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For information on how to proceed, first see the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful. Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked You can view and copy the source of this page: {{short description|King of Ephyra in Greek mythology}} {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} [[File:Nekyia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1494 n2.jpg|thumb|alt=Sisyphus depicted on a black-figure amphora vase |[[Persephone]] supervising Sisyphus in the [[Greek underworld|Underworld]], [[Attica]] black-figure [[amphora]] (vase), {{circa|530}} BC, [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]]museum {{abbr|inv.|inventory number}} 1494]] In [[Greek mythology]] '''Sisyphus''' or '''Sisyphos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|s|ᵻ|f|ə|s}}; [[Ancient Greek]]: Σίσυφος ''Sísyphos'') was the king of [[Cichyrus|Ephyra]] (now known as [[Corinth]]). He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for eternity. Through the [[classicism|classical influence]] on modern culture, tasks that are both [[wikt:laborious#Adjective|laborious]] and [[wikt:futile#Adjective|futile]] are therefore described as '''Sisyphean''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|s|ᵻ|ˈ|f|iː|ən}}).{{OED|sisyphean}} == Etymology == Linguistics Professor [[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[pre-Greek]] origin and a connection with the root of the word ''{{transl|grc|sophos}}'' (σοφός, "wise").[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. German [[mythographer]] [[Otto Gruppe]] thought that the name derived from ''{{transl|grc|sisys}}'' (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.Gruppe, O. ''Griechische Mythologie'' (1906), ii., p. 1021 == Family == Sisyphus was the son of King [[Aeolus (son of Hellen)|Aeolus]] [[Thessaly|of Thessaly]] and [[Enarete]][[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]]. ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.7.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=7&highlight=Sisyphus Bibliotheca, 1.7.3]'' and the brother of [[Salmoneus]]. He married the [[Pleiades (Greek mythology)|Pleiad]] [[Merope (Pleiades)|Merope]] by whom he became the father of [[Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)|Glaucus]], [[Ornytion]], [[Thersander]], [[Almus (son of Sisyphus)|Almus]], [[Sinon]] and [[Porphyrion (mythology)|Porphyrion]].Scholia, on ''[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Argonautica]]'' 3.1553 Sisyphus was the grandfather of [[Bellerophon]] through Glaucus,Pseudo-Apollodorus. ''Bibliotheca, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.9.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=9&highlight=Sisyphus 1.9.3]''[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' VI 152ff and [[Minyas (mythology)|Minyas]], founder of [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], through Almus. == Mythology == {{Greek myth (Hades)}} === Reign === Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]). King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed guests to his palace and travellers, a violation of ''[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]'', which fell under [[Zeus]]' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. === Conflict with Salmoneus === Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the [[oracle]] of [[Delphi]] on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From [[Homer]] onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter [[Tyro]] in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father. === Cheating death === Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the [[Asopides|Asopid]] [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]] to her father, the river god [[Asopus]], in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian [[acropolis]]. Zeus then ordered [[Thanatos]] to chain Sisyphus in [[Tartarus]]. Sisyphus was curious as to why [[Charon]], whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar and [[Ares]], annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned Sisyphus over to him.{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|p=491}} In another version, [[Hades]] was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades.{{cite web |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |title=Ancient Greeks: Is death necessary and can death actually harm us? |publisher=Mlahanas.de |access-date=2014-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702053105/http://mlahanas.de/Greeks/Death.htm |archive-date=2 July 2014}} Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river [[Styx]]. Then, complaining to [[Persephone]], goddess of the underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by [[Hermes]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.mythweb.com/encyc/entries/sisyphus.html|title=Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology: Sisyphus|website=www.mythweb.com|access-date=2019-07-01}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Sisyphus/sisyphus.html|title=Sisyphus|website=www.greekmythology.com}} In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to [[Tartarus]] by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released.{{sfn|Evslin|2006|p=209-210}} In ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles play)|Philoctetes]]'' by [[Sophocles]], there is a reference to the father of [[Odysseus]] (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not [[Laërtes]], whom we know as the father in the ''[[Odyssey]]'') upon having returned from the dead. [[Euripides]], in ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. === Punishment in the underworld === As a punishment for his trickery, Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill.{{cite web|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng2:11.13-11.13 |title=Homeros, Odyssey, 11.13 |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=2014-10-09}}''[[Odyssey]]'', xi. 593 The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his [[hubris]]tic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as ''Sisyphean''. Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter [[Polygnotus]] on the walls of the [[Lesche]] at [[Delphi]].[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] x. 31 ==Interpretations== [[File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Black and white etching of Sisyphus by Johann Vogel |Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. [[Johann Vogel (poet)|Johann Vogel]]: ''Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae'', 1649]] According to the [[solar theory]], King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west.{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus |volume=25 |page=161}} Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea. The 1st-century BC [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosopher [[Lucretius]] interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.''[[De Rerum Natura]]'' III [[Friedrich Welcker]] suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and [[Salomon Reinach]]''Revue archéologique'', 1904 that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone [[Acrocorinthus]], symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. [[Albert Camus]], in his 1942 essay ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, [[J. Nigro Sansonese]],[[J. Nigro Sansonese|Sansonese, J. Nigro]]. ''The Body of Myth''. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. {{ISBN|0-89281-409-8}} building on the work of [[Georges Dumézil]], speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation.{{cite book|last=Ariely|first=Dan|title=The Upside of Irrationality|year=2010|isbn=0-06-199503-7}} In his book ''The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking'',Manfred Kopfer (2018); The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking, The recursive solution for Sisyphos problem. {{ISBN|978-3-7438-7149-6}} German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able "to move a mountain", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do. ===Literary interpretations=== [[File:Punishment sisyph.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Painting of Sisyphus by Titian |''Sisyphus'' (1548–49) by [[Titian]], [[Prado Museum]], [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]]] [[Homer]] describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the ''[[Iliad]]'' and Book XI of the ''[[Odyssey]]''. [[Ovid]], the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of [[Orpheus]] and [[Eurydice]]. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being ''inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo'' ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").Ovid. ''Metamorphoses'', 10.44. In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"Apology, 41a [[Albert Camus]], the [[French Algeria|French]] [[absurdism|absurdist]], wrote an essay entitled ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. [[Franz Kafka]] repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; [[Kafkaesque]] for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[[Frederick R. Karl|Karl, Frederick]]. ''Franz Kafka: Representative Man.'' New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 The philosopher [[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." ''Review of Metaphysics'' 40 (June 1987): 675–686. [[Wolfgang Mieder]] has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them [[editorial cartoons]].Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. ==See also== * [[The Hill (film)|''The Hill'' (film)]] * ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', a 1942 philosophical essay by Albert Camus which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd * [[Sisyphus cooling]], a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth * [[Sisyphus (dialogue)|''Sisyphus'' (dialogue)]], written in the 4th century BC and included in earlier editions of Plato's works * ''[[Syzyfowe prace]]'', a novel by Stefan Żeromski * [[Triangle (2009 British film)|''Triangle'' (2009 British film)]] * Comparable characters: ** [[Naranath Bhranthan]], a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore ** [[Wu Gang]] – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} == References == {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} *{{cite book|last=Evslin|first=Bernard |title=Gods, Demigods and Demons: A Handbook of Greek Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ljjly9Zes9AC|year=2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84511-321-6}} *[[Homer]], [[Iliad|''The Iliad'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Homer]]. ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0133 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''The Odyssey'']] with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0135 Greek text available from the same website]. *{{cite book|last1=Morford|first1=Mark P. O. |last2=Lenardon|first2=Robert J. |title=Classical Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecGXcMRAPXcC&pg=PA491|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514338-6}} *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Graeciae Descriptio.'' ''3 vols''. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. *[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Pseudo-Apollodorus]], ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0021 Greek text available from the same website]. *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses'' translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] *[[Ovid|Publius Ovidius Naso]], ''Metamorphoses.'' Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029 Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{refend}} ==External links== {{wiktionary|Sisyphean}} {{commons category}} {{wikiquote}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Sisyphus|short=x}} {{Rulers of Corinth}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aeolides]] [[Category:Corinthian mythology]] [[Category:Condemned souls into Tartarus]] [[Category:Kings of Corinth]] [[Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades]] [[Category:Mythological tricksters]] [[Category:Mythological city founders]] Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): Sisyphus (edit) Template:Abbr (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Authority control (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Catalog lookup link (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Circa (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite EB1911 (view source) (template editor protected) Template:Cite 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