (Greece) Gender male Occupation Kings and rulers Use For Sisyphus (Greek mythology) sh85123014 Exact Matching Concepts from Other Schemes http://viaf.org/viaf/sourceID/LC%7Cno2014082839#skos:Concept Closely Matching Concepts from Other Schemes Sisyphus Label from public data source Wikidata Sisyphus, King of Corinth (Mythological character) Sources found: Los motivos de Sísifo, 1995 found: Brill's new Pauly online, 17 June 2014(Sisyphus; Σίσυφος; mythical frausdster and penitent in the Underworld; son of Aeolus, father of Glaucus; King of Corinth; as a punishment in the Underworld has to roll a rock up a mountain, but every time just before reaching the summit it rolls back down into the valley) found: Wikipedia, 17 June 2014(Sisyphus ; Σίσυφος ; king of Ephyra (now known as Corinth) punished for chronic deceitfulness by being compelled to roll an immense boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down, and to repeat this action forever; other forms of name: Sisyphos ; سيزيف ; Sísifu ; Sizif ; Сізіф ; Сизиф; Sísif; Sisyfos; Sizifo; Sisyphe; Sisifeas; 시시포스; Sisifos; סיזיפוס; Sziszüphosz; Syzyf; Sizyfos; 西西弗斯) Editorial Notes [Non-Latin script references not evaluated.] Change Notes 2014-06-17: new 2015-11-30: revised Alternate Formats RDF/XML (MADS and SKOS) N-Triples (MADS and SKOS) JSON (MADS/RDF and SKOS/RDF) MADS - RDF/XML MADS - N-Triples MADS/RDF - JSON SKOS - RDF/XML SKOS - N-Triples SKOS - JSON MADS/XML MARC/XML Subject Of Works Looking for related works... Contributor To Works Looking for related works... Follow Us Email Facebook Twitter Youtube Pinterest Flickr Instagram iTunes Take our survey External Accessibility Legal Inspector General External Link Disclaimer USA.gov Careers Contact Media Donate Shop Congress.gov United States Copyright Office 
id-wikipedia-org-1808	----	Sisifos - Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Sisifos Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas Loncat ke navigasi Loncat ke pencarian Hukuman Sisifos. Dalam mitologi Yunani, Sisifos (Σίσυφος) adalah anak dari Aiolos dan Enarete. Sisifos adalah suami Merope dan merupakan pendiri sekaligus raja Efira, Korintus. Menurut beberapa sumber lain, Sisifos adalah ayah Odisseus dari hubungannya dengan Antiklea. Daftar isi 1 Dalam mitologi 2 Hukuman Sisifos 3 Referensi 4 Pranala luar Dalam mitologi[sunting | sunting sumber] Sisifos menggalakkan perdagangan dan pelayaran tetapi dia adalah orang yang serakah dan tamak. Sisifos sering membunuh wisatawan dan tamunya. Menurut Homeros, Sisifos adalah orang yang sangat licik. Sisifos meniduri keponakannya sendiri, merebut tahta saudaranya, dan membocorkan rahasia Zeus. Akibatnya Zeus menyuruh Thanatos (dewa kematian) untuk mengurung Sisifos di Tartaros. Ketika Thatanos hendak merantai Sisifos, Sisifos meminta Thatantos mencoba dahulu rantai tersebut untuk menunjukkan cara kerjanya. Setelah Thanatos merantai dirinya sendiri, Sisifos menguncinya sehingga Thanatoslah yang terjebak. Hal ini menyebabkan tidak ada manusia yang bisa mati. Ares, yang merasa kesal karena tidak ada manusia yang mati dalam pertempuran, akhirnya membebaskan Thanatos yang kemudian membuat Sisifos mati. Sebelum Sisifos mati, dia meminta istrinya untuk tidak menguburnya dan melemparkan mayatnya ke tengah keramaian, yang dituruti oleh istrinya. Setelah mati dan sampai di dunia bawah, Sisifos membujuk Persefon, ratu dunia bawah, untuk mengizinkannya keluar sebentar ke alam manusia dan memarahi istrinya karena tidak memberinya penguburan yang layak. Persefon mengizinkanya dan Sisifos pun kembali ke Korinth. Namun Sisifos menolak untuk kembali ke dunia bawah dan ingin tetap di alam manusia. Akhirnya Sisifos dibawa secara paksa oleh Hermes. Dalam versi lainnya, Sisifos mengatakan pada Persefon bahwa dia dibawa ke Tartaros adalah karena sebuah kekeliruan dan meminta dirinya dibebaskan.[1] Hukuman Sisifos[sunting | sunting sumber] Di Tartaros, Sisifos dihukum untuk mengangkat batu besar ke atas bukit. Setelah sampai di atas, batu tersebut akan menggelinding kembali ke bawah dan Sisifos harus mengangkatnya lagi dan lagi. Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber] ^ Bernard Evslin's Gods, Demigods & Demons, hal 209-210 Pranala luar[sunting | sunting sumber] Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Sisyphus. Wikibuku Mitologi Yunani memiliki halaman bertajuk Sisifos (Inggris)Sisifos di Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology (Inggris)Sisifos di Encyclopedia Mythica Diperoleh dari "https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifos&oldid=14116226" Kategori: Raja dalam mitologi Yunani Menu navigasi Perkakas pribadi Belum masuk log Pembicaraan Kontribusi Buat akun baru Masuk log Ruang nama Halaman Pembicaraan Varian Tampilan Baca Sunting Sunting sumber Versi terdahulu Lainnya Pencarian Navigasi Halaman Utama Perubahan terbaru Artikel pilihan Peristiwa terkini Halaman baru Halaman sembarang Komunitas Warung Kopi Portal komunitas Bantuan Wikipedia Tentang Wikipedia Pancapilar Kebijakan Menyumbang Hubungi kami Bak pasir Bagikan Perkakas Pranala balik Perubahan terkait Halaman istimewa Pranala permanen Informasi halaman Kutip halaman ini Butir di Wikidata Cetak/ekspor Buat buku Unduh versi PDF Versi cetak Dalam proyek lain Wikimedia Commons Bahasa lain Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Sunting interwiki Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 17 Agustus 2018, pukul 12.11. Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa Creative Commons; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. Lihat Ketentuan Penggunaan untuk lebih jelasnya. Kebijakan privasi Tentang Wikipedia Penyangkalan Tampilan seluler Pengembang Statistik Pernyataan kuki 
is-wikipedia-org-3902	----	Sísýfos - Wikipedia, frjálsa alfræðiritið Sísýfos Úr Wikipediu, frjálsa alfræðiritinu Jump to navigation Jump to search Sísýfos er í grískri goðafræði konungur sem var best þekktur fyrir að hafa verið refsað af Seifi með því að vera neyddur til að rúlla risastórum steini upp hæð sem myndi svo ætíð rúlla aftur niður á byrjunarreit í hvert sinn sem steinninn væri næstum kominn á toppinn. Seifur á að hafa verið ósáttur við óheiðarleika og blekkingar Sísýfosar, ásamt tilhneygingu hans um að drepa ferðamenn og aðra gesti í höll hans í andstæðu við heilaga reglu Forn-Grikkja um gestrisni.   Þessi grein er stubbur. Þú getur hjálpað til með því að bæta við greinina. Sótt frá „https://is.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sísýfos&oldid=1680400“ Flokkur: Persónur í grískri goðafræði Falinn flokkur: Wikipedia:Stubbar Leiðsagnarval Tenglar Ekki skráð/ur inn Spjall Framlög Stofna aðgang Skrá inn Nafnrými Síða Spjall Útgáfur Sýn Lesa Breyta Breyta frumkóða Breytingaskrá Meira Leit Flakk Forsíða Úrvalsefni Efnisflokkar Handahófsvalin síða Hjálp Verkefnið Nýlegar breytingar Nýjustu greinar Samfélagsgátt Potturinn Fjárframlög Verkfæri Hvað tengist hingað Skyldar breytingar Hlaða inn skrá Kerfissíður Varanlegur tengill Síðuupplýsingar Vitna í þessa síðu Wikidata hlutur Prenta/sækja Búa til bók Sækja PDF-skrá Prentvæn útgáfa Í öðrum verkefnum Wikimedia Commons Á öðrum tungumálum Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Breyta tenglum Þessari síðu var síðast breytt 10. ágúst 2020, klukkan 13:45. Textinn er gefinn út samkvæmt Creative Commons Tilvísun-DeilaEins leyfi. Sjá nánar í notkunarskilmálum. Meðferð persónuupplýsinga Um Wikipediu Fyrirvarar Farsímaútgáfa Forritarar Statistics Yfirlýsing vegna vefkakna 
it-wikipedia-org-4859	----	Sisifo - Wikipedia Sisifo Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. Jump to navigation Jump to search Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Sisifo (disambigua). Sisifo Sisifo spinge il masso (VI secolo a.C.)[a 1] Nome orig. Σίσυφος Specie Eoliano Sesso Maschio Professione Re di Efira Sisifo (in greco antico: Σίσυφος, Sísyphos; in latino: Sisyphus) è un personaggio della mitologia greca. Fondò la città di Efira (l'odierna Corinto[1]) della quale divenne re. «Qui visse Sísifo, che era il più astuto degli uomini, Sísifo, figlio d'Èolo; e un figlio generò Glauco; e Glauco generò Bellerofonte perfetto» (Omero, Iliade, libro VI, versi 153-155. Traduzione di Rosa Calzecchi Onesti[2].) Sisifo è l'emblema dell'uomo ingannatore e astuto, tanto è vero che in una versione del mito viene considerato il padre di Ulisse. Indice 1 Genealogia 2 Etimologia 3 Il mito di Sisifo 3.1 Sisifo e Salmoneo 3.2 Sisifo e la pietra 3.3 Pareri secondari 4 Le interpretazioni del mito di Sisifo 5 Influenza culturale 6 Note 6.1 Approfondimenti 6.2 Fonti 7 Bibliografia 7.1 Fonti 7.2 Moderna 8 Voci correlate 9 Altri progetti 10 Collegamenti esterni Genealogia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Figlio di Eolo e di Enarete[3], sposò Merope e divenne padre di Glauco[3], Ornizione, Tersandro, Almo[4] e Profirione[5]. Etimologia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Sisifo che trasporta il masso, 1920, nell'interpretazione di Franz von Stuck. Il nome di Sisifo è di incerta etimologia, sebbene i Greci lo interpretassero col significato di «uomo saggio»; in realtà esso è una variazione greca del dio Tesup, personificazione ittita del sole e della luce, identificato con Atabirio, dio solare di Rodi[6], a cui era sacro il toro. Esichio di Alessandria invece riporta una scrittura diversa del nome, Sesephus. Alla figura del Sisifo di Rodi (ovvero Atabirio) si ricollegava anche il rinvenimento di preziose statuette di bronzo e bassorilievi del XV secolo a.C., raffiguranti un toro sacro, accompagnato da numerosi attributi come lo scettro, due dischi sui fianchi e un trifoglio su un'anca[a 2]. Il mito di Sisifo[modifica | modifica wikitesto] In tutti i miti che lo riguardano, Sisifo è scaltro e senza scrupoli come nessun altro mortale. La sua leggenda infatti comprende numerosissimi episodi, ognuno dei quali è la storia di una sua astuzia. Sisifo e Salmoneo[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Alla morte di Eolo, Salmoneo (fratello di Sisifo) usurpò il trono tessalico e Sisifo, legittimo erede, si rivolse all'oracolo di Delfi, il quale gli consigliò di ingravidare sua nipote per riscuotere la vendetta; così, Sisifo sedusse la figlia di Salmoneo (Tiro), e dalla loro relazione nacquero due figli. Scoperto il verdetto dell'oracolo, comunque, il risentimento della donna sarà tale da indurla ad assassinare la prole avuta. Sisifo si presenterà quindi nella piazza del mercato a Larissa e mostrerà alla folla i cadaveri dei figli, dicendo che in realtà Tiro li aveva generati con il padre Salmoneo, e lo esilierà dalla Tessaglia per incesto. [7]. Sisifo e la pietra[modifica | modifica wikitesto] La fontana di Pirene a Corinto Mentre Sisifo cercava di risolvere il problema della scarsità dell'acqua a Corinto, si ritrovò nei pressi della rocca di Corinto, dove vide Zeus con una bella ninfa di nome Egina che era figlia del dio fluviale Asopo rapita dallo stesso Zeus. Il dio Asopo si presentò allora a Sisifo nelle sembianze di un vecchio e gli chiese notizie di sua figlia. Sisifo disse di averla vista, senza però rivelare subito chi l'aveva rapita, preferendo chiedere una fonte d'acqua per la sua città in cambio dell'informazione. Asopo promise che gli avrebbe dato la fonte e Sisifo, mantenendo il patto, rivelò che la ninfa era stata rapita da Zeus. Soddisfatto, Asopo fece dono al re della sorgente perenne detta Pirene[8]. Quando Zeus venne a sapere ciò che Sisifo aveva visto e rivelato ad Asopo, chiese a suo fratello Ade di mandare Thanatos per catturarlo e rinchiuderlo nel Tartaro. Quando Thanatos giunse a casa di Sisifo, questi lo fece ubriacare e lo legò con delle catene imprigionandolo. Con Thanatos incatenato, la morte scomparve dal mondo e quando il dio Ares si accorse che durante le battaglie non moriva più nessuno e che quindi le battaglie stesse non avevano più senso, si mosse per prendere Sisifo e, liberato Thanatos, lo condussero nel Tartaro[9]. Tuttavia, Sisifo aveva imposto alla moglie Merope di non seppellire il suo corpo, per cui egli ebbe motivo per protestare con gli dèi dell'empietà della moglie e Persefone, moglie di Ade, decise di farlo ritornare sulla Terra per tre giorni, il tempo di imporre alla moglie i riti funebri. Sisifo tornò nel mondo dei vivi, ma non obbligò la moglie a seppellirlo così gli dèi inviarono Hermes per catturarlo e riportarlo negli Inferi. Il dio messaggero obbedì con piacere potendosi così vendicare di Sisifo che in precedenza aveva smascherato suo figlio Autolico[10] (il ladro supremo) e (secondo alcune versioni) anche per aver violentato sua figlia Anticlea. Altre versioni riferiscono che Sisifo avesse ricevuto la possibilità di ritornare nel mondo dei vivi non da Persefone, bensì da Ade stesso, a patto però di tornare entro un giorno e come nell'altra versione del mito, Sisifo non tenne fede al patto sancito con la divinità degli inferi e rimase nel mondo dei vivi. La morte però in questo caso sopraggiunge naturalmente e non è affatto menzionato Hermes. Come punizione per la sagacia dell'uomo che aveva osato sfidare gli dèi, Zeus decise che Sisifo avrebbe dovuto spingere un masso dalla base alla cima di un monte. Tuttavia, ogni volta che Sisifo raggiungeva la cima, il masso rotolava nuovamente alla base del monte ed ogni volta, e per l'eternità, Sisifo avrebbe dovuto ricominciare da capo la sua scalata senza mai riuscirci. Pareri secondari[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Secondo una tradizione, fu il padre di Ulisse, generato da una relazione con la madre Anticlea prima dell'unione di lei con il re di Itaca Laerte. Le interpretazioni del mito di Sisifo[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Sisifo come simbolo per continuare una guerra insensata. Johann Vogel: Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649 Il re Sisifo viene considerato alla stregua del disco del sole che sorge ogni giorno a est e poi sprofonda verso ovest.[11] Altri studiosi lo considerano una personificazione delle onde che salgono e scendono, o del mare infido[11]. Il filosofo epicureo Lucrezio del I secolo a.C. interpreta il mito di Sisifo come la personificazione dei politici che aspirano a un ufficio politico ma ne vengono costantemente sconfitti. La ricerca del potere, di per sé una "cosa vuota", viene paragonata al rotolare del macigno dalla collina. Lucrezio ritiene infatti che le ambizioni siano pericolose perché allontanano l'uomo dalla saggezza. [12] Friedrich Welcker suggerì l'interpretazione secondo cui il mito di Sisifo simboleggiava la lotta vana dell'uomo nella ricerca della conoscenza, mentre Salomon Reinach[13] ipotizzò che la sua punizione si basasse su un quadro in cui Sisifo era rappresentato mentre roteava un'enorme pietra dall'acrocorinto, simbolo del lavoro e delle abilità coinvolte nella costruzione del Sisifeo. Albert Camus, nel suo saggio Il mito di Sisifo del 1942, vide in Sisifo la personificazione dell'assurdità della vita umana, ma Camus conclude "bisogna immaginare Sisifo felice" come se "la lotta stessa verso le vette fosse sufficiente per riempire il cuore di un uomo". J. Nigro Sansonese,[14] basandosi sull'opera di Georges Dumézil, ipotizza che l'origine del nome "Sisifo" sia onomatopeica del continuo suono di susurrant ("siss phuss") fatto da il respiro nei passaggi nasali, situando la mitologia di Sisifo in un contesto molto più ampio di tecniche arcaiche (vedi religione proto-indoeuropea) che inducono la trance legate al controllo del respiro. Il ciclo ripetitivo di inspirazione-espirazione è descritto esotericamente nel mito come un moto su e giù di Sisifo e del suo macigno su una collina. In esperimenti che verificano come i lavoratori rispondono quando il significato del loro compito è diminuito, la condizione del test viene indicata come condizione Sisifousa. Le due conclusioni principali dell'esperimento sono che le persone lavorano di più quando il loro lavoro sembra più significativo e che le persone sottovalutano la relazione tra significato e motivazione.[15] Influenza culturale[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Il filosofo francese Albert Camus gli ha dedicato un importante saggio (Il mito di Sisifo. Saggio sull'assurdo) dove, negando qualsivoglia valore a un significato trascendente alla vita e al mondo, riconosce come assurda l'esistenza: senza un significato l'esistenza è irrazionale ed estranea a noi stessi. Resta dunque il suicidio, ma quello "fisico" non risolve il problema del senso; mentre quello "spirituale" (Kierkegaard con la "speranza" in Dio, e Husserl con la ragione portata oltre i limiti della propria finitudine) svia dal vero problema. La soluzione per Camus è la "sopportazione" della propria presenza nel mondo, sopportazione che consente la libertà; e la protesta/ribellione nei confronti dell'assurdità dell'esistenza, quindi contro il destino, consegna alla vita il suo valore effettivo. Camus non cerca quindi più Dio o l'Assoluto, il suo obiettivo diviene "l'intensità della vita". Per Camus Sisifo è quindi felice perché nella sua condanna diviene consapevole dei propri limiti e quindi assume su di sé il proprio destino. Nel libro di Paolo Maurensig Canone inverso viene citato Sisifo a pagina 72,[16] come stemma della divisa del protagonista Jenö Varga, e a pagina 79,[17] per indicare che, per quanto riguarda la perfezione, all'uomo non sarà mai dato raggiungerla. Nel libro di fantascienza di Greg Egan Distress (1995) Sisifo è un'intelligenza artificiale installata su un pad digitale o quello che si può ricondurre a un moderno tablet. La sua funzione nell'immaginario dello scrittore è molto vicina, anche se più sviluppata, a quella degli attuali assistenti vocali per smartphone. In fisica atomica l'effetto Sisifo (Sisyphus Cooling) è un meccanismo di raffreddamento laser tramite il quale è possibile raggiungere temperature inferiori a quella del limite Doppler. Fu sviluppato nel 1989 dal fisico francese Claude Cohen-Tannoudji. A Sisifo è intitolata la suite strumentale d'avanguardia Sysyphus, pubblicata nel 1969 dalla band progressive rock Pink Floyd nel disco Ummagumma e scritta dal tastierista Richard Wright. Sisifo è il protagonista del videogioco Rock of Ages. Sisyphus è il titolo del corto d'animazione candidato all'Oscar nel 1974 del regista, grafico, illustratore, scrittore, politico ungherese Marcell Jankovics. Sisyphus è il titolo di una canzone del cantautore statunitense Andrew Bird. La canzone Carve Away The Stone, ultima traccia dell'album Test For Echo (1996) della band progressive rock Rush, tratta del mito di Sisifo e della pietra da lui sospinta. Note[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Approfondimenti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] ^ Sisifo spinge il masso (VI secolo a.C.), dal santuario di Hera al Sele, conservato al Museo archeologico nazionale di Paestum. Il demone alato alle spalle di Sisifo intende rendere più dura la punizione del re di Èfira. Nell'Odissea (XI, 593 e ss.), Sisifo è tormentato nell'Ade dove viene obbligato a spingere per l'eternità un enorme masso fino alla vetta dove questo finisce per rotolare di nuovo giù a valle. Omero non ci dice nulla sui motivi della sua condanna da parte di Zeus, lo scoliaste (cfr. loc. cit.) lo relaziona al fatto di aver rivelato ad Asopo il luogo dove Zeus gli aveva rapito la figlia Egina. Strabone (VIII, 6,2) ci parla di un suo sacrario, Sisypheion, sull'Acorinto; Pausania (II, 2, 2) ci dice della sua tomba sull'Istmo. ^ La figura del toro in rapporto alla figura di Sisifo si ricollega al rapimento delle mandrie che quest'ultimo faceva pascolare sull'Istmo di Corinto e che gli vennero sottratte dal ladro Autolico. Dopotutto le razzie di mandrie contrassegnate dal marchio del dio Sole erano un episodio molto comune nei miti greci: le razzie compiute dai compagni di Ulisse nell'isola al dio sacra (Omero, Odissea, libro XII, 127-143); quelle del gigante Alcioneo, sconfitto dall'avversario Eracle (Apollodoro, Epitome II 5 10 e I 6 1). Ma allo stesso modo anche la vicenda biblica di Giacobbe, come Autolico, era riuscito a rubare le bestie dalle mandrie di Labano (Genesi XXIX e XXX) Fonti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] ^ (EN) Apollodoro, Biblioteca I, 9.6, su theoi.com. URL consultato il 23 maggio 2019. ^ Omero, Iliade, libro VI, versi 153-155. ^ a b (EN) Apollodoro, Biblioteca I, 9.3, su theoi.com. URL consultato il 23 maggio 2019. ^ (EN) Pausania il Periegeta, Periegesi della Grecia II, 4.3, su theoi.com. URL consultato il 23 maggio 2019. ^ Scoli a Apollonio Rodio, Le Argonautiche 3.1553 ^ (EN) sisyphus | Search Online Etymology Dictionary, su www.etymonline.com. URL consultato il 27 giugno 2018. ^ Igino, Fabulae, LX Sisifo e Salmoneo su su theoi.com (In inglese). ^ Pseudo-Apollodoro, Biblioteca, libro III. 12. 6 su theoi.com (In inglese) ^ Pausania, Periegesi della Grecia, libro II. 5. 1 su theoi.com (In inglese) ^ Igino, Fabulae, CCI Autolico su theoi.com (In inglese) ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sisyphus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ^ De Rerum Natura III ^ Revue archéologique, 1904 ^ Sansonese, J. Nigro. The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. ISBN 0-89281-409-8 ^ Ariely, Dan (2010). The Upside of Irrationality. ISBN 0-06-199503-7. ^ Cf. ricorrenza in books.google.it. ^ Cf. ricorrenza in books.google.it. Bibliografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Fonti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Omero, Iliade, libro VI, 152 Omero, Odissea, libro XI, 593-600 Pseudo-Apollodoro, Biblioteca I, 7,3; 9,3 ss. Pausania, Libro II, 1,3 Igino, Fabulae 60, 201 Tzetze, Scoli a Licofrone 107; 176; 229; 284; 344. Crizia, Sisifo ( tragedia ) Moderna[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Robert Graves, I miti greci, Milano, Longanesi, ISBN 88-304-0923-5. Pierre Grimal, Dizionario di mitologia, Parigi, Garzanti, 2005, ISBN 88-11-50482-1. Angela Cerinotti, Miti dell'antica Grecia e di Roma Antica, Verona, Demetra, 1998, ISBN 978-88-440-0721-8. Felice Ramorino, Mitologia Classica illustrata, Milano, Ulrico Hoepli, 2004, ISBN 88-203-1060-0. Gaetana Miglioli, Romanzo della mitologia dalla A alla Z, Firenze, G. D'Anna, 2007, ISBN 88-8104-731-4. Voci correlate[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Il mito di Sisifo, saggio di Albert Camus Toante Altri progetti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Altri progetti Wikiquote Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote contiene citazioni di o su Sisifo Wikimedia Commons contiene immagini o altri file su Sisifo Collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Sisifo, in Treccani.it – Enciclopedie on line, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. Controllo di autorità VIAF (EN) 67258418 · LCCN (EN) no2014082839 · GND (DE) 118614797 · BNF (FR) cb12078609k (data) · CERL cnp00567273 · WorldCat Identities (EN) viaf-67258418 Portale Mitologia greca: accedi alle voci di Wikipedia che trattano di mitologia greca Estratto da "https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifo&oldid=117683336" Categorie: Puniti nell'Ade Re della mitologia greca Personaggi della mitologia greca Miti legati a Corinto Re di Corinto Categorie nascoste: Voci con codice VIAF Voci con codice LCCN Voci con codice GND Voci con codice BNF Voci con codice CERL Voci con codice WorldCat Identities Voci non biografiche con codici di controllo di autorità Menu di navigazione Strumenti personali Accesso non effettuato discussioni contributi registrati entra Namespace Voce Discussione Varianti Visite Leggi Modifica Modifica wikitesto Cronologia Altro Ricerca Navigazione Pagina principale Ultime modifiche Una voce a caso Nelle vicinanze Vetrina Aiuto Sportello informazioni Comunità Portale Comunità Bar Il Wikipediano Fai una donazione Contatti Strumenti Puntano qui Modifiche correlate Pagine speciali Link permanente Informazioni pagina Cita questa voce Elemento Wikidata Stampa/esporta Crea un libro Scarica come PDF Versione stampabile In altri progetti Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote In altre lingue Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Modifica collegamenti Questa pagina è stata modificata per l'ultima volta il 2 gen 2021 alle 00:54. 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ja-wikipedia-org-4482	----	シーシュポス - Wikipedia シーシュポス 出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ナビゲーションに移動 検索に移動 岩を持ち上げるシーシュポスを描いたアッティカ黒絵式アンフォラ（一部）。ミュンヘン、州立古代美術博物館（en）所蔵。 シーシュポス（古希: Σίσυφος, Sīsyphos, ラテン語: Sisyphus）は、ギリシア神話に登場する人物である。長母音表記を略してシシュポス、シジフォス、シシュフォスとも省略される。コリントスの創建者[1]。徒労を意味する「シーシュポスの岩」で知られる。 シーシュポスはテッサリア王アイオロスとエナレテーの息子で、兄弟にサルモーネウス、アタマースなどがいる[2]。プレイアデスのひとりメロペーを妻とし、グラウコス[1]、オルニュティオーン、テルサンドロス、ハルモスをもうけた[3]。シーシュポスの子のうちグラウコスはベレロポーンの父である[1]。 シーシュポスはエピュラーを創建し、エピュラーは後にコリントスの名で知られるようになった[1]。一説には、メデイアがシーシュポスにコリントスを贈ったともいう[4]。また、ヘーラーに狂気を吹き込まれたアタマースに追われたイーノーとメリケルテースが海に身を投げた事件を追悼してイストミア大祭を創始した[5][6]。 目次 1 神話 1.1 ペイレーネーの泉 1.2 テューロー 1.3 シーシュポスの抵抗 1.4 シーシュポスの岩 1.5 シーシュポスとアウトリュコス 2 系図 3 ギャラリー 4 脚注 4.1 注釈 4.2 脚注 5 参考文献 6 関連項目 神話[編集] アクロコリントス。アソーポースが泉を沸かせたとされる。 アクロコリントス。 ティツィアーノの1548年-1549年ごろの絵画『シシュポス』。プラド美術館所蔵。 フランツ・フォン・シュトゥックの1920年の絵画『シシュポス』。 ペイレーネーの泉[編集] ゼウスがアイギーナを誘拐したとき、シーシュポスはアイギーナの父親である河神アーソーポスに行方を教えたとされる[1][7]。シーシュポスは、娘を捜してコリントスまでやって来たアーソーポスに、「コリントスの城（アクロコリントス）に水の涸れない泉を作ってくれたら、アイギーナのことを教える」と持ちかけた。アーソーポスがペイレーネーの泉を湧き出させたので、シーシュポスは、ゼウスとアイギーナの居所を告げた[8]（このときゼウスが恐れて岩に姿を変え、アーソーポスをやり過ごしたことは[9]、アイアコスの項を参照のこと）。 ペイレーネーの泉は、後にベレロポーンがペーガソスを馴らした場所として知られる[10]。 テューロー[編集] 父のアイオロスが死ぬと、シーシュポスの兄弟であるサルモーネウスが、その跡を継いでテッサリアー王となった。 シーシュポスは、このことに腹を立て、デルポイの神託所に伺いを立てた。与えられたお告げは、「おまえの姪と交わって子供をもうければ、その子供たちが恨みを晴らしてくれるだろう」というものだった。そこで、シーシュポスは、サルモーネウスの娘テューローを誘惑した。テューローは、やがてシーシュポスの行為が自分への愛情からではなく、サルモーネウスへの憎しみからであることに気づき、生まれた2人の子供を自分の手で殺した[11][12][13][注釈 1]。 シーシュポスの抵抗[編集] ゼウスは、シーシュポスをタルタロスに連行するようタナトスに命じた。その理由として告げ口の恨みがあった[1][8]（ゼウスの命を受けたのはタナトスではなくハーデースだという異説もある[14]）。 しかし、シーシュポスは言葉巧みにタナトスが持ってきた手錠の使い方を教えてくれと頼み、これにまんまと引っかかったタナトスが自分の手で実演してみせると、いきなり手錠に鍵をかけてしまった。タナトスは、死の神であると同時に死の概念そのものであった。そのため、彼がシーシュポスの家から出られなくなると、首を切られた者も八つ裂きに処された者も、誰も死ぬことができなくなった。このことで一番困ったのは、アレースである。自分の権利を侵されそうになったアレースは、タナトスを助け出し、シーシュポスを捕らえた。 その間、シーシュポスは、妻のメロペーに、決して自分の葬式を出してはならないと言い含めておいた。冥府に連れてこられたシーシュポスは、ペルセポネーに葬式が済んでいないことを訴え、自分を省みない妻に復讐するために三日間だけ生き返らせてくれと頼んだ。冥府から戻ったシーシュポスは、ペルセポネーとの約束を反故にしてこの世に居座った[15]。やむなくヘルメースがシーシュポスを力ずくで連れ戻した。 シーシュポスの岩[編集] シーシュポスは神々を二度までも欺いた罰を受けることになった。彼はタルタロスで巨大な岩を山頂まで上げるよう命じられた（この岩はゼウスが姿を変えたときのものと同じ大きさといわれる）。シーシュポスがあと少しで山頂に届くというところまで岩を押し上げると、岩はその重みで底まで転がり落ちてしまい、この苦行が永遠に繰り返される[16][1]。 このことから「シーシュポスの岩（英:the stone of Sisyphus）」「Sisyphean labor」の語は、日本での「賽の河原」同様に「（果てしない）徒労」を意味する（この「シーシュポスの岩」については、タンタロスにも似た話が伝えられている）。 シーシュポスの末路を恥じたメロペーは、夜空に輝く星の姉妹から離れ自らの姿を隠した[17]。これは紀元前2000年の終わり頃、おうし座のプレアデス星団の星が一つ見えなくなった事実を示しているともいわれる。[要出典] シーシュポスとアウトリュコス[編集] シーシュポスがコリントスにいた頃、その近くにはヘルメースの息子アウトリュコスが住んでいた。彼はシーシュポスの家畜をたびたび盗んでは自分の物にしていた。アウトリュコスは父であるヘルメースから盗んだ家畜の姿を変える力を授かっており、シーシュポスの家畜のうち、角が生えているものは角をなくし、色の黒いものを白くしたりして、盗みが誰の仕業かわからないようにしていた。 シーシュポスは家畜が度々盗まれるのを怪しみ、自分の家畜の蹄の内側に「SS」という頭文字を刻み込んでおいた。ある夜、例によってアウトリュコスが盗みを働いた。翌朝、シーシュポスは自分の家畜小屋から道沿いに蹄の跡が続いているのを見て、近くの人々を呼び出して証人にした。そして、アウトリュコスの家畜小屋で家畜の蹄の内側を確認すると、果たしてSSの文字があった。 アウトリュコスは知らとぼけて証人たちと口論を始める。その間、シーシュポスはアウトリュコスの娘でラーエルテースの妻となっていたアンティクレイアと交わった。こうして生まれたのがオデュッセウスである。オデュッセウスの抜け目のなさは、アウトリュコスとシーシュポスの2人から受け継いだのだといわれる[18]。 系図[編集]                     アイオロス   アトラース                                                                 シーシュポス   メロペー                                                                                                                                                                     テルサンドロス                                 オルニュティオーン               ニーソス                                       ハルモス                                                                                 コローノス   ハリアルトス                         ポーコス   トアース   ポセイドーン   エウリュノメー   グラウコス                                                                                                                             アレース   クリューセー       ポセイドーン   クリューソゴネイア       ダーモポーン       ベレロポーン       ピロノエー                                                                                                                                                               プレギュアース               クリューセース           プロポダース       イーサンドロス   ヒッポロコス   ゼウス   ラーオダメイア                                                                                                                       アポローン   コローニス   イスキュス       ミニュアース       ドーリダース   ヒュアンティダース           グラウコス       サルペードーン                                                                                                                   アスクレーピオス       オルコメノス   ピュラコス   クリュメネー   イーアソス   ミニュアデス                                                                                                           マカーオーン   ポダレイリオス           イーピクロス   アルキメデー   アタランテー   ギャラリー[編集] ピエトロ・デッラ・ベッキア（英語版） 1660年代初頭 アントニオ・ザンキ（英語版） 1660年頃-1665年頃 マウリッツハイス美術館所蔵 ホセ・デ・リベーラ 17世紀 プラド美術館所蔵 脚注[編集] 注釈[編集] ^ ヒュギーヌス（239話）によれば、テューローはアポローンの神託でシーシュポスの本心に気づいたことになっている。 脚注[編集] ^ a b c d e f g アポロドーロス、1巻9・3。 ^ アポロドーロス、1巻7・3。 ^ パウサニアス、2巻4・3。 ^ パウサニアス、2巻3・11。 ^ アポロドーロス、3巻4・3。 ^ パウサニアス、2巻1・3。 ^ アポロドーロス、3巻12・6。 ^ a b パウサニアス、2巻5・1。 ^ ロバート・グレーヴス、66話b。 ^ ピンダロス『オリュンピア祝勝歌』第13歌63行-78行。 ^ ヒュギーヌス、60話。 ^ ヒュギーヌス、239話。 ^ ヒュギーヌス、254話。 ^ ロバート・グレーヴス、67話g。 ^ テオグニス、703（カール・ケレーニイ『ギリシアの神話 英雄の時代』邦訳、p.75-76。 ^ ホメーロス『オデュッセイア』11巻593行-600行。 ^ ロバート・グレーヴス、67話j。 ^ ロバート・グレーヴス、67話c。 参考文献[編集] アポロドーロス『ギリシア神話』高津春繁訳、岩波文庫（1953年） 『オデュッセイア／アルゴナウティカ』松平千秋・岡道男訳、講談社（1982年） パウサニアス『ギリシア記』飯尾都人訳、龍溪書舎（1991年） ヒュギーヌス『ギリシャ神話集』松田治・青山照男訳、講談社学術文庫（2005年） 高津春繁『ギリシア・ローマ神話辞典』、岩波書店（1960年） カール・ケレーニイ『ギリシアの神話 英雄の時代』植田兼義訳、中公文庫（1985年） ロバート・グレーヴス『ギリシア神話 （上）』高杉一郎訳、紀伊国屋書店（1962年） 関連項目[編集] ウィキメディア・コモンズには、シーシュポスに関連するメディアがあります。 シーシュポスの神話 - アルベール・カミュ アクロコリントス イストミア大祭 表 話 編 歴 ギリシア神話 神々 オリュンポス十二神 ゼウス ヘーラー アテーナー アポローン アプロディーテー アレース アルテミス デーメーテール ヘーパイストス ヘルメース ポセイドーン ヘスティアー （ディオニューソス） ティーターン神族 ティーターン十二神 オーケアノス コイオス クレイオス ヒュペリーオーン イーアペトス クロノス レアー テイアー テミス ムネーモシュネー ポイベー テーテュース ティーターンの後裔 ヘーリオス セレーネー エーオース アストライオス レートー アステリアー ペルセース アトラース プロメーテウス エピメーテウス メノイティオス パラス ポースポロス ヘスペロス ヘカテー 原初の神々 カオス ガイア アナンケー タルタロス エロース パネース エレボス ニュクス アイテール ヘーメラー ウーラノス ウーレアー ポントス / タラッサ アイオーン / クロノス 冥界の神々 （クトニオス） ハーデース ペルセポネー ヘカテー エリーニュス アレークトー ティーシポネー メガイラ ミーノース ラダマンテュス アイアコス カローン ステュクス レーテー タナトス ヒュプノス モルペウス パンタソス ポベートール その他の神々 オリュンポスに 住む神々 アスクレーピオス エイレイテュイア イーリス ヘーベー ヘーラクレース ハルモニアー ムーサ カリオペー クレイオー エウテルペー タレイア メルポメネー テルプシコラー エラトー ポリュムニアー ウーラニアー ホーラ エウノミアー ディケー エイレーネー タロー アウクソー カルポー エウポリアー オルトシアー ペルーサー モイラ クロートー ラケシス アトロポス カリス アグライアー エウプロシュネー タレイア パーシテアー カレー カリス エリス エニューオー ニーケー ビアー クラトス ゼーロス その他 ヘカトンケイル キュクロープス アルゲース（英語版） ステロペース（英語版） ブロンテース（英語版） アストライアー アーテー アドラステイアー アイオロス アネモイ ネメシス アパテー ヘスペリス ピロテース ケール ゲーラス モロス オネイロス パーン アリスタイオス プリアーポス アクリュース ニュンペー オーケアニス ペイトー エーレクトラー ドーリス ウーラニアー エウリュノメー クリュメネー カリロエー イデュイア ディオーネー ポリュドーラー プルートー ペルセーイス エウローペー メーティス クリューセーイス アシアー カリュプソー テュケー ステュクス ネーレーイス アウトノエー アガウエー アムピトリーテー アレトゥーサ エウリュディケー オーレイテュイア ガラテイア カリュプソー クリュメネー テティス ドーリス プサマテー プロノエー ペルーサ パーシテアー ナーイアス アイグレー アレトゥーサ カスタリア カリロエー クレウーサ サルマキス ステュクス ハルピンナ プラークシテアー メンテー レーテー プレイアデス マイア エーレクトラー ターユゲテー アルキュオネー ケライノー ステロペー メロペー ヘスペリデス アイグレー エリュテイア ヘスペレトゥーサ ヘスペリアー アレトゥーサ その他 ドリュアス ハマドリュアス オレイアス エーコー アルセイス ナパイアー ランパス ヒュアデス ニュシアデス ヘーリアデス アマルテイア トリアイ メリアス メンテー ダプネー ブリトマルティス クローリス マプサウラー タレイア 怪物 テューポーン ゴルゴーン ステンノー エウリュアレー メドゥーサ グライアイ ペムプレードー エニューオー デイノー キマイラ ケルベロス オルトロス ヒュドラー ピュートーン ラードーン タロース ゲーリュオーン スキュラ カリュブディス スピンクス セイレーン ハルピュイア アエロー オーキュペテー ケライノー ポダルゲー ケンタウロス ケイローン ミーノータウロス エンプーサ モルモー アルゴス ラミアー ダイモーン エキドナ カムペー スパルトイ ステュムパーリデスの鳥 テルキーネス サテュロス 英雄 ペルセウス カドモス ヘーラクレース イアーソーン ディオスクーロイ テーセウス アキレウス オデュッセウス アイネイアース 出来事 ティーターノマキアー ギガントマキアー 7将によるテーバイ攻め カリュドーンの猪狩り アルゴー船の冒険 ヘーラクレースの12の難行 エピゴノイ 不和の林檎 パリスの審判 トロイア戦争 ヘーラクレイダイの帰還 アイテム アイギス アキレウスの盾 トリアイナ バイデント ハルパー 黄金の林檎 アスクレピオスの杖 ヒュギエイアの杯 豊穣の角 金羊毛 神殿 パルテノン神殿 アテーナー・ニーケー神殿 オリンピアのゼウス神殿 エレクテイオン サモス島のピタゴリオとヘーラー神殿 アルテミス神殿 原典 神統記 仕事と日 イーリアス オデュッセイア ホメーロス風讃歌 アルゴナウティカ テーバイド 変身物語 変身物語集 アエネーイス ビブリオテーケー ディオニュソス譚 ギリシア案内記 ギリシャ神話集 トロイア戦記 芸術 古代ギリシアの陶芸 三美神 ウェヌス・アナデュオメネ レダと白鳥 関連項目 固有名詞 古代ギリシア ミノア文明 ローマ神話 ギリシア悲劇 ギリシア喜劇 変身譚 星座 神託 ギリシア哲学 ドーリア人 アトランティス大陸 神話伝承 カテゴリ 典拠管理 BNF: cb12078609k (データ) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67258418 「https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=シーシュポス&oldid=79991315」から取得 カテゴリ: ギリシア神話の人物 隠しカテゴリ: 出典を必要とする記述のある記事/2016年6月 解消済み仮リンクを含む記事 BNF識別子が指定されている記事 GND識別子が指定されている記事 LCCN識別子が指定されている記事 NKC識別子が指定されている記事 SUDOC識別子が指定されている記事 VIAF識別子が指定されている記事 WORLDCATID識別子が指定されている記事 案内メニュー 個人用ツール ログインしていません トーク 投稿記録 アカウント作成 ログイン 名前空間 ページ ノート 変種 表示 閲覧 編集 履歴表示 その他 検索 案内 メインページ コミュニティ・ポータル 最近の出来事 新しいページ 最近の更新 おまかせ表示 練習用ページ アップロード (ウィキメディア・コモンズ) ヘルプ ヘルプ 井戸端 お知らせ バグの報告 寄付 ウィキペディアに関するお問い合わせ ツール リンク元 関連ページの更新状況 ファイルをアップロード 特別ページ この版への固定リンク ページ情報 このページを引用 ウィキデータ項目 印刷/書き出し ブックの新規作成 PDF 形式でダウンロード 印刷用バージョン 他のプロジェクト コモンズ 他言語版 Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina 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jv-wikipedia-org-3661	----	Sisifos - Wikipedia Sisifos Saka Wikipédia Jawa, bauwarna mardika basa Jawa Menyang navigasi Menyang panggolèkan Artikel iki prelu dirapèkaké supaya jumbuh karo wewaton artikel Wikipédia Panjenengan bisa mbiyantu ngrapèkaké artikel iki kanthi mérang dadi paragraf-paragraf utawa wikifikasi. Sawisé dirapèkaké, tandha iki kena dibusak. Hukuman Sisifos. Wonten ing mitologi Yunani, Sisifos (Σίσυφος) inggih punika laré saking Aiolos lan Enarete [1]. Sisifos punika garwanipun Merope ugi kalebet pendiri lan raja Efira, Korintus. Miturut sumber sanèsipun, Sisifos punika bapak saking Odisseus saking hubunganipun kaliyan Antiklea. Isi 1 Wonten ing mitologi 2 Hukuman Sisifos 3 Réferènsi 4 Pranala njawi Wonten ing mitologi[besut | besut sumber] Sisifos punika nglampahi dagang lan pelayaran, nanging piyambakipun punika tiyang ingkang gadhah sipat tamak lan kemaruk. Sisifos asring matèni wisatawan ugi para dhayohipun. Miturut Homeros, Sisifos punika tiyang ingkang licik sanget. Kajawi punika Sisifos saré kaliyan purunanipun piyambak, ngrebut tahta sedhèrèkipun, lan mbocoraken wadi (rahasia) Zeus. Awit saking punika, Zéus paring dhawuh dhateng Thanatos (déwa kematian) supados ngurung Sisifos ing Tartaros. Nalika Thanatos badhé ngranté Sisifos, Sisifos nyuwun dhateng Thanatos supados nyobi rumiyin ranté mau kanggé nedahaken cara kerjanipun. Sasampunipun Thanatos ngranté awakipun piyambak, Sisifos banjur ngunci saéngga Thanatos kajebak ing ranté punika. Awit saking punika damel boten wonten manungsa ingkang tilar donya. Ares ingkang rumaos mangkel amargi boten wonten manungsa ingkang mati ing peperangan banjur mbébeasaken Thanatos lajeng damel Sisifos tilar donya. Sadèrèngipun Sisifos tilar donya, piyambakipun nyuwun garwanipun supados boten dipunkubur lan kauncalaken mayatipun ing tengahing reraméan. Garwanipun nyaguhi menapa ingkang dados panyuwunipun Sisifos. Sasampunipun mati lan dugi ing donya bawah, Sisifos mbujuk Persefone, ratu donya bawah, supados paring ijin kanggé medal sekedhap dhateng alam manungsa lan dukha marang garwanipun amargi boten paring panguburan ingkang saé. Persefone paring ijin lajeng Sisifos kondur marang Korinth. Nanging Sisifos boten purun kondur malih ing donya bawah lan tetep péngin wonten ing alamipun manungsa. Pungkasan Sisifos dipunbeta kanthi peksa déning Hermes. Wonten ing versi sanèsipun, Sisifos matur dhateng Persefone bilih Sisifos dipunbeta ing Tartatos amargi wonten klèntu lan nyuwun piyambakipun dipundamel bébas.[2] Hukuman Sisifos[besut | besut sumber] Ing Tartaross, Sisifos dipunhukum supados ngangkat watu ingkang ageng dhateng nginggiling bukit. Sasampunipun dugi wonten nginggil, watu mau ngglundhung mangandhap saéngga Sisifos kedah ngangkat malih makaten seterusipun. Réferènsi[besut | besut sumber] ↑ (id) http://humaniora.kompasiana.com/edukasi/2010/10/25/1/301374/bagai-menanggung-hukuman-sisifus.html , Sisifos (dipunakses tanggal 1 Fèbruari 2013) ↑ Bernard Evslin's Gods, Demigods & Demons, hal 209-210 Pranala njawi[besut | besut sumber] Wikimedia Commons duwé médhia ngenani Sisyphus. Wikibooks Mitologi Yunani gadhah kaca kanthi sesirah Sisifos Sisifos di Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology Sisifos di Encyclopedia Mythica Dijupuk saka "https://jv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifos&oldid=1468058" Kategori: Artikel sing prelu dirapèkaké Dhésèmber 2018 Raja wonten ing mitologi Yunani Mitologi Yunani Kategori ndhelik: Kaca mawa masalah skrip Kategori Commons mawa pranala lokal béda karo sing ana ing Wikidata Menu navigasi Piranti pribadi Durung mlebu log Parembugan Pasumbang Gawé akun Mlebu log Mandhala aran Artikel Parembugan Varian Praèn Waca Besut Besut sumber Deleng sajarah Liyané Golèk Pandhu Arah Tepas Paguyuban Warta anyar Owahan anyar Kaca anyar Kaca sembarang Pitulung Nyumbang dana Angkringan Bak wedhi Piranti Pranala mréné Owahan magepokan Unggah Kaca mirunggan Pranala permanèn Katerangan kaca Nyitir kaca iki Wiji Wikidhata Cithak/èspor Gawé buku Undhuh PDF Vèrsi cithak Ing proyèk liya Wikimedia Commons Ing basa liyané Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Besut pranala Kaca iki pungkasan diowah nalika 07.21, 6 Dhésèmber 2018. Tèks iki cumepak kanthi Lisènsi Atribusi-DumSaèmper Creative Commons; paugeran tambahan bokmanawa uga lumaku. Wacaa Paugeran Panganggo kanggo rerincèné. Niti privasi Bab Wikipedia Sélakan Praèn punsèl Juru pangembang Statistik Pernyataan kuki 
ka-wikipedia-org-2090	----	სიზიფე - ვიკიპედია სიზიფე მასალა ვიკიპედიიდან — თავისუფალი ენციკლოპედია Jump to navigation Jump to search პერსეფონე მიუძღვება სიზიფეს ქვესკნელისკენ სიზიფე (ძვ. ბერძნ. Σίσυφος) — ეოლიელ ზღვაოსანთა წინაპრების, ეოლოსის და ენარეტეს ცბიერი და პატივმოყავრე შვილი, პლეადა მეროპეს ქმარი, კორინთოს აღმაშენებელი და მეფე, ერთი ვერსიით და ძალზე პოპულარული და საანდაზოდ ქცეული გმირი. კორინთო მუდამ სავაჭრო და სანაოსნო ქალაქი იყო. სიზიფეც ტიპური კორინთელია, ცბიერი და გაიძვერა, როგორც იქაური ვაჭრები. ჰომეროსი მას ხარბსა და ადამიანთა შორის ყველაზე უფრო ანგარებიან კაცს უწოდებს. სინამდვილეში კი ის მოხერხებული, მაგრამ ბერძენ ღმერთებთან მებრძოლია. ჰომეროსი, ჰესიოდე, ჰორაციუსი, ოვიდიუსი, აპოლოდორე და სხვა მეცნიერები თანხმდებიან, რომ ღმერთებმა ის მძიმე დანაშაულებისთვის მკაცრად დასაჯეს, ჰადესთან გაგზავნეს და კლდის დიდ ლოდთან შეაჭიდეს, რომელიც მწვერვალზე უნდა ააგოროს. დიდი ვაივაგლახით აზიდავს, სულს მოითქვამს, ქვა ისევ დაუგორდება, ისევ შეეჭიდება და ასე უსასრულოდ. ჰომეროსი არ ამბობს რისთვის დაისაჯა ასე მძიმედ, მომდევნო დროის ავტორები კი ჩამოთვლიან: ღმერთებს ატყუებდა, გზაში მდიდრებს ძარცვავდა, ზევსი გასცა (როცა ზევსმა ფარულად მოიტაცა მდინარის ღმერთ ასოპოსის ასული ეგინა, იგი სიზიფემ დაასმინა ასოპოსთან) და ა.შ. მოხერხებით აჯობა ცნობილ ქურდს ავტოლიკესაც: წინასწარ ამოუწვა ჩლიქები საქონელს, რომელიც მან მოიპარა. ზევსი ამ და სხვა უცნაურობებზე განრისხდა და თანატოსს მისი ჰადესთან წაყვანა ბრძანა. სიზიფემ სიკვდილის ღმერთი მოხერხებით შიპყრო და შებოჭა, ამიტომ აღარავინ კვდებოდა , ვიდრე ბოლოს არ აივსო ღმერთების მოთმინების ფიალა და არ გამოკეტეს ქვესკნელში. სიზიფეს სულმა ჰადესს სთხოვა გაეშვა ზევით, რათა ცოლი დაესაჯა. ჰადესიც მოტყუვდა. სააქაოს დაბრუნებულმა სიზიფემ პირობა გატეხა, სუფრას მიუჯდა და ქვესკნელში დაბრუნება აღარც გახსენებია. ბოლოს ჰერმესი მიუგზავნეს და მოახერხეს სიზიფეს მოშორება . აპოლოდორე მოგვითხრობს მხოლოდ მთავარ ჰომეროსისეულ ეპიზოდს, მაგრამ სიზიფეს სახე მეტია, ვიდრე ეს საქრესტომათიო ეპიზოდი. სიზიფეს სული ჰადესში იტანჯება, სხეული კი დაკრძალეს ისთმოსში. ლოდთან შეჭიდებული სიზიფე ანტიკურ გამოსახულებებზეც შემორჩა. მისი ტანჯვა სრულად ასახა ტიციანმა. ლიტერატურა[რედაქტირება | წყაროს რედაქტირება] გელოვანი აკ., „მითოლოგიური ლექსიკონი“, გამომცემლობა „საბჭოთა საქართველო“, გვ. 448, თბ., 1983 მოძიებულია „https://ka.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=სიზიფე&oldid=3712121“-დან კატეგორია: ბერძნული მითოლოგია სანავიგაციო მენიუ პირადი ხელსაწყოები შესული არ ხართ განხილვა წვლილი ანგარიშის შექმნა შესვლა სახელთა სივრცე სტატია განხილვა ვარიანტები გადახედვა კითხვა რედაქტირება წყაროს რედაქტირება ისტორია მეტი ძიება ნავიგაცია მთავარი გვერდი თემატური ძიება რჩეული სტატიები შემთხვევითი გვერდი ახალი გვერდები მონაწილეობა ინფორმაცია დახმარება ფორუმი ბოლო ცვლილებები შემოწირულობები ხელსაწყოები ბმული გვერდზე დაკავშირებული ცვლილებები სპეციალური გვერდები მუდმივი ბმული გვერდის ინფორმაცია ამ გვერდის ციტირება ვიკიმონაცემები ელემენტი ბეჭდვა/ექსპორტი წიგნის შექმნა გადაწერა PDF ფორმატში დასაბეჭდი ვერსია სხვა პროექტებში ვიკისაწყობი სხვა ენებზე Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 ბმულების რედაქტირება ეს გვერდი ბოლოს დარედაქტირდა: 07:21, 4 აგვისტო 2019. ტექსტი ვრცელდება Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ლიცენზიით; და შესაძლოა არსებობდეს დამატებითი პირობები. იხილეთ გამოყენების პირობები დამატებითი ინფორმაციისთვის. ვიკიპედია® არის არამომგებიანი ორგანიზაცია Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.-ის რეგისტრირებული სავაჭრო ნიშანი. დაგვიკავშირდით კონფიდენციალურობის პოლიტიკა ვიკიპედიის შესახებ პასუხისმგებლობის უარყოფა მობილური ვერსია შემქმნელები Statistics Cookie statement 
kk-wikipedia-org-5968	----	Сизиф — Уикипедия Сизиф Уикипедия — ашық энциклопедиясынан алынған мәлімет Jump to navigation Jump to search Персефона Аидта Сизифке тас домалаттырды, (ваза), б.з.д.530ж. шамасы, Мемлекеттік антикалық мұралар мұражайы (инв. 1494) Сизиф（көне грекше: Σίσυφος）— грек мифологиясындағы жазаланған тұлғалардың бірі. Ол бір мезгіл ажал құдайы Танатосты байлап тастап, адамдар өлімнен құтылған екен. Қатты ашуланған олимп құдайлары оны қатал жазалаған. Оған берілген жаза: Дәу бір тасты тау басына домалатып шығару керек. Бірақ әр рет тау басына тасты домалатып жете бергенде тас етекке қарай домалап кетіп отырады. Сөйтіп Сизиф мәңгі бақи тас домалатумен болады, бірақ мақсатына мәңгі жете алмайды. Батыстық контексте "Сизиф тағдыры"（sisyphean）— еш нәтижесі жоқ іспен шексіз-шетсіз айналысуға мәжбүр болу мағынасын береді. Олимп Құдайларының ойынша, еш нәтижесі жоқ іспен айналысудан өткен жаза дүниеде жоқ көрінеді. Мазмұны 1 Этимология 2 Миф 3 "Сизиф" Камю бойынша 4 Сыртқы сілтеме 5 Дереккөздер Этимология[өңдеу] Роберд Бикестің зерттеуінше, көне грек тілі түпнұсқасында Сизиф деген сөз "Дана" (wise) дегенді білдіретін σοφός деген сөзден шыққан екен.[1] Миф[өңдеу] Сизиф – Кіші азияның Эгей теңізі жағалауына жақын өңіріндегі Эфир (Ephyra, көне аты Коринф) қаласының құрушы патшасы Эоланың ұлы, шешесі Энарет[2][3]. Ол Атлантаның қызы Меропаға үйленеді. Оның ұлдары Главк, Орнитион, Ферсандр және Альм[4]. Кей деректерде ол Эфир (Коринф) қаласының патшасы болған.[5] Сизиф(1548–49) Titian сызған, Prado мұражайы, Мадрид, Испания. Толық сурет Гомер дастандары бойынша, Сизиф өзінің сұңғыла айлакерлігімен даңқы шыққан. Ол ғажайып ақылдылығымен өте мол байлық жиып алған екен. Зевс өзен құдайы Эзоптың (Aesopus) қызы Эгинаны (Aegina) алып қашқан соң, Эзоп қызын іздеп Коринфке келеді. Ол қызын Сизиф алып қашып кеткен деп есептеген екен. Сизиф оған төрт мезгіл толық ағатын өзенге ауысу шартымен оның қызының жоғалу сырын түгел айтып береді. Зевстің құпиясын ашып тастағандықтан, қатты ашуланған Зевс оған Танатосты жіберіп, оны Аидқа байлап әкелуді бұйырады. Бірақ Сизиф ақылмен ажал құдайы Танатостың қолын байлап тастайды да[6], жер бетінен енді ешкім Аидқа қайтпай қалады. Адамдар өлмейтін болған соң Аидқа құрбандық шалатын да ешкім болмайды. Зевс соғыс құдайы Аресті Сизифке жіберіп, Танатосты босаттыруға және Сизифтің жанын алып келуге бұйырады. Сизиф өлер алдында әйеліне (Merope) өзінің денесін жерге көмбеуді, сондай-ақ Аидқа арнап құрбандық шалмауды тапсырады. Бірақ Аидқа барған соң, Персефонаға (Persephone) "денесі жерге көмілмеген адамның Аидта болуы ақылға симайды" деп, әйеліне Аидқа арнап құрбандық шалуды талап ететінін айтып үш күнге сұранады. Сөйтіп ол жер бетіне қайта келеді. Бірақ Босанып алған Сизиф жер бетінен кеткісі келмей, Аидқа барудан бас тартады. Зевс тағы да Танатосқа Сизифтің жанын алып келуге жұмсайды. [7] Құдайлардың құдайы Зевстің қаһарына ұшыраған Сизифке өзгеше Тас домалату жазасы кесіледі. Сизиф ергежейлілер, Tomasz Moczekтің туындысы, Вроцлав қаласы Ондағы бірден бір мүмкіндік иен тау және ауыр тас қана болады. Ол бар күшімен дәу тасты домалатып тау басына шығара бергенде тас оның қолынан сытылып кетіп, етекке домалап кетеді де, оның әр реткі еңбегі еш кетіп отырады. "Сизиф" Камю бойынша[өңдеу] Әйгілі француз жазушысы Альберт Камю «Сизиф туралы аңыз» кітабында Сизифтік тағдырдың мәніне үңіліп, ондағы абсурдтық мағынаға терең талдау жасап, адамзат баласының маңдайындағы Сизифше қысметті өз философиясының арқау тақырыбы етеді. Камю Сизифтің тағдырына экзистенциализм мағынасын береді. Ежелгі грек мифологиясындағы әйгілі үш жазаланушының бірі (Тантал жазасы, Прометей жазасы және Сизиф жазасы) болған Сизифтің тағдыры мағынасыздық арқылы азап тарту болды. Оның өнімсіз еңбегі, оның жапа-жалғыздығы, оның күрсінісі мен қасіреті - тек қайсар, батыл, жігерлі, ақылды адамдар ғана төзбейтін тағдыр болатын. Rayiram kunnu-дегі Naranathu bhanthan мүсіні Бірақ, күндердің бірі Сизифтің ғаріп, иен, оқшау, түңілісті тірлігінде жаңа мәнділік пайда болады. Ол тастың домалауының тербелісін сезеді. Ол осынау тербеліске еліте жүріп, тас домалатудың машақаты мен мәнсіздігін ұмытады. Сөйтіп ендігі жерде оның тас домалатуының Абсурдтық мағынасы жойылып, тас домалату оған ең мәнді жұмысқа айналады. Ал, Құдайлар оған берген жазасы оны жазалай алмайтын жаңа деңгейге жеткенін мойындауға мәжбүр болады. Ендігі жерде ол өз тағдырын өз қолына алады. Ол домалатқан тастың бойында оның өмірінің мағынасы бірге домалап бара жатқанын сезді. Сөйтіп ол өз күресіне өзі ден қою арқылы нәтижесіз іске құрылған өмірін мәнді етіп, "Сизиф бақытын" жаратады. Сизифті "ақылды еді" деушілер де, "қарақшы еді" деушілер де тарихта болған. Бірақ бұл қайшылықты баға емес болатын. Қайшылық түрмедегі мағынасыз еңбектің қандай ниет пен құндылық өлшеміне сай атқарылғандығында болатын. Сизифтің Зевс алып қашқан қыздың дерегін қыз әкесіне айтып, Зевстің ашуын туғызуы құпиялықты сақтамаушыларға реніш те оятуы мүмкін. Әрине, ажалдың өзін алдап соғушыға тек соғыс құдайы ғана төтеп бере алған екен. Демек, ең маңыздысы Құдайларға ерегескендей үнсіз-түнсіз тас домалатудан ол ақыры өз бақытын табады. Альберт Камюдің пікірінше, Сизифтің тасы әрі қасіреттің бұлағы, әрі жаңа бақытқа жетудің баспалдағы болмақ. Сыртқы сілтеме[өңдеу] Сизиф аңызы --- видео Сизиф ---- видео Сизиф -- видео Дереккөздер[өңдеу] ↑ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ↑ Гомер. Илиада VI 153 ↑ "Apollodorus, Library, 1.9". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2014-10-09. ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 4, 3 ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 3, 1 ↑ Схолии к Гомеру. Илиада VI 153 // Комментарий Д. О. Торшилова в кн. Гигин. Мифы. СПб, 2000. С.81 ↑ "Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us?". Mlahanas.de. 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ko-wikipedia-org-3993	----	시시포스 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전 시시포스 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전. 둘러보기로 가기 검색하러 가기 드라마에 대해서는 시지프스: the myth 문서를 참조하십시오. 시시포스(고대 그리스어: Σίσυφος['sɪsɪfəs], 라틴어: Sisyphus)는 고대 그리스 신화의 인물이다. 시지푸스, 시지프스, 시지프 등으로 표기하고 불리기도 한다. 그는 코린토스 시를 건설한 왕이었다. 영원한 죄수의 화신으로 현대에 이르기까지 잘 알려져 있다. 현대 작품으로는 알베르 카뮈의 에세이 《시지프 신화》가 있다. 그리스, 헬레니즘 시대의 코린토스 왕국에서는 그를 전설적인 시조로 받들었다. 전설에 따르면 테살리아의 왕 헬렌의 아들, 혹은 후손이었던 아이올로스와 에나레테의 아들이라 한다. 다른 설에는 그의 아버지가 바람의 신 아이올로스라고도 한다. 플레이아데스 메로페의 남편으로서 에피라(코린토스)를 건설해 왕이 되었다고 한다. 이후 기록에 따르면 오디세우스의 아버지라고도 한다(오디세우스의 어머니 안티클레아가 라에르테스와 혼인하기 전). 시시포스는 꾀가 많은 것으로 명성을 떨쳤는데 욕심이 많고 속이기를 좋아했다. 여객과 방랑자를 살해하기도 했다. 시시포스는 죽음의 신 타나토스가 그를 데리러 오자 오히려 타나토스를 잡아 족쇄를 채워 한동안 아무도 죽지 않았다. 결국 전쟁의 신 아레스가 와서 타나토스를 구출하고 시시포스를 데려갔다. 하지만 시시포스는 죽기 전 꾀를 내어 아내에게 죽으면 제사를 지내지 말라고 일러뒀었다. 그래서 저승에서 제사를 받지 못하자 저승의 신 하데스에게 아내에게 제사를 지내도록 설득하기 위해 이승으로 다시 보내줄 것을 부탁했다. 그러나 코린토스에 가서는 저승에 돌아오기를 거부해, 나중에 헤르메스가 억지로 돌려보냈다. 그는 저승에서 벌로 큰 돌을 가파른 언덕 위로 굴려야 했다. 정상에 올리면 돌은 다시 밑으로 굴러내려가 처음부터 다시 돌을 밀어 올리는 일을 시작해야 했다(오디세이아, xi. 593-600). 그가 이 벌을 받은 정확한 이유는 확실하지 않다. 혹자는 그가 신들의 비밀을 인간에게 알린 벌이라 하고 다른 이들은 그가 여행하는 이들을 살해한 벌이라고 한다. 한편 플레이아데스 7자매는 사후에 하늘로 올려져 별자리가 되었는데, 그중 신과 연애했던 6명은 빛을 발하였으나 인간 시지포스의 아내였던 메로페만이 부끄러워서 빛이 약하다는 전승도 있다. 또한 시시포스의 아들인 글라우코스는 벌로 불임하는 저주를 받았다는 설과 말에게 잡아먹혔다는 전승도 있다. 평가[편집] 알베르 카뮈는 그가 바위를 굴러 올렸으나 떨어질 줄 알고도 바위를 굴리는 것과 밀어 올린 바위가 굴러떨어졌을때 다시 바위를 올리려 내려오는 모습을 보고 인간승리라고 평가했다. 카뮈는 이러한 행위를 부조리라고 평가했다. 같이 보기[편집] 위키미디어 공용에 관련된 미디어 분류가 있습니다.시시포스 시지프의 신화 글라우코스 아우톨리코스 오딧세우스 벨레로폰 헬렌 전거 통제 BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 PLWABN: 9810697447205606 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities: viaf-67258418 이 글은 그리스 신화에 관한 토막글입니다. 여러분의 지식으로 알차게 문서를 완성해 갑시다. 원본 주소 "https://ko.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=시시포스&oldid=28250860" 분류: 그리스 신화의 영웅 코린토스의 왕 트릭스터 아이올로스 가 코린토스 신화 숨은 분류: 고대 그리스어 표기를 포함한 문서 라틴어 표기를 포함한 문서 BNF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 GND 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 LCCN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 NKC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 PLWABN 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 SUDOC 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 VIAF 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 WORLDCATID 식별자를 포함한 위키백과 문서 그리스 신화에 관한 토막글 모든 토막글 문서 둘러보기 메뉴 개인 도구 로그인하지 않음 토론 기여 계정 만들기 로그인 이름공간 문서 토론 변수 보기 읽기 편집 역사 보기 더 보기 검색 둘러보기 대문 최근 바뀜 요즘 화제 임의의 문서로 기부 사용자 모임 사랑방 사용자 모임 관리 요청 편집 안내 도움말 정책과 지침 질문방 도구 여기를 가리키는 문서 가리키는 글의 최근 바뀜 파일 올리기 특수 문서 목록 고유 링크 문서 정보 이 문서 인용하기 위키데이터 항목 인쇄/내보내기 책 만들기 PDF로 다운로드 인쇄용 판 다른 프로젝트 위키미디어 공용 다른 언어 Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 링크 편집 이 문서는 2020년 12월 14일 (월) 17:44에 마지막으로 편집되었습니다. 모든 문서는 크리에이티브 커먼즈 저작자표시-동일조건변경허락 3.0에 따라 사용할 수 있으며, 추가적인 조건이 적용될 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 이용 약관을 참고하십시오. Wikipedia®는 미국 및 다른 국가에 등록되어 있는 Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 소유의 등록 상표입니다. 개인정보처리방침 위키백과 소개 면책 조항 모바일 보기 개발자 통계 쿠키 정책 
la-wikipedia-org-7666	----	Sisyphus - Vicipaedia Sisyphus E Vicipaedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Proserpina Sisyphum in Tartaro custodit, Amphora figuris nigris, circa annum 530 a.C.n., Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 1494) Sisyphus (Graece: Σίσυφος) est heros Mythologiae Graecae et maritus Meropes. Inter filios eius est Glaucus. Auctor certaminum Isthmiorum et conditor rexque Ephyrae (Corinthi) habetur. Imprimis notus est ob poenas irrationales,[1] quae ei in Tartaro solvendae sunt. Notae[recensere | fontem recensere] ↑ Dequod Albertus Camus suo opere Le mythe de Sisyphe scripsit. Nexus externi[recensere | fontem recensere] Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Sisyphum spectant. Sisyphus in Greek Myth Index (Anglice) Sisyphos in Greek Mythology Link (Anglice) Haec stipula ad mythologiam spectat. Amplifica, si potes! Receptum de "https://la.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=3408246" Categoria: Mythologia Graeca Categoria celata: Stipulae Mythologiae Tabula navigationis Instrumenta personalia Nomen nondum datum est Disputatio huius IP Conlationes Sibi nomen imponere Nomen dare Spatia nominalia Res Disputatio Variantes Visae Legere Recensere Fontem recensere Historiam inspicere More Quaerere Navigatio Pagina prima Novissima Pagina fortuita Categoriae Nuper mutata Communitas Invitatio Taberna Auxilium Donationes Instrumenta Nexus ad paginam Nuper mutata annexorum Fasciculum imponere Paginae speciales Nexus perpetuus De hac pagina Hanc paginam citare Res Wikidata Imprimere vel exportare Librum creare Paginam prehendere formá PDF Forma impressibilis Inceptis aliis Vicimedia Communia Linguis aliis Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Nexus recensere Novissima mutatio die 24 Aprilis 2019 hora 18:44 facta. Nonobstantibus ceteris condicionibus hunc textum tractare licet secundum "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License". Vide modos et condiciones. Consilium de secreto De Vicipaedia Repudiationes Pagina mobilis Elaboratores Statistics Cookie statement 
lb-wikipedia-org-1027	----	Sisyphos – Wikipedia Sisyphos Vu Wikipedia Op d'Navigatioun wiesselen Op d'Siche wiesselen De Sisyphos (oder Sisyphus) ass der So no de Jong vum thessalonesche Kinnek Aiolos a vun der Enarete, Erbauer an éischte Kinnek vu Korinth. Hien huet d'Merope bestuet a war de Papp vum Glaukos a Grousspapp vum Bellerophon. Sisyphos & Persephone De Sisyphos huet sech ëfters mat de Gëtter ugeluecht. Nieft anere Spiichten ass et him z. B. gelongen den Thanatos a seng Gewalt ze bréngen sou dat keen op der Äerd méi stierwe konnt, bis den Ares den Doud befreit huet. Am Zesummenhang mat sengem eegenen Doud huet hie senger Fra verbueden e bäizesetzen fir datt en den Hades konnt froen zréckzekommen a seng Fra fir dat schwéiert Vergoen zur Ried ze stellen (dat alles just fir dem Doud z'entkommen). Wéi en dunn awer am héijen Alter trotzdeem gestuerwen ass huet hien am Hades fir säin infame Liewenswandel eng schwéier Strof kritt: hien huet misse bis an all Éiwegkeet e riisege Fiels e Bierg erop drécken dee virum Zil duerch säi Gewiicht ëmmer erëm erofgerullt ass. Dohier kënnt och de Begrëff Sisyphusaarbecht fir eng Aarbecht déi vill Méi kascht an net vun Erfolleg belount gëtt. Literatur[änneren | Quelltext änneren] De Sisyphosmythos ass och an d'Literatur agaangen, virun allem duerch d'Drame vum Aischylos, Euripides an dem Sophokles. Den Albert Camus huet säi philsopheschen Essai iwwer den Ënnerscheed tëscht Hoffnung a Wierklechkeet, deen net z'iwwerbrécken ass, "Le Mythe de Sisyphe" genannt. Griichesch Mythologie – All d'Artikelen op der Wikipedia iwwer d'griichesch Mythologie. Um Spaweck[änneren | Quelltext änneren]     Commons: Sisyphus – Biller, Videoen oder Audiodateien Vun „https://lb.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=2064686“ Kategorie: Griichesch Ënnerwelt Navigatiounsmenü Perséinlech Tools Net ageloggt Diskussioun Kontributiounen Benotzerkont opmaachen Aloggen Nummraim Säit Diskussioun Varianten Affichagen Liesen Änneren Quelltext änneren Versioune weisen Méi Sichen Navigatioun Haaptsäit Portaler Alles vun A-Z Zoufälleg Säit Matmaachen Communautéitssäit De Staminee Hëllef Rezent Ännerungen Biller eroplueden Kontakt Maacht en Don Geschierkëscht Linken op dës Säit Ännerungen op verlinkt Säiten Spezialsäiten Zitéierfäege Link Informatiounen iwwer d'Säit Dës Säit zitéieren Wikidataelement Drécken/exportéieren E Buch uleeën Als PDF eroflueden Drockversioun An anere Projeten Wikimedia Commons An anere Sproochen Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Linken änneren Dës Säit gouf de(n) 6. November 2017 um 08:41 Auer fir d'lescht geännert. Ofruffstatistik Den Text ass disponibel ënner der Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Lizenz; zousätzlech Bedingunge kënnen applicabel sinn. Kuckt Benotzungsbedingunge fir méi Detailer. Dateschutz Iwwer Wikipedia Impressum Mobil Vue Entwéckler Statistiken Stellungnahme zu Cookies 
login-wikimedia-org-2292	----	Wikimedia Login Wiki Main Page From Wikimedia Login Wiki Jump to navigation Jump to search Welcome to the Wikimedia log-in wiki. Please do not start editing this site. It is for technical use only. Sister projects Wikipedia | Wiktionary | Wikibooks | Wikinews | Wikiquote | Wikisource | Wikiversity | Wikivoyage | Wikidata | Wikispecies | Commons See Wikimedia's Meta-Wiki for the coordination of these projects. Retrieved from "https://login.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page&oldid=30" Navigation menu Personal tools Log in Namespaces Main page Discussion Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Current events Recent changes Random page Help Donate Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 29 March 2019, at 17:37. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikimedia Login Wiki Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
lt-wikipedia-org-5390	----	Sizifas – Vikipedija Sizifas Straipsnis iš Vikipedijos, laisvosios enciklopedijos. Jump to navigation Jump to search    Šiam straipsniui ar jo daliai trūksta išnašų į šaltinius. Jūs galite padėti Vikipedijai pridėdami tinkamas išnašas su šaltiniais. Graikų mitologija Graikų dievai Pirmapradžiai dievai Olimpo dievai | Titanai Mūzos | Nimfos Mitinės būtybės Pusdieviai | Trojos karas Odisėja | Argonautika Sizifas ridena akmenį Sizifas – graikų mitologijoje Korinto įsteigėjas, Enaretės ir Eolo sūnus, Meropės vyras. Legenda[redaguoti | redaguoti vikitekstą] Pagal legendą Sizifas, Dievo Austrio sūnus, įkūrė Korinto miestą, kuris senovėje buvo vadinamas Efire. Atvykus mirties Dievui Tanatui, Sizifas klastingai jį apgavo ir sukaustė grandinėmis. Nuo tada žmonės nustojo mirti. Dzeusas atsiuntė karo Dievą Arėją, kuris Tanatą išlaisvino. Antrąkart Sizifas Dievus apgavo žmonai liepęs nustoti aukoti požemio Dievams, ir išsaugoti jo kūną - nelaidoti. Atėjęs pas Hadą šis paprašė jį leisti į Žemę, kad įsakytų žmonai aukoti aukas. Išleistas taip ir pasiliko Žemėje. Galop Tanatas išplėšė bepuotaujančiam Sizifui širdį. Nuo tada pomirtiniame gyvenime Sizifas turi amžinai ritinti didžiulį akmenį į aukštą statėjantį kalną. Kai viršūnė jau arti - akmuo išsprūsta iš rankų ir nurieda žemyn, o pasmerktasis vėl turi pradėti viską iš naujo. Dabar Sizifo vardas arba Sizifo Akmuo yra tapę bendriniais terminais apibūdinančiais beviltiškus veiksmus be pabaigos. Vikiteka Rodomas puslapis "https://lt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizifas&oldid=6035109" Kategorija: Graikų mitologijos mirtingieji Paslėptos kategorijos: Straipsniai be šaltinių nuo 2005 m. spalio Straipsniai be šaltinių pažymėti nuo 2020 m. lapkričio Straipsniai be šaltinių Naršymo meniu Asmeniniai įrankiai Neprisijungęs Šio IP aptarimų puslapis Indėlis Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Vardų sritys Straipsnis Aptarimas Variantai Žiūrėti Skaityti Keisti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Daugiau Paieška Naršymas Pagrindinis puslapis Bendruomenės portalas Forumas Naujausi keitimai Atsitiktinis straipsnis Pagalba Parama Įrankiai Susiję straipsniai Susiję keitimai Specialieji puslapiai Nuolatinė nuoroda Puslapio informacija Cituoti straipsnį Vikiduomenys įrašas Spausdinti/eksportuoti Kurti knygą Parsisiųsti kaip PDF Versija spausdinimui Kituose projektuose Vikiteka Vikicitatos Kitomis kalbomis Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Keisti nuorodas Šis puslapis paskutinį kartą keistas 16 gruodžio 2020 20:42. Tekstas pateikiamas pagal Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Licenciją; gali būti taikomos papildomos sąlygos. Detaliau – Terms of Use . Privatumo politika Apie Vikipediją Jokių garantijų Mobili peržiūra Kūrėjai Statistika Slapukų politika 
mak-bn-org-pl-1887	----	BAZY BIBLIOTEKI NARODOWEJ Baza: Deskryptory BN Indeks: Nr_rekordu Szukasz: 981069744720560            Dokument 1 LDR   b n c z d + e + f n g + h +4500 001   a 9810697447205606 008   a 181115n!!aznnnaabn++++++++++!a+aaa++++!+ 010   a p 2018297141 040   a WA N c WA N 100 0. a Syzyf c (postać mitologiczna) 400 0. a Sísyphos 400 0. a Sisyphus 550   a Mitologia grecka 550   w g a Postacie mitologiczne 667   a osobowe 670   a Syzyf w Tartarze / Barbara Kubicka-Czekaj. - Częstochowa, 2003. 670   a Wikipedia Program MAKWWW, wersja 1.47 z dnia 03.09.2012 (LINUX) Program opracowany przez: Właściciel programu: Biblioteka Narodowa Biblioteka Narodowa Zakład Technologii Informatycznych al. Niepodległości 213 02-086 Warszawa 
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mk-wikipedia-org-8505	----	Сизиф — Википедија Сизиф Од Википедија — слободната енциклопедија Прејди на прегледникот Прејди на пребарувањето Сизиф — херој од грчката митологија, познат по персонификацијата на залудната работа. Сизиф. Сизиф бил син на Еол (богот на ветровите) и бил најмудар во древните времиња. Се оженил со ќерката на Атлант, Меропа, една од Плејадите.[1] Живот и дела[уреди | уреди извор] Еднаш Сизиф му го покажал на речниот бог Азоп вртилиштето на Зевс, а овој за возврат му ветил дека ќе избие студен извор со вода во градот Елфира, подоцнежниотКоринт кој го основал самиот Сизиф. Поради тоа предавство Зевс решил да го казни Сизиф со тоа што го пратил богот на смртта Танатос да го одведе Сизиф долу во мрачното царство на Ад. Сизиф успеал да го закова богот на смртта така да никој на земјата не умирал додека не дошол Арес богот на војната да го ослободи. Откако Танатос се ослободил пак отишол по Сизиф. Но, итриот Сизиф знаел дека кога тогаш ќе дојдат по него па и наредил на жена си откако ќе го одведат да не го погребува неговото тело, нити да дава задушница или какви било жртви на боговите. Подземните богови Ад и Персефона долго време чекале жртва од жена му на Сизиф но попусто. Тогаш итриот Сизиф му рекол на Ад да го пушти за да отиде кај жена си и ја наговорил да почне да принесува жртви за боговите. Ад го пуштил, а овој нормално почнал пак да пирува и да се радува бидејќи бил единствениот кој успеал да се врати од царството на умрените. Ад многу лут и разгневен повторно го пратил Танатос и овој повторно му ја земал душата. Подземните богови токму за ова го осудиле Сизиф така што требало да тркала еден голем камен од рамницата па сè до врвот на еден рид. Кога мислел дека го истуркал на врвот, каменот му се лизгал од рацете и повторно се тркалал надолу, така што тој морал од почеток да го турка нагоре и никако не можел да стигне до целта. Затоа по примерот на тој безмислен напор на Сизиф, дури и денеска секој претежок или безмислен труд се вика „сизифов камен“ или „сизифов труд“. Наводи[уреди | уреди извор] ↑ Robert Grevs, Grčki mitovi, Nolit, Beograd, 1992, str. 189 -191. Поврзано[уреди | уреди извор] Митот за Сизиф, есеј на Албер Ками. Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (податоци) NKC: jo2016908762 Преземено од „https://mk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сизиф&oldid=4210901“ Категорија: Старогрчка митологија Скриени категории: Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (VIAF) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (LCCN) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (GND) Википедија:Статии со нормативна контрола (BNF) Прегледник Лични алатки Не сте најавени Разговор Придонеси Направи сметка Најава Именски простори Страница Разговор Варијанти Посети Читај Уреди Уреди извор Историја Повеќе Пребарај Прегледник Главна страница Што е Википедија? Избрана содржина Случајна страница Портал технички Тековни настани Скорешни промени Селска чешма Викисредби Дарување Помош алатник Што води овде Поврзани промени Службени страници Постојана врска Информации за страницата Наведи ја страницава Предмет на Википодатоци Печати/извези Направи книга Преземи како PDF Верзија за печатење На други проекти Ризница На други јазици Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Уреди врски Последната промена на страницава е извршена на 7 јули 2020 г. во 14:51 ч. Текстот е достапен под условите на лиценцата Криејтив комонс Наведи извор-Сподели под исти услови. Може да важат и дополнителни услови. За повеќе информации, погледајте ги Условите на употреба. Заштита на личните податоци За Википедија Одрекување од одговорност Мобилен изглед Програмери Статистика Согласност за колачиња 
my-wikipedia-org-2658	----	ဆီစီဖက် - ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား ဆီစီဖက် ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား မှ အ​ညွှန်း​သို့ ခုန်ကူးရန် ရှာဖွေရန် ခုန်ကူးမည် ဆီစီဖက် (ရှေးဟောင်းဂရိ: ΣίσυΦος, Sίsyphos) ဂရိဒဏ္ဍာရီလာ အက်ဖီရာ (Ephyra) ဘုရင် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထပ်တလဲလဲ လိမ်လည်မှုကြောင့် ကြီးမားသော ကျောက်တုံးကြီးကို တောင်ပေါ်သို့ တွန်းတင်ရန် အပြစ်ပေးခံရသည်။ ထိုကျောက်တုံးသည် တောင်ထိပ်မရောက်မီ ပြန်ကျမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး တောင်ထိပ်သို့ရောက်အောင် အမြဲတမ်း တွန်းတင်နေရဦးမည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ဒဏ္ဍာရီ[ပြင်ဆင်ရန်] အီဖျာပြည်ကို တည်ထောင်သူဖြစ်ပြီး အောက်တန်းနတ် မီရုပ် (Merope) နှင့် ကလေး ၄ ယောက် ရှိသည်။ ရေကြောင်းသွားလာရေးနှင့် ကုန်သွယ်ရေးကို အားပေးခဲ့သည်။ လောဘကြီးပြီး လှည့်ဖျားတတ်သည်။ ဇု (Zeus) က ရပ်ဝေးလာများကို ကူညီရန် ဆိုထားသော်လည်း ထိုရပ်ဝေးလာဧည့်များကို သတ်ဖြတ်လေ့ ရှိပြီး ဤသို့ပြုမူခြင်းဖြင့် သူ၏ စည်းကမ်းတင်းကြပ်မှုကို ဖော်ပြနိုင်သည်ဟု ယူဆသည်။ ဇုက မြစ်စောင့်နတ် Asopus ၏သမီး အေဂျီနာ (Aegina) ကို 'မ'သွားသောအခါ သူ့ပြည်အတွင်းသို့ စမ်းတခု စီးနိုင်စေရန် အဆိုပက်နှင့် ညှိပြီးမှ ထိုကိစ္စကို ပြောပြသည်။ သူ့လျှို့ဝှက်ချက်ကို ဖော်သဖြင့် ဇုက ငရဲ (Tartarus) သို့ သံကြိုးခတ်၍ ခေါ်သွားရန် ဇုက အမိန့်ပေးသည်။ သေမင်းတမန် သန်နာတော့ (Thanatos) လာခေါ်သည်။ သံကြိုး မည်သို့အလုပ်လုပ်သည် သိလိုကြောင်း သန်နာတော့ကို ညာမေးပြီး သန်နာတော့ကို သံကြိုးခတ်ကာ အကျဉ်းချထားလိုက်သည်။ သန်နာတော့ပင် သေရွာမခေါ်နိုင်သည့်လူ ရှိလာပြီဟု အုံးအုံးကျွတ်ကျွတ် ဖြစ်လာကြရာ စစ်နတ်ဘုရား အေရိ (Ares) ကြားဝင်လာသည်။ သန်နာတော့ကို လွှတ်ပေးပြီး ဆီစီဖက်ကို သန်နာတော့လက် အပ်သည်။ အဝတ်မဲ့ အသေကောင်ကို လူလယ်ခေါင်၌ ပစ်ထားရန် သူ့ဇနီးအား ဆီစီဖက်က မသေခင် မှာသည်။ သူ့ဇနီးက မှာသည့်အတိုင်း လုပ်သည်။ ဆီစီဖက် စတစ် (Styx) မြစ်ကမ်းဘေးသို့ ရောက်သော် အောက်ဘုံမှ သခင်မ ပါစစ်ဖနီ (Persephone) ကို အသေလောင်းအား ထိုသို့ ပစ်ထားခြင်းမှာ မလေးစားရာ ရောက်ကြောင်း၊ မြေကမ္ဘာသို့ ပြန်ကာ သူ့ဇနီးအား ဆူပူဆုံးမလိုကြောင်း ပြောသည်။ သို့ဖြင့် မြေပေါ်သို့ ပြန်ရောက်လာသည်။ သူ့ဇနီးအား ဆူပူပြီးသော်လည်း အောက်ဘုံသို့ ပြန်မသွားလိုကြောင်း ငြင်းသဖြင့် အောက်ဘုံသခင် အားမိစ် (Hermes) က အတင်းဆွဲခေါ်ရသည်။ ဇုက ဆီစီဖက်၏ အကြိမ်ကြိမ်လှည့်ဖျားမှုကို အပြစ်ပေးသည့်အနေဖြင့် ကျောက်တုံးကြီးကို မတ်စောက်သော တောင်ကုန်းထိပ်သို့ တွန်းတင်ရန် အပြစ်ပေးခံရသည်။ ထိပ်မရောက်ခင်တွင် ထိုကျောက်တုံးသည် ပြန်ကျမည်ဖြစ်ပြီး ထပ်၍ တွန်းတင်ရဦးမည် ဖြစ်သည်။ ထို့ကြောင့် အချိန်ကြာကြာ ထပ်ကာထပ်ကာလုပ်ရသော၊ ဦးတည်ချက်ပျောက်နေသော အလုပ်မျိုးကို ဆီစီဖက်အလုပ်ဟု ညွှန်းကြသည်။ "https://my.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ဆီစီဖက်&oldid=476765" မှ ရယူရန် ကဏ္ဍ: ဂရိ ဒဏ္ဍာရီ လမ်းညွှန်မီနူး ကိုယ်ပိုင် ကိရိယာများ အကောင့် မဝင်ထားပါ ဆွေးနွေးရန် ဆောင်ရွက်ချက်များ အကောင့် ဖန်တီးရန် အကောင့်ဝင်ရန် အမည်ညွှန်းများ စာမျက်နှာ ဆွေးနွေးချက် အမျိုးမျိုးအပြားပြား အမြင်ပုံစံများ ဖတ်ရန် ပြင်ဆင်ရန် ရာဇဝင်ကြည့်ရန် ပို၍ ရှာဖွေရန် အ​ညွှန်း​ ဗဟိုစာမျက်နှာ ပေါင်းကူးနေရာ လက်ရှိဖြစ်ရပ်များ လတ်တလော အပြောင်းအလဲများ ကျပန်းစာမျက်နှာ အ​ကူ​အ​ညီ​ လှူဒါန်း​မှု​ ကိရိယာများ ဘယ်ကလင့်ခ်ထားလဲ ဆက်စပ်သော အပြောင်းအလဲများ အထူး စာမျက်နှာများ ပုံ​သေ​လိပ်​စာ​ စာမျက်နှာ အချက်အလက်များ ဤစာမျက်နှာကို ကိုးကားပြုရန် ဝီကီဒေတာ item ပရင့်/ပို့လွှတ် စာအုပ် ဖန်တီးရန် PDF အနေဖြင့် ရယူရန် ပရင့်ထုတ်နိုင်သော ဗားရှင်း အခြား ပရောဂျက်များတွင် ဝီကီမီဒီယာ ကွန်မွန်းစ် အခြား ဘာသာစကားများဖြင့် Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 လင့်ခ်များကို တည်းဖြတ်ရန် ဤစာမျက်နှာကို ၁၂ စက်တင်ဘာ ၂၀၁၉၊ ၂၀:၃၂ အချိန်တွင် နောက်ဆုံး ပြင်ဆင်ခဲ့သည်။ စာသားများကို Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike လိုင်စင်ဖြင့် ရရှိနိုင်ပြီး ထပ်ဆောင်းသတ်မှတ်ချက်များ ရှိနိုင်သည်။ အသေးစိတ်အတွက် အသုံးပြုခြင်းဆိုင်ရာ သတ်မှတ်ချက်များတွင် ကြည့်ပါ။ ကိုယ်ပိုင်ရေးရာ မူဝါဒ ဝီကီပီးဒီးယား အကြောင်း သတိပြုစရာများ မိုလ်ဘိုင်း ဆော့ဖ်ဝဲလ်တီထွင်ရေးသားသူများ စာရင်းအင်း ကွတ်ကီး ထုတ်ပြန်ချက် 
nds-wikipedia-org-5787	----	Sisyphos – Wikipedia Sisyphos Vun Wikipedia Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen Bild vun Sisyphus, vun Franz von Stuck ut 1920. Sisyphos (1732) Sisyphos (ooltgr. Σίσυφος) oder Sisyphus (Lat.) is en Figur ut de Greeksche Mythologie. Dor warrt vertellt, he schall Korinth grünnt hebben un he weer denn de eerste König vun düsse Stadt. De Mythos[ännern | Bornkood ännern] Sisyphos hett as Minsch de Gödder rutfoddert. De hefft denn Thanatos (de Dood) up em lostüert, de scholl em fangen. Man de plietsche Sisyphos hett Thanatos for'n Narren harrt un hett em fast bunnen. Ares hett em eerst en paar Dage later free tüdelt. In düsse Tied is numms up de Eer storven. Na düssen Trick hefft de Gödder befahlen, dat he würklich starven möss. Man he hett siene Fro den Updrag geven, se scholl em nich begraven un bavenhen scholl se em keen Münt as Obolus för den Fährmann Charon unner de Tung leggen. So weer dat nich mööglich, dat he över den Styx överwegföhr na de Unnerwelt. As he in den Hades ankeem, hett he dor bi den Gott Hades över siene Fro klaagt un seggt, se harr sik um nix scheert. Dor möss Hades em torüchstüern, dat he de nödigen Ritualen afhanneln konn. Man as Sisyphos baven weer, dach he dor nich an, torüch to kehren na de Unnerwelt un besloot, he woll noch en beten wieter leven. Amenne kregen de Gödder em man liekers tofaat un he wurr verordeelt, dat he in den Tartaros en swaren Felsblock up en steilen Barg rup wöltern möss. Man de Felsblock rull jummers wedder vun den Topp vun den Barg wedder hendal. So weer he verdammt, he möss ewig wedder den Felsblock nee un nee den steilen Barg rup schuven. Moderne[ännern | Bornkood ännern] Dwarg as Sisyphos (Polen) In dat 20. Johrhunnert is Sisyphos dör Albert Camus in sien Essai De Mythos vun Sisyphos (1942) as en Bispeel tekent wurrn för den absurden Minschen. Düsse Minsch begrippt, dat de Welt keen Sinn hett un mit den Verstand nich to begriepen is. Man he gifft doch nich Bott un boot so sien egen Sinn up (kiek bi: Existentialismus). In Hoochdüütsch, Plattdüütsch un Nedderlannsch warrt dat Woort Sisyphusarbeit bruukt för sinnlose Arbeit, de umsünst maakt warrt. Vun „https://nds.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=696081“ Kategorien: Greeksche Mythologie Korinth König Mann Navigatschoonsmenü Persönliche Warktüüch Nich anmellt Diskuschoon Beiträge Brukerkonto inrichten Anmellen Naamrüüm Artikel Diskuschoon Varianten Ansichten Lesen Ännern Bornkood ännern Historie bekieken Weitere Söken Navigatschoon Hööftsiet Över Wikipedia Ik bruuk Hülp Artikels na Alphabet Ne’en Artikel schrieven Tofällige Siet Mitmaken Hülp Wikipedia-Portal Toletzt ännert Kuntakt Impressum Projekten Wikinarichten Wikiborn Wikiwöörbook Wikiböker Warktüüch Wat wiest na disse Siet hen Ännern an lenkte Sieden Hoochladen Sünnerliche Sieden Duurlenk Siedeninformatschonen Disse Siet ziteren Wikidata-Datenobjekt Drucken/­exportieren Book opstellen As PDF dalladen Druckversion In anderen Projekten Wikimedia Commons Annere Spraken Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Lenken ännern Disse Siet is toletzt üm 23:40, 4. Apr. 2013 ännert worrn. Oproopstatistik De Text steiht ünner de Lizenz „Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike“ praat; tosätzliche Bedingen künnt gellen. Nipp un nau steiht dat in de Brukerbedingen beschreven. Över Datenschutz Över Wikipedia Impressum Mobile Ansicht Entwickler Statistiken Cookiesverklärung 
nl-wikipedia-org-574	----	Sisyphos - Wikipedia Sisyphos Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie Naar navigatie springen Naar zoeken springen Sisyphos (1732) Dwerg als Sisyphos (Wrocław, Polen) Sisyphos (Oudgrieks: Σίσυφος) of Sisyphus (Latijn) is een figuur uit de Griekse mythologie. Hij was de stichter en koning van Korinthe. Hij was een sluwe man, maar beging de vergissing de goden uit te dagen. Hij wist telkens aan hen te ontsnappen, maar verergerde hiermee zijn uiteindelijke straf. Die luidde dat hij tot het einde der tijden in de Tartaros een rotsblok tegen een berg moest duwen. Mythe[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Sisyphos stichtte Korinthe en bevorderde de handel, maar was tevens een meester in list en bedrog. Hij schond de principes van gastvrijheid door gasten te doden wanneer hij hier baat bij meende te hebben, verleidde zijn eigen nicht, en zette zijn broer af als koning. Sisyphos wekte daarbij Zeus' toorn door aan de riviergod Asopos te verraden dat zijn dochter Aigina door Zeus was geschaakt als diens zoveelste verovering. Hij deed dit omdat hij meende op gelijke hoogte te staan met de goden en zich dus kon veroorloven een god te verraden. Deze uitdaging wekte de woede op van alle goden. Toen Sisyphos overleed, stuurden de goden Thanatos (de Dood) op hem af om hem te vangen, te ketenen, en naar de Tartaros te brengen. De sluwe Sisyphos zag de bui al hangen en wist Thanatos te bedotten. Hij vroeg Thanatos te demonstreren hoe de ketenen werkten en wist hem tijdens deze 'demonstratie' vast te binden. Hierdoor stierf er niemand op Aarde. Ares, geïrriteerd omdat zijn tegenstanders niet meer stierven, bevrijdde hem een paar dagen later. Sisyphos werd door de goden gesommeerd na deze truc echt te sterven, maar hij gaf voordat Ares en Thanatos hem kwamen halen zijn vrouw opdracht hem niet te begraven, en bovendien geen muntje (obool) onder de tong te leggen voor de veerman Charon, zodat hij dan niet de Styx zou kunnen overvaren naar de onderwereld. Aangekomen in de onderwereld klaagde hij bij Hades en Persephone over de nalatigheid van zijn vrouw, zodat Hades niet anders kon dan hem terugsturen om de noodzakelijke rituelen af te handelen. Volgens andere lezingen wist hij Hades en Persephone te overtuigen dat hij per abuis naar Tartaros gestuurd was, waarop ze hem vrijlieten. Sisyphos dacht er echter niet aan terug te keren en hij besloot nog een tijd door te leven. Ten slotte stuurden de goden de snelle Hermes op hem af, die hem naar de Tartaros terugbracht. Zo kregen de goden hem toch te pakken en werd hij veroordeeld in de Tartaros een zwaar rotsblok tegen een steile berg op te duwen, dat echter telkens van de top weer in de diepte rolde waardoor hij gedoemd was eeuwig dat rotsblok opnieuw en opnieuw de steile berg op te duwen. Hiermee toonde Zeus aan dat uiteindelijk de goden toch nog slimmer waren dan Sisyphos, en werd deze gestraft voor zijn hoogmoed. Galerij[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] Schilderij (1920) door Franz von Stuck Sisyphus (2008) door Gert Sennema, aan de Brink in Assen Moderne tijd[bewerken | brontekst bewerken] In de twintigste eeuw werd Sisyphus door Albert Camus in zijn essay De mythe van Sisyphus (1942) ten tonele gevoerd als exemplarisch voor de 'absurde mens'. Deze ziet in dat de wereld irrationeel is en uiteindelijk geen zin heeft, maar geeft hier niet aan toe en probeert zijn eigen zingeving te scheppen (zie existentialisme). Op de plaat Ummagumma van Pink Floyd is een instrumentale mini-suite, genaamd Sysyphus Part 1-4, gewijd aan deze mythe. In het Nederlands wordt het woord sisyfusarbeid gebruikt om zinloos werk aan te duiden dat men vergeefs blijft verrichten. Mediabestanden Zie de categorie Sisyphus van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp. Griekse mythologie Twaalf goden van het pantheon: Aphrodite · Phoebus Apollo · Athena · Ares · Artemis · Demeter · Hephaestus · Hera · Hermes · Hestia · Poseidon · Zeus Andere goden: Aether · Britomartis · Dionysos · Erebus · Eros · Gaia · Hades · Hygieia · Leto · Maia · Nyx · Persephone · Pontos · Ouranos Titanen: Hyperion · Iapetos · Koios · Krios · Kronos · Mnemosyne · Okeanos · Phoibe · Prometheus · Rheia · Thetys · Theia · Themis Andere oerwezens: centauren · cyclopen · Erinyen · Giganten · Minotaurus · muzen · nimfen Sterfelijke helden of halfgoden: Achilles · Amazonen · Antiope · Asklepios · Daidalos · Herakles · Iasoon · Ikaros · Oidipous · Peleus · Penelopeia · Perseus · Sisyphos · Tantalus · Theseus Overgenomen van "https://nl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphos&oldid=58120237" Categorieën: Koning van Korinthe Griekse onderwereld Verborgen categorie: Wikipedia:Commonscat met lokaal zelfde link als op Wikidata Navigatiemenu Persoonlijke hulpmiddelen Niet aangemeld Overleg Bijdragen Registreren Aanmelden Naamruimten Artikel Overleg Varianten Weergaven Lezen Bewerken Brontekst bewerken Geschiedenis Meer Zoeken Navigatie Hoofdpagina Vind een artikel Vandaag Etalage Categorieën Recente wijzigingen Nieuwe artikelen Willekeurige pagina Informatie Gebruikersportaal Snelcursus Hulp en contact Donaties Hulpmiddelen Links naar deze pagina Verwante wijzigingen Bestand uploaden Speciale pagina's Permanente koppeling Paginagegevens Deze pagina citeren Wikidata-item Afdrukken/exporteren Boek maken Downloaden als PDF Printvriendelijke versie In andere projecten Wikimedia Commons In andere talen Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Koppelingen bewerken Deze pagina is voor het laatst bewerkt op 25 jan 2021 om 16:38. De tekst is beschikbaar onder de licentie Creative Commons Naamsvermelding/Gelijk delen, er kunnen aanvullende voorwaarden van toepassing zijn. Zie de gebruiksvoorwaarden voor meer informatie. Wikipedia® is een geregistreerd handelsmerk van de Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., een organisatie zonder winstoogmerk. Privacybeleid Over Wikipedia Voorbehoud Mobiele weergave Ontwikkelaars Statistieken Cookiesverklaring 
nn-wikipedia-org-23	----	Sisyfos – Wikipedia Sisyfos Frå Wikipedia – det frie oppslagsverket Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk Sisyfos måla av symbolisten Franz von Stuck i 1920. Sisyfos (Σίσυφος) var konge, helt og skrekkeksempel i gresk mytologi. Han er kjend for den evige straffa si med å rulla ein stein opp på eit fjell, og har gjeve opphav til uttrykket sisyfosarbeid. Sisyfos skal ha grunnlagt og vore konge av Korint. Han var son av Aiolos og Enarete og gift med Merope, som han fekk den seinare korintarkongen Glaukos med. I nokre seinare kjelder blir det òg sagt at han var far til Odyssevs. Den sløge kongen[endre | endre wikiteksten] Som konge skal han ha oppmuntra skipsfart og handel, men òg ha prøvd å karra til seg mest mogleg rikdom, gjerne ved å drepa reisande. Homer og seinare diktarar kallar han ein av dei største sløgingane i verda. Då dødsguden, Thanatos, kom for å henta han, klarte kongen å lenkja han fast slik at verken han eller nokon andre trong å døy. Til slutt måtte Ares koma og fri guden, medan Sisyfos blei send til dødsriket. Kongen hadde fleire kort i ermet. Han hadde avtalt med kona si at ho ikkje skulle ofra noko for han, slik ein brukte å gjera for dei døde. Han gjekk til Hades og klaga over at kona ikkje utførte pliktene sine, og bad om å få dra tilbake til jorda og snakka til henne. Så snart han var fri, nekta han å dra tilbake. Til slutt måtte Hermes ta han til dødsriket med makt. Som straff for alle triksa, ugjerningane eller at han hadde røpa gudane sine løynder, måtte Sisyfos dytta ein stor stein opp på eit fjell. Så snart steinen var oppå toppen, rulla han ned igjen, og Sisyfos måtte ta til på nytt. Av dette har me fått uttrykket sisyfosarbeid, om eit tungt og endelaust arbeid som tilsynelatande ikkje fører nokon veg fram. Sysifos har fascinert seinare kunstnarar og tenkjarar fram til vår tid. Welcker meiner han skildrar mennesket som stendig tørster etter meir kunne. I essayet Le Mythe de Sisyphe liknar Albert Camus Sisyfos med menneskelivet, som er eit absurd strev utan mål, og som me likevel lever. Autoritetsdata WorldCat Store Norske leksikon VIAF GND LCCN BNF BNF (data) SUDOC NKC Henta frå «https://nn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=3185547» Kategoriar: Gresk mytologi Helvete Gøymd kategori: Artiklar med autoritetsdata Navigasjonsmeny Personlege verktøy Ikkje innlogga Diskusjon Bidrag Opprett konto Logg inn Namnerom Artikkel Diskusjon Variantar Visningar Les Endre Endre wikiteksten Sjå historikken Meir Søk Navigering Hovudside Arbeidskontoret Samfunnshuset Siste endringar Tilfeldig side Hjelp Gåver Kontakt Verktøy Lenkjer hit Relaterte endringar Last opp fil Spesialsider Fast lenkje Sideinformasjon Siter denne sida Wikidata-element Skriv ut / eksporter Opprett ei bok Last ned som PDF Utskriftsversjon På andre prosjekt Wikimedia Commons På andre språk Norsk bokmål Svenska Dansk Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Endra lenkjer Denne sida vart sist endra den 21. desember 2019 kl. 14:04. All tekst er tilgjengeleg under Creative Commons-lisensen Namngjeving/Del på same vilkåra. Sjå Vilkår for detaljar. Personvern Om Wikipedia Atterhald For mobil Utviklarar Statistikk Fråsegn om informasjonskapslar 
no-wikipedia-org-4809	----	Sisyfos – Wikipedia Sisyfos Fra Wikipedia, den frie encyklopedi Hopp til navigering Hopp til søk «Persefone overvåker Sisyfos i underverdenen», attisk, svartfigur-amfora Fra ca. 530 f.Kr. Ifølge gresk mytologi ble Sisyfos dømt til i evig tid å flytte en stein opp en bakke, men miste taket hver gang han nådde toppen. Persefone var Hades' kone og dronning av underverdenen. Myten om Sisyfos' resultatløse evighetsarbeid har gitt opphav til uttrykket «sisyfosarbeid» om meningsløst slit, slik denne amerikanske avistegningen fra ca. 1913 viser; barnearbeideren forsøker forgjeves å rulle pengesekken med «utbytte» opp bakken. Sisyfos (gresk Σίσυφος , latinisert til Sisyphus) var konge, helt og skrekkeksempel i gresk mytologi. Ifølge mytene dømte gudene ham til å rulle en stein opp på et fjell, men hver gang han nådde toppen, rullet steinen ned igjen. Dette har gitt opphav til uttrykket sisyfosarbeid om et forgjeves evighetsarbeid eller en håpløs oppgave uten slutt. Innhold 1 Myte 2 Motiv i kunst og kultur 3 Referanser 4 Eksterne lenker Myte[rediger | rediger kilde] Sisyfos skal ha grunnlagt, og vært konge av, Korint, en gresk by på den smale landbroen som forener halvøya Peloponnes med resten av det greske fastland. Han var sønn av Aiolos og Enarete og gift med Merope, som han fikk en sønn med, den senere korinterkongen Glaukos. I noen senere kilder blir det også sagt at han var far til Odyssevs. Som konge skal han ha oppmuntret skipsfart og handel, men også ha prøvd å bemektige seg mest mulig rikdom, gjerne ved å drepe reisende. Homer og senere diktere kaller ham en av verdens slueste menn. Da dødsguden, Thanatos, kom for å hente ham, klarte kongen å lenke ham fast slik at verken han eller noen andre trengte å dø. Til slutt måtte Ares komme og fri guden, mens Sisyfos ble sendt til dødsriket. Kongen hadde flere kort i ermet. Han hadde avtalt med sin kone at hun ikke skulle ofre noe for ham, slik man pleide å gjøre før de døde. Han gikk til Hades og klaget over at kona ikke utførte pliktene sine, og ba om å få dra tilbake til jorden og snakke med henne. Så snart han var fri, nektet han å dra tilbake. Til slutt måtte Hermes ta ham til dødsriket med makt. Som straff for alle triks, ugjerninger eller at han hadde røpet gudenes hemmeligheter, måtte Sisyfos rulle en stor stein opp på et fjell. Men hver gang han var nær ved å lykkes mistet han grepet, steinen rullet ned og han måtte begynne om igjen. Dette skulle han måtte gjenta til evig tid. Av dette har vi altså fått uttrykket sisyfosarbeid, om et tungt og endeløst arbeid som ikke fører til noe.[1] Motiv i kunst og kultur[rediger | rediger kilde] Sisyfos har fascinert senere kunstnere og filosofer frem til vår tid. Welcker mener han er et symbol for mennesket som stadig tørster etter mer kunnskap. I essayet Le Mythe de Sisyphe sammenlikner Albert Camus Sisyfos med menneskelivet, som et absurd strev uten mål, og som vi likevel lever. Tizians maleri av Sisyfos fra 1548-1549 «Sisyfos» malt av symbolisten Franz Stuck (1863–1928) i 1920 Referanser[rediger | rediger kilde] ^ New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, ISBN 0 600 02350 8 side 182 Eksterne lenker[rediger | rediger kilde] (en) Sisyphus – kategori av bilder, video eller lyd på Commons Autoritetsdata Store norske leksikon · Encyclopædia Britannica · Brockhaus Enzyklopädie · Encyclopædia Universalis · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · VIAF · GND · LCCN · BNF · BNF (data) · SUDOC · NKC Hentet fra «https://no.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=20849562» Kategorier: Personer fra gresk mytologi Ord og uttrykk Skjulte kategorier: Sider som bruker magiske ISBN-lenker Artikler med offisielle lenker fra Wikidata Artikler med autoritetsdatalenker fra Wikidata Navigasjonsmeny Personlig Ikke logget inn Brukerdiskusjon Bidrag Opprett konto Logg inn Navnerom Artikkel Diskusjon Varianter Visninger Les Rediger Rediger kilde Vis historikk Mer Søk Navigasjon Forside Svaksynte Utmerkede artikler Hjelp Siste endringer Prosjekt Stilmanual Prosjektportal Tinget Torget Konkurranser Notiser Nybegynnerforum Tilfeldig side Wikipedia Kontakt Wikipedia Doner Wikimedia Norge Eksterne søk Lager På andre prosjekter Wikimedia Commons Skriv ut / eksporter Opprett en bok Last ned som PDF Utskriftsvennlig versjon Verktøy Lenker hit Relaterte endringer Spesialsider Permanent lenke Sideinformasjon Siter denne siden Wikidata-element På andre språk Norsk nynorsk Dansk Svenska Íslenska Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Rediger lenker Denne siden ble sist redigert 22. okt. 2020 kl. 16:09. Innholdet er tilgjengelig under Creative Commons-lisensen Navngivelse-Del på samme vilkår, men ytterligere betingelser kan gjelde. Se bruksvilkårene for detaljer. Personvern Om Wikipedia Forbehold Mobilvisning Utviklere Statistikk Erklæring om informasjonskapsler 
oc-wikipedia-org-5174	----	Sisif - Wikipèdia Sisif Un article de Wikipèdia, l'enciclopèdia liura. Salta a la navegació Salta a la cerca Persefòna vigilant Sisif dins los Infèrns, anfòr atic de figuras negras, v. 530 AbC., Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 1494) Dins la mitologia grèga, Sisif (en grèc ancian Σίσυφος), filh d'Eòl (lo filh d'Ellèn) e d'Enaretèa, es lo fondator mitic de Corint. Es l'espós de la Pleiada Meròpa, filha d'Atlas e de Pleionèa, de qui aguèt tres enfants: Ornition, Sinon e Glaucos, que ven lo rèire de Bellerofont. Pausanias ne cita dos autres: Almos e Tersandre. Se recits fan d’el lo paire d'Ulisses après aver violat Anticlèa[1]. Sisisf es subretot conegut per son castig, consistissent a pojar una pèira al suc d'un mont, qu’acaba sepre per tornar caire. Somari 1 Mite 2 Interpretacion 3 Nòtas e referéncias 4 fonts 5 Vejatz tanben 5.1 Bibliografia 5.2 Ligams extèrnes Mite[modificar | modificar la font] Sisif es lo filh d'Eòl e d'Enaretèa. Son ascendéncia e sa descendéncia son citadas dins l'Iliada. Es considerat coma lo fondator mitic de Corint. Segon Pierre Brunel, es perque Sisif auriá bastit un palais desmesurat sus l'Acrocorint, que son castig dins lis infèrns auriá pus tard consistit en rotlar un ròc al suc d'un mont[2] . De son vivent, Sisif fonda los Jòcs istmics en l'onor de Melicèrta qu’aviá trobat lo còrs gisant sus l'istme de Corint. Dins los poèmas d'Omèr, Sisif es los baiasut dels òmes. Mas a partir d'Aristòtel o d'Oraci, ven un personatge "fals" e enganaire[3]. Per Euripid (Ifigenia d’Aulis) o per Igin (Fablas), ven lo paire d'Ulisses a la plaça de Laèrci. Aqueste aprocament ven segur del fach que los dos personatges simbolizan ambedos la rusa[4]. Igin o Plutarc racontan que Sisif possedava un bèl tropèl dins l'istme de Corint. Près d’el viviá Autolicos, filh de Quione, que lo besson Filammon èra nascut d'Apollon, alara qu'Autolicos se disiá filh d'Ermès. Autolicos aviá recebut de son paire l'art de panar sens jamai èsser pres; Ermès li aviá donat lo poder de metamorfosar totas las bèstas que volava. Atal, e quitament se Sisif aguèt remarcat que los sieus tropèls diminuissiá cada jorns alara qu’aquestes d'Autolicos aumentavan, foguèt d’en primièr dins l'incapacitat de l'accusar de panatòri; un jorn, donc, il grava sota la bata d'un dels animals son monograma.Venguda la nuèch, Autolicos se serviguèt dins son tropèl, coma a l'ordinari. A l'alba, las marcas de las batas sul camin donèron a Sisif de pròvas que cal per poder convocar los vesins e lmos far testonònis del panatòri. Inspècta l'establa d'Autolicos, reconeguèt los animals panats a causa de las batas gravadas e, daissant als testimònis lo sonh de castigar lo panatòri, faguèt lo torn de l’ostal, i penètra e violèt la filha d'Autolicos, Anticlèa. Anticlèa, prensa a la seguida del viol, esposèt Laèrci puèi foguèt menada a Alalcomèna, en Beòcia, ont nais Ulisses al mond[5]. Sisif es subretot conegut per aver desjogada la mòrt, lo dieu Tanatos. En cambi d'un font que jamai serà agotada, Sisif revèla al dieu-fluvi Asopos ont se tropava sa filha Egina, raubada per Zèus, que la desirava e aviá pres la forma d'una agla. Asopos faguèt fugit Zèus, mas aqueste darrièr se sap mal de Sisfi; Envièt Tanatos lo castigar. Pasmens, quand lo gèni de la Mòrt lo ven cercar, Sisif li prepausa de li mostrar una de sas invencions: de manetas. Encadena Tanatos, alara aqueste podèt l'emportar als Infèrns. S'apercebent que pas degun morissiá, Zèus envièt Arès desliurar Tanatos e menar Sisif als Infèrns. Mas Sisif aviá primièr convencut sa femna de li far pas de funeralhas adequatas. Podèt atal convéncer Adès de le daissar destriar d’entre los vivents per reglar aqueste problèma. Tornat a Corint, refusa de tornar amb los mòrts. Tanatos (o alara Ermès, segon las tradicions) deguèt venir lo cercar de fòrça. Per aver gausat desfiar los dieus, Sisif foguèt condamnat, dins lo Tartar, de far rotlar eternalament fins al naut d'un puèg un ròc que ne davalariá cada còp avant d’arribar al suc (Odissèa, cant XI). Aqueste mite es pas exclusiu de las tradicions grecoromanas. Existís d'autres exemples de personatges que capitèron a capturar la Mòrt en la ligant dins un sac, o encara en l’amagant dins una botelha de biais que pas degun morissiá pendent d’annadas. Interpretacion[modificar | modificar la font] Sisif, per Franz von Stuck, 1920 Lo castig de Sisif faguèt l'objècte de diferentas interpretacions. Segon una interpretacion naturalista del mite, contestada per diferentas criticas[6], Sisif representariá lo solelh que s'auça cada jorn per tornar cabuçar de vespre sota l'orizont. Aquesta interpretacion ven segur de l'analogia amb l’escarabat sagrat dins la mitologia egipciana. Kirsti Simonsuuri i vei la personificacion de las marèas o de las èrsas que pojan per subran davalar[7]. Segon una interpretacion morala, lo castig de Sisif ven sancionar son Ubris en simbolizant la vanitat de las ambicions umanas. François Noël declara que "aqueste ròc que se li fa rotlar de contunh es l'emblèma d'un prince ambiciós que ròtla longtemps dins son cap d’objectius qu’aguèron pas de realizacion" [8]. Abordat d'un vejaire existencial, lo castig pòt servir de metafòra a la quita vida ont aquests castig significariá qu'i aviá pas de castig mai terrible que lo trabalh inutil e van, qu'un òme tant biaisut siá condamnat a s'abrutir de ròtlar un ròc eternalament. Se percep l'absurditat del personatge que siá dins lo desesper d’assajar d'escapar a una mòrt inevitabla, o dins l’assag d'acabar un trabalh interminable. L’especialista de las lengas e de la civilizacion indoeuropèas Jean Haudry vei dins lo mite de Sisif lo castig d'un eròi qu’assagèt d’escapar a la mòrt (capitèt per engana a tornar dels Infèrns) e que capitèt pas a conquerir l'imortalitat. La pèirassa qu'es condamnat a auçar figurava l'Annada entre lo solstici d'ivèrn e aqueste d'estiu que tornava caire al solstici d'ivèrn. Sisif es vodat a mimar de contunh lo cicle annal que volgava sortir[9]. Al delà dels mitològs, diferents filosòfs prenguèron lo mite per ne prepausar una interpretacion personala: Dins son segon assag filosofic, Lo Mite de Sisif, Camus qualifica Sisif d'ultim eròi absurd. I establís perque la vida, malgrat l'absurditat del destin, val la pena d'èsser viscuda: « i a pas gaire de passion sens luta », « cal imaginar Sisif astruc » dich Camus - una frasa primièr prononciada per Kuki Shūzō. Nòtas e referéncias[modificar | modificar la font] ↑ modèl {{Ligam web}} : paramètre « url » mancante paramètre « titre » mancant ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.25 ↑ Sur cette transformation, voir Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p. 30 ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.30-31 ↑ Hygin, Fables, 60, 201, 250, 273, éd. de Leyde, 1933 ; Plutarque, Questions grecques (question 43) ↑ Pierre Brunel, Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe, éditions du rocher, 2004, p.12-13 ↑ Kirsti Simonsuuri, "La résurgence de Sisyphe", dans Opuscula III, Rome, Bardi editore, 1986, p. 66 ↑ François Noël, Dictionnaire de la Fable, 1801, t. II, p. 569 ↑ Jean Haudry, La Religion cosmique des Indo-européens, Milan et Paris, Archè / Les Belles lettres, « Études indo-européennes », 1987, p. 215. fonts[modificar | modificar la font] Apollodore, Bibliothèque [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (I, 7, 3 et 9, 3 ; III, 4, 3; III, 12, 6). Homère, Iliade [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (VI, 153 et suiv.), Odyssée [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (XI, 592-600). Hygin, Fables [détail des éditions] [(la) lire en ligne] (LX). Pausanias, Description de la Grèce [détail des éditions] [lire en ligne] (II, 3 et 4 ; IX, 34, 10 ; X, 31 ). Vejatz tanben[modificar | modificar la font] Bibliografia[modificar | modificar la font] Albert Camus, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, Gallimard, Paris, 1942. Pierre Brunel et Aeneas Bastian, Sisyphe. Figures et Mythes, Éditions du Rocher, 2004. François Rachline, Sisyphe, roi de Corinthe, Albin Michel, 2002. Robert Merle, Sisyphe et la mort, Gallimard, 1950. Pierre Grimal, Dictionnaire de la mythologie grecque et romaine, SPADEC, 1969. Ligams extèrnes[modificar | modificar la font] Sisyphe : Histoire d'une liberté. La version grecque du châtiment comme illustration de la pensée camusienne, par Maggy Collard. 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oed-com-4458	----	Home : Oxford English Dictionary Jump to Main NavigationJump to Content Oxford English Dictionary | The definitive record of the English language ABOUT COMMUNITY BLOG Subscribe Sign in Take a look Discover the story of English More than 600,000 words, over a thousand years Welcome to OED Online. If you or your library subscribes, dive straight in to the riches of the English language. If not, click on the images below to learn more about the OED, see What's new, or take a look at Aspects of English, our language feature section.     Previous Next More about the OED » Print edition » Get your annual subscription for just £90/$90!   December 2020 update Our latest update: over 500 new words, sub-entries, and revisions have been added to the Oxford English Dictionary in our latest update, including clockwork orange, follically challenged, and adulting. Release notes: learn more about the words added to the OED this quarter in our new word notes by OED Revision Editor, Jonathan Dent. Release notes: learn about the work of our editors in updating the etymology and variant forms section in OED entries that have yet to be fully revised in an article by OED Deputy Chief Editor, Phillip Durkin. Release notes: read about the revision of candy in a blog post by OED Junior Editor, Kirsty Dunbar. Oxford Languages Word of the Year 2020 2020 has been anything but ordinary, and this is a year which cannot be neatly accommodated in one single word. Download our Words of an Unprecedented Year report to read the full story. Helpful resources Subscribe Learn about the OED Help with using OED Online Video guides for the OED For librarians For students and teachers Abbreviations used in the OED Key to the pronunciation Key to symbols and other conventions OED webinars   More from Oxford Oxford Reference Oxford Dictionary of National Biography   Already a subscriber? Sign In » Does my library subscribe? Subscribe to the OED Online access to the full OED, and now incorporating the Historical Thesaurus of the OED. Sign up » Word of the day white-livered, adj. 1546 Cowardly, feeble-spirited, pusillanimous. Cf. liver4b, lily-livered... RSS for Word of the Day Sign up for word of the day » Recently published clock rate, n. mixed-race, adj. follow-me, adj. and n. gooseberry fool, n. Follow the OED Online on     Oxford University Press Copyright © 2021 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. | Cookie Policy Privacy Policy Legal Notice Accessibility Subscriber account Username Password Forgot password? Don't have an account? Help Close Library account Library card number Does my library subscribe? Sign in via your institution Sign in 
pl-wikipedia-org-7409	----	Syzyf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia Syzyf Z Wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii Przejdź do nawigacji Przejdź do wyszukiwania Syzyf Σίσυφος — założyciel i król miasta Efyra — Syzyf toczący kamień, attycka amfora czarnofigurowa z VI w. p.n.e. Występowanie mitologia grecka Siedziba Korynt Rodzina Ojciec Eol Żona Merope Dzieci Glaukos Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Syzyf (gr. Σίσυφος Sísyphos, Sisyphos Aiolides, łac. Sisyphus) – w mitologii greckiej założyciel i król miasta Efyra (późniejszy Korynt), syn Eola, postać tragiczna, archetyp. Miał być ojcem Odyseusza i Glaukosa, późniejszego króla Koryntu. Bogowie lubili Syzyfa i zapraszali go na swoje uczty, skąd król zawsze podkradał trochę ambrozji, a także słuchał pogłosek i plotek wymienianych przy stole, które potem powtarzał wśród innych śmiertelnych. Bogowie wybaczali jego przewinienia do czasu, gdy ten zdradził pewien poufny sekret Zeusa. Postanowili zabić Syzyfa, ten jednak uwięził bożka śmierci, Tanatosa. Kiedy zauważony został fakt nagłej nieśmiertelności ludzi, Tanatos został odbity. Sprytny Syzyf zdołał powiedzieć swej żonie, aby nie chowała go zgodnie z ceremoniałem greckim – tym samym jego dusza nie mogła zapłacić Charonowi za przeprawę przez Styks. Hades pozwolił mu więc na powrót do krainy żywych, aby dopilnować odpowiedniego pochówku swojego ciała. Syzyf jednak wykorzystał ten fakt i skrył się przed boskim wzrokiem. Żył bardzo długo, lecz w końcu przypomniano sobie o uciekinierze. Wtedy to bogowie zdecydowali, że ukarzą Syzyfa wieczną i bezużyteczną pracą – ma on wtaczać na szczyt ogromnej góry wielki głaz, który jednak przed wierzchołkiem zawsze wymyka mu się z rąk i stacza się na sam dół zbocza[1]. Wnukiem Syzyfa był Bellerofont, który zabił przez nieostrożność swojego brata. W mieście Efyrze, w zakątku Argos, gdzie dobrej nie braknie paszy dla koni, żył Syzyf najprzebieglejszy wśród ludzi, syn Ajolosa. Ów Syzyf miał także syna Glaukosa, a zaś z Glaukosa zrodzony był Bellerofont bez skazy. Tego pięknością bogowie i pełną powabu siłą obdarowali. (Homer – Iliada, Pieśń VI) Siedziba Korynt Współcześnie określenie „syzyfowa praca” oznacza ciężką, prawie niemożliwą, bezcelową pracę, nie mającą końca, z góry skazaną na niepowodzenie. Dla starożytnych los Syzyfa był zapewne głównie przestrogą, by szanować bogów – jest to przecież kolejny buntownik przeciw boskiej władzy, ale pokolenia późniejszych odbiorców odczytały mit o Syzyfie jako obraz absurdu ludzkiego istnienia. Ludzkie życie jest jak trud Syzyfa, bez sensu, podległe wyższym siłom. Syzyf stał się swoistym symbolem ludzkiego heroizmu i wytrwałości. Uosabia trud i bunt walczącego z bogami o swoją godność. Archetyp[edytuj | edytuj kod] Jako archetyp charakteru może być kojarzony z upadłą naturą anielską. Zobacz też[edytuj | edytuj kod] Zobacz w Wikicytatach kolekcję cytatów o Syzyfie Zobacz hasło syzyfowa praca w Wikisłowniku Zobacz hasło Syzyf w Wikisłowniku Syzyfowe prace – powieść Stefana Żeromskiego Wu Gang – postać z mitologii chińskiej podobna do Syzyfa beczka Danaid - inny przykład niekończącej się pracy Przypisy[edytuj | edytuj kod] ↑ Jan Parandowski: Mitologia wierzenia i podania Greków i Rzymian. Londyn: PULS, 1992, s. 208-209, seria: Proza i eseistyka. ISBN 0-907587-85-2. Kontrola autorytatywna (osoba): VIAF: 67258418, 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 BnF: 12078609k SUDOC: 078600707 NKC: jo2016908762 PLWABN: 9810697447205606 WorldCat: viaf-67258418 Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syzyf&oldid=61667303” Kategorie: Królowie w mitologii greckiej Tricksterzy w mitach i wierzeniach Menu nawigacyjne Narzędzia osobiste Nie jesteś zalogowany Dyskusja Edycje Utwórz konto Zaloguj się Przestrzenie nazw Artykuł Dyskusja Warianty Widok Czytaj Edytuj Edytuj kod źródłowy Historia i autorzy Więcej Szukaj Nawigacja Strona główna Losuj artykuł Kategorie artykułów Najlepsze artykuły Częste pytania (FAQ) Dla czytelników O Wikipedii Zgłoś błąd Zgłoś błąd w pliku Kontakt Wspomóż Wikipedię Dla wikipedystów Pierwsze kroki Portal wikipedystów Ogłoszenia Zasady Pomoc Ostatnie zmiany Narzędzia Linkujące Zmiany w linkowanych Prześlij plik Strony specjalne Link do tej wersji Informacje o tej stronie Cytowanie tego artykułu Element Wikidanych Drukuj lub eksportuj Utwórz książkę Pobierz jako PDF Wersja do druku W innych projektach Wikimedia Commons Wikicytaty W innych językach Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Edytuj linki Tę stronę ostatnio edytowano 14 gru 2020, 09:14. Tekst udostępniany na licencji Creative Commons: uznanie autorstwa, na tych samych warunkach, z możliwością obowiązywania dodatkowych ograniczeń. Zobacz szczegółowe informacje o warunkach korzystania. Polityka prywatności O Wikipedii Korzystasz z Wikipedii tylko na własną odpowiedzialność Wersja mobilna Dla deweloperów Statystyki Komunikat na temat ciasteczek 
pt-wikipedia-org-4024	----	Sísifo – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre Sísifo Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. Saltar para a navegação Saltar para a pesquisa Sísifo, de Tiziano, 1549 Na mitologia grega, Sísifo (em grego: Σίσυφος, transl.: Sísyphos), filho do rei Éolo, da Tessália, e Enarete,[1] era considerado o mais astuto de todos os mortais. Foi o fundador e primeiro rei de Éfira, depois chamada Corinto,[2] onde governou por diversos anos. Casou-se com Mérope, filha de Atlas, sendo pai de Glauco e avô de Belerofonte.[2] Índice 1 Família Paterna 2 A história de Sísifo 3 Trabalho de Sísifo 4 Ver também 5 Notas e referências 5.1 Notas 6 Referências Família Paterna[editar | editar código-fonte] Éolo foi um dos filhos de Heleno, filho de Deucalião, e reinou sobre a Tessália.[1] Enarate era filha de Deimachus.[1] Éolo e Enarete tiveram vários filhos: Creteu, Sísifo, Deioneu, Salmoneu, Atamante, Perieres, Cercafas e Magnes, e filhas, Calice, Peisidice, Perimele, Alcíone e Cânace.[1] A história de Sísifo[editar | editar código-fonte] Mestre da malícia e da felicidade, ele entrou para a tradição como um dos maiores ofensores dos deuses. Segundo Higino, ele odiava seu irmão Salmoneu; perguntando a Apolo como ele poderia matar seu inimigo, o deus respondeu que ele deveria ter filhos com Tiro, filha de Salmoneu, que o vingariam. Dois filhos nasceram, mas Tiro, descobrindo a profecia, os matou. Sísifo se vingou ...[Nota 1] e, por causa disso, ele recebeu como castigo na terra dos mortos empurrar uma pedra até o lugar mais alto da montanha, de onde ela rola de volta.[3][4] Segundo Pausânias, ele tornou-se rei de Corinto após a partida de Jasão e Medeia; nesta versão, Medeia não matou os próprios filhos por vingança, mas escondeu-os no templo de Hera esperando que, com isso, eles se tornassem imortais.[5] Sísifo casou-se com Mérope, uma das sete Plêiades, tendo com ela um filho, Glauco.[2] Ele também teve outros filhos, Ornitião, Tersandro e Almus.[6] Certa vez, uma grande águia sobrevoou sua cidade, levando nas garras uma bela jovem. Sísifo reconheceu a jovem Egina, filha de Asopo, um deus-rio. Mais tarde, o velho Asopo veio perguntar-lhe se sabia do rapto de sua filha e qual seria seu destino. Sísifo logo fez um acordo: em troca de uma fonte de água para sua cidade, ele contaria o paradeiro da filha. O acordo foi feito e a fonte presenteada recebeu o nome de Pirene.[2][7] Assim, ele despertou a raiva do grande Zeus, que enviou o deus da Morte, Tânato, para levá-lo ao mundo subterrâneo. Porém o esperto Sísifo conseguiu enganar o enviado de Zeus. Elogiou sua beleza e pediu-lhe para deixá-lo enfeitar seu pescoço com um colar. O colar, na verdade, não passava de uma coleira, com a qual Sísifo manteve a Morte aprisionada e conseguiu driblar seu destino. Durante um tempo não morreu mais ninguém. Sísifo soube enganar a Morte, mas arrumou novas encrencas. Desta vez com Hades, o deus dos mortos, e com Ares, o deus da guerra, que precisava dos préstimos da Morte para consumar as batalhas. Tão logo teve conhecimento, Hades libertou Tânato e ordenou-lhe que trouxesse Sísifo imediatamente para as mansões da morte. Quando Sísifo se despediu de sua mulher, teve o cuidado de pedir secretamente que ela não enterrasse seu corpo. Já no inferno, Sísifo reclamou com Hades da falta de respeito de sua esposa em não o enterrar. Então suplicou por mais um dia de prazo, para se vingar da mulher ingrata e cumprir os rituais fúnebres. Hades lhe concedeu o pedido. Sísifo então retomou seu corpo e fugiu com a esposa. Havia enganado a Morte pela segunda vez. Outra história a respeito de Sísifo trata do ocorrido quando Autólico, o mais esperto e bem-sucedido ladrão da Grécia (que era filho de Hermes e vizinho de Sísifo), tentou roubar-lhe o gado. Autólico mudava a cor dos animais. As reses desapareciam sistematicamente sem que se encontrasse o menor sinal do ladrão, porém Sísifo começou a desconfiar de algo, pois o rebanho de Autólico aumentava à medida que o seu diminuía. Sísifo, um homem letrado (teria sido um dos primeiros gregos a dominar a escrita), teve a ideia de marcar os cascos de seus animais com sinais de modo que, à medida que a res se afastava do curral, aparecia no chão a frase "Autólico me roubou". Posteriormente, Sísifo e Autólico fizeram as pazes e se tornaram amigos. Sísifo também seduziu Anticleia, filha de Autólico, que mais tarde se casou com o rei de Ítaca, Laerte; por este motivo, Odisseu é considerado, por alguns autores, como filho de Sísifo.[8] Sísifo morreu de velhice e Zeus enviou Hermes para conduzir sua alma a Hades. No tártaro, Sísifo foi considerado um grande rebelde e teve um castigo, juntamente com Prometeu, Tício, Tântalo e Íxion. Sísifo recebeu esta punição: foi condenado a, por toda a eternidade, rolar uma grande pedra de mármore com suas mãos até o cume de uma montanha, sendo que toda vez que ele estava quase alcançando o topo, a pedra rolava novamente montanha abaixo até o ponto de partida por meio de uma força irresistível, invalidando completamente o duro esforço despendido.[3][9] Por esse motivo, a expressão "trabalho de Sísifo", em contextos modernos, é empregada para denotar qualquer tarefa que envolva esforços longos, repetitivos e inevitavelmente fadados ao fracasso - algo como um infinito ciclo de esforços que, além de nunca levarem a nada útil ou proveitoso, também são totalmente desprovidos de quaisquer opções de desistência ou recusa em fazê-lo. Trabalho de Sísifo[editar | editar código-fonte] Sísifo tornou-se conhecido por executar um trabalho rotineiro e cansativo. Tratava-se de um castigo para mostrar-lhe que os mortais não têm a liberdade dos deuses. Os mortais têm a liberdade de escolha, devendo, pois, concentrar-se nos afazeres da vida cotidiana, vivendo-a em sua plenitude, tornando-se criativos na repetição e na monotonia. Árvore genealógica baseada em Apolodoro (parcial): Éolo Enarete Atlas Pleione Sísifo Mérope Glauco Ver também[editar | editar código-fonte] O mito de Sísifo, livro de Albert Camus Lista de expressões idiomáticas de origem histórica ou mitológica Notas e referências[editar | editar código-fonte] Notas[editar | editar código-fonte] ↑ O texto de Higino não inclui a vingança Referências ↑ a b c d Pseudo-Apolodoro, Biblioteca, 1.7.3 ↑ a b c d Pseudo-Apolodoro, Biblioteca, 1.9.3 ↑ a b Higino, Fabulae, LX, Sísifo e Salmoneu ↑ Higino, Fabulae, CCXXXIX, Mães que mataram seus filhos ↑ Pausânias (geógrafo), Descrição da Grécia, 2.3.11 ↑ Pausânias (geógrafo), Descrição da Grécia, 2.4.3 ↑ Pausânias (geógrafo), Descrição da Grécia, 2.5.1 ↑ Higino, Fabulae, CCI, Autólico ↑ Odisséia, Livro XI v d e Mitologia grega Deuses(as) primordiais Áclis · Aion · Ananque · Caos · Chronos · Érebo · Éter · Euríbia · Fanes · Gaia · Hemera · Nesos · Nix · Ofíon · Óreas · Physis · Ponto · Tálassa · Tártaro · Urano 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ro-wikipedia-org-4563	----	Sisif - Wikipedia Sisif De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liberă Sari la navigare Sari la căutare Sisif Сізіф, Тіціан, Національний музей Прадо Civilizația greacă antică Căsătorit cu Merope[*]​ Tyro[*]​  Urmași Ornytion[*]​ Metapontus[*]​ Glafcos[*]​ Thersander[*]​ Almus[*]​ Sinon[*]​ Odiseu  Tată Aiolos[*]​[1][2]  Mamă Enarete[*]​  Bunic Hellen[*]​  Deimachus[*]​  Bunică Orseis[*]​[2]  Frați Perieres[*]​  Modifică date / text  Sisif împingând stânca la deal. Sisif (în greacă veche Σίσυφος, Sísuphos) a fost fiul lui Aeolus, întemeietor și rege al cetății Corint. Era considerat cel mai viclean dintre muritori. Cu Merope, fiica lui Atlas, a avut mai mulți copii: pe Glaucus, Halmus și Thersander. După o versiune, ar fi fost și tatăl lui Odiseu. Pentru vina de a fi dat în vileag răpirea Aeginei de către Zeus, Sisif și-a atras asupră-și mânia acestuia din urmă și a fost supus în Infern la o caznă perpetuă: el a fost sortit să urce un deal împingând veșnic o stâncă uriașă, care o dată ajunsă în vârf, se rostogolea din nou la vale și cazna era reluată. În afară de aceasta, a încercat să rămână nemuritor printr-un șiretlic, însă a fost descoperit de Zeus. Cuprins 1 Sisif în literatură 2 Bibliografie 3 Legături externe 4 Note 5 Vezi și Sisif în literatură[modificare | modificare sursă] Albert Camus, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, 1942. Bibliografie[modificare | modificare sursă] Victor Kernbach, Dicționar de mitologie generală, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989 Anca Balaci, Mic dicționar de mitologie greacă și romană, Editura Mondero, București, 1992, ISBN 973-9004-09-2 George Lăzărescu, Dicționar de mitologie, Casa Editorială Odeon, București, 1992, ISBN 973-9008-28-3 N.A.Kun, Legendele și miturile Greciei Antice, Editura Lider, București, 2003, ISBN 973-629-035-2 Albert Camus, Fața și reversul, Nunta, Mitul lui Sisif, Omul revoltat, Vara, RAO International Publishing Company, București 1994 ISBN 973-96204-9-3 Legături externe[modificare | modificare sursă] Dicționar mitologic Note[modificare | modificare sursă] ^ Q45269617[*]​  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) ^ a b RSKD / Aeolus[*]​  Verificați valoarea |titlelink= (ajutor) Vezi și[modificare | modificare sursă] Lista personajelor mitologice elene Listă de eroi din mitologia greacă Listă de ființe fabuloase în mitologia greacă Mitologie greacă Listă de zei Listă de zei (pe zone geografice) Muze 1866 Sisyphus Informații bibliotecare BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 67258418 v • d • m Mitologia greacă Mituri Războiul troian · Iliada · Odiseea Locuri mitice și sacre Muntele Olimp  · Câmpiile Elizee · Arcadia · Hades · Tartar · Listă de locuri mitice în mitologia greacă Personaje Divinități Primordiale Neantul · Întunericul · Noaptea  · Lumina  · Ziua  · Cerul · Pământul · Munții  · Marea · Lumea subpământeană Olimpiene (Zei) Zeus · Hera · Poseidon · Demetra · Atena · Apollo · Artemis · Ares · Afrodita · Hefaistos · Hermes · Eros · Hades · Hestia · Pan · Persefona Titanii Argus · Atlas · Coeus · Crius · Cronos · Hyperion · Iapetus · Oceanus (titani) Mnemosyne · Phoebe · Rhea · Theia · Themis  · Thetys (titanide) Muritori Ahile · Diomede · Elena din Troia · Hercule · Iason · Odiseu · Oedip · Perseu · Pandora · Prometeu · Telamon · Tezeu Ființe mitologice Caribda Centauri Cerber Ciclopi Echidna Gorgone Graie Harpii Moirae Nimfe Pegas Phoenix Hecatonchiri Minotaur Scila Satiri Articole conexe Lista personajelor mitologice elene · Listă de ființe fabuloase în mitologia greacă · Listă de eroi din mitologia greacă · Similarități între mitologiile romană, greacă și etruscă · Listă de filme bazate pe mitologia greco-romană · Posthomerica Portal Mitologie  · Portal Grecia Antică Adus de la https://ro.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisif&oldid=12915255 Categorii: Mitologia greacă Eponime ale asteroizilor Categorii ascunse: Articole cu legături către elemente fără etichetă Erori CS1: parameter link Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori BNF Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori GND Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori LCCN Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori NKC Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori SUDOC Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori VIAF Articole Wikipedia cu identificatori WorldCat-VIAF Articole Wikipedia cu informații bibliotecare Pagini ce folosesc legături automate către ISBN Meniu de navigare Unelte personale Nu sunteți autentificat Discuții Contribuții Creare cont Autentificare Spații de nume Articol Discuție Variante Vizualizări Lectură Modificare Modificare sursă Istoric Mai mult Căutare Navigare Pagina principală Schimbări recente Cafenea Articol aleatoriu Facebook Participare Cum încep pe Wikipedia Ajutor Portaluri tematice Articole cerute Donații Trusa de unelte Ce trimite aici Modificări corelate Trimite fișier Pagini speciale Navigare în istoric Informații despre pagină Citează acest articol Element Wikidata Tipărire/exportare Creare carte Descarcă PDF Versiune de tipărit În alte proiecte Wikimedia Commons În alte limbi Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Modifică legăturile Ultima editare a paginii a fost efectuată la 8 iunie 2019, ora 13:04. 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ru-wikipedia-org-7050	----	Сизиф — Википедия Сизиф Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии Перейти к навигации Перейти к поиску Сизиф Пол мужской Отец Эол[1][2] Мать Энарета Братья и сёстры Периер Супруга Меропа и Тиро Дети Орнитинон, Метапонт, Главк, Терсандр[d], Алм, Синон и Одиссей В иных культурах У Ган  Медиафайлы на Викискладе У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Сизиф (значения). Сизи́ф (точнее Сиси́ф, др.-греч. Σίσυφος) — в древнегреческой мифологии[3] строитель и царь Коринфа, после смерти приговорённый богами катить на гору в Тартаре тяжёлый камень, который, едва достигнув вершины, раз за разом скатывался вниз. Отсюда выражение «сизифов труд», означающее тяжёлую, бесконечную и безрезультатную работу и муки. Согласно Гомеру — мудрый, порочный и корыстолюбивый человек. Первый воспользовавшийся корыстолюбием и обманом (среди эллинов). Содержание 1 Миф 2 Образ Сизифа 3 Литература 4 Примечания 5 Ссылки Миф[править | править код] Сохранились разные варианты мифов, дающие объяснения причин столь тяжёлой кары, постигшей Сизифа (разглашение тайн богов, многочисленные ограбления путешественников, похищение и заточение бога смерти Танатоса и другое). Алкей и Феогнид упоминают, что он пытался обмануть смерть, но безуспешно[4]. В передаче доктора исторических наук Е. Г. Рабинович: «обмануть смерть и так воспрепятствовать нисхождению душ в преисподнюю и соответственно смене поколений»[5]. Франц фон Штук. Сизиф Сизиф — сын Эола[6] и Энареты. Основал город Эфиру (древнее название Коринфа)[7]. Женился на плеяде Меропе, дочери Атланта. Их сыновья: Главк, Орнитион, Ферсандр и Альм[8]. Согласно поэме Евмела, получил власть в Эфире (Коринфе) от Медеи[9]. По одному рассказу, наказанию в Аиде подвергнут из-за Эгины, дочери Асопа. Когда Асоп разыскивал её, Сизиф согласился сообщить, что её похитил Зевс, при условии, что Асоп даст ему воду в Акрокоринф[10]. По другой версии, враждовал с братом Салмонеем и по предсказанию Аполлона изнасиловал Тиро, которая родила двух детей, которые должны были отомстить Салмонею. Узнав об этом, Тиро убила их. За это нечестие Сизиф наказан в Аиде[11]. Наиболее распространена версия мифа, в которой Сизиф обманом заковывает бога смерти Танатоса и держит его в плену. По другой версии, обманул и заковал в цепи самого Аида[12]. В отсутствие Танатоса люди перестают умирать. Боги обеспокоены сложившимся положением, и по прошествии нескольких лет Арес, бог войны, освобождает бога смерти. Танатос исторгает душу Сизифа и отводит её в царство теней умерших. Но и тут сумел Сизиф обмануть богов. Он запретил своей жене совершать после своей смерти погребальные обряды. Аид и Персефона, не дождавшись погребальных жертв, разрешили Сизифу вернуться ненадолго на землю — наказать жену за нарушение священных обычаев и велеть ей устроить подобающие похороны и жертвоприношения. Сизиф не вернулся в царство Аида. Он остался в пышном дворце пировать и радоваться тому, что единственный из всех смертных сумел вернуться из мрачного царства теней. Прошло несколько лет, до тех пор, пока отсутствие Сизифа в царстве мёртвых не было обнаружено. За хитрецом пришлось посылать Гермеса. За проступки при жизни (до и после смерти) боги приговорили Сизифа к наказанию — вечно вкатывать на гору тяжёлый камень, который скатывался опять вниз, а он должен был его возвращать вверх на прежнее место. Образ Сизифа[править | править код] Алексей Григорьев. Сизиф Тициан. Наказание Сизифа В Аиде выполняет работу[13]. Изображён в Аиде на картине Полигнота в Дельфах, вкатывает камень[14]. Его могила на Истме известна немногим[15]. У подножья Пирены находился Сисифей с развалинами святилища или дворца[16]. Действующее лицо сатировских драм Эсхила «Феоры, или Истмийские состязания» (фр. 78-79 Радт), «Сизиф-беглец» (фр. 225-230 Радт) и «Сисиф-камнекат» (фр. 233 Радт), пьесы Софокла «Сизиф» (не дошло ни одной строки), сатировской драмы Еврипида и пьесы Крития с тем же названием. Образ Сизифа получил отражение в литературе нового времени (А. Камю, Р. Мерль) и изобразительном искусстве (Тициан). Так, у Камю Сизиф — это человек, который поднялся над бессмысленностью своего существования, который в этой бессмысленности обрёл свой смысл и свою гордость. Литература[править | править код] Мифы народов мира. М., 1991-92. В 2 т. Т. 2. С. 439. Примечания[править | править код] ↑ Любкер Ф. Sisyphus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский, пер. А. Д. Вейсман, Ф. Гельбке, Л. А. Георгиевский, А. И. Давиденков, В. А. Канский, П. В. Никитин, И. А. Смирнов, Э. А. Верт, О. Ю. Клеменчич, Н. В. Рубинский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 1258. ↑ Любкер Ф. Aeolus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга, Ф. Гельбке, П. В. Никитин, В. А. Канский, пер. А. Д. Вейсман, Ф. Гельбке, Л. А. Георгиевский, А. И. Давиденков, В. А. Канский, П. В. Никитин, И. А. Смирнов, Э. А. Верт, О. Ю. Клеменчич, Н. В. Рубинский — СПб.: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 33—34. ↑ Псевдо-Аполлодор. Мифологическая библиотека I 7, 3 далее ↑ Алкей, фр. 38 Лобель-Пейдж; Феогнид. Элегии 702—712 ↑ Е. Г. Рабинович. Мерное бремя Архивная копия от 4 мая 2012 на Wayback Machine // Ноосфера и художественное творчество. М.: Наука, 1991, с. 139—153 ↑ Гомер. Илиада VI 153 ↑ Обнорский Н. П. Сизиф // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907. ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 4, 3 ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 3, 11 ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 5, 1 ↑ Гигин. Мифы 60 ↑ Схолии к Гомеру. Илиада VI 153 // Комментарий Д. О. Торшилова в кн. Гигин. Мифы. СПб, 2000. Стр. 81 ↑ Гомер. Одиссея XI 593—600 ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады X 31, 10 ↑ Павсаний. Описание Эллады II 2, 2 ↑ Страбон. География VIII 6, 21 (стр. 379) Ссылки[править | править код] Медиафайлы на Викискладе А. Камю. Миф о Сизифе. Эссе об абсурде.     Тематические сайты Giant Bomb Словари и энциклопедии Большая каталанская · Большая норвежская · Большая российская · Брокгауза и Ефрона · Малый Брокгауза и Ефрона · Реальный словарь классических древностей · Britannica (онлайн) · Brockhaus · Treccani · Universalis · Гранат Нормативный контроль BNF: 12078609k · GND: 118614797 · LCCN: no2014082839 · NKC: jo2016908762 · SUDOC: 078600707 · VIAF: 67258418, 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 · WorldCat VIAF: 67258418, 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 Правители Древнего Коринфа Гелиады Ээт Бунос Эпопей Коринф Полиб Креонт Ясон Сизифиды Сизиф Главк Орнитион Фоант Дамофонт Пропод два царя одновременно Дорид и Гианфид Гераклиды Алетиды Алет Иксион Агел I (Агелай) Примнид Бакхиады Бакхис Агел II (Агелас) Евдем (Евдам) Аристомед (Аристодем) Агемон (Агамон) Александр Телест Автомен Патроклид (Гиппоклид) Кипселиды(т) Кипсел I Периандр Псамметих (Кипсел II) (т) — тираны Персонажи «Одиссеи» Дом Одиссея (лат. Улисс) Пенелопа (жена) Телемах (сын) Ктимена (сестра) Лаэрт (отец) Антиклея (мать) Аркисий (дед) Эвриклея (няня) Ментор (наставник) Фемий (поэт и певец) Евмей (раб-свинопас) Филетий (раб-волопас) Меланфий (раб-козопас) Меланфо (служанка) Аргус (собака) Монархи и их дети Агамемнон, царь Микен Алкиной, царь феаков Арета, царица феаков Елена из Спарты Ино, царица Орхоменоса Менелай из Спарты Мент, царь тафийцев царевна Навсикая из Феакии Нестор, царь Пилоса царевич Писистрат из Пилоса царевич Полит из Трои Сизиф, царь Коринфа царевичи Стратий[en] и Фрасимед из Пилоса Боги Афина Аполлон Артемида Атлас Калипсо Цирцея Гермес Океан Посейдон Танатос Зевс Другие Антиф Антифат Ахилл Аякс Великий Демодок (аэд) Девкалион Долий Евпиф Еврилох Галиферс Гелиос Идоменей Ир (нищий) Киконы Лестригоны Лотофаги Полит Полидамна Полифем Сирены Скилла и Харибда Тантал Теоклимен Тиресий Элпенор Эгиптий Эол Эхет Женихи Пенелопы Агелай Амфимедон[fr] Амфином Антиной Димоптолем Евридам[fr] Евримах Еврином Ктесипп Леодей Писандр Полиб[fr] Элат Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сизиф&oldid=111185130 Категории: Википедия:Изображение в статье дублирует изображение в карточке Персонажи по алфавиту Мифологические персонажи по алфавиту Герои древнегреческих мифов Мифы Коринфа Цари Коринфа Нисходившие в подземное царство Скрытая категория: Википедия:Статьи с источниками из Викиданных Навигация Персональные инструменты Вы не представились системе Обсуждение Вклад Создать учётную запись Войти Пространства имён Статья Обсуждение Варианты Просмотры Читать Править Править код История Ещё Поиск Навигация Заглавная страница Рубрикация Указатель А — Я Избранные статьи Случайная статья Текущие события Участие Сообщить об ошибке Сообщество Форум Свежие правки Новые страницы Справка Пожертвовать Инструменты Ссылки сюда Связанные правки Служебные страницы Постоянная ссылка Сведения о странице Цитировать страницу Элемент Викиданных Печать/экспорт Создать книгу Скачать как PDF Версия для печати В других проектах Викисклад На других языках Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Править ссылки Эта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 20 декабря 2020 в 08:38. Текст доступен по лицензии Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования. Wikipedia® — зарегистрированный товарный знак некоммерческой организации Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Политика конфиденциальности Описание Википедии Отказ от ответственности Свяжитесь с нами Мобильная версия Разработчики Статистика Заявление о куки 
sco-wikipedia-org-2249	----	Sisyphus - Wikipedia Sisyphus Frae Wikipedia, the free beuk o knawledge Jump to navigation Jump to search Persephone supervisin Sisyphus in the Unnerwarld, Attica black-figur amphora (vase), c. 530 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen museum (Inv. 1494) In Greek meethology Sisyphus (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/;[1] Greek: Σίσυφος, Sísyphos) wis a keeng o Ephyra (nou kent as Corinth) punished for chronic deceitfuness bi bein compelled tae roll an immense boulder up a hill, anly tae watch it row back doun, an tae repeat this action forever. References[eedit | eedit soorce] ↑ "sisyphean". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public leebrar membership required.) Taen frae "https://sco.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=611218" Categeries: Airticles conteenin Ancient Greek (to 1453)-leid text Keengs in Greek meethologie Aeolides Corinthian meethologie Condemned souls intae Tartarus Keengs o Corinth Ceety foonders Navigâtion menu Personal tuils No loggit in Collogue for this IP Contreibutions Mak accoont Log in Namespaces Airticle Collogue Variants Views Read Eedit Eedit soorce See histerie More Rake Navigation Main page Commonty Yett Mercat Cross Recent chynges Wale page allevolie Help Propines Tuilkist Whit airts tae here Relatit chynges Uplaid file Byordinar pages Permanent airtin Page information Cite this airticle Wikidata item Prent/export Create a beuk Dounload as PDF Prent version In ither projects Wikimedia Commons In ither leids Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Eedit airtins This page wis last eeditit on 24 October 2017, at 22:32. Text is available unner the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mey apply. See Terms o Uise for details. Preevacie policie Aboot Wikipedia Disclamation Mobile view Deveelopers Statistics Cookie statement 
sh-wikipedia-org-5220	----	Sizif - Wikipedia Sizif Iz Wikipedije, slobodne enciklopedije Idi na navigaciju Idi na pretragu Franz von Stuck: Sizif, 1920. Sizif (grč. Σίσυφος, Sísuphos) Eolov je i Enaretin sin. Prema nekim izvorima bio je Odisejev otac, prije nego što se Odisejeva majka Antikleja udala za Laerta. Poznat je po personifikaciji uzaludnog posla. Naime Sizif je bio osuđen da veliku kamenu gromadu gura uz planinsku strminu da bi ga postavio na vrh. No, svaki put kada bi se primaknuo vrhu, kamena bi mu kugla izmaknula i sunovratila se u podnožje brda. Sizif je tako pokušavao, iznova i iznova, ali neuspješno. Sadržaj/Садржај 1 Mitologija 1.1 Život 1.2 Sizifov posao 2 Vanjski linkovi Mitologija[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Život[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Tiziano: Sizif, 1548. - 1549. Sizif gura kamenu gromadu, 1732. godina Sizif je bio osnivač i kralj Efira (Korinta). Promicao je navigaciju i trgovinu, ali bio je pohlepan i sklon prijevari te je ubijao putnike i goste. Zaveo je svoju nećakinju, preuzeo bratovo prijestolje i izdao Zeusovu tajnu - da je silovau Eginu, kći riječnog boga Ezopa ili, u drugoj inačici mita, Eola. Zeus je naredio Hadu da ga okuje u paklu. Sizif je ondje pitao Tanatosa da isproba lance da vidi kako rade, a kad je to učinio, Sizif ga je ostavio okovanog i prijetio Hadu. Budući da je Tanatos bio bog smrti, nitko nije mogao umrijeti sve dok se nije umiješao Ares. Naime, Aresa je živciralo to što ga bitke i ratovi nisu zabavaljali jer nije bilo smrti pa je oslobodio Tanatosa i poslao Sizifa u Tartar. No, prije nego što je Sizif umro, bješe rekao svojoj ženi da ne prinosi uobičajene žrtve kad bude mrtav. Potom se u Hadu požalio Perzefoni da ga žena zanemaruje i nagovorio je da ga pusti na zemaljski svijet da je zatraži da učini svoje dužnosti. Kad je Sizif stigao u Korint, odbio se vratiti te ga je na posljetku Hermes vratio u Tartar. Sizifov posao[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Bogovi su ga za sve njegove prijevare kaznili. Morao je gurati veliku stijenu do vrha brijega, ali prije nego što bi stigao do vrha, kamen bi se otkotrljao te je morao početi iznova. O ovome priča i Homer u svojoj Odiseji. Stoga se danas koristi metafora Sizifov posao za uzaludan posao ili besmislene radnje. Prema solarnoj teoriji, Sizif je Sunčev disk koji se svakoga dana diže na istoku, a potom pada na zapadu. Drugo učenje tvrdi da je Sizif personifikacija čovjekove borbe u potrazi za znanjem. Vanjski linkovi[uredi - уреди | uredi izvor] Sizif na Wikimedijinoj ostavi Sizif u grčkoj mitologiji Dobavljeno iz "https://sh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizif&oldid=5061700" Kategorija: Grčka mitologija Navigacijski meni Lični/osobni alati Niste prijavljeni Razgovor sa IP adresom Doprinosi Izradi račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stranica Razgovor Varijante Pregledi Čitaj Uredi Uredi izvor Historija/Историја Više Traži-Тражи Orijentacija-Оријентација Glavna stranica Izabrani članci Nedavne izmene Slučajna strana interakcija - интеракција Pomoć/Помоћ Pijaca/Пијаца Portal zajednice Alatke-Алатке Što vodi ovdje/Шта води овде? Vezane izmjene Posebno/Посебно Verzije članka/Верзије чланка Informacije o stranici Citiraj ovaj članak Stavka na Wikipodacima Ispis/izvoz Napravi knjigu Preuzmi kao PDF Verzija za ispis Na drugim projektima Wikimedia Commons Na drugim jezicima Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Uredi veze Ova stranica je zadnji put izmijenjena 18:12, 24 juni 2014. Tekst je dostupan pod Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike licencom; dodatni uslovi se mogu primijeniti. Za detalje pogledajte uslove korištenja. Politika privatnosti - Политика приватности O Wikipediji - О Википедији Odricanje od odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvijači Statistika Izjava o kolačićima 
simple-wikipedia-org-469	----	Sisyphus - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sisyphus From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Sisyphus with his stone and the hill. English Engraving, 1792. Sisyphus (Σίσυφος, Sísyphos) was a legendary person in Greek mythology.[1] According to the ancient story, Sisyphus was forced to roll a big rock up a hill, but it rolled back down and the task was never finished.[2] He was forced to repeat this over and over again forever.[3]The word "Sisyphean", which relates to a task which is undertaken with great effort but is ultimately pointless, is derived from the myth. References[change | change source] ↑ "Sisyphean," Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed., 2001; retrieved 2012-3-29. ↑ Littell, Robert S. (1849). The Living Age, Vol. 20, p. 53. ↑ Mythweb.com, "Sisyphus"; retrieved 2012-3-29. Other websites[change | change source] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sisyphus. "Sisyphus," Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911) Retrieved from "https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=6997316" Category: People in Greek mythology Hidden categories: Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons link is defined as the pagename Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Talk Variants Views Read Change Change source View history More Search Getting around Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us Give to Wikipedia About Wikipedia Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing In other projects Wikimedia Commons In other languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Change links This page was last changed on 21 June 2020, at 07:41. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License and the GFDL; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
sk-wikipedia-org-8961	----	Sizyfos – Wikipédia Sizyfos z Wikipédie, slobodnej encyklopédie Skočit na navigaci Skočit na vyhledávání Sizyfos alebo Sisyfos alebo Sísyfos (starogr. Σίσυφος - Sisyfos, iný prepis: Sísyfos; lat. Sisyphus) bol v gréckej mytológii hrdina, syn Aiola a jeho manželky Enarety, zakladateľ a prvý kráľ Korintu. Sizyfos bol veľmi bystrý, oklamal aj bohov a smrť. Za trest musel v podsvetí kotúľať do kopca balvan, ktorý sa pred vrcholom vždy zrútil späť. Jeho meno je symbol namáhavej, ale zbytočnej práce (tzv. sizyfovská práca). Založil mesto Korint a postavil korintský hrad. Hrad nemal prameň, preto premýšľal ako prinútiť bohov, aby hradu prameň darovali. Využil spor medzi bohom riek Asópom a Diom, ktorý sa pred ním skrýval. Sizyfos zistil miesto pobytu Dia a túto informáciu vymenil s Asopom za vytvorenie prameňa (podľa iných zdrojov Sizyfos videl ako Zeus uniesol Asopovi dcéru o oznámil to Asópovi). Asópos potom začal Dia prenasledovať, ale Zeus na neho vrhol blesk. Diova zlosť sa potom obrátila aj na Sizyfa. Poslal za ním Tanata (Smrť), ale Sizyfos Tanata oklamal, vyšmykol sa mu, zviazal ho a uväznil (čím spôsobil, že ľudia prestali umierať). Zeus nato poslal boha vojny Area, ktorý Tanata oslobodil. Oslobodený Tanatos odvliekol Sizyfa do podsvetia. Sizyfos však vopred predvídavo svojej žene Meropé povedal, aby v prípade jeho smrti nepriniesla pohrebnú obeť. Keď sa nedostavovali pohrebné obete, dal si boh podsvetia Hádes Sizyfa zavolať, aby to vysvetlil. Sizyfos mu nahovoril, že manželku prehovorí, načo ho pustili z podsvetia domov. Sizyfos však pokojne ostal v Korinte a užíval si život. Rozhnevaný Hádes za ním poslal Tanata, ktorý počkal, kým pri nejakej pijatike víno neoslabilo Sizyfovi rozum a nemilosrdne mu vytrhol dušu a vzal ho do podsvetia. Ako exemplárny trest (aby si ľudia nemysleli, že podľa Sizyfovho vzoru môžu podvádzať bohov) mu tam bola pridelená úloha kotúľať do kopca balvan, ktorý sa pred vrcholom vždy zrúti späť. Literatúra[upraviť | upraviť kód] ZAMAROVSKÝ, Vojtech. Bohovia a hrdinovia antických bájí. [s.l.] : Perfekt, 2007. ISBN 80-8046-203-8. (slovenský jazyk) Iné projekty[upraviť | upraviť kód] Commons Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Sizyfos Zdroj: „https://sk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizyfos&oldid=6854881“ Kategórie: Postavy gréckej mytológie Vládcovia Korintu Navigačné menu Osobné nástroje Neprihlásený/á Diskusia Príspevky Vytvoriť účet Prihlásiť sa Menné priestory Stránka Diskusia Varianty Zobrazenia Čítať Upraviť Upraviť kód Zobraziť históriu Více Hľadať Navigácia Hlavná stránka Portál komunity Kaviareň Posledné úpravy Náhodná stránka Pomoc Prispieť Nástroje Odkazy na túto stránku Súvisiace úpravy Nahrať súbor Špeciálne stránky Trvalý odkaz Informácie o stránke Citovať túto stránku Dátová položka Tlačiť/exportovať Vytvoriť knihu Stiahnuť ako PDF Verzia na tlač V iných projektoch Wikimedia Commons V iných jazykoch Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Upraviť odkazy Čas poslednej úpravy tejto stránky je 14:24, 17. jún 2019. Text je dostupný za podmienok Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License 3.0 Unported; prípadne za ďalších podmienok. Podrobnejšie informácie nájdete na stránke Podmienky použitia. Ochrana osobných údajov O Wikipédii Vylúčenia zodpovednosti Mobilné zobrazenie Vývojári Statistiky Vyhlásenie o cookies 
sl-wikipedia-org-2597	----	Sizif - Wikipedija, prosta enciklopedija Sizif Iz Wikipedije, proste enciklopedije Jump to navigation Jump to search Sizif na sliki Tiziana iz 16. stoletja Sizif je bil grški mitološki kralj in ustanovitelj mesta Korint. Življenje pred smrtjo[uredi | uredi kodo] Sizif je dal na skali nad novo ustanovljenim mestom Korint zgraditi veličasten grad, ki pa ni imel pitne vode. Zato je Sizif poskušal priti do izvira sveže vode preko bogov. Izkoristil je spor med kraljem bogov, Zevsom in rečnim kraljem Azopom. Azopu je izdal, kje se skriva Zevs, in v zameno za informacijo mu je Azop daroval izvir pitne vode na gradu. Zevsa je Sizifovo dejanje razjezilo, zato je ponj poslal Tanatosa, smrt. Sizif je smrt zvijačno ujel in jo zaprl v temnico. Od takrat naprej ni umrl več noben človek na svetu. Zevs je še enkrat pobesnel in poslal boga Aresa, da je osvobodil smrt, ki je Sizifa odpeljala v Hades. Sizif, ki je pričakoval tak rezultat, je že pred tem naročil ženi, naj ne žaluje za njim in mu ne položi v grob darov, ki jih je bilo po tedanjih šegah treba priložiti mrtvemu. Žena ga je ubogala in je celo slavila njegovo smrt. Sizif je v Hadesu tarnal nad njenim početjem in si izboril, da mu je Tanatos dovolil izhod iz Hadesa, da bi ženo opomnil na njene dolžnosti. Sizif je tako pobegnil iz sveta mrtvih in priredil veliko zabavo na račun bogov. To je Zevsa tako razjezilo, da je namenil Sizifu naložiti grozno kazen in ga poslati v Tartar. Ponovno je ponj poslal Tanatosa, ki se je z njim vrnil v Hades. Življenje po smrti in kazen[uredi | uredi kodo] Za kazen za njegove grehe proti bogovom je bil Sizif vržen v Tartar med največje grešnike. Tam je moral za kazen valiti ogromno skalo na vrh hriba. Vsakič, ko je pririnil skalo skoraj na vrh, pa mu je ušla in se skotalila na vznožje. Tako kazen bo po grški mitologiji opravljal celo večnost. Še danes obstaja za kakšno delo brez smisla izraz Sizifovo delo. Glej tudi[uredi | uredi kodo] Tartar Had Tantal (mitologija) Wikimedijina zbirka ponuja več predstavnostnega gradiva o temi: Sizif Ta mitološki članek je škrbina. Pomagaj Wikipediji in ga razširi. Normativna kontrola WorldCat Identities VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (data) NKC: jo2016908762 Vzpostavljeno iz »https://sl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizif&oldid=5432148« Kategorije: Mitološke osebe, po katerih so poimenovali asteroid Grški mitološki kralji Ustanovitelji mest Skrite kategorije: Mitološke škrbine Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji VIAF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji LCCN Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji GND Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji SUDOC Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji BNF Wikipedijini članki z identifikatorji NKC Navigacijski meni Osebna orodja Niste prijavljeni Pogovorna stran Prispevki Ustvari račun Prijava Imenski prostori Stran Pogovor Različice Pogled Preberi Uredi Uredi kodo Zgodovina Več Iskanje Navigacija Glavna stran Dobrodošli Izbrani članki Naključni članek Zadnje spremembe Občestvo Portal občestva Pod lipo Kontaktna stran Pomoč Denarni prispevki Orodja Kaj se povezuje sem Sorodne spremembe Posebne strani Trajna povezava Podatki o strani Navedba članka Predmet v Wikipodatkih Tiskanje/izvoz Ustvari e-knjigo Prenesi kot PDF Različica za tisk V drugih projektih Wikimedijina zbirka V drugih jezikih Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Uredi povezave Čas zadnje spremembe strani: 11:11, 20. januar 2021. Besedilo se sme prosto uporabljati v skladu z dovoljenjem Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 3.0; uveljavljajo se lahko dodatni pogoji. Za podrobnosti glej Pogoje uporabe. Wikipedia® je tržna znamka neprofitne organizacije Wikimedia Foundation Inc. Pravilnik o zasebnosti O Wikipediji Zanikanja odgovornosti Mobilni prikaz Razvijalci Statistika O piškotkih 
sq-wikipedia-org-7375	----	Sizifi - Wikipedia Sizifi Nga Wikipedia, enciklopedia e lirë Jump to navigation Jump to search Ky artikull nuk citon asnjë burim, prandaj mund të mos jetë i saktë. Ju lutem ndihmoni në përmirësimin e këtij artikulli duke shtuar burime duke e bërë artikullin të besueshëm. Materialet e pacituara mund të nominohen dhe më pas të fshihen. Ky artikull ose seksion duhet të përmirësohet sipas udhëzimeve të Wikipedia-s. Ju lutemi ndihmoni edhe ju në përmirësimin e këtij artikulli. Sizifi (greqisht: Σίσυφος, Latin: Sisyphus) - i biri Eolit, stërgjyshit të eolëve, themelues dhe mbret i parë i Korintit, më i mençuri dhe më dinaku prej të gjithë njerëzve. Për jetën e tij dimë shumë pak, por më tepër dimë mbi vdekjen e tij. Në të vërtetë, nuk ka qenë variantë e Gilgameshit babilonas i cili e dëshironte pavdekshmërinë. Megjithatë, nuk ka dashur të vdesë. Për diç të tillë kishte shumë arsye, sepse vdekja e tij është dashur të jetë dënim që e ka parë Zeusin, zotin suprem në momentin kur Azopit, zotit të lumit, ia vodhi, të bijen, Eginën dhe se për këtë nuk ka heshtur. Kur vjen zoti i zi i vdekjes Tanati për ta marrë, në mënyrë të zhdërvjelltë i rrëshqet prej duarve, e lidh dhe e mbyll në fuqinë e metalt (sipas versionit tjetër në bodrum). Kjo pati pasoja të papashme: njerëzit më nuk vdisnin dhe nuk u ofronin zotërave flijime, kuptohet, sepse nuk u frikësoheshin. Me këte në themel është lëkundur rendi mbi të cilin qëndronte vetë ekzistenca e zotërave. Prandaj Zeusi e dërgoi në botë Aresin, zotin e luftës për ta shpëtuar Tanatin. Tanati pastaj e zë shpirtin e Sizifit dhe menjëherë e çon në botën nëntokësore. Sizifi ka ditur të gjendet në çdo situatë dhe çdo gjë e ka menduar më parë. Me largëpamësi i urdhëroi bashkëshortes së vet, Meropes, që me rastin e vdekjes së tij mos t'iu ofrojë zotërave flijime. Sundimtari i botës nëntokësore Hadi dhe bashkëshortja e tij Perzefona, më kot i pritnin dhuratat e caktuara dhe për këtë arsye urdhëruan që Sizifin ta sjellin para tyre. Sizifi u thotë se punën menjëherë do ta rregullojë, vetëm se ta lëshojnë për një moment që të shkojë në botën nëntokësore. Do të shkojë te bashkëshortja e vet dhe me një seriozitet do ta përkujtoj në detyrat e saja, sepse, siç mendon ajo në vete, i ofendon zotërat, e tjerë. Hadi u bind nga gojtaria e Sizifit, ndërsa Sizifi i humbi edhe mbresat e fundit të respektit para mençurisë dhe luciditetit të hyjnive. Mbeti i qetë në Korint dhe e shijonte jetën siç ka ditur më mire. Hadi, i zemruar, sërish e çoi Tanatin pas tij. Zoti i vdekjes e priti rastin kur pa se një pije iu dobësua të gjykuarit e Sizifit dhe atëherë në mënyrë të pamëshirshme ia kap dhe ia rrëmbeu shpirtin. Këtë herë Sizifi më nuk ka dalë nga bota nëntokësore. Pasi që ekzistonte rreziku që shembulli i Sizifit t'u shërbejë njerëzve për të dyshuar në gjithëdijshmërinë dhe autoritetin e zotërave, Hadi e dënoi në mënyrë shembullore: që përjetë ta rrokullisë gurin në kodër të lartë, i cili në maje do të rrëshqasë për herë nga dora dhe tërë veprimin do ta filloj sërish. Kjo nuk është vetëm punë e rëndë, por edhe punë pa kurrfarë qëllimi që e bënë të marrë pa kufi. Vetëdija se në këtë nuk do t'i ndihmojë kurrfarë dinakërie e mundon Sizifin njësoj sikur se edhe dëshpërimi i tij. Puna e Sizifit është bërë fjalë e urtë edhe sot dhe do të na vinte mirë sikur ta njihnim vetëm nga mitet e antikës. Duhet vetëm të përkuojtojmë Mitin për Sizifin të Albert Camus (Albert Kamy) të vitit 1942, tregimin Sizifi dhe vdekja të Robert Merleyut. Me emrin e Sizifit, për herë të parë, ndeshemi në Odisenë e Homerit. Në skenë e kanë sjellë Eskili dhe Euripidi në dramat Sizifi. Nga koha e re dimë për një numër të pikturave, në mesin e tyre edhe Sizifin e Ticianit, e viteve 1550, sot në Prado të Madridit. Nga antika na është ruajtur vetëm një pikturë me figurën e Sizifit dhe ajo rreth viti 420, para e.s. Këtu paraqitet si njëri prej shumë musafirëve në Darsmë e Laertit dhe të Antikleut (sot në Antikvarin e Mynihut). Dy skulptura të tija helenistike gjenden në Muzeun e Delfeve. Marrë nga "https://sq.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sizifi&oldid=1844041" Kategoritë: Articles lacking sources All articles lacking sources Faqe pa burim informacioni Për përmirësim Mbretër Mitologjia greke Menyja e navigimit Mjete vetjake Nuk keni hyrë brenda Diskutimi Kontribute Krijo llogari Hyr Hapësirat e emrit Artikulli Diskutim Variantat Shikime Lexo Redakto Redakto nëpërmjet kodit Shiko historikun Më shumë Kërko Navigimi Mirë se vini! Rregullat Kryesore Faqet Ndihmëse Projektet Artikuj të mirë Artikuj të përkryer Çmimet Ndryshimet më të fundit Artikull i rastit Dhuroni Komuniteti Kuvendi Portali i Komunitetit Pyetje e Përgjigje Zyra e Ankesave Administrata Ambasadat Livadhi Mjete Lidhjet këtu Ndryshime të ndërvarura Ngarkoni materiale multimediale Faqet e veçanta Lidhja e përhershme Informacioni i faqes Cito artikullin Objekt Wikidata Printo/eksporto Krijo një libër Shkarkoje si PDF Version shtypi Në projekte të tjera Wikimedia Commons Në gjuhë të tjera Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Përpunoni lidhje Kjo faqe është redaktuar për herë te fundit më 27 shkurt 2018, në orën 15:44. Të gjitha materialet që gjenden në këtë faqë janë të mbrojtura nga Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License;. Shiko Terms of Use për më shumë informacione. Rreth të dhënave vetjake Rreth Wikipedia-s Shfajësimet Për celular Programuesit Statistics Cookie statement 
sr-wikipedia-org-2480	----	Сизиф — Википедија Сизиф С Википедије, слободне енциклопедије Пређи на навигацију Пређи на претрагу Сизиф гура камену громаду Сизиф је херој из грчке митологије познат по персонификацији узалудног посла.[1] [2] Сизиф је био кажњен јер је био веома лукав и варао је људе. Док је Сизиф био у подземном свету, на Коринт је стигао његов супарник, једини који га је био достојан, Аутолик. Он је био син Хермеса, бога весника, али и бога лопова и превараната. После дугих препирки, Аутолик је Сизифу признао да је лукавији и понудио му своју ћерку за жену. Њих двојица су били убеђени да ће из те везе настати најлукавији човек на свету. Тако и би. Родио се Одисеј који је превазишао и свога оца. Сизиф је био осуђен да велику камену громаду гура уз планинску стрмину како би је поставио на врх. Но, сваки пут када би се примакао врху, камена кугла би му се измакла и суновратила у подножје брда. Сизиф је тако покушавао, изнова и изнова, али без успеха.[3][4] Спољашње везе[уреди | уреди извор] Сизиф на Викимедијиној остави. Овај чланак везан за грчку митологију је клица. Можете допринети Википедији тако што ћете га проширити. п р у п р у Грчка митологија Божанства Примордијална божанства Ананка Геја Ереб Ерос Етар Њукта Понт Таласа Тартар Уран Хаос Хемера Хрон Олимпски богови Аполон Арес Артемида Атина Афродита Деметра Дионис Зевс Посејдон Хефест Хера Хермес Хестија Асклепије Еол Еоја Мојре Музе Пан Селена Хад Хелије Хоре Титани Астреј Атлас Епиметеј Јапет Кеј Криј Лето Менетије Мнемосина Океан Палант Перс Прометеј Реа Теја Темида Тетија Феба Хиперион Хрон Хероји Агамемнон Аталанта Ахил Белерофонт Диомед Етор Икар Јасон Касандра Медуза Менелај Миној Одисеј Пенелопа Сизиф Тезеј Херакле Категорије Богови Нимфе Хероји Нормативна контрола WorldCat VIAF: 67258418 LCCN: no2014082839 GND: 118614797 SUDOC: 078600707 BNF: cb12078609k (подаци) NKC: jo2016908762 Референце[уреди | уреди извор] ^ „Сизиф-митологија”. Опште образовање. Приступљено 16. 1. 2020.  ^ „Може ли Сизиф икада бити срећан?”. Култивиши се. Приступљено 16. 1. 2020.  ^ „Сизифов посао-зашто се каже”. Опште образовање. Приступљено 16. 1. 2020.  ^ se, Kultiviši (2016-07-09). „Može li Sizif ikada biti srećan?”. Kultiviši se (на језику: српски). Приступљено 2021-01-27.  Преузето из „https://sr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сизиф&oldid=23573878” Категорије: Грчка митологија Краљеви у грчкој митологији Заробљени у Тартару Сакривене категорије: Категорија на Остави са локалним линком истим као на Википодацима Сви чланци клице Википедијски чланци са VIAF идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са LCCN идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са GND идентификаторима Википедијски чланци са BNF идентификаторима Мени за навигацију Личне алатке Нисте пријављени Разговор Доприноси Отвори налог Пријави ме Именски простори Чланак Разговор Ћир./lat. Ћир./lat. Ћирилица Latinica Погледи Читај Уреди Уреди извор Историја Више Претрага Навигација Главна страна Садржај Радионица Скорашње измене Случајна страница Интеракција Помоћ Трг Актуелности Контакт Донације Алатке Шта води овамо Сродне измене Отпреми датотеку Посебне странице Трајна веза Подаци о страници Цитирај страницу Ставка на Википодацима Штампање/извоз Преузми (PDF) Одштампај На другим пројектима Викиостава Други језици Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bahasa Indonesia Български Беларуская বাংলা Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Հայերեն Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 中文 Уреди везе Ова страница је последњи пут уређена на датум 27. јануар 2021. у 16:09 ч. Текст је доступан под лиценцом Creative Commons Ауторство—Делити под истим условима; могући су и додатни услови. Погледајте услове коришћења за детаље. Политика приватности О Википедији Одрицање одговорности Мобилни приказ За програмере Статистика Изјава о колачићима 
stats-wikimedia-org-1202	----	Wikistats - Statistics For Wikimedia Projects 
sv-wikipedia-org-228	----	Sisyfos – Wikipedia Sisyfos Från Wikipedia Hoppa till navigering Hoppa till sök Sisyfos Befattning Kung av Korint Make/maka Merope Tyro Partner Antikleia Barn Ornytion Almos Sinon Thersander Metapontos Glaukos Odysseus Föräldrar Aiolos[1][2] Enarete Redigera Wikidata För asteroiden, se 1866 Sisyphus. Sisyfos (Σίσυφος) var i grekisk mytologi kung av Korinth. Han var son till kung Aiolos (Αἴολος) av Thessalien och enligt legenden grundare av Korinth. Enligt berättelsen rövade Zeus, i skepnad av en örn, bort Egina och Sisyfos såg henne i örnens klor när han flög iväg med henne. Sisyfos berättade vad han sett för hennes far, flodguden Asopos. Som straff för att Sisyfos avslöjat honom skickade Zeus dödsguden Thanatos för att döda Sisyfos, som dock lyckades fängsla och oskadliggöra Thanatos, vilket bröt dödens makt och ledde till att ingen längre dog. Först när krigsguden Ares befriade Thanatos (eftersom han inte trivdes med att ingen av hans fiender längre dog) kunde denne fortsätta med sin uppgift att döda folk. Sisyfos däremot bortfördes av Ares till underjorden, men lyckades innan dess förbjuda sin fru att offra för honom. När ingen offrade för Sisyfos kunde denna övertala dödsrikets herre, Hades, att släppa honom så att han kunde beordra sin fru att offra för honom. När han väl var tillbaka i övre jorden struntade han i att göra som han hade lovat utan njöt av livet med sin fru. Thanatos dök upp och förde med våld Sisyfos tillbaka till Hades och dödsriket, där han i dess djupaste grotta fick till uppgift att rulla ett stort stenblock uppför en kulle. Om Sisyfos lyckades med att få upp stenblocket på kullen skulle han bli fri. Varje gång han nästan var uppe på kullens topp slant han dock med stenblocket, som störtade ner i avgrunden, så att han fick börja om från början. Han fortsätter ännu med detta meningslösa sisyfosarbete som aldrig tar slut. Sisyfos har använts av Albert Camus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe (1942), "Myten om Sisyfos") som ett porträtt av människans situation i dagens värld. Essän börjar: "Det finns endast ett verkligt allvarligt filosofiskt problem: självmordet." och slutar: "Man måste tänka sig Sisyfos lycklig." Se även[redigera | redigera wikitext] Tantalos Referenser[redigera | redigera wikitext] ^ Sisyphus, Real'nyj slovar' klassitjeskich drevnostej po Ljubkeru, (Källa från Wikidata) ^ Aeolus, Real'nyj slovar' klassitjeskich drevnostej po Ljubkeru, (Källa från Wikidata) Externa länkar[redigera | redigera wikitext] Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Sisyfos.Bilder & media Auktoritetsdata • WorldCat • VIAF: 67258418 • LCCN: no2014082839 • GND: 118614797 • SUDOC: 078600707 • BNF: cb12078609k (data) • NKC: jo2016908762 Hämtad från "https://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyfos&oldid=47220679" Kategori: Personer i grekisk mytologi Dolda kategorier: Bild från Wikidata som saknar bildtext Wikidataetiketter på engelska Wikidataetiketter på främmande språk för egenskapen P40 Wikidataetiketter på danska Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från VIAF Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från LCCN Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från GND Wikipediaartiklar med identifierare från BNF Navigeringsmeny Personliga verktyg Inte inloggad Diskussion Bidrag Skapa konto Logga in Namnrymder Artikel Diskussion Varianter Visningar Läs Redigera Redigera wikitext Visa historik Mer Sök Navigering Huvudsida Introduktion Deltagarportalen Bybrunnen Senaste ändringarna Slumpartikel Ladda upp filer Stöd Wikipedia Kontakta Wikipedia Hjälp På andra projekt Commons Skriv ut/exportera Skapa en bok Ladda ner som PDF Utskriftsvänlig version Verktyg Sidor som länkar hit Relaterade ändringar Specialsidor Permanent länk Sidinformation Använd denna sida som referens Wikidata-objekt Språk Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Redigera länkar Sidan redigerades senast den 6 februari 2020 kl. 12.09. Wikipedias text är tillgänglig under licensen Creative Commons Erkännande-dela-lika 3.0 Unported. För bilder, se respektive bildsida (klicka på bilden). Se vidare Wikipedia:Upphovsrätt och användarvillkor. Wikimedias integritetspolicy Om Wikipedia Förbehåll Mobil vy Utvecklare Statistik Information om kakor 
th-wikipedia-org-4949	----	ซิซิฟัส - วิกิพีเดีย ซิซิฟัส จากวิกิพีเดีย สารานุกรมเสรี ไปยังการนำทาง ไปยังการค้นหา ซิซีฟัส (Sisyphus) เป็นพระราชาแห่งโครินธ์ มีพระมเหสี ชื่อ มีโรพี (Merope) มีพระโอรสคือ เจ้าชายกลอคัส ซึ่งต่อมาได้ครองราชสมบัติ ต่อจากพระบิดา ซึ่งกลอคัส มีลูกคือเบลเลอโรฟอน ผู้ปราบเพกาซัสและสังหารนางไคเมร่า ซิซีฟัสเป็นพระราชาที่เจ้าเลห์จอมอุบาย ที่ไม่กลัวต่อเหล่าปวงเทพ การดูหมิ่นเทพเจ้า[แก้] ภาพซิซีฟัสถูกลงโทษให้กลิ้งหิน เรื่องราวเกิดขึ้นเพราะเมืองคอรินธ์ที่ซิซีฟัสเป็นผู้ครอง ประสบปัญหาประสบภัยขาดแคลนน้ำใช้มาก ทั้งในราชสำนัก และในบ้านของประชาชน ทำให้พระราชาซิซีฟัสกังวลมาก วันหนึ่งขณะที่ซิซีฟัสกำลังอยู่บนหอคอย ได้เห็นเทพซูสลักพาตัวเอจิน่า ลูกสาวของเทพอะโซปัส เทพแห่งแม่น้ำ ซึ่งวันต่อมา ซิซีฟัสได้เจอกับเทพอะโซปัส เทพแห่งแม่น้ำ ที่กำลังตามหาเอจิน่า ลูกสาวของตนอยู่ ซิซีฟัสจึงได้บอกที่อยู่ของเอจิน่าให้เทพอะโซปัส โดยมีข้อแลกเปลี่ยนว่าเทพอะโซปัสจะต้องเนรมิตแหล่งน้ำใหม่ให้เมืองคอรินธ์ ซึ่งเทพอะโซปัสก็ได้เนรมิตบ่อน้ำใหม่ให้โดยการหยิบก้อนหินก้อนหนึ่ง ขึ้นมาจากดิน และวางลง ทันใดนั้นน้ำก็พุ่งออกมากลายเป็นแหล่งน้ำใหม่ให้ชาวเมืองคอรินธ์ใช้สืบทอดกันต่อมา หลังจากนั้นเทพอะโซปัสจึงไปตามทางที่ซิซีฟัสบอก เทพอะโซปัสพยายามขอร้องเทพซุสให้คืนลูกสาวของเขามา เพราะไม่ต้องการให้เทพีเฮรา มเหสีของเทพซุสรู้ ไม่งั้นเอจิน่าจะต้องถูกทารุณจากเฮราโดยแสนสาหัส เทพซุสจึงใช้สายฟ้าโยนไปที่อะโซปัส เทพอะโซปัสจึงรีบกระโดดลงน้ำ ซึ่งต่อมาจะพบถ่านหินอยู่ที่แม่น้ำนั้นอันเกิดจากสายฟ้าของซุสนั้นเอง ซูสสืบเรื่องนี้จนรู้เข้าว่าซิซีฟัสเป็นผู้บอกที่หลบซ่อนของตน กับเอจิน่า เทพซุสจึงส่งเทพทานาทอส เทพแห่งความตายไปรับวิญญาณของซิซีฟัส ไปลงโทษที่ขุมนรกทาร์ทารัส แต่ซิซีฟัสได้วางแผนเอาไว้อยู่แล้ว ว่าเทพซุสอาจจะส่งเทพทานาทอสมารับวิญญาณของตนไปลงโทษในปรโลก เมื่อทานาทอสมาถึงวังของซิซีฟัส ซิซีฟัสจึงใช้แหคลุมทาทานอส และให้ทหารพาเทพทานาทอสไปขัง เนื่องจากเทพทานาทอสถูกขังทั่วโลกก็ไม่มีความตาย ซึ่งทำให้เทพแอรีส เทพแห่งสงครามโมโหที่ไม่มีใครตายในสงคราม จึงไปช่วยเทพทานาทอสออกมา (บางตำราอ้างว่าเทพซูสเป็นคนสั่งให้แอรีสไปปลดปล่อยเทพทาทานอสออกมา) เมื่อเทพทานาทอสออกมาได้แล้วทั่วโลกก็กลับมามีความตายอีกครั้ง ทานาทอสจึงพาวิญญาณของซิซีฟัสไปปรโลกเพื่อตัดสินกรรมได้ แต่ซิซีฟัสก็ยังมีแผนสองมาหลอกเทพเจ้าอีก ก่อนตายเทพซิซีฟัสได้สั่งเสียแก่ภรรยาให้ ห้ามจัดงานพิธีศพ และห้ามวางเหรียญบนปาก เพื่อข้ามแม่น้ำสติกซ์ในยมโลกด้วย (ชาวกรีกมีความเชื่อว่าแม่น้ำสติกซ์ไหลอยู่รอบยมโลก และมีแครอน ผู้แจวเรือข้ามวิญญาณไปส่งที่อีกฝั่ง โดยทุกคนก่อนตายจะต้องมีเหรียญ 1 เหรียญ เป็นค่าจ้างให้แครอน เพื่อข้ามแม่น้ำสติกซ์ ไปตัดสินความดีความชอบที่อีกฝั่ง) เมื่อซิซีฟัสไม่มีเหรียญเป็นค่าจ้างให้แครอนผู้แจวเรือ ทำให้ต้องทนความหนาวอยู่ริมแม่น้ำสติกซ์ ทำให้เทพเฮดีส รู้สึกแปลกใจ ว่าเป็นถึงพระราชาทำไม ภรรยาไม่ให้เหรียญ เป็นค่าจ้างข้ามแม่น้ำสติกซ์ เทพฮาเดสจึงให้วิญญาณของซิซีฟัส กลับไปเพื่อสั่งเสียแก่นางมีโรพี ซึ่งเป็นภรรยาเสียก่อน เมื่อซิซีฟัสได้ฟื้นอีกครั้ง ก็ไม่ได้ทำตามสัญญาที่จะกลับไปในยมโลก ทำให้เทพทั้ง 2 คือซุส และฮาเดส ต่างโกรธซึ่งทำให้เทพเจ้าอับอายได้ถึงขนาดนี้ แต่ก็ทำอะไรไม่ได้ จนวันหนึ่งสามพี่น้องมอยเร (เป็นสามเทพีที่ลิขิตชีวิตมนุษย์ องค์แรกมีหน้าที่ปั่นเส้นด้ายแห่งชีวิต องค์ที่สองมีหน้าที่ทอเส้นด้ายแห่งชีวิต คนที่สามมีหน้าที่ตัดเส้นด้ายแห่งชีวิต) ได้ตัดเส้นด้ายชีวิตของซิซีฟัสขาด ทำให้ซิซีฟัส ถึงฆาตตายจริง ๆ ซิซีฟัสถูกพาตัวไปยมโลกอีกครั้ง โดยเทพฮาเดสได้ลงโทษซิซีฟัส ให้กลิ้งก้อนหินก้อนใหญ่ขึ้นไปบนเขา แล้วกลิ้งลงมาทับเขาอีก และยังถูกบังคับให้กลิ้งหินขึ้นไปอีกเป็นอย่างนี้ไม่มีที่สิ้นสุด อ้างอิง[แก้] [1] [2] บทความนี้ยังเป็นโครง คุณสามารถช่วยวิกิพีเดียได้โดยเพิ่มข้อมูล เข้าถึงจาก "https://th.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ซิซิฟัส&oldid=7761340" หมวดหมู่: บุคคลในตำนานเทพปกรณัมกรีก รายการนำทางไซต์ เครื่องมือส่วนตัว ยังไม่ได้เข้าสู่ระบบ คุย ส่วนร่วม สร้างบัญชี เข้าสู่ระบบ เนมสเปซ บทความ อภิปราย สิ่งที่แตกต่าง ดู เนื้อหา แก้ไข ประวัติ เพิ่มเติม ค้นหา การนำทาง หน้าหลัก ถามคำถาม เหตุการณ์ปัจจุบัน สุ่มบทความ เกี่ยวกับวิกิพีเดีย ติดต่อเรา บริจาคให้วิกิพีเดีย มีส่วนร่วม คำอธิบาย เริ่มต้นเขียน ศาลาประชาคม เปลี่ยนแปลงล่าสุด ดิสคอร์ด เครื่องมือ หน้าที่ลิงก์มา การเปลี่ยนแปลงที่เกี่ยวโยง อัปโหลดไฟล์ หน้าพิเศษ ลิงก์ถาวร สารสนเทศหน้า อ้างอิงบทความนี้ สิ่งนี้ใน วิกิสนเทศ พิมพ์/ส่งออก สร้างหนังสือ ดาวน์โหลดเป็น PDF รุ่นพร้อมพิมพ์ ในโครงการอื่น วิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ ภาษาอื่น Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 แก้ไขลิงก์ หน้านี้แก้ไขล่าสุดเมื่อวันที่ 2 สิงหาคม 2561 เวลา 14:42 น. อนุญาตให้เผยแพร่ภายใต้สัญญาอนุญาตครีเอทีฟคอมมอนส์ แบบแสดงที่มา-อนุญาตแบบเดียวกัน และอาจมีเงื่อนไขเพิ่มเติม ดูรายละเอียดที่ ข้อกำหนดการใช้งาน Wikipedia® เป็นเครื่องหมายการค้าจดทะเบียนของมูลนิธิวิกิมีเดีย องค์กรไม่แสวงผลกำไร ติดต่อเรา นโยบายความเป็นส่วนตัว เกี่ยวกับวิกิพีเดีย ข้อปฏิเสธความรับผิดชอบ มุมมองสำหรับอุปกรณ์เคลื่อนที่ ผู้พัฒนา สถิติ นโยบายการใช้คุกกี้ 
tr-wikipedia-org-1588	----	Sisifos - Vikipedi Sisifos Vikipedi, özgür ansiklopedi Gezinti kısmına atla Arama kısmına atla Sisyphos taş yuvarlama cezasını çekerken Persephone onu denetiyor (yaklaşık MÖ 530'dan kalma bir amfora) Sisyphos (Yunanca Σίσυφος; İngilizce: Sisyphus), Yunan Mitolojisinde, Yeraltı Dünyasında sonsuza kadar büyük bir kayayı bir tepenin en yüksek noktasına dek yuvarlamaya mahkûm edilmiş bir kraldır. Sisifos ismi geleneksel olarak sophos (bilge) sözcüğüyle ilişkilendirilir; fakat bu ilişkilendirme bazı etimolojik problemler içermektedir. Aiolos'un oğlu, Korint kralı Sisyphos tanrı-ırmak Asopos'a, kızı Aigina'nın Zeus tarafından kaçırılmış olduğunu söyleyerek Zeus'u ele vermesine karşılık kalesi içinde bir pınarın akıtılmasını sağlar. Bu hainlik Zeus'un öfkesine neden olur. Zeus ona ölüm meleği Thanatos'u gönderir. Sisyphos, Thanatos'u zincire vurur; onu özgürlüğüne kavuşturmak için Zeus müdahale etmek zorunda kalır. Ölüler Ülkesine götürülen Sisyphos kaderine katlanmak istemez. Kendisine cenaze töreni yapmamasını karısından ölmeden önce istemiştir. Törensizliği hoş karşılamayan Hades, dinsiz karısını cezalandırması için Sisyphos'un yeryüzüne dönme önerisini kabul eder... Sisyphos daha yıllarca yeryüzünde yaşayacaktır. Nihayet, gerçek ölümünde cezalandırılır. Ölüler Ülkesi tanrıları onu sonsuza dek taş yuvarlamaya mahkûm ederler; hedefe her yaklaşmada taş yine aşağıya düşer. İçindekiler 1 Özgeçmiş 2 "Sisifos’un Görevi " ya da "Sisifos’un Meydan Okuyuşu" 3 Ayrıca bakınız 4 Dış bağlantılar 5 Kaynakça Özgeçmiş[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Sisifos, Aeolus ile Enarete’in oğlu, Merope’nin kocası ve Ephyra (Korint) kentinin kurucu kralıdır, fakat sonraki kaynaklar Sisifos’un Antiklea ile birlikteliğinden Odiseus’un babası olduğunu ileri sürmektedir. Sisifos’un Melikertes onuruna ilk Isthmian oyunlarını düzenlediği rivayet edilir. Sisifos denizcilik ve ticaretin gelişimine büyük katkıda bulunmuş, fakat konukseverlik kurallarını ihlâl ederek yolcuları ve konukları öldürecek kadar açgözlü ve hilekâr bir kraldır. Homerus’un aktardığına göre, Sisifos en hünerli insan olmasıyla ün salmıştı. Kuzenini baştan çıkarmış, erkek kardeşinin tahtını ele geçirmiş ve Zeus’un sırlarına –özellikle Zeus’un nehir tanrısı Asopus'un kızı Aegina’ya tecavüz ettiği sırrına ihanet etmiştir. Bunun üzerine Zeus, önce Thanatos'tan Sisifos’u cehennemde zincire vurmasını istemiştir. Sisifos ise kurnazca, yaptığı kelepçelerin nasıl çalıştığını görmek için Thanatos’tan üzerinde denemesini istemiş, Thanatos kendini zincirleyince Sisifos kelepçeleri iyice sıkılaştırmış ve böylece Thanatos'un artık dünyadan ölüleri almasını engellemişti. Bu durum kargaşaya, daha doğrusu bu süre zarfında hiçbir insanın ölememesine ve Tartarus'a taşınamamasına yol açmıştır. Bunun üzerine, rakipleri ölmediği için yaptığı savaşlardan keyif alamayan ve bu duruma bir hayli canı sıkılan savaş tanrısı Ares duruma müdahale etmiş, Thanatos’u serbest bırakıp Sisifos’u Tartarus’a göndermiştir. Ancak sinsi Sisifos ölmeden önce, karısına kendisi öldüğü zaman -adet olduğu üzere yapılan- tanrılara kurban sunumunu yapmamasını söylemiştir. Böylece Sisifos, Yeraltı Dünyasında karısının onu ihmal ettiğinden yakınmış ve Yeraltı Kraliçesi Persephone’yi (veya Hades) kandırarak, karısının görevlerini yerine getirmesini istemek için dünyaya dönmesine izin vermesi konusunda ikna etmiştir. Sisifos tekrar dünyaya yani ülkesi Korint’e varınca, bu seferde de yeraltına geri dönmeyi reddetmiş ve sonunda Thanatos (bazı yazarlara göre ise Hermes) tarafından Yeraltı Dünyası’na geri götürülmüş ve orada cezasını sonsuza kadar çekmeye mahkum edilmiştir. "Sisifos’un Görevi " ya da "Sisifos’un Meydan Okuyuşu"[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Hilekarlığının cezası olarak Sisifos tanrılar tarafından büyük bir kayayı dik bir tepenin doruğuna yuvarlamaya mahkûm edilmiştir. Sisifos tam tepenin doruğuna ulaştığında kaya her zaman elinden kaçmakta ve Sisifos her şeye yeniden başlamak zorunda kalmaktadır.[1]. Resim Sisifos’un boş çabalarının canlı örneğidir. Bu ceza Sisifos’a Nehir Tanrısı Asopus’a kızı Aegina’nın yerini söylediği için verilmiştir. Zeus, Aegina’yı uzaklara götürmüş ve yapmış olduğu şeyden dolayı Sisifos’a öfkelenmiştir.[2] . Bundan dolayı, "anlamsız" veya "bitmek tükenmek bilmeyen işler" İngilizce’de Sisyphean olarak tanımlanır. Sisifos antik dönem yazarları için ortak bir konudur ve Polygnotus adlı ressam Delfi’nin duvarlarına onun resmini yapmıştır. Güneş tanrıcılığına göre, Sisifos her gün doğudan doğup batıdan batan güneşi simgelemektedir. Konunun diğer uzmanları onu dalgaların yükselişi ve alçalışının ya da hain denizin bir kişileştirmesi olarak görürler. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker Sisifos’un bilginin peşinde boşa çaba harcayan bir insanı sembolize ettiğini ileri sürmüştür. Ayrıca bakınız[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Sysyphus, 1969 yılı Pink Floyd şarkısı Sisifos Söyleni Sisifos, Platon’a atfedilmiş bir diyalogdur. Dış bağlantılar[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] Sanat Uygarlığı forum Sisyphos[ölü/kırık bağlantı] sisyphos 10 Ağustos 2020 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Kaynakça[değiştir | kaynağı değiştir] ^ Odyssey, xi. 593 ^ Edith Hamilton's Mythology, 312-313 "https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifos&oldid=24309177" sayfasından alınmıştır Kategori: Yunan mitolojisinde krallar Mora mitolojisi Antik Korint Gizli kategoriler: Ölü dış bağlantıları olan maddeler Webarşiv şablonu wayback bağlantıları Gezinti menüsü Kişisel araçlar Oturum açık değil Mesaj Katkılar Hesap oluştur Oturum aç Ad alanları Madde Tartışma Değişkenler Görünüm Oku Değiştir Kaynağı değiştir Geçmişi gör Daha fazla Ara Gezinti Anasayfa Hakkımızda İçindekiler Rastgele madde Seçkin içerik Yakınımdakiler Katılım Bağış yapın Deneme tahtası İş birliği projesi Köy çeşmesi Son değişiklikler Topluluk portali Wikimedia dükkânı Yardım Araçlar Sayfaya bağlantılar İlgili değişiklikler Özel sayfalar Kalıcı bağlantı Sayfa bilgisi Bu sayfaya kaynak göster Vikiveri öğesi Yazdır/dışa aktar Bir kitap oluştur PDF olarak indir Basılmaya uygun görünüm Diğer projelerde Wikimedia Commons Diğer diller Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Bağlantıları değiştir Bu sayfa son olarak 6 Aralık 2020 tarihinde ve 06.40 saatinde değiştirilmiştir. Metin Creative Commons Atıf-BenzerPaylaşım Lisansı altındadır; ek koşullar uygulanabilir. Bu siteyi kullanarak, Kullanım Şartlarını ve Gizlilik Politikasını kabul etmiş olursunuz. Vikipedi® (ve Wikipedia®) kâr amacı gütmeyen kuruluş olan Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. tescilli markasıdır. Gizlilik politikası Vikipedi hakkında Sorumluluk reddi Mobil görünüm Geliştiriciler İstatistikler Tanımlama bilgisi bildirgesi 
uk-wikipedia-org-1132	----	Сізіф — Вікіпедія Сізіф Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. Перейти до навігації Перейти до пошуку Сізіф Сізіф, Тіціан, Національний музей Прадо Посада king of Corinthd Батько Еол[d][1][2] Мати Енарета Брати/сестри Перієр (син Еола) Діти Ornytiond, Metapontusd, Главк, Thersanderd, Almusd, Сінон і Одіссей Персонаж твору Hades і Міф про Сізіфа  Медіафайли у Вікісховищі Сізі́ф або Сісі́ф (дав.-гр. Σίσυφος) — напівміфічний цар давньогрецького міста Ефіри (Коринфа), батько Главка, засновник династії Сізіфідів. Відомий спробою уникнути смерті, за що був покараний богами і мусив вічно виконувати важку марну працю. Зміст 1 Сізіф у міфах 2 Трактування міфів про Сізіфа 3 Образ у культурі 4 Див. також 5 Примітки 6 Література 7 Посилання Сізіф у міфах[ред. | ред. код] Сізіф був сином Еола та чоловіком доньки Атланта плеяди Меропи[3]. Йому приписувалося заселення Ефіри людьми, створеними з грибів, або отримання цього міста в подарунок від Медеї[4]. За законом він мав успадкувати трон Еола, проте його захопив Салмоней. Згідно віщувань оракула, діти, народжені донькою Салмонея Тіро від Сізіфа мали помститися за це. Тому Сізіф спокусив Тіро і та народила двох дітей, але дізнавшись про задум ефірського царя, вбила їх. Сізіф звинуватив суперника в інцесті з Тіро, нібито діти були від Салмонея, і домігся його вигнання[5]. Сізіф володів великими чередами корів, котру завдяки чаклунству викрадав його сусід Автолік. Той був навчений Гермесом змінювати вигляд худоби, тому Сізіф не міг викрити його в крадіжках. Однак він зробив позначки на копитах своєї череди і за слідами дізнався куди вона зникла. Покликавши свідків, він скористався їх сваркою з Автоліком, щоб проникнути в його дім і злягтися з його заміжньою донькою Антіклеєю. Їх сином став герой Одіссей[6]. Коли Зевс викрав німфу Егіну, її батько Асоп прийшов за допомогою до Сізіфа. Той виказав куди зникла Егіна в обмін на те, що Асоп створив у Ефірі джерело, котре ніколи не пересихало[7]. Переховуючись від гніву Асопа, Зевс набув подоби великого каменя. За викриття таємниці Зевс наказав Аїду забрати Сізіфа в своє царство, де піддати суворому покаранню. Коли Аїд прийшов за царем, той замкнув його в колодки, через що люди перестали помирати. Арес звільнив Аїда, зв'язав Сізіфа і доставив його душу до місця покарання. Проте Сізіф заздалегідь наказав дружині не ховати його тіло й на підставі цього заявив, що не може перебувати в царстві Аїда. Він переконав дружину Аїда Персефону відпустити його на три дні до світу живих, щоб забезпечити поховання, й більш не повертався. Гермес силоміць повернув його назад, де за всі злочини Сізіфові було призначено покарання[8]. В Аїді Сізіф мусив викотити на гору важкий камінь, завбільшки з той, в який перетворився Зевс, і скотити його до підніжжя з іншого боку. Та щоразу як Сізіф досягав вершини, камінь падав назад і роботу доводилося починати заново[9]. Меропа через сором за чоловіка не приєднувалася до решти плеяд, що світять на небі[10]. Інший переказ про Сізіфа розповідає про встановлення каменів, які позначали кордони його держави. Сучасники не розуміли, навіщо він це робить, тож переповідали один одному чутки, що під прикордонними каменями цар нібито ховав вбитих ним людей[11]. Трактування міфів про Сізіфа[ред. | ред. код] У викочуванні Сізіфом каменя на гору та його спуску й поверненні до царства Аїда вбачається відгомін сонячного культу, де Сізіф був божеством. Вірогідно, культ існував у населення перешийку між Пелопонесом і Аттикою, але був витіснений за класичної античності з приходом еллінів. Тому Сізіф у міфах постає в негативному образі та зазнає покарання від еллінських богів. Сізіф ототожнюється з хеттським богом сонця Тесупом і родоським богом Атабарієм, священною твариною якого був бик. Це відображено у володінні Сізіфом чередою і його подорожжю під землю та нагору, подібно до сонця впродовж доби. Також у міфах пояснюється зникнення культу однієї з плеяд, що відбулося під час переходу до ранньокласичної античності[12]. Також покарання Сізіфа пов'язується з тим, що на високій скелі Акрокоринф, що височіє над Коринфом, історичний Сізіф звів царський палац, — Сізіфей. Матеріалу для будівництва на верхівці голої скелі було небагато, тому робітники мусили доставляти нагору величезні кам'яні брили. Падіння такої брили на людину було смертельним. Звідси вірогідно й виникла легенда про сізіфову працю — важку, невдячну, а часто й безглузду — принаймні для тих, хто її виконує. Тому після смерті царя було приречено до такої ж праці. Поява міфів про смерть пояснюється і реальним довголіттям, або ж несподіваним одужанням від якоїсь важкої хвороби[13]. Образ у культурі[ред. | ред. код] Міф про Сізіфа багато разів використовувався в літературі (Есхіл, Евріпід, Софокл, Крітій) та в мистецтві (наприклад, однойменна картина Тіціана), у транзакційному аналізі. Філософ і письменник Альбер Камю використав у книзі «Міф про Сізіфа» образ Сізіфа як людини, що усвідомлює абсурдність світу і сама визначає власну долю. У переносному значенні вислів «сізіфова праця» — це безплідна, важка, нескінченна, а то й зовсім непотрібна праця. Див. також[ред. | ред. код] Тантал Данаїди Вазописець Сізіфа Примітки[ред. | ред. код] ↑ Любкер Ф. Sisyphus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 1258.d:Track:Q4249594d:Track:Q45269617d:Track:Q101490d:Track:Q656d:Track:Q694826d:Track:Q4135787d:Track:Q30059240d:Track:Q24933120d:Track:Q1459210 ↑ Любкер Ф. Aeolus // Реальный словарь классических древностей по Любкеру / под ред. Ф. Ф. Зелинский, А. И. Георгиевский, М. С. Куторга и др. — СПб: Общество классической филологии и педагогики, 1885. — С. 33–34.d:Track:Q4249594d:Track:Q101490d:Track:Q656d:Track:Q694826d:Track:Q4135787d:Track:Q45270738d:Track:Q30059240d:Track:Q24933120d:Track:Q1459210 ↑ Аполлодор I.9.3; Павсаній II.4.3; Сервій. Коментарі до "Енеїди "Вергілія II.79. ↑ Аполлодор 1.9.3; Овідій. Метаморфози VII.393; Евмел. Цит. за: Павсаній II.3.8; Гомер. Іліада VI.153; Схолії до «Ахарнянок» Аристофана 390; Схолії до «Аякса» Софокла 190; Цец. Схолії до Лікофрона 980; Овідій. Героїні XII.203; Горацій. Сатири II.17.12; ↑ Гігін. Міфи 60. ↑ Поліен VI.52; Гігін. Міфи 201; Софокл. Аякс 190; Схолії до «Філоктета» Софокла 417. ↑ Павсаній II.5.1. ↑ Феогнід 712 і далі.; Евстафій. Схолії до «Іліади» Гомера с. 487,631 і 1702. ↑ Павсаній. Х.31.3; Овідій. Метаморфози IV.459; Гомер. Одіссея XI. 593—600 ↑ Овідій. Фасти IV.175-176; Евмел. Цит. за: Павсаній II.2.2. ↑ Мустафін О. Золоте руно. Історія, заплутана в міфах. Х., 2019, с.21-22 ↑ Грейвс, Р. (1992). Мифы Древней Греции. Москва: Прогресс. с. 171–172.  ↑ Мустафін О. Золоте руно. Історія, заплутана в міфах. Х., 2019, с.21 Література[ред. | ред. код] Вікісховище має мультимедійні дані за темою: Сізіф Словник античної міфології. — К.: Наукова думка, 1985. — 236 сторінок. Мифы Древней Греции / Р. Грейвс; Пер. с англ. К. П. Лукьяненко ; Под ред. и с послесл. А. А. Тахо-Годи. — М. : Прогресс, 1992. — 620 с. Посилання[ред. | ред. код] Сісіф // Універсальний словник-енциклопедія. — 4-те вид. — К. : Тека, 2006. Сізіф // Українська мала енциклопедія : 16 кн. : у 8 т. / проф. Є. Онацький. — Накладом Адміністратури УАПЦ в Аргентині. — Буенос-Айрес, 1965. — Т. 7, кн. XIV : Літери Сен — Сті. — С. 1739. — 1000 екз.   Тематичні сайти Quora Словники та енциклопедії Велика каталонська · Britannica (онлайн) · Encyclopædia Universalis · Treccani Нормативний контроль BNF: 12078609k · GND: 118614797 · LCCN: no2014082839 · NKC: jo2016908762 · SUDOC: 078600707 · VIAF: 67258418, 198736888, 309840666, 135146284441115332092, 137156009831949580675 Отримано з https://uk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Сізіф&oldid=28861768 Категорії: Царі Коринфа Персонажі давньогрецьких міфів Приховані категорії: Статті з джерелами з Вікіданих Вікіпедія:P373:використовується Персонажі за алфавітом Навігаційне меню Особисті інструменти Ви не увійшли до системи Обговорення Внесок Створити обліковий запис Увійти Простори назв Стаття Обговорення Варіанти Перегляди Читати Редагувати Редагувати код Переглянути історію Більше Пошук Навігація Головна сторінка Поточні події Нові редагування Нові сторінки Випадкова стаття Участь Портал спільноти Кнайпа Довідка Пожертвувати Інструменти Посилання сюди Пов'язані редагування Спеціальні сторінки Постійне посилання Інформація про сторінку Цитувати сторінку Елемент Вікіданих Друк/експорт Створити книгу Завантажити як PDF Версія до друку В інших проектах Вікісховище Іншими мовами Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Редагувати посилання Цю сторінку востаннє відредаговано о 13:49, 9 липня 2020. 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viaf-org-8869	----	67258418 VIAF Virtual International Authority File Search Select Field: All Fields All Headings Corporate Names Geographic Names Personal Names Works Expressions Preferred Headings Exact Heading Bibliographic Titles Select Index: All VIAF Argentina Australia Belgium (Flemish) Brazil Canada Catalunya Chile Croatia Czech Denmark (DBC) Egypt Estonia FAST France (BnF) France (Sudoc) Germany Getty (ULAN) Greece Hispánica Hungary Iceland Ireland ISNI Israel Italy Japan (NDL) Japan (NII) Korea Latvia Lebanon LC (NACO) Lithuania Luxembourg Morocco Netherlands Norway (BIBSYS) Norway (National Library) Iceland Perseus Poland (National Library) Poland (NUKAT) Portugal Québec RILM RISM Russia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Swiss (National Library) Swiss (RERO) Syriac Taiwan Vatican Wikipedia xA xR Search Terms: Sisyphus VIAF ID: 67258418 ( Personal ) Permalink: http://viaf.org/viaf/67258418 Preferred Forms 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Sisyphus‏ 100 0 _ ‎‡a  Sisyphus‏         4xx's: Alternate Name Forms (1) 400 0 _ ‎‡a  Sisyphos‏ Selected Titles About Personal Information Nationality or associated country: XS - External Links Record Views MARC-21 record VIAF Cluster in XML RDF record Just Links in JSON History of VIAF ID:67258418 (3) Record ID Action Time DNB|118614797 add 2009-03-03T12:03:24+00:00 SZ|118614797 add 2019-02-17T12:45:43.747288+00:00 SWNL|vtls005542278 delete 2019-03-10T13:49:46.867921+00:00 © 2010-2021 OCLC Privacy policy Cookie Notice Cookie Settings Hosted by OCLC About the dataset Send us a comment. About VIAF 
vi-wikipedia-org-1749	----	Sisyphus – Wikipedia tiếng Việt Sisyphus Bách khoa toàn thư mở Wikipedia Bước tới điều hướng Bước tới tìm kiếm Persephone giám sát Sisyphus trong Underworld, hình vẽ trên bình amphora màu đen Attica, k. 530 TCN, Staatliche Antikensammlungen [1] Trong thần thoại Hy Lạp Sisyphus hoặc Sisyphos (/ˈsɪsɪfəs/; Hy Lạp cổ đại: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) là vị vua của Ephyra (nay là Corinth). Ông đã bị trừng phạt vì sự xảo quyệt và gian dối của bản thân bằng cách buộc phải lăn một tảng đá khổng lồ lên đồi. Tảng đá này sẽ tự lăn xuống mỗi khi nó gần đến đỉnh, bắt Sisyphus phải lặp lại việc lăn đá cho đến muôn đời. Qua ảnh hưởng cổ điển về văn hóa hiện đại, công việc mà vừa mất thời gian vừa vô ích do đó được mô tả như sisyphean (/sɪsɪˈfiːən/) trong văn hóa phương Tây.[2] Từ nguyên[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Giáo sư ngôn ngữ học RSP Beekes đã gợi ý về nguồn gốc tiền Hy Lạp và mối liên hệ với gốc của từ sophos (σοφός, "khôn ngoan").[3] Nhà thần thoại học người Đức Otto Gruppe cho rằng cái tên bắt nguồn từ sisys (σίσυς, "da dê"), liên quan đến một loại bùa cầu mưa bằng da dê.[4] Gia đình[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] Sisyphus là con trai của Vua Aeolus của Thessaly và Enarete [5] và là anh trai của Salmoneus. Ông kết hôn với Pleiad Merope, và có con chung là Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus và Porphyrion.[6] Sisyphus là ông nội của Bellerophon thông qua Glaucus,[7][8] và Minyas, người sáng lập Orchomenus, thông qua Almus. Tham khảo[sửa | sửa mã nguồn] ^ museum inv. 1494 ^ “sisyphean”. Từ điển tiếng Anh Oxford (ấn bản 3). Nhà xuất bản Đại học Oxford. Tháng 9 năm 2005.  (yêu cầu Đăng ký hoặc có quyền thành viên của thư viện công cộng Anh.) ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. ^ Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.7.3 ^ Scholia, on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca, 1.9.3 ^ Homer, Iliad VI 152ff Lấy từ “https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus&oldid=64121068” Thể loại: Thần thoại Hy Lạp Trình đơn chuyển hướng Công cụ cá nhân Chưa đăng nhập Thảo luận cho địa chỉ IP này Đóng góp Mở tài khoản Đăng nhập Không gian tên Bài viết Thảo luận Biến thể Giao diện Đọc Sửa đổi Sửa mã nguồn Xem lịch sử Thêm Tìm kiếm Xem nhanh Trang Chính Bài viết chọn lọc Tin tức Bài viết ngẫu nhiên Thay đổi gần đây Phản hồi lỗi Quyên góp Tương tác Hướng dẫn Giới thiệu Wikipedia Cộng đồng Thảo luận chung Giúp sử dụng Liên lạc Công cụ Các liên kết đến đây Thay đổi liên quan Trang đặc biệt Liên kết thường trực Thông tin trang Trích dẫn trang này Khoản mục Wikidata In/xuất ra Tạo một quyển sách Tải về dưới dạng PDF Bản để in ra Tại dự án khác Wikimedia Commons Ngôn ngữ khác Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bahasa Indonesia বাংলা Беларуская Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Български Català Чӑвашла Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Winaray 吴语 中文 Sửa liên kết Trang này được sửa đổi lần cuối vào ngày 7 tháng 12 năm 2020 lúc 20:18. Văn bản được phát hành theo Giấy phép Creative Commons Ghi công–Chia sẻ tương tự; có thể áp dụng điều khoản bổ sung. Với việc sử dụng trang web này, bạn chấp nhận Điều khoản Sử dụng và Quy định quyền riêng tư. Wikipedia® là thương hiệu đã đăng ký của Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., một tổ chức phi lợi nhuận. Quy định quyền riêng tư Giới thiệu Wikipedia Lời phủ nhận Phiên bản di động Nhà phát triển Thống kê Tuyên bố về cookie 
war-wikipedia-org-9199	----	Sisyphus (mitolohiya) - Wikipedia Sisyphus (mitolohiya) Tikang ha Wikipedia Jump to navigation Jump to search An mitolohiya Griyego hi Sisyphus (Griyego: Σίσυφος Sísyphos) in usa ha mga hadi han Ephyra (ngaran yana han Korinthos) nga anay han Aeolus ngan Enarete ngan asawa han Merope.  Usa ka turók ini nga barasahon. Dako it imo maibubulig ha Wikipedia pinaagi han pagparabong hini. Ginkuha tikang ha "https://war.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisyphus_(mitolohiya)&oldid=6263612" Kaarangay: Mga turók Menu hit nabigasyon Mga pankalugaringon nga garamiton Diri naka-log in Hiruhimangraw Mga amot Himo-a an akawnt Sakob Mga ngaran-lat'ang Barasahon Hiruhimangraw Mga pagkadirudilain Mga paglantaw Basaha Igliwat Igliwat an wikitext Kitaa an kaagi More Bilnga paglayag Syahan nga Pakli Ganghaan han Komunidad Mga panhitabo Mga kabag-ohan Bisan ano nga pakli Bulig Mga Donasyon Garamiton Mga nasumpay dinhi Mga may kalabotan nga binag-o Pagkarga hin file Mga pinaurog nga pakli Sumpay nga unob Impormasyon han pakli Ig-cite ini nga pakli Wikidata item Pagpatika/pag-ambit Paghimo hin libro Igkarga-paubos komo PDF Maipapatik nga bersyon Ha iba nga mga proyekto Wikimedia Commons Ha iba nga mga yinaknan Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Igliwat an mga sumpay Ini nga pakli kataposan nga ginliwat dida han 18:51, 3 Agosto 2020. An teksto in available ha ilarom han Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; kadugangan nga terms in puyde mag-apply. Kitaa anMga Terms of Use para han mga detalye. Polisiya hin pribasidad Bahin han Wikipedia Mga Disclaimer Mobile view Mga developer Statistics Cookie statement 
web-archive-org-1597	----	Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? success fail Apr JUL Sep 02 2013 2014 2015 83 captures 07 Jan 2004 - 12 Oct 2020 About this capture COLLECTED BY Organization: Internet Archive The Internet Archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. At any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. View the web archive through the Wayback Machine. Collection: Wide Crawl started June 2014 Web wide crawl with initial seedlist and crawler configuration from June 2014. TIMESTAMPS Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? And there the children of dark Night have their dwellings, Sleep and Death, awful gods. The glowing Sun never looks upon them with his beams, neither as he goes up into heaven, nor as he comes down from heaven. And the former of them roams peacefully over the earth and the sea's broad back and is kindly to men; but the other has a heart of iron, and his spirit within him is pitiless as bronze: whomsoever of men he has once seized he holds fast: and he is hateful even to the deathless gods. Hesiod Theogony Prothesis of the deceased (laying out of the dead on a couch), Dipylon Painter, c. 750 BC, Louvre. Deploration of Achilles by his mother Thetis and Nereids Corinthian Hydria, c. 550 BC, Damon Painter, an overview Sweet Youth no more will tarry, My friend a while ago; Now white's the head I carry, And grey my temples grow, My teeth - a ragged row. To taste the joy of living But little space have I, And torn with sick misgiving I can but sob and sigh, So deep the dead men lie. So deep their place and dismal, All means, be sure, they lack Down in the murk abysmal To scale the upward track And win their journey back. Anacreon Greek poet 570-485 BC What happens after our death? Plato provides an answer. What is Death? Death (or dying) the event of life's ending, being dead the state in which life has permanently ended. Life the time between two “nonexistence” states. Transport of a person who died Now it is the job of Hermes, Thanatos/Hypnos and Charon to bring the soul in the final place. Hermes (Psychopompos) in the Middle with the twin brothers Thanatos and Hypnos (Death and Sleep) moving Sarpedon the son of Zeus to Hades the world of the dead. Calyx-krater, ca. 515 BC; Archaic; red-figure, Metropolitan Museum of Art Signed by Euxitheos, as potter; Signed by Euphronios, as painter, Greek, Attic ( Etruscan Sculpture ) Charon receives the obolus (gr. obolos) price from a dead. Right: Hermes psychopompos. Charon is not mentioned by Homer, probably unknown, the obolus was introduced later. A mother who died left her young boy. Eight women and a child who lost his mother, Exekias Is Death necessary? Hades the god of dead with the advice of Zeus visited Sisyphus king of Corinth to punish him for various reasons. Sisyphus asked Hades why Hermes, whose job was to take shades to Hades, had not come for him. Hades trying to find an answer was unaware that chains were being placed around him, until it was too late. Hades had been captured by Sisyphus. While Hades was held prisoner, no one could die. The sick and old suffered, and the people could not sacrifice animals to eat meat. The world was in chaos, and the gods threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus, that he would wish he were dead. Sisyphus let Hades go, and life and death went on as usual. Hermes soon came to escort Sisyphus to Hades, but the clever king had a plan. He had instructed his queen not to place a coin in his mouth and not to give him a proper burial. He ordered her to cast his unburied body into the middle of the public square. The coin was used to pay the travel over the river Styx served as a crossroads where the world of the living met the world of the dead. Hades was shocked to discover that the queen of Corinth had not fulfilled her wifely duties regarding her dead husband, and Sisyphus convinced Hades to let him go back and teach his disrespectful wife some manners. Woman before a stele, Louvre L103, Woman Painter Is Death so terrible? Look back at time … before our birth. In this way Nature holds before our eyes the mirror of our future after death. Is this so grim, so gloomy? Lucretius To fear death, my friends, is only to think ourselves wise, without being wise: for it is to think that we know what we do not know. For anything that men can tell, death may be the greatest good that can happen to them: but they fear it as if they knew quite well that it was the greatest of evils. And what is this but that shameful ignorance of thinking that we know what we do not know? Socrates Are there proofs for the existence of an eternal soul by out-of-body experiences like flying through a tunnel with a light on the other side? Experiments by Blackmore show that we can produce such experiences pharmacologically in healthy people. But even if life after death is only a dream and a hope why should we be afraid of death if we are not afraid by our nonexistence before birth? Due to the asymmetry because we exist now? The problem requires to define what Life is. Like the ship of Theseus our body changes continuously. Dead cells are replaced by new ones. We include new events in our memory , some memories and character traits that defines us may survive while others are lost. If a large fraction of these memories is lost then we in principle die and are still alive. Such cases for examples are accidents where persons loose the memory of their past identity. What defines the identity in this continuous change? Is the death a sudden change or a process? Assume that there is a life after death but we cannot remember anything about our life or any event here on earth. Let us, then, say that this is the gift of Memory, the mother of the Muses, and that whenever we wish to remember anything we see or hear or think of in our own minds, we hold this wax under the perceptions and thoughts and imprint them upon it, just as we make impressions from seal rings; and whatever is imprinted we remember and know as long as its image lasts, but whatever is rubbed out or cannot be imprinted we forget and do not know Plato Cratylus, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman Even Pythagoras knew this. He considered to be an encarnation of Aithalides, a son of the God Hermes, who when Hermes asked him what he wants, except eternal life that he could not give to him, decided an eternal memory to remember after death all his previous lifes. Hermes transporting a dead woman on a angel driven chariot Can death actually harm us? Death …, the most awful of evils, is nothing to us, seeing that, when we are, death is not come, and, when death is come, we are not. Epicurus (341-270) in his Letter to Menoeceus Some theorists have maintained that the event of death occurs on the nonexistence side of the boundary between our existence and nonexistence. For example according to Feinberg (1984, p. 172): “Death is defined as the first moment of the subject's nonexistence, so it is not something that ever coexists with the dying person for the time required for it to have a directly harmful effect on him”. The idea that we die only after we are nonexistent is absurd, as we have a transition from a state of life to a state of death, and it is absurd to say that the transition takes place only after we are gone. It is also absurd to say the transition is completed while we are still alive. Hence defining death as the first moment of our nonexistence, as Feinberg does, is no better than defining it as the last moment of our existence. But is it reasonable to say that we are alive at least part of the time during which we undergo the transition from life to death? Yes, since death takes time, and we are fully alive when the transition of death begins, partially alive as it progresses, and not at all alive when it ends. We exist while it is under way, and are affected by it in a straightforward way: it makes us less and less alive, until finally we cease to be. However, conceivably a death might be instantaneous, in the following way: we simply move from being wholly alive to being wholly dead, and no time passes between the two. Can that kind of transition affect us? Actually, it is hard to say, since this picture is puzzling in certain ways. For example, if we suppose that no time passes in between our existing and our not existing, it seems to follow that everything that happens occurs either while we exist or while we do not exist (or during a period of time combining the two). We are never in between, never in any condition in between (whether existence, nonexistence, or some mysterious state that is neither), and no events happen in between. So if death is an event, when does it occur? If death is both an event and a transition across the boundary between being wholly alive and wholly dead, don't we have to imagine it overlapping with the sequences of events on both sides of this boundary? But suppose that, in spite of such puzzles, we can make it clear that the causal effects of an instantaneous death occur entirely on the far side of the boundary between existence and nonexistence. Then according to the causal account of responsibility, instant death does not causally affect us when it occurs or at any time thereafter. Epicurus shows that no mortem event other than death can affect us, and that if death can affect us, it can do so only precisely at the time it occurs. But missing is a convincing argument against the possibility that death and some of its effects overlap in time; and hence cannot prove that mortem events are harmless. What would immortals think about their endless life? Is it a bad thing to die? References · Blackmore, S., 1993. Dying to Live: Near-Death Experiences. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. · Feldman, F., 1991. “Some Puzzles About the Evil of Death,” The Philosophical Review 100, no. 205-27; reprinted in Fischer 1993, 307-326. · Fischer, J.M., ed., 1993. The Metaphysics of Death. Stanford University Press. · Lucretius, 1951. On the Nature of the Universe. Latham, reg. trans., Penguin Classics. · Parfit, D., 1984. Reasons and Persons. Oxford: Clarendon Press. · Perry, J., ed., 1975. Personal Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press. · Pitcher, G., 1984. “The Misfortunes of the Dead,” in American Philosophical Quarterly 21, no. 2, 217-225; reprinted in Fischer 1993, 119-134. · Silverstein, H., 1980. “The Evil of Death,” Journal of Philosophy 77, no. 7, 401-424; reprinted in Fischer 1993, 95-116. · Unamuno, M., 1913. Kerrigan, A., Trans., The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. Links Philosophical Zombies: David Chalmers' home page QUOTES On this truly happy day of my life, as I am at the point of death, I write this to you ... Epicurus, Letter to Idomeneus Often I played so nice with other children of my age, from Earth born I am again Earth. I am Aristocles of Piraeus, the son of Menon. .. as Sappho said, ‘Death is an evil thing; the gods have so judged it, or they would die’. Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 23 I am not afraid of being dead, I just do not want to die. Epicharmus of Cos Death is a debt which all of us must pay. Sophocles, Electra Call no man happy before his death. Solon “The death of a good man is nothing to be sad about, since it puts him beyond the power of fortune and secures his happiness for eternity.” Plutarch, Pelopidas Blessed is he who has seen these things before he goes beneath the earth; for he understands the end of mortal life, and the beginning (of a new life) given of God." Pindar Fragment 102 "Amen, amen, I tell you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit." Jesus in John 12:24 The greatest certainty in life is death. The greatest uncertainty is the time. Carl Sandberg Death, Burial and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece from Metropolitan Museum Images Psychostasia Image. Sometimes the gods are weighing the souls of two persons in a duel to determine who will survive, Athenian red-figure vase, ca. 460 BC. Paris. Musée du Louvre G399 Joachim Patinir (or Patenier) (Flemish, 1480-1524) Charon Crossing the Styx   Web www.mlahanas.de www.hellenica.de Ancient Greece Medieval Greece / Byzantine Empire Modern Greece Science, Technology , Medicine , Warfare , Biographies , Life , Cities/Places/Maps , Arts , Literature , Philosophy ,Olympics, Mythology , History , Images Science, Technology, Arts , Warfare , Literature, Biographies Icons, History Cities, Islands, Regions, Fauna/Flora , Biographies , History , Warfare Science/Technology, Literature, Music , Arts , Film/Actors , Sport , Fashion Cyprus Greek-Library - Scientific Library Αλφαβητικός κατάλογος - Index Contact - Statistics 
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wuu-wikipedia-org-4926	----	西西弗斯 - 维基百科 西西弗斯 吴语维基百科，自由个百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 西西弗斯（希腊语：Σίσυφος），是希腊神话中一位被惩罚个人。渠受罚个方式是：必须奈一块巨石推上山顶，而每次到达山顶后巨石又滚回山下，迭样永无止境个重复下去。 取自“https://wuu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=西西弗斯&oldid=272703” 导航菜单 私人家伙 呒不登录 讲张 贡献 建账号 登录 名字空间 文章 讨论 变量 视图 阅读 编辑 望历史 更多 搜寻 导航 封面 社区门堂 近段辰光个事体 近段辰光个改动 随机页面 帮忙 捐款 家生 链进来点啥 搭界个改动 上传文件 特别页面 老世链接 页面信息 引用该篇文章 维基数据项 打印/导出 创建书本 作为PDF下载 打印版 别个项目里向 维基共享资源 别样闲话版本 Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 编辑链接 箇只页面阿末趟编辑来拉2020年6月14号 (日) 14:22。 文字内容采用知识共享“署名-相同方式共享”许可协议授权；作兴会应用附加条款。详情见使用条款。 隐私政策 有关维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明 
www-idref-fr-6658	----	Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) paprika.idref.fr data.idref.fr Documentation Bonjour , Bienvenue sur IdRef, Identifiants et référentiels pour l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche. Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Paprika Export bibliographique Exporter en XML Exporter en RDF Améliorer la notice Signaler une erreur Identifiant IdRef : 078600707 Notice de type Personne Point d'accès autorisé Sisyphe (mythologie grecque) Variantes de point d'accès Sísyphos (mythologie grecque) [Nom de personne] Sisyphus (mythologie grecque) [Nom de personne] Information (par souci de protection des données à caractère personnel, le jour et le mois de naissance peuvent ne pas être affichés) Genre : non applicable Notes Note publique d'information :  Fils d'Eole, époux de Mérope. Fondateur de Corinthe, il fut condamné à rouler éternellement un rocher en haut d'une pente aux Enfers. Note publique d'information :  Sísyphos : translittération ALA-LC Notices d'autorité liées   Mythologie grecque Forme parallele Σίσυφος (mythologie grecque) Sísyfos (mythologie grecque) Source Brill's New Pauly, 2006 (Art. Sisyphus) Information trouvée : Σίσυφος - Sísyphos - Sisyphus Dict. de la mythologie grecque et romaine / P. Grimal, 1996 Information trouvée : Fils d'Eole, époux de Mérope. Fondateur de Corinthe, il fut condamné à rouler éternellement un rocher en haut d'une pente aux Enfers. Autres identifiants Identifiant BNF : FRBNF120786095 Identifiant VIAF : http://viaf.org/viaf/198736888/ Identifiant PACTOLS : https://ark.frantiq.fr/ark:/26678/pcrtguj6hShUuB Identifiant WIKIDATA : Q102561 Identifiant ARK : http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12078609k Utilisation dans Rameau Le point d'accès ne peut être employé que dans un point d'accès sujet Le point d'accès ne peut s'employer qu'en élément initial Equivalent dans un autre référentiel Terme équivalent dans un autre système : Sisyphus, King of Corinth (Mythological character)Date de consultation du référentiel ou de la classification externe : 2020-06-02URI : http://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/no2014082839Code du système ou de la classification utilisé : LCNAF Informations sur la notice Identifiant de la notice : 078600707 Dernière modification : 06-12-2020 à 16 h 34 ... Références liées : ... IdRef - Identifiants et Référentiels pour l'ESR L'interface publique IdRef permet la consultation des notices d'autorités produites par les établissements membres des réseaux documentaires de l'ESR (Sudoc, Calames, Star). IdRef est à la disposition des usagers professionnels habilités à créer/corriger/enrichir les notices d'autorité (authentification requise). A partir d'IdRef, une gamme de services (triple store data.idref.fr, entrepôt OAI-PMH, APIs) est disponible en accès libre pour faciliter la réutilisation des données. Pour les développeurs Documentation IdRef APIs et web services data.idref.fr OAI-PMH IdRef GitHub Abes Utilisation des données Libre et gratuite sous licence Etalab GitHub Etalab Assistance Guichet AbesSTP A propos | Partenaires | Données Personnelles | CGU | Mentions Légales 
www-mediawiki-org-6756	----	How to contribute - MediaWiki How to contribute From mediawiki.org Jump to navigation Jump to search Translate this page Other languages: Afrikaans • ‎Bahasa Indonesia • ‎Bahasa Melayu • ‎Basa Banyumasan • ‎British English • ‎Bân-lâm-gú • ‎Cymraeg • ‎Deutsch • ‎Deutsch (Sie-Form)‎ • ‎English • ‎Esperanto • ‎Hawaiʻi • ‎Ido • ‎Kreyòl ayisyen • ‎Limburgs • ‎Lëtzebuergesch • ‎Malagasy • ‎Napulitano • ‎Nederlands • ‎Oromoo • ‎Ripoarisch • ‎Scots • ‎Sunda • ‎Tagalog • ‎Taqbaylit • ‎Tiếng Việt • ‎Türkçe • ‎Zazaki • ‎aragonés • ‎asturianu • ‎azərbaycanca • ‎bosanski • ‎català • ‎dansk • ‎davvisámegiella • ‎español • ‎español (formal)‎ • ‎español de América Latina • ‎euskara • ‎français • ‎galego • ‎hrvatski • ‎interlingua • ‎isiXhosa • ‎italiano • ‎kurdî • ‎lietuvių • ‎magyar • ‎norsk bokmål • ‎norsk nynorsk • ‎occitan • ‎polski • ‎português • ‎português do Brasil • ‎română • ‎sardu • ‎shqip • ‎sicilianu • ‎slovenčina • ‎suomi • ‎svenska • ‎vèneto • ‎walon • ‎čeština • ‎Ελληνικά • ‎башҡортса • ‎беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ • ‎български • ‎македонски • ‎русиньскый • ‎русский • ‎српски / srpski • ‎тоҷикӣ • ‎українська • ‎ייִדיש • ‎עברית • ‎ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche • ‎اردو • ‎العربية • ‎تۆرکجه • ‎سنڌي • ‎فارسی • ‎پښتو • ‎کوردی • ‎अङ्गिका • ‎अवधी • ‎नेपाली • ‎मराठी • ‎मैथिली • ‎हिन्दी • ‎অসমীয়া • ‎বাংলা • ‎ਪੰਜਾਬੀ • ‎ગુજરાતી • ‎ଓଡ଼ିଆ • ‎தமிழ் • ‎తెలుగు • ‎ಕನ್ನಡ • ‎മലയാളം • ‎සිංහල • ‎ไทย • ‎བོད་ཡིག • ‎ဖၠုံလိက် • ‎မြန်မာဘာသာ • ‎მარგალური • ‎ქართული • ‎አማርኛ • ‎ភាសាខ្មែរ • ‎ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ • ‎中文 • ‎文言 • ‎日本語 • ‎粵語 • ‎ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ • ‎한국어 Tech Forum Tech News Tech Ambassadors Wikimedia Technology Wikimedia Product MediaWiki Get involved Do you love software freedom and open source communities? 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Retrieved from "https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=How_to_contribute&oldid=4388183" Categories: MediaWiki development MediaWiki.org website New contributors Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Page Discussion Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Get MediaWiki Get extensions Tech blog Contribute Support User help FAQ Technical manual Support desk Communication Development Bug tracker Code docs Code repository Statistics MediaWiki.org Community portal Recent changes Translate content Random page Village pump Sandbox Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other languages Add links This page was last edited on 4 February 2021, at 14:40. 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www-mediawiki-org-8224	----	MediaWiki MediaWiki From mediawiki.org Jump to navigation Jump to search MediaWiki is a collaboration and documentation platform brought to you by a vibrant community. Photo of participants of the Wikimedia Hackathon 2019 The MediaWiki software is used by tens of thousands of websites and thousands of companies and organizations. It powers Wikipedia and also this website. MediaWiki helps you collect and organize knowledge and make it available to people. It's powerful, multilingual, free and open, extensible, customizable, reliable, and free of charge. Find out more and if MediaWiki is right for you. Set up and run MediaWiki Download, install and configure MediaWiki Add functionality by installing extensions Problems? See Errors and symptoms and FAQ Don't own a server? See Hosting services Get professional development and consulting Join MediaWiki Stakeholders user group Edit and use MediaWiki Learn how to navigate Learn how to edit a page Learn more about reading, editing, and personal customization Develop and extend code New to development? Start coding for a Wikimedia project How to make a MediaWiki skin How to work on MediaWiki or extensions' code Already a developer? Interact with content by using the Action API or Web API Read the developer docs or visit the developer hub Get help and contribute Cannot find the answer to a problem with MediaWiki? Ask the Support desk! Get involved as a translator, designer, documentation writer, tester, tech ambassador, … Report wrong software behavior or a feature proposal News 2020-12-18 MediaWiki 1.31.12 maintenance release is now available. 2020-12-17 MediaWiki 1.31.11 and 1.35.1 security releases are now available. 2020-11-30 MediaWiki 1.34.x versions are now end of life. 2020-09-25 MediaWiki 1.35.0 is now available. More news Other languages: English  • العربية • беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ • বাংলা • bosanski • català • کوردی • čeština • dansk • Deutsch • español • فارسی • suomi • français • ગુજરાતી • עברית • हिन्दी • hrvatski • magyar • Bahasa Indonesia • italiano • 日本語 • Jawa • қазақша • 한국어 • Mirandés • Nederlands • polski • português • português do Brasil • română • русский • sardu • සිංහල • slovenčina • shqip • svenska • ไทย • Türkçe • українська • Tiếng Việt • 粵語 • 中文 • 中文（简体）‎ • 中文（繁體）‎ Retrieved from "https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki&oldid=3878227" Hidden category: Languages pages Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Main page Discussion Variants Views Read View source View history More Search Navigation Main page Get MediaWiki Get extensions Tech blog Contribute Support User help FAQ Technical manual Support desk Communication Development Bug tracker Code docs Code repository Statistics MediaWiki.org Community portal Recent changes Translate content Random page Village pump Sandbox Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki Wikispecies Wikibooks Wikidata Wikimania Wikinews Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wiktionary This page was last edited on 26 May 2020, at 13:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Privacy policy About MediaWiki.org Disclaimers Code of Conduct Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-mythweb-com-6035	----	Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus Search ... <- Back . Home  .Forward -> ... Index   Sisyphus  (SIS-i-fus) Sinner condemned in Tartarus to an eternity of rolling a boulder uphill then watching it roll back down again. Sisyphus was founder and king of Corinth, or Ephyra as it was called in those days. He was notorious as the most cunning knave on earth. His greatest triumph came at the end of his life, when the god Hades came to claim him personally for the kingdom of the dead. Hades had brought along a pair of handcuffs, a comparative novelty, and Sisyphus expressed such an interest that Hades was persuaded to demonstrate their use - on himself. And so it came about that the high lord of the Underworld was kept locked up in a closet at Sisyphus's house for many a day, a circumstance which put the great chain of being seriously out of whack. Nobody could die. A soldier might be chopped to bits in battle and still show up at camp for dinner. Finally Hades was released and Sisyphus was ordered summarily to report to the Underworld for his eternal assignment. But the wily one had another trick up his sleeve. He simply told his wife not to bury him and then complained to Persephone, Queen of the Dead, that he had not been accorded the proper funeral honors. What's more, as an unburied corpse he had no business on the far side of the river Styx at all - his wife hadn't placed a coin under his tongue to secure passage with Charon the ferryman. Surely her highness could see that Sisyphus must be given leave to journey back topside and put things right. Kindly Persephone assented, and Sisyphus made his way back to the sunshine, where he promptly forgot all about funerals and such drab affairs and lived on in dissipation for another good stretch of time. But even this paramount trickster could only postpone the inevitable. Eventually he was hauled down to Hades, where his indiscretions caught up with him. For a crime against the gods - the specifics of which are variously reported - he was condemned to an eternity at hard labor. And frustrating labor at that. For his assignment was to roll a great boulder to the top of a hill. Only every time Sisyphus, by the greatest of exertion and toil, attained the summit, the darn thing rolled back down again. Sisyphus. (zoom) top 
www-oed-com-399	----	Signing in : Oxford English Dictionary Jump to Main NavigationJump to Content Oxford English Dictionary | The definitive record of the English language ABOUT COMMUNITY BLOG Subscribe Sign in Take a look Home  ›   Signing in Signing in You, or your library or an institution to which you are affiliated, must have a current subscription to sign in to OED Online. For information about subscribing to OED Online, see Subscriber services. Signing in takes you directly to the Home page.   With user name and password If you have your own subscription to OED Online, type your user name and password in the fields under Subscriber account. Your password is case-sensitive. If you have problems signing in, or have forgotten your password, please consult Subscriber services. From a subscribing institution If you are signing in to OED Online from an institution which has a subscription, or if your institution uses a referring URL system, you should enter the site automatically. If you are returned to the home page, please consult your system administrator or librarian. Via Athens If your institution uses Eduserv's Athens service, follow the link to Sign in via your institution to reach your Athens sign in area. Via Shibboleth If your institution uses Shibboleth to access its resources, follow the link to Sign in via your institution, select your institution from the dropdown list, and then enter your details within your institution’s sign in area. With your library card Some libraries allow remote access to websites to which they subscribe. Your librarian can tell you if that option is available to you. If your library does allow remote access, enter your library card number in the field under Library account. If you encounter difficulties entering the site using your library card number, please consult your librarian. Problems Personal subscriptions only allow one user per session, so the concurrency limit is 1. When you close your browser window without clicking “sign out”, the site will automatically prevent you from signing in again until your session clears, usually after about 20 minutes. When you attempt to sign in again before this happens, you will receive an error message stating that your concurrency limit (of 1) has been reached. To prevent this ensure that when you are finished with your session you sign out completely by clicking on your Access account name (at the top right hand side of the page) and select Sign out in the dropdown menu. Failure to do so may result in error messages and temporary loss of access until your session resets itself. If you are not a subscriber and tried to follow a cross-reference from one of the Words of the Day, please use your browser's back button to return to what you were reading. If you still have a problem, contact your system administrator or go to Subscriber services. Timing out Every time you sign in to OED Online you begin a session – a period during which the subscription system recognizes you as a user. If you sign out, close your browser, spend some time in the public pages of the site, or simply do nothing on the OED Online site for a while, your session will time out. If this happens, you will be asked to sign in again. If you are using your own computer, you can minimize the inconvenience by setting your browser to remember your credentials, for example by accepting the offer to remember your username and password. Back to top Welcome | About OED online | Signing in | Home page | Quick start | The entry display | Searching | Quick Search | Advanced Search | Results | Browsing | My OED | Technical | Signing in Oxford University Press Copyright © 2021 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. | Cookie Policy Privacy Policy Legal Notice Accessibility Subscriber account Username Password Forgot password? Don't have an account? Help Close Library account Library card number Does my library subscribe? Sign in via your institution Sign in 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-2443	----	Homer, Iliad, Book 1, line 1 Homer, Iliad ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: book 1book 2book 3book 4book 5book 6book 7book 8book 9book 10book 11book 12book 13book 14book 15book 16book 17book 18book 19book 20book 21book 22book 23book 24 card: lines 1-32lines 33-67lines 68-91lines 92-129lines 130-171lines 172-205lines 206-244lines 245-284lines 285-311lines 312-344lines 345-385lines 386-427lines 428-457lines 458-492lines 493-530lines 531-567lines 568ff. 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Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. [1] The wrath sing, goddess, of Peleus' son, Achilles, that destructive wrath which brought countless woes upon the Achaeans, and sent forth to Hades many valiant souls of heroes, and made them themselves spoil for dogs and every bird; thus the plan of Zeus came to fulfillment, [5] from the time when1 first they parted in strife Atreus' son, king of men, and brilliant Achilles. Who then of the gods was it that brought these two together to contend? The son of Leto and Zeus; for he in anger against the king roused throughout the host an evil pestilence, and the people began to perish, [10] because upon the priest Chryses the son of Atreus had wrought dishonour. For he had come to the swift ships of the Achaeans to free his daughter, bearing ransom past counting; and in his hands he held the wreaths of Apollo who strikes from afar,2 on a staff of gold; and he implored all the Achaeans, [15] but most of all the two sons of Atreus, the marshallers of the people: “Sons of Atreus, and other well-greaved Achaeans, to you may the gods who have homes upon Olympus grant that you sack the city of Priam, and return safe to your homes; but my dear child release to me, and accept the ransom [20] out of reverence for the son of Zeus, Apollo who strikes from afar.â€� Then all the rest of the Achaeans shouted assent, to reverence the priest and accept the glorious ransom, yet the thing did not please the heart of Agamemnon, son of Atreus, but he sent him away harshly, and laid upon him a stern command: [25] “Let me not find you, old man, by the hollow ships, either tarrying now or coming back later, lest your staff and the wreath of the god not protect you. Her I will not set free. Sooner shall old age come upon her in our house, in Argos, far from her native land, [30] as she walks to and fro before the loom and serves my bed. But go, do not anger me, that you may return the safer.â€� 1 1 2 2 Homer. The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Notes (Allen Rogers Benner, 1903) load focus Notes (Thomas D. Seymour, 1891) load focus Greek (1920) load focus English (Samuel Butler, 1898) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Olympus (Greece) (1) Argos (Greece) (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (23 total) Commentary references to this page (2): Thomas W. Allen, E. E. Sikes, Commentary on the Homeric Hymns, HYMN TO APHRODITE W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.50 Cross-references to this page (4): Aristotle, Rhetoric, Aristot. Rh. 3.14 Harper's, Pigres Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, Syntax of the simple sentence Smith's Bio, Achilles Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Apollodorus, Epitome, Apollod. Epit. E.4 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (14): LSJ, ΠηλεÏ�Ï‚ LSJ, ἀξι_νό-πληκτος LSJ, ἀείδω LSJ, ἀφίημι LSJ, ἀκÏ�ÏŒ-πολις LSJ, ἀποκαθαÏ�ιεÏ�ω LSJ, á¼�ννα^-ετία LSJ, κόλπος LSJ, μῆνις LSJ, ὀπώÏ�-α LSJ, πολÏ�-πλαγκτος LSJ, θεÏ�μαστÏ�ίς LSJ, τοῖος LSJ, χείÏ� Cross-references in text-specific dictionaries to this page (2): Autenrieth, Μοῦσα Autenrieth, ἀείδω hide Search Searching in English. More search options Limit Search to:  Iliad (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.1-1.32 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-4112	----	Apollodorus, Library, book 1, chapter 1, section 1 Apollodorus, Library Sir James George Frazer, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: text: text Librarytext Epitome book: book 1book 2book 3 chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5section 6section 7 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Greek Prose Greek Texts Pseudo-Apollodorus View text chunked by: text : book : chapter : section volume : page Table of Contents: text Librarybook 1chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 section 20 section 21 section 22 section 23 section 24 section 25 section 26 section 27 section 28 book 2chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 book 3chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 text Epitome Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Click on a word to bring up parses, dictionary entries, and frequency statistics Οá½�Ï�ανὸς Ï€Ï�ῶτος τοῦ παντὸς á¼�δυνάστευσε κόσμου. γήμας δὲ Γῆν á¼�τέκνωσε Ï€Ï�ώτους τοὺς ἑκατόγχειÏ�ας Ï€Ï�οσαγοÏ�ευθέντας, Î’Ï�ιάÏ�εων ΓÏ�ην Κόττον, οἳ μεγέθει τε ἀνυπέÏ�βλητοι καὶ δυνάμει καθειστήκεσαν, χεῖÏ�ας μὲν ἀνὰ ἑκατὸν κεφαλὰς δὲ ἀνὰ πεντήκοντα ἔχοντες. Apollodorus. Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus English (Sir James George Frazer) hide References (4 total) Cross-references to this page (4): Harper's, Aegaeon Smith's Bio, Aegaeon Smith's Bio, Gaea Smith's Bio, Gyges load Vocabulary Tool hide Search Searching in Greek. More search options Limit Search to:  Library (this document) Search for all inflected forms (search for "amo" returns "amo", "amas", "amat", etc.) Search for exact forms only hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-5770	----	Apollodorus, Library, book 1, chapter 9, section 3 Apollodorus, Library Sir James George Frazer, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: text: text Librarytext Epitome book: book 1book 2book 3 chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5section 6section 7section 8section 9section 10section 11section 12section 13section 14section 15section 16section 17section 18section 19section 20section 21section 22section 23section 24section 25section 26section 27section 28 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: text : book : chapter : section volume : page Table of Contents: text Librarybook 1chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 section 20 section 21 section 22 section 23 section 24 section 25 section 26 section 27 section 28 book 2chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 book 3chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 text Epitome Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. [3] And Sisyphus, son of Aeolus, founded Ephyra, which is now called Corinth,1 and married Merope, daughter of Atlas. They had a son Glaucus, who had by Eurymede a son Bellerophon, who slew the fire breathing Chimera.2 But Sisyphus is punished in Hades by rolling a stone with his hands and head in the effort to heave it over the top; but push it as he will, it rebounds backward.3 This punishment he endures for the sake of Aegina, daughter of Asopus; for when Zeus had secretly carried her off, Sisyphus is said to have betrayed the secret to Asopus, who was looking for her. 1 Compare Hom. Il. 6.152ff.; Paus. 2.1.1. 2 As to Bellerophon and the Chimera, see Apollod. 2.3.1, with the note. 3 As to Sisyphus and his stone, see Hom. Od. 11.593-600. Homer does not say why Sisyphus was thus punished, but Paus. 2.5.1 and the Scholiast on Hom. Il. i.180 agree with Apollodorus as to the crime which incurred this punishment. Hyginus assigns impiety as the cause of his sufferings （Hyginus, Fab. 60）. The picturesque story of this cunning knave, who is said to have laid Death himself by the heels, so that nobody died till Ares released Death and delivered Sisyphus himself into his clutches （Scholiast on Hom. Il. vi.153）, was the theme of plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. See TGF (Nauck 2nd ed.), pp. 74ff., 251, 572; The Fragments of Sophocles, ed. A. C. Pearson, vol. ii. pp. 184ff. Critias, one of the Thirty Tyrants at Athens, is credited with a play on the same theme, of which a very striking fragment, giving a wholly sceptical view of the origin of the belief in gods, has come down to us. See Sextus Empiricus, ed. Bekker, pp. 402ff.; TGF (Nauck 2nd ed.), pp. 771ff. Apollodorus. Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Greek (Sir James George Frazer) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Ephyra (1) Corinth (Greece) (1) Athens (Greece) (1) Aegina City (Greece) (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (10 total) Commentary references to this page (1): W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 11.593 Cross-references to this page (8): Harper's, MerÅ�pé Smith's Bio, Belle'rophon Smith's Bio, Chimaera Smith's Bio, Eriphy'le Smith's Bio, Glaucus Smith's Bio, Lycurgus Smith's Bio, Me'rope Smith's Bio, Si'syphus Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Apollodorus, Library, Apollod. 3.12 hide Search Searching in English. More search options Limit Search to:  Library (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.9.3 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-6502	----	Homer, Odyssey, Book 1, line 1 Homer, Odyssey ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: book 1book 2book 3book 4book 5book 6book 7book 8book 9book 10book 11book 12book 13book 14book 15book 16book 17book 18book 19book 20book 21book 22book 23book 24 card: lines 1-43lines 44-79lines 80-124lines 125-177lines 178-229lines 230-279lines 280-324lines 325-364lines 365-420lines 421ff. This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : line Table of Contents: book 1lines 1-43 lines 44-79 lines 80-124 lines 125-177 lines 178-229 lines 230-279 lines 280-324 lines 325-364 lines 365-420 lines 421ff. book 2lines 1-38 lines 39-83 lines 84-128 lines 129-176 lines 177-223 lines 224-266 lines 267-308 lines 309-360 lines 361-387 lines 388ff. book 3lines 1-50 lines 51-101 lines 102-140 lines 141-183 lines 184-228 lines 229-275 lines 276-328 lines 329-370 lines 371-403 lines 404-446 lines 447ff. book 4lines 1-48 lines 49-99 lines 100-146 lines 147-182 lines 183-218 lines 219-264 lines 265-314 lines 315-350 lines 351-397 lines 398-434 lines 435-480 lines 481-511 lines 512-553 lines 554-592 lines 593-624 lines 625-674 lines 675-714 lines 715-757 lines 758-794 lines 795ff. book 5lines 1-49 lines 50-91 lines 92-144 lines 145-191 lines 192-227 lines 228-261 lines 262-312 lines 313-364 lines 365-407 lines 408-450 lines 451ff. book 6lines 1-47 lines 48-84 lines 85-126 lines 127-161 lines 162-210 lines 211-250 lines 251-287 lines 288ff. book 7lines 1-36 lines 37-76 lines 77-106 lines 107-151 lines 152-197 lines 198-239 lines 240-286 lines 287-316 lines 317ff. book 8lines 1-45 lines 46-82 lines 83-120 lines 121-164 lines 165-198 lines 199-249 lines 250-294 lines 295-342 lines 343-384 lines 385-432 lines 433-468 lines 469-520 lines 521-549 lines 550ff. book 9lines 1-46 lines 47-81 lines 82-115 lines 116-160 lines 161-192 lines 193-230 lines 231-280 lines 281-317 lines 318-359 lines 360-408 lines 409-460 lines 461-499 lines 500-535 lines 536ff. book 10lines 1-45 lines 46-86 lines 87-132 lines 133-177 lines 178-207 lines 208-260 lines 261-301 lines 302-344 lines 345-387 lines 388-427 lines 428-474 lines 475-502 lines 503-545 lines 546ff. book 11lines 1-50 lines 51-96 lines 97-137 lines 138-179 lines 180-224 lines 225-270 lines 271-320 lines 321-360 lines 361-403 lines 404-439 lines 440-485 lines 486-537 lines 538-566 lines 567-600 lines 601ff. book 12lines 1-35 lines 36-72 lines 73-110 lines 111-152 lines 153-191 lines 192-233 lines 234-276 lines 277-326 lines 327-363 lines 364-396 lines 397-425 lines 426ff. book 13lines 1-46 lines 47-92 lines 93-138 lines 139-183 lines 184-216 lines 217-249 lines 250-286 lines 287-328 lines 329-365 lines 366-415 lines 416ff. book 14lines 1-47 lines 48-71 lines 72-108 lines 109-146 lines 147-190 lines 191-233 lines 234-284 lines 285-320 lines 321-359 lines 360-400 lines 401-445 lines 446-493 lines 494ff. book 15lines 1-47 lines 48-91 lines 92-129 lines 130-178 lines 179-221 lines 222-264 lines 265-300 lines 301-339 lines 340-379 lines 380-414 lines 415-453 lines 454-492 lines 493-524 lines 525ff. book 16lines 1-45 lines 46-89 lines 90-134 lines 135-185 lines 186-224 lines 225-265 lines 266-307 lines 308-350 lines 351-392 lines 393-433 lines 434ff. book 17lines 1-44 lines 45-83 lines 84-119 lines 120-165 lines 166-203 lines 204-246 lines 247-289 lines 290-335 lines 336-379 lines 380-423 lines 424-461 lines 462-504 lines 505-559 lines 560ff. book 18lines 1-49 lines 50-87 lines 88-123 lines 124-168 lines 169-205 lines 206-249 lines 250-289 lines 290-336 lines 337-364 lines 365-393 lines 394ff. book 19lines 1-46 lines 47-88 lines 89-147 lines 148-189 lines 190-240 lines 241-276 lines 277-316 lines 317-360 lines 361-404 lines 405-454 lines 455-498 lines 499-543 lines 544-575 lines 576ff. book 20lines 1-43 lines 44-90 lines 91-132 lines 133-182 lines 183-225 lines 226-267 lines 268-298 lines 299-344 lines 345ff. book 21lines 1-41 lines 42-79 lines 80-117 lines 118-162 lines 163-204 lines 205-255 lines 256-310 lines 311-353 lines 354-400 lines 401ff. book 22lines 1-41 lines 42-78 lines 79-125 lines 126-169 lines 170-209 lines 210-254 lines 255-291 lines 292-329 lines 330-377 lines 378-429 lines 430-464 lines 465ff. book 23lines 1-48 lines 49-84 lines 85-128 lines 129-180 lines 181-230 lines 231-262 lines 263-309 lines 310-343 lines 344ff. book 24lines 1-34 lines 35-84 lines 85-137 lines 138-190 lines 191-231 lines 232-279 lines 280-326 lines 327-364 lines 365-411 lines 412-449 lines 450-495 lines 496ff. Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. [1] Tell me, O Muse, of the man of many devices, who wandered full many ways after he had sacked the sacred citadel of Troy. Many were the men whose cities he saw and whose mind he learned, aye, and many the woes he suffered in his heart upon the sea, [5] seeking to win his own life and the return of his comrades. Yet even so he saved not his comrades, though he desired it sore, for through their own blind folly they perished—fools, who devoured the kine of Helios Hyperion; but he took from them the day of their returning. [10] Of these things, goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning where thou wilt, tell thou even unto us. Now all the rest, as many as had escaped sheer destruction, were at home, safe from both war and sea, but Odysseus alone, filled with longing for his return and for his wife, did the queenly nymph Calypso, that bright goddess, [15] keep back in her hollow caves, yearning that he should be her husband. But when, as the seasons revolved, the year came in which the gods had ordained that he should return home to Ithaca, not even there was he free from toils, even among his own folk. And all the gods pitied him [20] save Poseidon; but he continued to rage unceasingly against godlike Odysseus until at length he reached his own land. Howbeit Poseidon had gone among the far-off Ethiopians—the Ethiopians who dwell sundered in twain, the farthermost of men, some where Hyperion sets and some where he rises, [25] there to receive a hecatomb of bulls and rams, and there he was taking his joy, sitting at the feast; but the other gods were gathered together in the halls of Olympian Zeus. Among them the father of gods and men was first to speak, for in his heart he thought of noble Aegisthus, [30] whom far-famed Orestes, Agamemnon's son, had slain. Thinking on him he spoke among the immortals, and said: “Look you now, how ready mortals are to blame the gods. It is from us, they say, that evils come, but they even of themselves, through their own blind folly, have sorrows beyond that which is ordained. [35] Even as now Aegisthus, beyond that which was ordained, took to himself the wedded wife of the son of Atreus, and slew him on his return, though well he knew of sheer destruction, seeing that we spake to him before, sending Hermes, the keen-sighted Argeiphontes,1 that he should neither slay the man nor woo his wife; [40] for from Orestes shall come vengeance for the son of Atreus when once he has come to manhood and longs for his own land. So Hermes spoke, but for all his good intent he prevailed not upon the heart of Aegisthus; and now he has paid the full price of all.â€� 1 1 Homer. The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Notes (W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, 1886) load focus English (Samuel Butler, Based on public domain edition, revised by Timothy Power and Gregory Nagy., 1900) load focus Greek (1919) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Ithaca (Greece) (1) Ilium (Turkey) (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (27 total) Commentary references to this page (7): Sulpicia, Carmina Omnia, 1 Thomas W. Allen, E. E. Sikes, Commentary on the Homeric Hymns, HYMN TO APHRODITE W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.300 W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.328 Walter Leaf, Commentary on the Iliad (1900), 1.1 Walter Leaf, Commentary on the Iliad (1900), 2.484 Thomas D. Seymour, Commentary on Homer's Iliad, Books I-III, 1.3 Cross-references to this page (6): Aristotle, Rhetoric, Aristot. Rh. 3.14 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), AULAEUM A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), ORA´CULUM A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), SA´RCULUM Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, Syntax of the simple sentence Smith's Bio, Musae Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Polybius, Histories, An Historian Needs Practical Experience Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (10): LSJ, á¼�νέπω LSJ, εὔτÏ�οπος LSJ, ἦ τε LSJ, ἱκάνω LSJ, μάλα LSJ, πλάζω LSJ, πολÏ�-κÏ�οτος LSJ, πολÏ�-Ï„Ï�οπος LSJ, ὑβÏ�-ιστής LSJ, χÏ�έος Cross-references in text-specific dictionaries to this page (3): Autenrieth, Μοῦσα Autenrieth, á¼�νέπω Autenrieth, πολÏ� - Ï„Ï�οπος hide Search Searching in English. More search options Limit Search to:  Odyssey (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:1.1-1.43 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-6723	----	Apollodorus, Library, book 1, chapter 1, section 1 Apollodorus, Library Sir James George Frazer, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: text: text Librarytext Epitome book: book 1book 2book 3 chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5section 6section 7 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials View text chunked by: text : book : chapter : section volume : page Table of Contents: text Librarybook 1chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 section 20 section 21 section 22 section 23 section 24 section 25 section 26 section 27 section 28 book 2chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 book 3chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 text Epitome Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Sky was the first who ruled over the whole world.1 And having wedded Earth, he begat first the Hundred-handed, as they are named: Briareus, Gyes, Cottus, who were unsurpassed in size and might, each of them having a hundred hands and fifty heads.2 1 According to Hesiod (Hes. Th. 126ff.), Sky （Uranus） was a son of Earth （Gaia）, but afterwards lay with his own mother and had by her Cronus, the giants, the Cyclopes, and so forth. As to the marriage of Sky and Earth, see the fragment of Eur. Chrys., quoted by Sextus Empiricus, Bekker p. 751 (Nauck TGF(2), p. 633, Leipsig, 1889); Lucretius i.250ff., ii.991ff.; Verg. G. 2.325ff. The myth of such a marriage is widespread among the lower races. See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture （London, 1873）, i.321ff., ii.370ff. For example, the Ewe people of Togo-land, in West Africa, think that the Earth is the wife of the Sky, and that their marriage takes place in the rainy season, when the rain causes the seeds to sprout and bear fruit. These fruits they regard as the children of Mother Earth, who in their opinion is the mother also of men and of gods, see J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme （Berlin, 1906）, pp. 464, 548. In the regions of the Senegal and the Niger it is believed that the Sky-god and the Earth-goddess are the parents of the principal spirits who dispense life and death, weal and woe, among mankind. See Maurice Delafosse, Haut-Sénégal-Niger (Paris, 1912), iii.173ff. Similarly the Manggerai, a people of West Flores, in the Indian Archipelago, personify Sky and Earth as husband and wife; the consummation of their marriage is manifested in the rain, which fertilizes Mother Earth, so that she gives birth to her children, the produce of the fields and the fruits of the trees. The sky is called langÄ«t; it is the male power: the earth is called alang; it is the female power. Together they form a divine couple, called MoerÄ« Kraèng. See H. B. Stapel, “Het Manggeraische Volk （West Flores）,â€� Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-Landen Volkenkunde, lvi. （Batavia and the Hague, 1914）, p. 163. 2 Compare Hes. Th. 147ff. Instead of Gyes, some MSS. of Hesiod read Gyges, and this form of the name is supported by the Scholiast on Plat. Laws 7, 795c. Compare Ovid, Fasti iv.593; Hor. Carm. 2.17.14, iii.4.69, with the commentators. Apollodorus. Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Greek (Sir James George Frazer) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Senegal (Senegal) (1) Niger (Niger) (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (4 total) Cross-references to this page (4): Harper's, Aegaeon Smith's Bio, Aegaeon Smith's Bio, Gaea Smith's Bio, Gyges hide Search Searching in English. 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www-perseus-tufts-edu-7570	----	Homer, Odyssey, Book 1, line 1 Homer, Odyssey ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: book 1book 2book 3book 4book 5book 6book 7book 8book 9book 10book 11book 12book 13book 14book 15book 16book 17book 18book 19book 20book 21book 22book 23book 24 card: lines 1-43lines 44-79lines 80-124lines 125-177lines 178-229lines 230-279lines 280-324lines 325-364lines 365-420lines 421ff. This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Greek Hexameter Greek Poetry Greek Texts Homer Homer, Odyssey Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : line Table of Contents: book 1lines 1-43 lines 44-79 lines 80-124 lines 125-177 lines 178-229 lines 230-279 lines 280-324 lines 325-364 lines 365-420 lines 421ff. book 2lines 1-38 lines 39-83 lines 84-128 lines 129-176 lines 177-223 lines 224-266 lines 267-308 lines 309-360 lines 361-387 lines 388ff. book 3lines 1-50 lines 51-101 lines 102-140 lines 141-183 lines 184-228 lines 229-275 lines 276-328 lines 329-370 lines 371-403 lines 404-446 lines 447ff. book 4lines 1-48 lines 49-99 lines 100-146 lines 147-182 lines 183-218 lines 219-264 lines 265-314 lines 315-350 lines 351-397 lines 398-434 lines 435-480 lines 481-511 lines 512-553 lines 554-592 lines 593-624 lines 625-674 lines 675-714 lines 715-757 lines 758-794 lines 795ff. book 5lines 1-49 lines 50-91 lines 92-144 lines 145-191 lines 192-227 lines 228-261 lines 262-312 lines 313-364 lines 365-407 lines 408-450 lines 451ff. book 6lines 1-47 lines 48-84 lines 85-126 lines 127-161 lines 162-210 lines 211-250 lines 251-287 lines 288ff. book 7lines 1-36 lines 37-76 lines 77-106 lines 107-151 lines 152-197 lines 198-239 lines 240-286 lines 287-316 lines 317ff. book 8lines 1-45 lines 46-82 lines 83-120 lines 121-164 lines 165-198 lines 199-249 lines 250-294 lines 295-342 lines 343-384 lines 385-432 lines 433-468 lines 469-520 lines 521-549 lines 550ff. book 9lines 1-46 lines 47-81 lines 82-115 lines 116-160 lines 161-192 lines 193-230 lines 231-280 lines 281-317 lines 318-359 lines 360-408 lines 409-460 lines 461-499 lines 500-535 lines 536ff. book 10lines 1-45 lines 46-86 lines 87-132 lines 133-177 lines 178-207 lines 208-260 lines 261-301 lines 302-344 lines 345-387 lines 388-427 lines 428-474 lines 475-502 lines 503-545 lines 546ff. book 11lines 1-50 lines 51-96 lines 97-137 lines 138-179 lines 180-224 lines 225-270 lines 271-320 lines 321-360 lines 361-403 lines 404-439 lines 440-485 lines 486-537 lines 538-566 lines 567-600 lines 601ff. book 12lines 1-35 lines 36-72 lines 73-110 lines 111-152 lines 153-191 lines 192-233 lines 234-276 lines 277-326 lines 327-363 lines 364-396 lines 397-425 lines 426ff. book 13lines 1-46 lines 47-92 lines 93-138 lines 139-183 lines 184-216 lines 217-249 lines 250-286 lines 287-328 lines 329-365 lines 366-415 lines 416ff. book 14lines 1-47 lines 48-71 lines 72-108 lines 109-147 lines 148-190 lines 191-234 lines 235-284 lines 285-320 lines 321-359 lines 360-400 lines 401-445 lines 446-493 lines 494ff. book 15lines 1-47 lines 48-91 lines 92-129 lines 130-178 lines 179-221 lines 222-264 lines 265-300 lines 301-339 lines 340-379 lines 380-414 lines 415-453 lines 454-492 lines 493-524 lines 525ff. book 16lines 1-45 lines 46-89 lines 90-134 lines 135-185 lines 186-224 lines 225-265 lines 266-307 lines 308-350 lines 351-392 lines 393-433 lines 434ff. book 17lines 1-44 lines 45-83 lines 84-119 lines 120-165 lines 166-203 lines 204-246 lines 247-289 lines 290-335 lines 336-379 lines 380-423 lines 424-461 lines 462-504 lines 505-559 lines 560ff. book 18lines 1-49 lines 50-87 lines 88-123 lines 124-168 lines 169-205 lines 206-249 lines 250-289 lines 290-336 lines 337-364 lines 365-393 lines 394ff. book 19lines 1-46 lines 47-88 lines 89-147 lines 148-189 lines 190-240 lines 241-276 lines 277-316 lines 317-360 lines 361-404 lines 405-454 lines 455-498 lines 499-543 lines 544-575 lines 576ff. book 20lines 1-43 lines 44-90 lines 91-132 lines 133-182 lines 183-225 lines 226-267 lines 268-298 lines 299-344 lines 345ff. book 21lines 1-41 lines 42-79 lines 80-117 lines 118-162 lines 163-204 lines 205-255 lines 256-310 lines 311-353 lines 354-400 lines 401ff. book 22lines 1-41 lines 42-78 lines 79-125 lines 126-169 lines 170-209 lines 210-254 lines 255-291 lines 292-329 lines 330-377 lines 378-429 lines 430-464 lines 465ff. book 23lines 1-48 lines 49-84 lines 85-128 lines 129-180 lines 181-230 lines 231-262 lines 263-309 lines 310-343 lines 344ff. book 24lines 1-34 lines 35-84 lines 85-137 lines 138-190 lines 191-231 lines 232-279 lines 280-326 lines 327-364 lines 365-411 lines 412-449 lines 450-495 lines 496ff. Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Click on a word to bring up parses, dictionary entries, and frequency statistics ἄνδÏ�α μοι ἔννεπε, μοῦσα, πολÏ�Ï„Ï�οπον, ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη, á¼�πεὶ ΤÏ�οίης ἱεÏ�ὸν πτολίεθÏ�ον ἔπεÏ�σεν: πολλῶν δ᾽ ἀνθÏ�ώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω, πολλὰ δ᾽ á½… γ᾽ á¼�ν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν, 5á¼€Ï�νÏ�μενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίÏ�ων. ἀλλ᾽ οá½�δ᾽ ὣς ἑτάÏ�ους á¼�Ï�Ï�Ï�σατο, ἱέμενός πεÏ�: αá½�τῶν γὰÏ� σφετέÏ�ῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο, νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς ὙπεÏ�ίονος Ἠελίοιο ἤσθιον: αá½�Ï„á½°Ï� á½� τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἦμαÏ�. 10τῶν á¼�μόθεν γε, θεά, θÏ�γατεÏ� Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν. ἔνθ᾽ ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φÏ�γον αἰπὺν ὄλεθÏ�ον, οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεμόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν: τὸν δ᾽ οἶον νόστου κεχÏ�ημένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς νÏ�μφη πότνι᾽ á¼”Ï�υκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων 15á¼�ν σπέσσι γλαφυÏ�οῖσι, λιλαιομένη πόσιν εἶναι. ἀλλ᾽ ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε πεÏ�ιπλομένων á¼�νιαυτῶν, Ï„á¿· οἱ á¼�πεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι εἰς Ἰθάκην, οá½�δ᾽ ἔνθα πεφυγμένος ἦεν ἀέθλων καὶ μετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ᾽ á¼�λέαιÏ�ον ἅπαντες 20νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος: á½� δ᾽ ἀσπεÏ�χὲς μενέαινεν ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάÏ�ος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι. ἀλλ᾽ á½� μὲν Αἰθίοπας μετεκίαθε τηλόθ᾽ á¼�όντας, Αἰθίοπας τοὶ διχθὰ δεδαίαται, ἔσχατοι ἀνδÏ�ῶν, οἱ μὲν δυσομένου ὙπεÏ�ίονος οἱ δ᾽ ἀνιόντος, 25ἀντιόων ταÏ�Ï�ων τε καὶ á¼€Ï�νειῶν ἑκατόμβης. ἔνθ᾽ á½… γ᾽ á¼�τέÏ�πετο δαιτὶ παÏ�ήμενος: οἱ δὲ δὴ ἄλλοι Ζηνὸς á¼�νὶ μεγάÏ�οισιν Ὀλυμπίου á¼�θÏ�όοι ἦσαν. τοῖσι δὲ μÏ�θων ἦÏ�χε πατὴÏ� ἀνδÏ�ῶν τε θεῶν τε: μνήσατο γὰÏ� κατὰ θυμὸν ἀμÏ�μονος Αἰγίσθοιο, 30τόν ῥ᾽ Ἀγαμεμνονίδης τηλεκλυτὸς ἔκταν᾽ ὈÏ�έστης: τοῦ á½… γ᾽ á¼�πιμνησθεὶς ἔπε᾽ ἀθανάτοισι μετηÏ�δα: ‘ á½¢ πόποι, οἷον δή νυ θεοὺς βÏ�οτοὶ αἰτιόωνται: á¼�ξ ἡμέων γάÏ� φασι κάκ᾽ ἔμμεναι, οἱ δὲ καὶ αá½�τοὶ σφῇσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὑπὲÏ� μόÏ�ον ἄλγε᾽ ἔχουσιν, 35ὡς καὶ νῦν Αἴγισθος ὑπὲÏ� μόÏ�ον ἈτÏ�εÎ�δαο γῆμ᾽ ἄλοχον μνηστήν, τὸν δ᾽ ἔκτανε νοστήσαντα, εἰδὼς αἰπὺν ὄλεθÏ�ον, á¼�πεὶ Ï€Ï�ÏŒ οἱ εἴπομεν ἡμεῖς, á¼™Ï�μείαν πέμψαντες, á¼�Ï�σκοπον á¼€Ï�γεϊφόντην, μήτ᾽ αá½�τὸν κτείνειν μήτε μνάασθαι ἄκοιτιν: 40á¼�κ γὰÏ� ὈÏ�έσταο τίσις ἔσσεται ἈτÏ�εÎ�δαο, á½�ππότ᾽ ἂν ἡβήσῃ τε καὶ ἧς ἱμείÏ�εται αἴης. ὣς ἔφαθ᾽ á¼™Ï�μείας, ἀλλ᾽ οá½� φÏ�ένας Αἰγίσθοιο πεῖθ᾽ ἀγαθὰ φÏ�ονέων: νῦν δ᾽ á¼�θÏ�όα πάντ᾽ ἀπέτισεν. ’ Homer. The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Notes (W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, 1886) load focus English (Samuel Butler, Based on public domain edition, revised by Timothy Power and Gregory Nagy., 1900) load focus English (1919) hide References (27 total) Commentary references to this page (7): Sulpicia, Carmina Omnia, 1 Thomas W. Allen, E. E. Sikes, Commentary on the Homeric Hymns, HYMN TO APHRODITE W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.300 W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.328 Walter Leaf, Commentary on the Iliad (1900), 1.1 Walter Leaf, Commentary on the Iliad (1900), 2.484 Thomas D. Seymour, Commentary on Homer's Iliad, Books I-III, 1.3 Cross-references to this page (6): Aristotle, Rhetoric, Aristot. Rh. 3.14 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), AULAEUM A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), ORA´CULUM A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), SA´RCULUM Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, Syntax of the simple sentence Smith's Bio, Musae Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Polybius, Histories, An Historian Needs Practical Experience Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (10): LSJ, á¼�νέπω LSJ, εὔτÏ�οπος LSJ, ἦ τε LSJ, ἱκάνω LSJ, μάλα LSJ, πλάζω LSJ, πολÏ�-κÏ�οτος LSJ, πολÏ�-Ï„Ï�οπος LSJ, ὑβÏ�-ιστής LSJ, χÏ�έος Cross-references in text-specific dictionaries to this page (3): Autenrieth, Μοῦσα Autenrieth, á¼�νέπω Autenrieth, πολÏ� - Ï„Ï�οπος load Vocabulary Tool hide Search Searching in Greek. More search options Limit Search to:  Odyssey (this document) Search for all inflected forms (search for "amo" returns "amo", "amas", "amat", etc.) Search for exact forms only hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-grc1:1.1-1.43 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-grc1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-grc1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-8095	----	Pausanias, Description of Greece, Attica, chapter 1, section 1 Pausanias, Description of Greece ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: Attica Corinth Laconia Messenia Elis 1 Elis 2 Achaia Arcadia Boeotia Phocis and Ozolian Locri chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9chapter 10chapter 11chapter 12chapter 13chapter 14chapter 15chapter 16chapter 17chapter 18chapter 19chapter 20chapter 21chapter 22chapter 23chapter 24chapter 25chapter 26chapter 27chapter 28chapter 29chapter 30chapter 31chapter 32chapter 33chapter 34chapter 35chapter 36chapter 37chapter 38chapter 39chapter 40chapter 41chapter 42chapter 43chapter 44 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : chapter : section Table of Contents: Attica chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 Corinth chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Laconia chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 22 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 Messenia chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Elis 1 chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 Elis 2 chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 Achaia chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 Arcadia chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 47section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 54section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Boeotia chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Phocis and Ozolian Locri chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. On the Greek mainland facing the Cyclades Islands and the Aegean Sea the Sunium promontory stands out from the Attic land. When you have rounded the promontory you see a harbor and a temple to Athena of Sunium on the peak of the promontory. Farther on is Laurium, where once the Athenians had silver mines, and a small uninhabited island called the Island of Patroclus. For a fortification was built on it and a palisade constructed by Patroclus, who was admiral in command of the Egyptian men-of-war sent by Ptolemy, son of Ptolemy, son of Lagus, to help the Athenians, when Antigonus, son of Demetrius, was ravaging their country, which he had invaded with an army, and at the same time was blockading them by sea with a fleet.1 1 c. 267-263 B.C. Pausanias. Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Greek (1903) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Laurium (Greece) (1) Aegean (1) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (8 total) Cross-references to this page (5): The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, KORONEIA (Koroni) Attica, Greece. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), A´TTICA Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), PATROCLI INSULA Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SU´NIUM Smith's Bio, Patroclus Cross-references in notes to this page (2): Pausanias, Description of Greece, Paus. 1.30 Pausanias, Description of Greece, Paus. 1.35 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (1): LSJ, ΛαÏ�Ï�ειον hide Search Searching in English. 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www-perseus-tufts-edu-8199	----	P. Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses, Book 1, line 1 P. Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses Hugo Magnus, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: book 1book 2book 3book 4book 5book 6book 7book 8book 9book 10book 11book 12book 13book 14book 15 card: lines 1-4lines 5-88lines 89-162lines 163-252lines 253-347lines 348-415lines 416-451lines 452-524lines 525-566lines 567-649lines 650-711lines 712-745lines 746ff. 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Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Click on a word to bring up parses, dictionary entries, and frequency statistics Invocatio. Invocation In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas corpora; di, coeptis (nam vos mutastis et illas) adspirate meis primaque ab origine mundi ad mea perpetuum deducite tempora carmen. Ovid. Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. The National Endowment for the Humanities provided support for entering this text. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. 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www-perseus-tufts-edu-8640	----	Pausanias, Description of Greece, *)attika/, chapter 1, section 1 Pausanias, Description of Greece ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: Ἀττικά Κορινθιακά Λακωνικά Μεσσηνιακά Ἠλιακῶν Α Ἠλιακῶν Β Ἀχαικά Ἀρκαδικά Βοιωτικά Φωκικά, Λοκρῶν Ὀζόλων chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9chapter 10chapter 11chapter 12chapter 13chapter 14chapter 15chapter 16chapter 17chapter 18chapter 19chapter 20chapter 21chapter 22chapter 23chapter 24chapter 25chapter 26chapter 27chapter 28chapter 29chapter 30chapter 31chapter 32chapter 33chapter 34chapter 35chapter 36chapter 37chapter 38chapter 39chapter 40chapter 41chapter 42chapter 43chapter 44 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Greek Prose Greek Texts Pausanias Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : chapter : section Table of Contents: Ἀττικά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 Κορινθιακά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Λακωνικά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 Μεσσηνιακά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Ἠλιακῶν Α chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 Ἠλιακῶν Β chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 Ἀχαικά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 Ἀρκαδικά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 42section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 43section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 44section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 45section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 46section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 47section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 48section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 49section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 50section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 51section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 52section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 53section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 54section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Βοιωτικά chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 39section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 40section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 41section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 Φωκικά, Λοκρῶν Ὀζόλων chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 11section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 16section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 17section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 18section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 19section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 20section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 21section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 22section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 chapter 23section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 chapter 24section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 25section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 chapter 26section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 27section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 28section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 29section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 30section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 31section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 32section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 chapter 33section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 34section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 35section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 36section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 37section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 38section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Click on a word to bring up parses, dictionary entries, and frequency statistics τῆς ἠπείρου τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς κατὰ νήσους τὰς Κυκλάδας καὶ πέλαγος τὸ Αἰγαῖον ἄκρα Σούνιον πρόκειται γῆς τῆς Ἀττικῆς: καὶ λιμήν τε παραπλεύσαντι τὴν ἄκραν ἐστὶ καὶ ναὸς Ἀθηνᾶς Σουνιάδος ἐπὶ κορυφῇ τῆς ἄκρας. πλέοντι δὲ ἐς τὸ πρόσω Λαύριόν τέ ἐστιν, ἔνθα ποτὲ Ἀθηναίοις ἦν ἀργύρου μέταλλα, καὶ νῆσος ἔρημος οὐ μεγάλη Πατρόκλου καλουμένη: τεῖχος γὰρ ᾠκοδομήσατο ἐν αὐτῇ καὶ χάρακα ἐβάλετο Πάτροκλος, ὃς τριήρεσιν ὑπέπλει ναύαρχος Αἰγυπτίαις, ἃς Πτολεμαῖος ὁ Πτολεμαίου τοῦ Λάγου τιμωρεῖν ἔστειλεν Ἀθηναίοις, ὅτε σφίσιν Ἀντίγονος ὁ Δημητρίου στρατιᾷ τε αὐτὸς ἐσβεβληκὼς ἔφθειρε τὴν χώραν καὶ ναυσὶν ἅμα ἐκ θαλάσσης κατεῖργεν. Pausanias. Pausaniae Graeciae Descriptio, 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus English (1918) hide References (8 total) Cross-references to this page (5): The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, KORONEIA (Koroni) Attica, Greece. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), A´TTICA Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), PATROCLI INSULA Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SU´NIUM Smith's Bio, Patroclus Cross-references in notes to this page (2): Pausanias, Description of Greece, Paus. 1.30 Pausanias, Description of Greece, Paus. 1.35 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (1): LSJ, Λαύρειον load Vocabulary Tool hide Search Searching in Greek. More search options Limit Search to:  Description of Greece (this document) Search for all inflected forms (search for "amo" returns "amo", "amas", "amat", etc.) Search for exact forms only hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:1.1.1 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-8824	----	Homer, Iliad, Book 1, line 1 Homer, Iliad ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: book 1book 2book 3book 4book 5book 6book 7book 8book 9book 10book 11book 12book 13book 14book 15book 16book 17book 18book 19book 20book 21book 22book 23book 24 card: lines 1-32lines 33-67lines 68-91lines 92-129lines 130-171lines 172-205lines 206-244lines 245-284lines 285-311lines 312-344lines 345-385lines 386-427lines 428-457lines 458-492lines 493-530lines 531-567lines 568ff. This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Greek Hexameter Greek Poetry Greek Texts Homer Homer, Iliad Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : line Table of Contents: book 1lines 1-32 lines 33-67 lines 68-91 lines 92-129 lines 130-171 lines 172-205 lines 206-244 lines 245-284 lines 285-311 lines 312-344 lines 345-385 lines 386-427 lines 428-457 lines 458-492 lines 493-530 lines 531-567 lines 568ff. book 2lines 1-34 lines 35-75 lines 76-108 lines 109-154 lines 155-187 lines 188-223 lines 224-264 lines 265-300 lines 301-335 lines 336-368 lines 369-418 lines 419-458 lines 459-510 lines 511-545 lines 546-580 lines 581-614 lines 615-652 lines 653-694 lines 695-733 lines 734-779 lines 780-818 lines 819-857 lines 858ff. book 3lines 1-37 lines 38-75 lines 76-110 lines 111-145 lines 146-190 lines 191-224 lines 225-263 lines 264-301 lines 302-339 lines 340-382 lines 383-420 lines 421ff. book 4lines 1-49 lines 50-84 lines 85-126 lines 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lines 373-418 lines 419-454 lines 455-489 lines 490ff. book 21lines 1-33 lines 34-63 lines 64-96 lines 97-135 lines 136-160 lines 161-199 lines 200-232 lines 233-271 lines 272-297 lines 298-323 lines 324-360 lines 361-399 lines 400-433 lines 434-467 lines 468-501 lines 502-536 lines 537-570 lines 571ff. book 22lines 1-37 lines 38-76 lines 77-110 lines 111-130 lines 131-176 lines 177-223 lines 224-259 lines 260-288 lines 289-336 lines 337-366 lines 367-404 lines 405-436 lines 437-472 lines 473ff. book 23lines 1-34 lines 35-53 lines 54-92 lines 93-137 lines 138-160 lines 161-191 lines 192-225 lines 226-261 lines 262-286 lines 287-318 lines 319-350 lines 351-387 lines 388-428 lines 429-472 lines 473-513 lines 514-554 lines 555-585 lines 586-623 lines 624-663 lines 664-699 lines 700-739 lines 740-783 lines 784-825 lines 826-858 lines 859ff. book 24lines 1-21 lines 22-63 lines 64-92 lines 93-119 lines 120-158 lines 159-199 lines 200-227 lines 228-264 lines 265-298 lines 299-338 lines 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Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Click on a word to bring up parses, dictionary entries, and frequency statistics μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οá½�λομένην, á¼£ μυÏ�ί᾽ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε᾽ ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ᾽ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι Ï€Ï�οÎ�αψεν ἡÏ�ώων, αá½�τοὺς δὲ ἑλώÏ�ια τεῦχε κÏ�νεσσιν 5οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ᾽ á¼�τελείετο βουλή, á¼�ξ οὗ δὴ Ï„á½° Ï€Ï�ῶτα διαστήτην á¼�Ï�ίσαντε ἈτÏ�εÎ�δης τε ἄναξ ἀνδÏ�ῶν καὶ δῖος ἈχιλλεÏ�Ï‚. τίς Ï„á¾½ ἄÏ� σφωε θεῶν á¼”Ï�ιδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι; Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός: ὃ γὰÏ� βασιλῆϊ χολωθεὶς 10νοῦσον ἀνὰ στÏ�ατὸν ὄÏ�σε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί, οὕνεκα τὸν ΧÏ�Ï�σην ἠτίμασεν á¼€Ï�ητῆÏ�α ἈτÏ�εÎ�δης: ὃ γὰÏ� ἦλθε θοὰς á¼�πὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν λυσόμενός τε θÏ�γατÏ�α φέÏ�ων Ï„á¾½ ἀπεÏ�είσι᾽ ἄποινα, στέμματ᾽ ἔχων á¼�ν χεÏ�σὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος 15χÏ�υσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτÏ�ῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας ἈχαιοÏ�Ï‚, ἈτÏ�εÎ�δα δὲ μάλιστα δÏ�ω, κοσμήτοÏ�ε λαῶν: ἈτÏ�εÎ�δαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι á¼�ϋκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί, ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν ὈλÏ�μπια δώματ᾽ ἔχοντες á¼�κπέÏ�σαι ΠÏ�ιάμοιο πόλιν, εὖ δ᾽ οἴκαδ᾽ ἱκέσθαι: 20παῖδα δ᾽ á¼�μοὶ λÏ�σαιτε φίλην, Ï„á½° δ᾽ ἄποινα δέχεσθαι, á¼�ζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα. ἔνθ᾽ ἄλλοι μὲν πάντες á¼�πευφήμησαν Ἀχαιοὶ αἰδεῖσθαί θ᾽ ἱεÏ�ῆα καὶ ἀγλαὰ δέχθαι ἄποινα: ἀλλ᾽ οá½�κ ἈτÏ�εÎ�δῃ Ἀγαμέμνονι ἥνδανε θυμῷ, 25ἀλλὰ κακῶς ἀφίει, κÏ�ατεÏ�ὸν δ᾽ á¼�πὶ μῦθον ἔτελλε: μή σε γέÏ�ον κοίλῃσιν á¼�γὼ παÏ�á½° νηυσὶ κιχείω á¼¢ νῦν δηθÏ�νοντ᾽ á¼¢ ὕστεÏ�ον αὖτις ἰόντα, μή νÏ� τοι οá½� χÏ�αίσμῃ σκῆπτÏ�ον καὶ στέμμα θεοῖο: τὴν δ᾽ á¼�γὼ οá½� λÏ�σω: Ï€Ï�ίν μιν καὶ γῆÏ�ας ἔπεισιν 30ἡμετέÏ�ῳ á¼�νὶ οἴκῳ á¼�ν ἌÏ�γεϊ τηλόθι πάτÏ�ης ἱστὸν á¼�ποιχομένην καὶ á¼�μὸν λέχος ἀντιόωσαν: ἀλλ᾽ ἴθι μή μ᾽ á¼�Ï�έθιζε σαώτεÏ�ος ὥς κε νέηαι. Homer. Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Notes (Allen Rogers Benner, 1903) load focus Notes (Thomas D. Seymour, 1891) load focus English (Samuel Butler, 1898) load focus English (1924) hide References (23 total) Commentary references to this page (2): Thomas W. Allen, E. E. Sikes, Commentary on the Homeric Hymns, HYMN TO APHRODITE W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey (1886), 1.50 Cross-references to this page (4): Aristotle, Rhetoric, Aristot. Rh. 3.14 Harper's, Pigres Basil L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, Syntax of the simple sentence Smith's Bio, Achilles Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Apollodorus, Epitome, Apollod. Epit. E.4 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (14): LSJ, ΠηλεÏ�Ï‚ LSJ, ἀξι_νό-πληκτος LSJ, ἀείδω LSJ, ἀφίημι LSJ, ἀκÏ�ÏŒ-πολις LSJ, ἀποκαθαÏ�ιεÏ�ω LSJ, á¼�ννα^-ετία LSJ, κόλπος LSJ, μῆνις LSJ, ὀπώÏ�-α LSJ, πολÏ�-πλαγκτος LSJ, θεÏ�μαστÏ�ίς LSJ, τοῖος LSJ, χείÏ� Cross-references in text-specific dictionaries to this page (2): Autenrieth, Μοῦσα Autenrieth, ἀείδω load Vocabulary Tool hide Search Searching in Greek. More search options Limit Search to:  Iliad (this document) Search for all inflected forms (search for "amo" returns "amo", "amas", "amat", etc.) Search for exact forms only hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-grc1:1.1-1.32 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-grc1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-grc1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-9398	----	Apollodorus, Library, book 1, chapter 7, section 3 Apollodorus, Library Sir James George Frazer, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: text: text Librarytext Epitome book: book 1book 2book 3 chapter: chapter 1chapter 2chapter 3chapter 4chapter 5chapter 6chapter 7chapter 8chapter 9 section: section 1section 2section 3section 4section 5section 6section 7section 8section 9section 10 This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: text : book : chapter : section volume : page Table of Contents: text Librarybook 1chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 2section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 3section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 chapter 9section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 section 13 section 14 section 15 section 16 section 17 section 18 section 19 section 20 section 21 section 22 section 23 section 24 section 25 section 26 section 27 section 28 book 2chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 section 10 section 11 section 12 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 8section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 book 3chapter 1section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 2section 1 section 2 chapter 3section 1 section 2 chapter 4section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 chapter 5section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 6section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 7section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 8section 1 section 2 chapter 9section 1 section 2 chapter 10section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 section 9 chapter 11section 1 section 2 chapter 12section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 chapter 13section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 14section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 15section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4 section 5 section 6 section 7 section 8 chapter 16section 1 section 2 text Epitome Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. [3] Hellen had Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus1 by a nymph Orseis. Those who were called Greeks he named Hellenes after himself,2 and divided the country among his sons. Xuthus received Peloponnese and begat Achaeus and Ion by Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, and from Achaeus and Ion the Achaeans and Ionians derive their names. Dorus received the country over against Peloponnese and called the settlers Dorians after himself.3 Aeolus reigned over the regions about Thessaly and named the inhabitants Aeolians.4 He married Enarete, daughter of Deimachus, and begat seven sons, Cretheus, Sisyphus, Athamas, Salmoneus, Deion, Magnes, Perieres, and five daughters, Canace, Alcyone, Pisidice, Calyce, Perimede.5 Perimede had Hippodamas and Orestes by Achelous; and Pisidice had Antiphus and Actor by Myrmidon. 1 As to Hellen and his sons, see Strab. 8.7.1; Paus. 7.12; Conon 27. According to the Scholiast on Hom. Il. i.2, Xuthus was a son of Aeolus. 2 According to the Parian Chronicle, the change of the national name from Greeks （Graikoi） to Hellenes took place in 1521 B.C. See Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, i.542ff. Compare Aristot. Met. 1.352; Etymologicum Magnum, s.v. ΓÏ�αικός, p. 239; Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. ΓÏ�αικός; Frazer on Paus. 3.20.6; The Fragments of Sophocles, ed. A. C. Pearson, ii.160. 3 As to the early seats of the Dorians, see Hdt. 1.56. 4 As to the Aeolians of Thessaly, compare Paus. 10.8.4; Diod. 4.67.2. 5 As to Aeolus, his descendants, and their settlements, see Diod. 4.67.2-7; Scholiast on Pind. P. 4.107(190). Apollodorus. Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. The Annenberg CPB/Project provided support for entering this text. Purchase a copy of this text (not necessarily the same edition) from Amazon.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Greek (Sir James George Frazer) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Sort places alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a place to search for it in this document. Thessaly (Greece) (2) Peloponnesus (Greece) (2) Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide Dates (automatically extracted) Sort dates alphabetically, as they appear on the page, by frequency Click on a date to search for it in this document. 1521 BC (1) hide References (26 total) Commentary references to this page (1): W. W. How, J. Wells, A Commentary on Herodotus, 7.95 Cross-references to this page (23): Harper's, MyrmÄ­don Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), AE´OLES Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), DORIS Smith's Bio, Achaeus Smith's Bio, Ae'olus Smith's Bio, Ae'olus Smith's Bio, Alcy'one Smith's Bio, Antiphus Smith's Bio, A'thamas Smith's Bio, Canace Smith's Bio, Creu'sa Smith's Bio, Deimachus Smith's Bio, Deion Smith's Bio, Dorus Smith's Bio, Ion Smith's Bio, Magnes Smith's Bio, My'rmidon Smith's Bio, Orestes Smith's Bio, Peisi'dice Smith's Bio, Perie'res Smith's Bio, Salmo'neus Smith's Bio, Si'syphus Smith's Bio, Xuthus Cross-references in notes to this page (1): Apollodorus, Library, Apollod. 3.10 Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (1): LSJ, ΓÏ�αικός hide Search Searching in English. More search options Limit Search to:  Library (this document) hideStable Identifiers Citation URI: http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.7.3 Text URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Work URI: http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 Catalog Record URI: http://data.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 hide Display Preferences Greek Display: Unicode (precombined) Unicode (combining diacriticals) Beta Code SPIonic SGreek GreekKeys Latin transliteration Arabic Display: Unicode Buckwalter transliteration View by Default: Original Language Translation Browse Bar: Show by default Hide by default 
www-perseus-tufts-edu-9826	----	P. Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses, BOOK 1, line 1 P. Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses Brookes More, Ed. ("Agamemnon", "Hom. Od. 9.1", "denarius") All Search Options [view abbreviations] Home Collections/Texts Perseus Catalog Research Grants Open Source About Help Hide browse bar Your current position in the text is marked in blue. Click anywhere in the line to jump to another position: book: BOOK 1 Book 2 Book 3 Book 4 Book 5 Book 6 Book 7 Book 8 Book 9 Book 10 Book 11 Book 12 Book 13 Book 14 Book 15 card: lines 1-4lines 5-88lines 89-162lines 163-252lines 253-347lines 348-415lines 416-451lines 452-524lines 525-566lines 567-649lines 650-711lines 712-745lines 746ff. This text is part of: Greek and Roman Materials Search the Perseus Catalog for: Editions/Translations Author Group View text chunked by: book : line Table of Contents: BOOK 1 lines 1-4 lines 5-88 lines 89-162 lines 163-252 lines 253-347 lines 348-415 lines 416-451 lines 452-524 lines 525-566 lines 567-649 lines 650-711 lines 712-745 lines 746ff. Book 2 lines 1-102 lines 103-192 lines 193-300 lines 301-400 lines 401-465 lines 466-530 lines 531-632 lines 633-675 lines 676-707 lines 708-832 lines 833ff. Book 3 lines 1-94 lines 95-137 lines 138-250 lines 251-313 lines 314-336 lines 337-434 lines 435-508 lines 509-579 lines 580-689 lines 690ff. Book 4 lines 1-54 lines 55-166 lines 167-270 lines 271-372 lines 373-415 lines 416-480 lines 481-562 lines 563-603 lines 604-705 lines 706ff. Book 5 lines 1-73 lines 74-176 lines 177-249 lines 250-340 lines 341-408 lines 409-486 lines 487-571 lines 572ff. 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Book 13 lines 1-97 lines 98-204 lines 205-312 lines 313-398 lines 399-493 lines 494-575 lines 576-622 lines 623-704 lines 705-749 lines 750-897 lines 898ff. Book 14 lines 1-74 lines 75-100 lines 101-153 lines 154-222 lines 223-319 lines 320-440 lines 441-526 lines 527-580 lines 581-608 lines 609-697 lines 698-771 lines 772ff. Book 15 lines 1-59 lines 60-152 lines 153-251 lines 252-334 lines 335-449 lines 450-478 lines 479-551 lines 552-621 lines 622-679 lines 680-744 lines 745ff. Current location in this text. Enter a Perseus citation to go to another section or work. Full search options are on the right side and top of the page. Invocatio. INVOCATION My soul is wrought to sing of forms transformed to bodies new and strange! Immortal Gods inspire my heart, for ye have changed yourselves and all things you have changed! Oh lead my song in smooth and measured strains, from olden days when earth began to this completed time! Ovid. Metamorphoses. Brookes More. Boston. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. The National Endowment for the Humanities provided support for entering this text. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. An XML version of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system. show Browse Bar   load focus Latin (Hugo Magnus, 1892) load focus English (Arthur Golding, 1567) hide Places (automatically extracted) View a map of the most frequently mentioned places in this document. Download Pleiades ancient places geospacial dataset for this text. hide References (3 total) Cross-references to this page (1): Smith's Bio, Chaos Cross-references in general dictionaries to this page (2): Lewis & Short, ănÄ­mus Lewis & Short, fÄ•ro hide Search Searching in English. 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www-wikidata-org-4727	----	Sisyphus - Wikidata Sisyphus (Q102561) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos edit Language Label Description Also known as English Sisyphus king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos Statements instance of king in Greek mythology 0 references human who may be fictional 0 references image Punishment sisyph.jpg 2,688 × 3,051; 11.54 MB media legend ''Сізіф'', [[Тіціан]], [[Національний музей Прадо]] (Ukrainian) 0 references sex or gender male 0 references date of birth no value 0 references father Aiolos 2 references stated in Q45269617 stated in RSKD / Aeolus mother Enarete 0 references sibling Perieres 0 references spouse Merope 0 references Tyro 1 reference inferred from Tyro unmarried partner Anticlea 0 references child Ornytion 0 references Metapontus 0 references Glafcos 0 references Thersander 0 references Almus 0 references Sinon 0 references Odysseus 0 references position held king of Corinth 0 references present in work Hades subject has role non-player character 1 reference Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades_(video_game) The Myth of Sisyphus 0 references described by source Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24490640 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24746797 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45269617 0 references Q28009647 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfan/0568.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Q22341374 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfce/0358.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q97610506 0 references said to be the same as Wu Gang criterion used task recurring event 0 references Commons category Sisyphus 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 67258418 0 references 198736888 0 references 309840666 0 references 135146284441115332092 0 references 137156009831949580675 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 12078609k 0 references GND ID 118614797 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Library of Congress authority ID no2014082839 1 reference reference URL https://github.com/JohnMarkOckerbloom/ftl/blob/master/data/wikimap retrieved 3 April 2019 NKCR AUT ID jo2016908762 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 135146284441115332092 retrieved 30 September 2020 PLWABN ID 9810697447205606 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 137156009831949580675 retrieved 30 September 2020 IdRef ID 078600707 0 references WorldCat Identities ID viaf-67258418 1 reference VIAF ID 67258418 British Museum person or institution ID 60394 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID sisyphos-griechische-mythologie 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00567273 0 references Comic Vine ID 4005-2747 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID mythologie/sisyfos 0 references De Agostini ID Sìsifo+(mitologia) 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID topic/Sisyphus 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID sisyphe 0 references Freebase ID /m/0k1_1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Giant Bomb ID 3005-20265 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0062974 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 3661302 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 56293 0 references ILI ID i86537 0 references NE.se ID sisyfos 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtguj6hShUuB 0 references Quora topic ID Sisyphus-1 1 reference stated in Quora Sandrart.net person ID 511 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Sisyfos mapping relation type exact match 0 references Treccani ID Sisifo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifo&oldid=98459370 Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Sisyphus::8rf2z"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 46048 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID sisyphus 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(69 entries) edit afwiki Sisufos arwiki سيزيف arzwiki سيزيف astwiki Sísifu azwiki Sizif barwiki Sisyphos bewiki Сізіф bgwiki Сизиф bnwiki সিসিফাস brwiki Sisyfos bswiki Sizif cawiki Sísif ckbwiki سیزیف cswiki Sisyfos cvwiki Сизиф dawiki Sisyfos dewiki Sisyphos elwiki Σίσυφος enwiki Sisyphus eowiki Sizifo eswiki Sísifo etwiki Sisyphos euwiki Sisifo fawiki سیزیف fiwiki Sisyfos frwiki Sisyphe gawiki Sisifeas glwiki Sísifo hewiki סיזיפוס hrwiki Sizif huwiki Sziszüphosz hywiki Սիզիփոս idwiki Sisifos iswiki Sísýfos itwiki Sisifo jawiki シーシュポス jvwiki Sisifos kawiki სიზიფე kkwiki Сизиф kowiki 시시포스 lawiki Sisyphus lbwiki Sisyphos ltwiki Sizifas mkwiki Сизиф mywiki ဆီစီဖက် ndswiki Sisyphos nlwiki Sisyphos nnwiki Sisyfos nowiki Sisyfos ocwiki Sisif plwiki Syzyf ptwiki Sísifo rowiki Sisif ruwiki Сизиф scowiki Sisyphus shwiki Sizif simplewiki Sisyphus skwiki Sizyfos slwiki Sizif sqwiki Sizifi srwiki Сизиф svwiki Sisyfos thwiki ซิซิฟัส trwiki Sisifos ukwiki Сізіф viwiki Sisyphus warwiki Sisyphus (mitolohiya) wuuwiki 西西弗斯 zhwiki 西西弗斯 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit enwikiquote Sisyphus itwikiquote Sisifo ltwikiquote Sizifas plwikiquote Syzyf Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Category:Sisyphus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q102561&oldid=1353372258" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 19:44. 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www-wikidata-org-5410	----	Sisyphus - Wikidata Sisyphus (Q102561) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos edit Language Label Description Also known as English Sisyphus king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos Statements instance of king in Greek mythology 0 references human who may be fictional 0 references image Punishment sisyph.jpg 2,688 × 3,051; 11.54 MB media legend ''Сізіф'', [[Тіціан]], [[Національний музей Прадо]] (Ukrainian) 0 references sex or gender male 0 references date of birth no value 0 references father Aiolos 2 references stated in Q45269617 stated in RSKD / Aeolus mother Enarete 0 references sibling Perieres 0 references spouse Merope 0 references Tyro 1 reference inferred from Tyro unmarried partner Anticlea 0 references child Ornytion 0 references Metapontus 0 references Glafcos 0 references Thersander 0 references Almus 0 references Sinon 0 references Odysseus 0 references position held king of Corinth 0 references present in work Hades subject has role non-player character 1 reference Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades_(video_game) The Myth of Sisyphus 0 references described by source Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24490640 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24746797 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45269617 0 references Q28009647 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfan/0568.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Q22341374 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfce/0358.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q97610506 0 references said to be the same as Wu Gang criterion used task recurring event 0 references Commons category Sisyphus 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 67258418 0 references 198736888 0 references 309840666 0 references 135146284441115332092 0 references 137156009831949580675 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 12078609k 0 references GND ID 118614797 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Library of Congress authority ID no2014082839 1 reference reference URL https://github.com/JohnMarkOckerbloom/ftl/blob/master/data/wikimap retrieved 3 April 2019 NKCR AUT ID jo2016908762 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 135146284441115332092 retrieved 30 September 2020 PLWABN ID 9810697447205606 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 137156009831949580675 retrieved 30 September 2020 IdRef ID 078600707 0 references WorldCat Identities ID viaf-67258418 1 reference VIAF ID 67258418 British Museum person or institution ID 60394 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID sisyphos-griechische-mythologie 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00567273 0 references Comic Vine ID 4005-2747 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID mythologie/sisyfos 0 references De Agostini ID Sìsifo+(mitologia) 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID topic/Sisyphus 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID sisyphe 0 references Freebase ID /m/0k1_1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Giant Bomb ID 3005-20265 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0062974 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 3661302 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 56293 0 references ILI ID i86537 0 references NE.se ID sisyfos 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtguj6hShUuB 0 references Quora topic ID Sisyphus-1 1 reference stated in Quora Sandrart.net person ID 511 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Sisyfos mapping relation type exact match 0 references Treccani ID Sisifo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifo&oldid=98459370 Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Sisyphus::8rf2z"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 46048 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID sisyphus 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(69 entries) edit afwiki Sisufos arwiki سيزيف arzwiki سيزيف astwiki Sísifu azwiki Sizif barwiki Sisyphos bewiki Сізіф bgwiki Сизиф bnwiki সিসিফাস brwiki Sisyfos bswiki Sizif cawiki Sísif ckbwiki سیزیف cswiki Sisyfos cvwiki Сизиф dawiki Sisyfos dewiki Sisyphos elwiki Σίσυφος enwiki Sisyphus eowiki Sizifo eswiki Sísifo etwiki Sisyphos euwiki Sisifo fawiki سیزیف fiwiki Sisyfos frwiki Sisyphe gawiki Sisifeas glwiki Sísifo hewiki סיזיפוס hrwiki Sizif huwiki Sziszüphosz hywiki Սիզիփոս idwiki Sisifos iswiki Sísýfos itwiki Sisifo jawiki シーシュポス jvwiki Sisifos kawiki სიზიფე kkwiki Сизиф kowiki 시시포스 lawiki Sisyphus lbwiki Sisyphos ltwiki Sizifas mkwiki Сизиф mywiki ဆီစီဖက် ndswiki Sisyphos nlwiki Sisyphos nnwiki Sisyfos nowiki Sisyfos ocwiki Sisif plwiki Syzyf ptwiki Sísifo rowiki Sisif ruwiki Сизиф scowiki Sisyphus shwiki Sizif simplewiki Sisyphus skwiki Sizyfos slwiki Sizif sqwiki Sizifi srwiki Сизиф svwiki Sisyfos thwiki ซิซิฟัส trwiki Sisifos ukwiki Сізіф viwiki Sisyphus warwiki Sisyphus (mitolohiya) wuuwiki 西西弗斯 zhwiki 西西弗斯 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit enwikiquote Sisyphus itwikiquote Sisifo ltwikiquote Sizifas plwikiquote Syzyf Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Category:Sisyphus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q102561&oldid=1353372258" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 19:44. All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Privacy policy About Wikidata Disclaimers Mobile view Data access Developers Statistics Cookie statement 
www-wikidata-org-8005	----	Sisyphus - Wikidata Sisyphus (Q102561) From Wikidata Jump to navigation Jump to search king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos edit Language Label Description Also known as English Sisyphus king of Ephyra in Greek mythology Sisyphos Statements instance of king in Greek mythology 0 references human who may be fictional 0 references image Punishment sisyph.jpg 2,688 × 3,051; 11.54 MB media legend ''Сізіф'', [[Тіціан]], [[Національний музей Прадо]] (Ukrainian) 0 references sex or gender male 0 references date of birth no value 0 references father Aiolos 2 references stated in Q45269617 stated in RSKD / Aeolus mother Enarete 0 references sibling Perieres 0 references spouse Merope 0 references Tyro 1 reference inferred from Tyro unmarried partner Anticlea 0 references child Ornytion 0 references Metapontus 0 references Glafcos 0 references Thersander 0 references Almus 0 references Sinon 0 references Odysseus 0 references position held king of Corinth 0 references present in work Hades subject has role non-player character 1 reference Wikimedia import URL https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades_(video_game) The Myth of Sisyphus 0 references described by source Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24490640 0 references Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q24746797 0 references Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru statement is subject of Q45269617 0 references Q28009647 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfan/0568.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Q22341374 full work available at URL http://runeberg.org/nfce/0358.html section, verse, paragraph, or clause Sisyfos 0 references Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary statement is subject of Q97610506 0 references said to be the same as Wu Gang criterion used task recurring event 0 references Commons category Sisyphus 0 references Identifiers VIAF ID 67258418 0 references 198736888 0 references 309840666 0 references 135146284441115332092 0 references 137156009831949580675 0 references Bibliothèque nationale de France ID 12078609k 0 references GND ID 118614797 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project German Wikipedia Library of Congress authority ID no2014082839 1 reference reference URL https://github.com/JohnMarkOckerbloom/ftl/blob/master/data/wikimap retrieved 3 April 2019 NKCR AUT ID jo2016908762 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 135146284441115332092 retrieved 30 September 2020 PLWABN ID 9810697447205606 1 reference stated in Virtual International Authority File VIAF ID 137156009831949580675 retrieved 30 September 2020 IdRef ID 078600707 0 references WorldCat Identities ID viaf-67258418 1 reference VIAF ID 67258418 British Museum person or institution ID 60394 0 references Brockhaus Enzyklopädie online ID sisyphos-griechische-mythologie 0 references CERL Thesaurus ID cnp00567273 0 references Comic Vine ID 4005-2747 0 references Cultureel Woordenboek ID mythologie/sisyfos 0 references De Agostini ID Sìsifo+(mitologia) 0 references Encyclopædia Britannica Online ID topic/Sisyphus 0 references Encyclopædia Universalis ID sisyphe 0 references Freebase ID /m/0k1_1 1 reference stated in Freebase Data Dumps publication date 28 October 2013 Giant Bomb ID 3005-20265 0 references Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana ID 0062974 0 references Great Russian Encyclopedia Online ID 3661302 0 references Hrvatska enciklopedija ID 56293 0 references ILI ID i86537 0 references NE.se ID sisyfos 0 references PACTOLS thesaurus ID pcrtguj6hShUuB 0 references Quora topic ID Sisyphus-1 1 reference stated in Quora Sandrart.net person ID 511 0 references Store norske leksikon ID Sisyfos mapping relation type exact match 0 references Treccani ID Sisifo 1 reference imported from Wikimedia project Italian Wikipedia Wikimedia import URL https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sisifo&oldid=98459370 Wolfram Language entity code Entity["Concept", "Sisyphus::8rf2z"] 0 references Proleksis enciklopedija ID 46048 0 references Ancient History Encyclopedia ID sisyphus 0 references   Sitelinks Wikipedia(69 entries) edit afwiki Sisufos arwiki سيزيف arzwiki سيزيف astwiki Sísifu azwiki Sizif barwiki Sisyphos bewiki Сізіф bgwiki Сизиф bnwiki সিসিফাস brwiki Sisyfos bswiki Sizif cawiki Sísif ckbwiki سیزیف cswiki Sisyfos cvwiki Сизиф dawiki Sisyfos dewiki Sisyphos elwiki Σίσυφος enwiki Sisyphus eowiki Sizifo eswiki Sísifo etwiki Sisyphos euwiki Sisifo fawiki سیزیف fiwiki Sisyfos frwiki Sisyphe gawiki Sisifeas glwiki Sísifo hewiki סיזיפוס hrwiki Sizif huwiki Sziszüphosz hywiki Սիզիփոս idwiki Sisifos iswiki Sísýfos itwiki Sisifo jawiki シーシュポス jvwiki Sisifos kawiki სიზიფე kkwiki Сизиф kowiki 시시포스 lawiki Sisyphus lbwiki Sisyphos ltwiki Sizifas mkwiki Сизиф mywiki ဆီစီဖက် ndswiki Sisyphos nlwiki Sisyphos nnwiki Sisyfos nowiki Sisyfos ocwiki Sisif plwiki Syzyf ptwiki Sísifo rowiki Sisif ruwiki Сизиф scowiki Sisyphus shwiki Sizif simplewiki Sisyphus skwiki Sizyfos slwiki Sizif sqwiki Sizifi srwiki Сизиф svwiki Sisyfos thwiki ซิซิฟัส trwiki Sisifos ukwiki Сізіф viwiki Sisyphus warwiki Sisyphus (mitolohiya) wuuwiki 西西弗斯 zhwiki 西西弗斯 Wikibooks(0 entries) edit Wikinews(0 entries) edit Wikiquote(4 entries) edit enwikiquote Sisyphus itwikiquote Sisifo ltwikiquote Sizifas plwikiquote Syzyf Wikisource(0 entries) edit Wikiversity(0 entries) edit Wikivoyage(0 entries) edit Wiktionary(0 entries) edit Multilingual sites(1 entry) edit commonswiki Category:Sisyphus Retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q102561&oldid=1353372258" Navigation menu Personal tools English Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Item Discussion Variants Views Read View history More Search Navigation Main page Community portal Project chat Create a new Item Recent changes Random Item Query Service Nearby Help Donate Lexicographical data Create a new Lexeme Recent changes Random Lexeme Tools What links here Related changes Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Concept URI Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 19:44. 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zh-wikipedia-org-4235	----	西西弗斯 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书 西西弗斯 维基百科，自由的百科全书 跳到导航 跳到搜索 《薛西弗斯》，提香（1548年－1549年），普拉多博物館 「Σίσυφος」的各地常用別名 中国大陸 西西弗斯、西绪弗斯、西叙福斯、希绪弗斯 臺灣 薛西弗斯 港澳 西西弗斯 西西弗斯（希臘語：Σίσυφος；又譯西緒弗斯、薛西弗斯、西西佛斯等），是希腊神话中一位被惩罚的人。他受罚的方式是：必须将一块巨石推上山顶，而每次到达山顶后巨石又滚回山下，如此永无止境地重复下去。在西方语境中，形容词“西西弗斯式的”（英語：sisyphean）形容“永无尽头而又徒劳无功的任务”[1]像是佛教地藏经裏的负石鬼王。 目录 1 神话 2 流行文化 3 延伸閱讀 4 参考文献 5 参见 6 外部連結 神话[编辑] 西西弗斯是埃俄利亞（位於小亞細亞，臨愛琴海東岸）國王埃俄羅斯之子，也是科林斯城的创建者，该城古代又叫艾菲拉（Ephyra）。 西西弗斯以其狡猾机智闻名，他的机智令他囤积了大量财富。当他感到死神桑纳托斯差不多来时，他就蒙骗桑纳托斯戴上手铐，结果地上再没有人进入冥界，人们停止对冥王黑帝斯进行献祭，宙斯命战神阿瑞斯去西西弗斯那里释放桑纳托斯，桑纳托斯立即摄走西西弗斯的灵魂，西西弗斯临死前叫妻子不要对黑帝斯作献祭，黑帝斯及冥后泊瑟芬等不到献祭，西西弗斯就希望黑帝斯放自己回人间，叫妻子作献祭后再回来，然而西西弗斯并没有依约回到冥界，这激怒了黑帝斯，黑帝斯再派桑纳托斯去摄走西西弗斯的灵魂。 由于西西弗斯太狡猾，他被判要将大石推上陡峭的高山，每次他用尽全力，大石快要到顶时，石头就会从其手中滑脱，又得重新推回去，幹著无止境的劳动。 流行文化[编辑] 香港獨立樂隊My Little Airport受此神話故事啟發創作單曲《西西弗斯之歌》，並收錄於其專輯《香港是個大商場》中。 2009年影片《恐怖游轮》（Triangle）中提到了西西弗斯受惩罚的故事，提示了该片的主题。 2015年香港樂隊Nowhere Boys的同名專輯中的《推石頭的人》啟發自西西弗斯的故事。[2] 2015年臺灣樂團蘇打綠專輯《冬 未了》中的〈未了〉即受此神話故事影響寫。 2018年香港電視劇東方華爾街叶抱一说，指很多玩金融的都是西西弗斯。 2019年熊仔（豹子膽）專輯《夢想成真》，整張專輯以薛西弗斯的概念貫通，聽者反覆的播放專輯象徵著歌者無止境的爬坡。 延伸閱讀[编辑] 加缪的短文《西绪弗斯神话》 周国平的文章《幸福的西绪弗斯》 韓國電視劇《Sisyphus: the myth》 参考文献[编辑] ^ 《美國傳統英語字典》 ^ Nowhere Boys. www.facebook.com. [2019-09-22] （中文（简体）‎）.  参见[编辑] 吴刚伐桂 外部連結[编辑] 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：西西弗斯  Sisyphus. 大英百科全書 (11th ed.). 1911.   Sisyphus. New International Encyclopedia. 1905.  规范控制 WorldCat Identities BNF: cb12078609k (data) GND: 118614797 LCCN: no2014082839 NKC: jo2016908762 SUDOC: 078600707 VIAF: 67258418 取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=西西弗斯&oldid=63985510” 分类： 希腊神话人物 古代科林斯 隐藏分类： 含有希臘語的條目 含有英語的條目 引用自1911年大英百科全书并包含维基文库引用的维基百科条目 包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目 包含GND标识符的维基百科条目 包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目 包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目 包含SUDOC标识符的维基百科条目 包含VIAF标识符的维基百科条目 导航菜单 个人工具 没有登录 讨论 贡献 创建账户 登录 名字空间 条目 讨论 不转换 不转换 简体 繁體 大陆简体 香港繁體 澳門繁體 大马简体 新加坡简体 臺灣正體 视图 阅读 编辑 查看历史 更多 搜索 导航 首页 分类索引 特色内容 新闻动态 最近更改 随机条目 资助维基百科 帮助 帮助 维基社群 方针与指引 互助客栈 知识问答 字词转换 IRC即时聊天 联络我们 关于维基百科 工具 链入页面 相关更改 上传文件 特殊页面 固定链接 页面信息 引用本页 维基数据项 打印/导出 下载为PDF 打印页面 在其他项目中 维基共享资源 其他语言 Afrikaans العربية مصرى Asturianu Azərbaycanca Boarisch Беларуская Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша 한국어 Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Македонски မြန်မာဘာသာ Plattdüütsch Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 编辑链接 本页面最后修订于2021年1月29日 (星期五) 01:43。 本站的全部文字在知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 3.0协议之条款下提供，附加条款亦可能应用。（请参阅使用条款） Wikipedia®和维基百科标志是维基媒体基金会的注册商标；维基™是维基媒体基金会的商标。 维基媒体基金会是按美国国內稅收法501(c)(3)登记的非营利慈善机构。 隐私政策 关于维基百科 免责声明 手机版视图 开发者 统计 Cookie声明