Pre-Greek substrate - Wikipedia Pre-Greek substrate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Pre-Greek) Jump to navigation Jump to search Extinct language of prehistoric Greece Not to be confused with Proto-Greek language. The Pre-Greek substrate (or Pre-Greek substratum) consists of the unknown language(s) spoken in prehistoric Greece before the coming of the Proto-Greek language in the area during the Bronze Age. It is possible that Greek acquired some thousand words and proper names from such a language(s), because some of its vocabulary cannot be satisfactorily explained as deriving from Proto-Greek and a Proto-Indo-European reconstruction is almost impossible for such terms.[1][2] Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Linguistic situation 1.2 Coming of Proto-Greek 1.3 Reconstruction 2 Pre-Greek loanwords 3 Substratum theories 3.1 Anatolian Indo-European contact 3.2 Minoan substratum 3.3 Tyrrhenian substratum 3.4 Kartvelian theory 4 See also 4.1 Substrates of other Indo-European languages 5 References 6 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links Introduction[edit] Linguistic situation[edit] Some modern linguists such as Robert Beekes and José Luís García-Ramón hold that the pre-Greek substrate spoken in the southern Balkans was non-Indo-European.[3][4] According to Beekes, the material "shows that we are largely dealing with one language, or a group of closely related dialects or languages".[5] However, Biliana Mihaylova finds no contradiction between "the idea of [an] Indo-European Pre-Greek substratum" and "the possibility of the existence of an earlier non-Indo-European layer in Greece" given certain pre-Greek words possessing Indo-European "pattern[s] of word formation".[6] Coming of Proto-Greek[edit] Estimates for the introduction of the Proto-Greek language into prehistoric Greece have changed over the course of the 20th century. Since the decipherment of Linear B, searches were made "for earlier breaks in the continuity of the material record that might represent the 'coming of the Greeks'".[7] The majority of scholars dates the coming of Proto-Greek to the transition from Early Helladic II to Early Helladic III (c. 2400−2200/2100 BC).[8] This has been criticized by John E. Coleman, who argues that this estimate is based on stratigraphic discontinuities at Lerna that other archaeological excavations in Greece suggested were the product of chronological gaps or separate deposit-sequencing instead of cultural changes.[9] Coleman estimates that the entry of Proto-Greek speakers into the Greek peninsula occurred during the late 4th millennium BC (c. 3200 BC) with pre-Greek spoken by the inhabitants of the Late Neolithic II period.[10] Reconstruction[edit] Although no written texts exist or have been identified as pre-Greek, the lexicon has been partially reconstructed via the considerable number of words that have been borrowed into Greek; such words often show a type of variation not found in inherited Indo-European Greek terms, and certain recurrent patterns that can be used to identify pre-Greek elements.[3] Pre-Greek loanwords[edit] There are different categories of words that have been suggested to be pre-Greek, or "Aegean", loanwords such as:[11][12] Anatomy: λαιμός, laimós, 'neck, throat'. Animals: βόλινθος/βόνασσος, bólinthos/bónassos, 'wild ox'; κάνθαρος, kántharos, 'beetle'; σμίνθος, smínthos, 'mouse'. Architecture: λαβύρινθος, labýrinthos, 'labyrinth'; πλίνθος, plínthos, 'brick'; πύργος, pýrgos, 'tower'.[13] Geography and topography: ἄμβων/ἄμβη, ámbōn/ámbē, 'crest of a hill', 'raised edge or protuberance'[6] Maritime vocabulary: ἄκατος, ákatos, 'small dinghy, skiff'. θάλασσα, thálassa, 'sea'. θάλαμος, thálamos, 'an inner room or chamber', 'the lowest, darkest part of the ship', 'the hold'[6] Metals and metallurgy: κασσίτερος, kassíteros, 'tin'; χαλκός, chalkós, 'copper'; μόλυβδος, mólybdos, 'lead'; σίδηρος, sídēros, 'iron'. Musical instruments: σύριγξ, sýrinx, 'flute'; κίθαρις, kítharis, 'zither'; σάλπιγξ, sálpinx, 'trumpet'; φόρμιγξ, phórminx, 'lyre'. Plants: ἀψίνθιον, apsínthion, 'wormwood' or 'absinthe'; ἐλαία, elaía, 'olive tree'; κισσός, kissós, 'ivy'; ἄμπελος, ámpelos, 'vine'; σταφυλή, staphylḗ, 'grape'. Social practices and institutions: ἀτέμβω, atémbo, 'maltreat' or 'to be bereft or cheated of a thing';[6] τύραννος, týrannos, 'absolute ruler'. Theonyms: Ἀπόλλων, Apóllōn, Apollo;[14][15] Ἄρης, Arēs, Ares;[15] Ἄρτεμις, Artemis, Artemis;[15] Ἀσκληπιός, Asklēpiós, Asclepius;[16] Ἀθήνη, Athḗnē, Athena;[15] Ἄτλας, Atlas, Atlas;[16] Διόνῡσος, Diónȳsos, Dionysus;[16] Ἑρμῆς, Hermēs, Hermes;[17] Ἥφαιστος Hēphaistos, Hephaestus;[18][17] Ὀδυσσεύς, Odysseús, Odysseus.[19][17] Toponyms/placenames: -νθ-, -nth- (e.g. Κόρινθος Korinthos, Ζάκυνθος Zakynthos), -σσ-, -ss- (e.g. Παρνασσός Parnassos), and -ττ-, -tt- (e.g. Ὑμηττός Hymettus).[20] Use of domestic species: ἔλαιον, élaion, 'olive oil'; λήκυθος, lḗkythos, 'oil-flask'; κάνθων, kánthōn, 'pack-ass'. Weapons: σιβύνη, síbynē, 'hunting spear'; ὑσσός, hyssós, 'javelin'; θώραξ, thṓrax, 'corselet'. Weaving: μύρινθος, mýrinthos, 'cord'; ἀρύβαλλος, arýballos, 'purse'. Substratum theories[edit] Various explanations have been made for these substrate features. Among these are:[21] Anatolian Indo-European contact[edit] Based upon toponymic evidence, it is generally assumed that a language was once spoken in both the Greek peninsula and western Anatolia before both Mycenaean Greek and the attested Anatolian languages became predominant. Various explanations for this phenomenon have been given by scholars.[22] From the distribution of the names, it appears that this language was spoken during the Early Helladic II period, which began around 2800 BC.[23] This substrate language, whose influence is observable on Ancient Greek and Anatolian languages, is taken by a number of scholars to be related to the Indo-European Luwian language,[23][24] and to be responsible for the widespread place-names ending in -ssa- and -nda- in Western Anatolia, and -ssos- and -nthos- in mainland Greece, respectively.[25][26][23] For instance, the name of the mount Parnassos in Greece has been interpreted as the Luwian parna- ('house') attached to the possessive suffix -ssa-. Both Hittite and Luwian texts also attest a place-name Parnassa, which could be related.[23] Philologist Martin L. West has proposed to name the language "Parnassian", and has argued for "a parallel movement down from Thrace by a branch of the same people as entered Anatolia, the people who were to appear 1,500 years later as the Luwians".[23] Other scholars have proposed that this substrate was brought to Greece by pre-Indo-European Anatolian settlers.[27][28] In most cases, it is impossible to distinguish between substrate words and loans from Asia Minor, and terms like τολύπη (tolúpē; 'clew, ball of wool ready for spinning') show typical pre-Greek features while being related to Anatolian words (in this case Luwian and Hittite taluppa/i- 'lump, clod') with no common Indo-European etymology, suggesting that they were borrowed into both Ancient Greek and Anatolian languages from the same substrate.[28] However, of the few words of secure Anatolian origin, most are cultural items or commodities which are likely the result of commercial exchange, not of a substratum.[29] Furthermore, the correlations between Anatolian and Greek placenames may in fact represent a common early phase of Indo-European spoken before the Anatolian languages developed in Asia Minor and Greek in mainland Greece.[30] Some of the relevant vocabulary can be explained alternatively as linguistic exchange between Greek and Anatolic languages across the Aegean Sea without necessarily originating from a change of language.[28][31] Anatolian loanwords include:[31] Apóllōn (Doric: Apéllōn, Cypriot: Apeílōn), from *Apeljōn, as in Hittite Appaliunaš;[14] dépas 'cup; pot, vessel', Mycenaean di-pa, from Hieroglyphic Luwian ti-pa-s 'sky; bowl, cup' (cf. Hittite nēpis 'sky; cup'); eléphās 'ivory', from Hittite laḫpa (itself from Mesopotamia; cf. Phoenician ʾlp, Egyptian Ȝbw); kýanos 'dark blue glaze; enamel', from Hittite kuwannan- 'copper ore; azurite' (ultimately from Sumerian kù-an); kýmbachos 'helmet', from Hittite kupaḫi 'headgear'; kýmbalon 'cymbal', from Hittite ḫuḫupal 'wooden percussion instrument'; mólybdos 'lead', Mycenaean mo-ri-wo-do, from *morkʷ-io- 'dark', as in Lydian mariwda(ś)-k 'the dark ones'; óbryza 'vessel for refining gold', from Hittite ḫuprušḫi 'vessel'; tolýpē 'ball of wool', from Hittite taluppa 'lump'/'clod' (or Cuneiform Luwian taluppa/i). Minoan substratum[edit] The existence of a Minoan (Eteocretan) substratum was the opinion of English archaeologist Arthur Evans who assumed widespread Minoan colonisation of the Aegean, policed by a Minoan thalassocracy.[32] Raymond A. Brown, after listing a number of words of pre-Greek origin from Crete, suggests a relation between Minoan, Eteocretan, Lemnian (Pelasgian), and Tyrrhenian, inventing the name "Aegeo-Asianic" for the proposed language family.[33] However, many Minoan loanwords found in Mycenaean Greek (e.g., words for architecture, metals and metallurgy, music, use of domestic species, social institutions, weapons, weaving) have been asserted to be the result of socio-cultural and economic interactions between the Minoans and Mycenaeans during the Bronze Age, and may therefore be part of a linguistic adstrate in Greek rather than a substrate.[34] Tyrrhenian substratum[edit] A Tyrrhenian/Etruscan substratum was proposed on the basis of (firstly) statements by Thucydides, to the effect that Tyrrhenian languages were spoken in an area including Athens, before the Tyrrhenians were expelled to the island of Lemnos,[35] and (secondly) the Lemnos funerary stele:[36] four pottery sherds inscribed in Etruscan that were found in 1885 at Ephestia in Lemnos.[36] However, the Lemnos funerary stele was written in a form of ancient Etruscan, which suggested that the author had emigrated from Etruria in Italy, rather than the Greek sphere, and the Homeric tradition makes no mention of a Tyrrhenian presence on Lemnos.[37] If Etruscan was spoken in Greece, it must have been effectively a language isolate, with no significant relationship to or interaction with speakers of pre-Greek or ancient Greek, since, in the words of C. De Simone, there are no Etruscan words that can be "etymologically traced back to a single, common ancestral form with a Greek equivalent".[37] Kartvelian theory[edit] In 1979, Edzard J. Furnée proposed a theory by which a pre-Greek substrate is associated with the Kartvelian languages.[38] See also[edit] Proto-Greek language Eteocretan Eteocypriot Etruscan language Minoan language Tyrrhenian languages Camunic language (probably Raetic) North Picene language Elymian language (probably Indo-European) Sicanian language Sicel language Paleo-Sardinian language (also called Paleosardinian, Protosardic, Nuraghic language) Hurro-Urartian languages Hurrian language Urartian language ?Kassite language Hattic language Substrates of other Indo-European languages[edit] Old European hydronymy Goidelic substrate hypothesis Germanic substrate hypothesis Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit References[edit] ^ Duhoux 2007, pp. 220–222. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFDuhoux2007 (help) ^ Beekes 2014, pp. 47–48: "Our knowledge of Indo-European has expanded so much, especially in the last thirty years (notably because of the laryngeal theory) that in some cases we can say almost with certainty that an Indo-European reconstruction is impossible. [...] In my EDG, I marked with >PG< all words which, in my view, were of Pre-Greek origin. I found 1106 words.". ^ a b Beekes 2014, p. 1. ^ García-Ramón 2004, pp. 999–1000. ^ Beekes 2014, p. 45. ^ a b c d Mihaylova 2012, pp. 80–81. ^ Coleman 2000, p. 104. ^ Meier-Brügger 2017, p. 697; citing Strunk 85−98, Panagl 99−103, and Lindner 105−108 in Bammesberger & Vennemann 2003. ^ Coleman 2000, pp. 106−107. ^ Coleman 2000, p. 139ff. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 244–245 (see Tables 1 and 2 for all loanwords except personal names, toponyms and theonyms). ^ Beekes 2014. ^ If the substratum is actually Indo-European, pyrgos as well as Pergamos might be connected to Proto-Indo-European *bhergh- Archived 2008-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b Beekes 2003, pp. 1–21. ^ a b c d Beekes 2014, p. 160. ^ a b c Beekes 2014, p. 161. ^ a b c Beekes 2014, p. 162. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 527. ^ Beekes 2009, p. 1048. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 241, 253–254. ^ Other theories ranging from the mild (e.g., Egyptian) to the extreme (e.g., Proto-Turkic) have been proposed but have been given little to no consideration from the broader academic community and as such are not mentioned in the main body of this article. ^ Furnée 1972, p. 35; Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254; Finkelberg 2006, p. 52; West 2007, p. 8; Beekes 2009, p. 3 ^ a b c d e West 2007, p. 8. ^ Some scholars, such as Leonard R. Palmer, go so far as to suggest that the language of Linear A might be Luwian, though other Anatolian interpretations have also been offered. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254. ^ Finkelberg 2006, p. 52: "As we have seen, the suffixes -nth- and -ss, which a hundred years ago gave rise to the hypothesis of the non-Indo-European pre-Hellenic substratum, can now be accounted for as typically Anatolian or, to be more precise, Luwian." ^ Furnée 1972, p. 35. ^ a b c Beekes 2009, p. 3. ^ Beekes 2009, p. xv. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 253–254, 256–257. ^ a b Hajnal 2009, pp. 1–21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHajnal2009 (help) ^ Gere 2006, p. 112: "Arthur Evans would live to repent of his suggestion to the British School that they reopen the excavations at Mycenae. He had expected that his theory of Minoan dominance over the mainland would be borne out, but instead he encountered stout resistance... Evans could never bring himself to believe any story except that of Minoan colonisation of the mainland from the beginning to the end of Mycenaean history." ^ Brown 1985, p. 289. ^ Renfrew 1998, pp. 239–264. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 4.109.4. ^ a b De Simone 2007, p. 786. ^ a b De Simone 2007, p. 787. ^ Furnée 1979. Sources[edit] Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo, eds. (2003). Languages in Prehistoric Europe (in German). Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter GmBH. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2003). "The Origin of Apollo". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 3 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1163/1569212031960384. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2014). Pre-Greek Phonology, Morphology, Lexicon. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004279445. Brown, Raymond A. (1985). Evidence for Pre-Greek Speech on Crete from Greek Alphabetic Sources. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. Coleman, John E. (2000). "An Archaeological Scenario for the "Coming of the Greeks" ca. 3200 B.C." The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 28 (1–2): 101–153. Demiraj, Shaban (2006). The Origin of the Albanians: Linguistically Investigated. Tirana: Academy of Sciences of Albania. ISBN 978-99943-817-1-5. De Simone, C. (2007). "9 Greek and Etruscan". In Christidis, A.-F.; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (eds.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 786–791. ISBN 978-0-521-83307-3. Duhoux, Y. (2007). "8 Greek and pre-Greek Languages: Introduction". In Christidis, A.-F.; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (eds.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 220–222. ISBN 9780521833073. Finkelberg, Margalit (2006). Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85216-6. Furnée, Edzard J. (1972). Die Wichtigsten Konsonantischen Erscheinungen Des Vorgriechischen: Mit Einem Appendix Über Den Vokalismus (in German). The Hague: Mouton. Furnée, Edzard Johan (1979). Vorgriechisch-Kartvelisches (in German). Leuven: Editions Peeters. ISBN 2801701149. García-Ramón, José Luís (2004). "Greece, Languages". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmut (eds.). Brill's New Pauly, Vol. 5. Leiden: Brill. Gere, Cathy (2006). The Tomb of Agamemnon. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02170-9. Hajnal, Ivo; Posch, Claudia (2009). "Graeco-Anatolian Contacts in the Mycenaean Period". Sprachwissenschaft Innsbruck Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen. Meier-Brügger, Michael (2017). "The Lexicon of Greek". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. 1. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. Mihaylova, Biliana (2012). "The Pre-Greek Substratum Revisited". In Hejl, Christina Løye; Jacquet, Janus Bahs; Heide, Marie; Whitehead, Benedicte Nielsen; Olsen, Birgit Anette (eds.). Etymology and the European Lexicon (PDF). Copenhagen: Roots of Europe (University of Copenhagen). pp. 80–81. Orel, Vladimir E. (1998). Albanian Etymological Dictionary. Leiden and Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11024-3. Renfrew, Colin (1998). "Word of Minos: The Minoan Contribution to Mycenaean Greek and the Linguistic Geography of the Bronze Age Aegean". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 8 (2): 239–264. doi:10.1017/S0959774300001852. West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Further reading[edit] Beattie, A.J. (1963). "Before Greek Alfred Heubeck: Praegraeca: sprachliche Untersuchungen zum vorgriechischindogermanischen Substrat. (Erlanger Forschungen, Reihe A, Band 12.) Pp. 90. Erlangen: Universitätsbibliothek, 1961. Paper". The Classical Review. 13 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00215370. Beekes, Robert S. P. (2008). "Palatalized Consonants in Pre-Greek". Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics. 32: 45–56. Carnoy, Albert (1960). "Les suffixes toponymiques pré-grecs". L'antiquité classique. 29 (2): 319–336. doi:10.3406/antiq.1960.348. Carnoy, Albert (1958). "Noms grecs de plantes d'origine pré-hellénique". L'antiquité classique. 27 (2): 305–327. doi:10.3406/antiq.1958.3346. Delgado, José Miguel Jiménez (2008). "Préstamos anatolios en griego antiguo" (PDF). Estudios Clásicos. 133: 7–32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-03-04. Retrieved 2017-09-22. Duhoux, Yves (2007). "Pre-Greek Languages: Indirect Evidence". In Christidis, A.-F. (ed.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–228. ISBN 978-0-521-83307-3. Heubeck, Alfred (1961). Praegraeca: sprachliche Untersuchungen zum vorgriechisch-indogermanischen Substrat (in German). Erlangen: Universitätsbund Erlangen. Watkins, Calvert (2007). "The Golden Bowl: Thoughts on the New Sappho and Its Asianic Background". Classical Antiquity. 26 (2): 305–324. doi:10.1525/ca.2007.26.2.305. External links[edit] Beekes, Roberts S. P. (2010). "Etymological Dictionary of Greek: The Pre-Greek Loanwords in Greek". Brill. (NB: Click the "Pre-Greek loanwords in Greek" tab found below the introductory text.) v t e Greek language Origin and genealogy Proto-Greek Pre-Greek substrate Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Hellenic languages Periods Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330) Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453) Modern Greek (since 1453) Varieties Ancient Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Homeric Locrian Pamphylian Macedonian Koine Jewish Koine Greek Modern Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Istanbul Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Phonology Ancient (accent/teaching) Koine Standard Modern Grammar Ancient Koine Standard Modern Writing systems Cypriot syllabary Linear B Greek alphabet History Archaic forms Attic numerals Greek numerals Orthography Diacritics Braille Cyrillization and Romanization Greeklish Literature Ancient Byzantine Modern Promotion and study Hellenic Foundation for Culture Center for the Greek Language Other Greek language question Exonyms Morphemes in English Terms of endearment Place names Proverbs Greek Language Day Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries v t e Language families of Eurasia Europe Indo-European Uralic Basque Iberian Tartessian Paleo-Corsican Paleo-Sardinian Camunic Elymian Ligurian North Picene Sicani Tyrsenian Eteocretan Eteocypriot Minoan West Asia Indo-European Afroasiatic Hurro-Urartian Hattic Kassite Kaskian Philistine Sumerian Proto-Euphratean ? Elamite Caucasian Kartvelian Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian South Asia Indo-European Dravidian Nihali Burushaski Kusunda Harappan ? East Asia Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong–Mien Kra–Dai Austronesian Japonic Indian Ocean rim Great Andamanese Ongan Kenaboi North Asia Altaic ? Turkic Mongolic Tungusic Koreanic Japonic "Paleosiberian" Koreanic Ainu Nivkh Chukotko-Kamchatkan Yukaghir Yeniseian Other North Asia Uralic Ruanruan ? Eskimo–Aleut Proposed groupings Alarodian Altaic Borean Nostratic Dené–Caucasian Eurasiatic Dené–Yeniseian Dravido-Korean Elamo-Dravidian Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Hittite Indo-Pacific Indo-Semitic Indo-Uralic Karasuk Pontic Turanian Ural-Altaic Uralo-Siberian Uralic–Yukaghir Eskimo–Uralic Arunachal Greater Siangic Siangic Digaro Miju Hrusish Kho-Bwa Southeast Asia Andamanese Austric Austro-Tai Austronesian–Ongan East Asian Sino-Austronesian Substrata Atlantic Pre-Celtic Pre-Germanic Pre-Goidelic Pre-Greek Vasconic Pre-Vedic Pre-Finno-Ugric Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Greek_substrate&oldid=1004381058" Categories: Greek language Ancient Greek language Language contact Aegean languages in the Bronze Age Pre-Indo-Europeans Linguistic strata Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn multiple-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version Languages العربية Asturianu Български Español فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Македонски Nederlands Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 2 February 2021, at 09:42 (UTC). 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