at the internet archive (https://www.archive.org). transcriber notes text emphasis shown as =bold= and _italics_. whole and fractional parts of numbers displayed as - / . issued may , u. s. department of agriculture. =farmers' bulletin .= =bees.= by e. f. phillips, ph. d., _in charge of bee culture, bureau of entomology._ washington: government printing office. . letter of transmittal. u. s. department or agriculture, bureau of entomology, _washington. d. c., march , ._ sir: i have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "bees," by e. f. phillips, ph. d., in charge of bee culture in this bureau. this paper will supersede farmers' bulletins and , a few new illustrations which add greatly to the value of the paper and some minor alterations in the text are the only changes in this from farmers' bulletin ; but since it is not now the policy of the department to issue revised editions, it is recommended that this bulletin be issued under a new serial number. in the preparation of this paper the aim has been to give briefly such information as is needed by persons engaged in the keeping of bees, and to answer inquiries such as are frequently received from correspondents of the department. no attempt has been made to include discussions of bee anatomy, honey plants, or the more special manipulations sometimes practiced, such as queen rearing. the discussion of apparatus is necessarily brief. respectfully, l. o. howard, _entomologist and chief of bureau._ hon, james wilson, _secretary of agriculture._ contents. page. introduction location of the apiary equipment in apparatus workshop hives. hive stands other apparatus equipment in bees bee behavior directions for general manipulations transferring uniting preventing robbing in the apiary feeding spring management swarm management and increase artificial swarming prevention of swarming preparation for the harvest the production of honey extracted honey comb honey the production of wax preparations for wintering diseases and enemies general information breeders of queens introducing queens dealers in bee keepers' supplies bee keepers' associations laws affecting beekeeping disease inspection laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom laws against the adulteration of honey when bees are a nuisance supposed injury of crops by bees journals and books on beekeeping publications of the department of agriculture on beekeeping illustrations. page. fig. . a well-arranged apiary . a ten-frame hive with comb honey super and perforated zinc queen excluder . smoker . bee veil with silk-tulle front hive tools . drone and queen trap on hive entrance . bee escape for removing bees from supers . spring bee escape . bee brush . worker, queen, and drone . comb architecture . egg, larvæ, and pupa . queen cells . handling the frame: first position . handling the frame: second position . handling the frame : third position . division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame . feeder set in collar under hive body . "pepper-box" feeder for use on top of frames . pan in super arranged for feeding . knives for uncapping honey . honey extractor . perforated zinc queen excluder . shipping cases for comb honey . queen mailing cage bees. =introduction.= beekeeping for pleasure and profit is carried on by many thousands of people in all parts of the united states. as a rule, it is not the sole occupation. there are, however, many places where an experienced bee keeper can make a good living by devoting his entire time and attention to this line of work. it is usually unwise to undertake extensive beekeeping without considerable previous experience on a small scale, since there are so many minor details which go to make up success in the work. it is a good plan to begin on a small scale, make the bees pay for themselves and for all additional apparatus, as well as some profit, and gradually to increase as far as the local conditions or the desires of the individual permit. bee culture is the means of obtaining for human use a natural product which is abundant in almost all parts of the country, and which would be lost to us were it not for the honey bee. the annual production of honey and wax in the united states makes apiculture a profitable minor industry of the country. from its very nature it can never become one of the leading agricultural pursuits, but that there is abundant opportunity for its growth can not be doubted. not only is the honey bee valuable as a producer, but it is also one of the most beneficial of insects in cross-pollinating the flowers of various economic plants. beekeeping is also extremely fascinating to the majority of people as a pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as intimacy with an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing study from the earliest times. it has the advantage of being a recreation which pays its own way and often produces no mean profit. it is a mistake, however, to paint only the bright side of the picture and leave it to the new bee keeper to discover that there is often another side. where any financial profit is derived, beekeeping requires hard work and work at just the proper time, otherwise the surplus of honey may be diminished or lost. few lines of work require more study to insure success. in years when the available nectar is limited, surplus honey is secured only by judicious manipulations, and it is only through considerable experience and often by expensive reverses that the bee keeper is able to manipulate properly to save his crop. anyone can produce honey in seasons of plenty, but these do not come every year in most locations, and it takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor years. when, even with the best of manipulations, the crop is a failure through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to keep them from starvation. the average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, under good management, will probably be to pounds of comb honey or to pounds of extracted honey. the money return to be obtained from the crop depends entirely on the market and the method of selling the honey. if sold direct to the consumer, extracted honey brings from to cents per pound, and comb honey from to cents per section. if sold to dealers, the price varies from to cents for extracted honey and from to cents for comb honey. all of these estimates depend largely on the quality and neatness of the product. from the gross return must be deducted from cents to $ per colony for expenses other than labor, including foundation, sections, occasional new frames and hives, and other incidentals. this estimate of expense does not include the cost of new hives and other apparatus needed in providing for increase in the size of the apiary. above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make beekeeping a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. we can not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great extent, but by proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy comb honey, or if extracted honey is produced it can be carefully cared for and neatly packed to appeal to the fancy trade. too many bee keepers, in fact, the majority, pay too little attention to making their goods attractive. they should recognize the fact that of two jars of honey, one in an ordinary fruit jar or tin can with a poorly printed label, and the other in a neat glass jar of artistic design with a pleasing, attractive label, the latter will bring double or more the extra cost of the better package. it is perhaps unfortunate, but nevertheless a fact, that honey sells largely on appearance, and a progressive bee keeper will appeal as strongly as possible to the eye of his customer. =location of the apiary.= in choosing a section in which to keep bees on an extensive scale it is essential that the resources of the country be known. beekeeping is more or less profitable in almost all parts of the united states, but it is not profitable to practice extensive beekeeping in localities where the plants do not yield nectar in large quantities. a man who desires to make honey production his business may find that it does not pay to increase the apiaries in his present location. it may be better to move to another part of the country where nectar is more abundant. [illustration: <sc>fig. .</sc>--a well-arranged apiary.] the location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. as a rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind and to be protected from high winds. in the north, a south slope is desirable. it is advisable for hives to be so placed that the sun will strike them early in the morning, so that the bees become active early in the day, and thus gain an advantage by getting the first supply of nectar. it is also advantageous to have the hives shaded during the hottest part of the day, so that the bees will not hang out in front of the hive instead of working. they should be so placed that the bees will not prove a nuisance to passers-by or disturb live stock. this latter precaution may save the bee keeper considerable trouble, for bees sometimes prove dangerous, especially to horses. bees are also sometimes annoying in the early spring, for on their first flights they sometimes spot clothes hung out to dry. this may be remedied by having the apiary some distance from the clothes-drying yard, or by removing the bees from the cellars on days when no clothes are to be hung out. the plot on which the hives are placed should be kept free from weeds, especially in front of the entrances. the grass may be cut with a lawn mower, but it will often be found more convenient and as efficient to pasture one or more head of sheep in the apiary inclosure. the hives should be far enough apart to permit of free manipulation. if hives are too close together there is danger of bees entering the wrong hive on returning, especially in the spring. these conditions, which may be considered as ideal, need not all be followed. when necessary, bees may be kept on housetops, in the back part of city lots, in the woods, or in many other places where the ideal conditions are not found. as a matter of fact, few apiaries are perfectly located; nevertheless, the location should be carefully planned, especially when a large number of colonies are kept primarily for profit. as a rule, it is not considered best to keep more than colonies in one apiary, and apiaries should be at least miles apart. there are so many factors to be considered, however, that no general rule can be laid down. the only way to learn how many colonies any given locality will sustain is to study the honey flora and the record of that place until the bee keeper can decide for himself the best number to be kept and where they shall be placed. the experience of a relatively small number of good bee keepers in keeping unusually large apiaries indicates that the capabilities of the average locality are usually underestimated. the determination of the size of extensive apiaries is worthy of considerable study, for it is obviously desirable to keep bees in as few places as possible, to save time in going to them and also expense in duplicated apparatus. to the majority of bee keepers this problem is not important, for most persons keep but a small number of colonies. this is perhaps a misfortune to the industry as a whole, for with fewer apiaries of larger size under the management of careful, trained bee keepers the honev production of the country would be marvelously increased. for this reason, professional bee keepers are not favorably inclined to the making of thousands of amateurs, who often spoil the location for the honey producer and more often spoil his market by the injudicious selling of honey for less than it is worth or by putting an inferior article on the market. out apiaries, or those located away from the main apiary, should be so located that transportation will be as easy as possible. the primary consideration, however, must be the available nectar supply and the number of colonies of bees already near enough to draw on the resources. the out apiary should also be near to some friendly person, so that it may be protected against depredation and so that the owner may be notified if anything goes wrong. it is especially desirable to have it in the partial care of some person who can hive swarms or do other similar things that may arise in an emergency. the terms under which the apiary is placed on land belonging to some one else is a matter for mutual agreement. there is no general usage in this regard. =equipment in apparatus.= it can not be insisted too strongly that the only profitable way to keep bees is in hives with movable frames. the bees build their combs in these frames, which can then be manipulated by the bee keeper as necessary. the keeping of bees in boxes, hollow logs, or straw '"skeps"' is not profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and should be strongly condemned. bees in box hives (plain boxes with no frames and with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often seen in all parts of the country. the owners may obtain from them a few pounds of inferior honey a year and carelessly continue in the antiquated practice. in some cases this type of beekeeping does little harm to others, but where diseases of the brood are present the box hive is a serious nuisance and should be abolished. =workshop.= it is desirable to have a workshop in the apiary where the crop may be cared for and supplies may be prepared. if the ground on which the hives are located is not level, it is usually better to have the shop on the lower side so that the heavier loads will be carried down grade. the windows and doors should be screened to prevent the entrance of bees. the wire-cloth should be placed on the outside of the window frames and should be extended about inches above the opening. this upper border should be held away from the frame with narrow wooden strips one-fourth inch in thickness so as to provide exits for bees which accidentally get into the house. bees do not enter at such openings, and any bees which are carried into the house fly at once to the windows and then crawl upward, soon clearing the house of all bees. the windows should be so arranged that the glass may be slid entirely away from the openings to prevent bees from being imprisoned. the equipment of benches and racks for tools and supplies can be arranged as is best suited to the house. it is a good plan to provide racks for surplus combs, the combs being hung from strips separated the distance of the inside length of the hive. =hives.= it is not the purpose of this bulletin to advocate the use of any particular make of hive or other apparatus. some general statements may be made, however, which may help the beginner in his choice. the type of hive most generally used in this country (fig. ) was invented by langstroth in . it consists of a plain wooden box holding frames hung from a rabbet at the top and not touching the sides, top, or bottom. hives of this type are made to hold eight, ten, or more frames. the size of frame in general use, known as the langstroth (or l) frame ( - / by - / inches), is more widely used than all others combined. one of the best features in hive manufacture developed by langstroth is the making of the spaces between frames, side walls, and supers accurately, so that there is just room for the easy passage of bees. in a space of this size (called a "bee space") bees rarely build comb or deposit propolis. the number of frames used depends on the kind of honey produced (whether comb or extracted) and on the length of honey flow and other local factors. there are other hives used which have points of superiority. these will be found discussed in the various books on beekeeping and in the catalogues of dealers in bee keepers' supplies. whatever hive is chosen, there are certain important points which should be insisted on. the material should be of the best; the parts must be accurately made, so that all frames or hives in the apiary are interchangeable. all hives should be of the same style and size; they should be as simple as it is possible to make them, to facilitate operation. simple frames diminish the amount of propolis, which will interfere with manipulation. as a rule, it is better to buy hives and frames from a manufacturer of such goods rather than to try to make them, unless one is an expert woodworker. the choice of a hive, while important, is usually given undue prominence in books on bees. in actual practice experienced bee keepers with different sizes and makes of hives under similar conditions do not find as much difference in their honey crop as one would be led to believe from the various published accounts. [illustration: <sc>fig. .</sc>--a -frame hive with comb honey super and perforated zinc queen excluder.] hives should be painted to protect them from the weather. it is usually desirable to use white paint to prevent excessive heat in the colony during hot weather. other light colors are satisfactory, but it is best to avoid red or black. =hive stands.= generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. the entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive. stands of wood, bricks, tile (fig. ), concrete blocks, or any other convenient material will answer the purpose. the hive should be raised above the ground, so that the bottom will not rot. it is usually not necessary to raise the hive more than a few inches. where ants are a nuisance special hive stands are sometimes necessary. [illustration: <sc>fig. .</sc>--smoker.] [illustration: <sc>fig. .</sc>--bee veil with silk-tulle front.] =other apparatus.= in addition to the hives in which the bees are kept some other apparatus is necessary. a good smoker to quiet the bees (fig. ), consisting of a tin or copper receptacle to hold burning rotten wood or other material, with a bellows attached, is indispensable. a veil of black material, preferably with a black silk-tulle front (fig. ), should be used. black wire-cloth veils are also excellent. even if a veil is not always used, it is desirable to have one at hand in case the bees become cross. cloth or leather gloves are sometimes used to protect the hands, but they hinder most manipulations. some sort of tool (fig. ) to pry hive covers loose and frames apart is desirable. a screwdriver will answer, but any of the tools made especially for that purpose is perhaps better. division boards drone traps (fig. ), bee escapes (figs. and ), feeders (figs. , , , ), foundation fasteners, wax extractors, bee brushes (fig. ), queen-rearing outfits, and apparatus for producing comb or extracted honey (figs. , , ) will be found described in catalogues of supplies: a full discussion of these implements would require too much space in this bulletin. a few of these things are illustrated, and their use will be evident to the bee keeper. it is best to have the frames filled with foundation to insure straight combs composed of worker cells only. foundation is made from thin sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of the cells of the comb. on this as a guide the worker bees construct the combs. when sheets of foundation are inserted they should be supported by wires stretched across the frames. frames purchased from supply dealers are usually pierced for wiring. it should be remembered that manipulation based on a knowledge of bee behavior is of far greater importance than any particular style of apparatus. in a short discussion like the present it is best to omit descriptions of appliances, since supply dealers will be glad to furnish whatever information is desired concerning apparatus. [illustration: fig. .--hive tools.] [illustration: fig. .--drone and queen trap on hive entrance.] =equipment in bees.= as stated previously, it is desirable to begin beekeeping with a small number of colonies. in purchasing these it is usually best to obtain them near at home rather than to send to a distance, for there is considerable liability of loss in shipment. whenever possible it is better to get bees already domiciled in the particular hive chosen by the bee keeper, but if this is not practicable then bees in any hives or in box hives may be purchased and transferred. it is a matter of small importance what race of bees is purchased, for queens of any race may be obtained and introduced in place of the original queen, and in a short time the workers will all be of the same race as the introduced queen. this is due to the fact that during the honey season worker bees die rapidly, and after requeening they are replaced by the offspring of the new queen. [illustration: fig. .--bee escape for removing bees from supers.] a most important consideration in purchasing colonies of bees is to see to it that they are free from disease. in many states and counties there are inspectors of apiaries who can be consulted on this point, but if this is not possible even a novice can tell whether or not there is anything wrong with the brood, and it is always safest to refuse hives containing dead brood. the best time of the year to begin beekeeping is in the spring, for during the first few months of ownership the bee keeper can study the subject and learn what to do, so that he is not so likely to make a mistake which will end in loss of bees. it is usually best to buy good strong colonies with plenty of brood for that season of the year, but if this is not practicable, then smaller colonies, or nuclei, may be purchased and built up during the summer season. of course, no surplus honey can be expected if all the honey gathered goes into the making of additional bees. it is desirable to get as little drone comb as possible and a good supply of honey in the colonies purchased. [illustration: fig. .--spring bee escape.] the question as to what race and strain of bees is to be kept is important. if poor stock has been purchased locally, the bee keeper should send to some reliable queen breeder for good queens as a foundation for his apiary. queens may be purchased for $ each for "untested" to several dollars each for "selected" breeding queens. usually it will not pay beginners to buy "selected" breeding queens, for they are not yet prepared to make the best use of such stock. "untested" or "tested" queens are usually as good a quality as are profitable for a year or so, and there is also less danger in mailing "untested" (young) queens. various races of bees have been imported into the united states and among experienced bee keepers there are ardent advocates of almost all of them. the black or german race was the first imported, very early in the history of the country, and is found everywhere, but usually not entirely pure. as a rule this race is not desirable. no attention has been paid to breeding it for improvement in this country, and it is usually found in the hands of careless bee keepers. as a result it is inferior, although it often produces beautiful comb honey. the italian bees, the next introduced, are the most popular race among the best bee keepers in this country, and with good reason. they are vigorous workers and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and above all have been more carefully selected by american breeders than any other race. especially for the last reason it is usually desirable to keep this race. that almost any other race of bees known could be bred to as high a point as the italians, and perhaps higher, can not be doubted, but the bee keeper now gets the benefit of what has been done for this race. it should not be understood from this that the efforts at breeding have been highly successful. on the contrary, bee breeding will compare very unfavorably with the improvement of other animals or plants which have been the subject of breeding investigations. [illustration: fig. .--bee brush.] italian bees have been carefully selected for color by some breeders to increase the area of yellow on the abdomen, until we now have what are known as "five-banded" bees. these are very beautiful, but it can scarcely be claimed that they are improved as honey producers or in regard to gentleness. they are kept mostly by amateurs. some breeders have claimed to select italians for greater length of tongue, with the object of getting a bee which could obtain the abundance of nectar from red clover. if any gain is ever made in this respect, it is soon lost. the terms "red-clover bees" or "long-tongued bees" are somewhat misleading, but are ordinarily used as indicating good honey producers. caucasian bees, formerly distributed throughout the country by this department, are the most gentle race of bees known. they are not stingless, however, as is often stated in newspapers and other periodicals. many report them as good honey gatherers. they are more prolific than italians and may possibly become popular. their worst characteristic is that they gather great quantities of propolis and build burr and brace combs very freely. they are most desirable bees for the amateur or for experimental purposes. carniolan and banat bees have some advocates, and are desirable in that they are gentle. little is known of banats in this country, carniolans swarm excessively unless in' large hives. cyprians were formerly used somewhat, but are now rarely found pure, and are undesirable either pure or in crosses because of the fact that they sting with the least provocation and are not manageable with smoke. they are good honey gatherers, but their undesirable qualities have caused them to be discarded by american bee keepers. ''holy-land," egyptian, and punic (tunisian) bees have also been tried and have been universally abandoned. the department of agriculture does not now distribute or sell queen bees or colonies of bees of any race. =bee behavior.= the successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowledge of their habits. this is not generally recognized, and most of the literature on practical beekeeping consists of sets of rules to guide manipulations. this is too true of the present paper, but is due to a desire to make the bulletin short and concise. while this method usually answers, it is nevertheless faulty, in that, without a knowledge of fundamental principles of behavior, the bee keeper is unable to recognize the seemingly abnormal phases of activity, and does not know what to do under such circumstances. rules must, of course, be based on the usual behavior. by years of association the bee keeper almost unconsciously acquires a wide knowledge of bee behavior, and consequently is better able to solve the problems which constantly arise. however, it would save an infinite number of mistakes and would add greatly to the interest of the work if more time were expended on a study of behavior; then the knowledge gained could be applied to practical manipulation. a colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee (fig. , _b_), the mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females called workers (fig. , _a_), which normally lay no eggs, but build the comb, gather the stores, keep the hive clean, feed the young, and do the other work of the hive. during part of the year there are also present some hundreds of males (fig. , _c_) or drones (often removed or restricted in numbers by the bee keeper), whose only service is to mate with young queens. these three types are easily recognized, even by a novice. in nature the colony lives in a hollow tree or other cavity, but under manipulation thrives in the artificial hives provided. the combs which form their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers. the hexagonal cells of the two vertical layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends on a common septum. in the cells of these combs are reared the developing bees, and honey and pollen for food are also stored here. the cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used in rearing worker bees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and those used in rearing drones and in storing honey about one-fourth of an inch across (fig. ). the upper cells in natural combs are more irregular, and generally curve upward at the outer end. they are used chiefly for the storage of honey. under manipulation the size of the cells is controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb foundation--sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of cells and on which the bees build the side walls. [illustration: fig. .--the honey bee: _a_, worker; _b_, queen; _c_, drone. twice natural size.] in the north, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal colony consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. as the outside temperature raises, the queen begins to lay eggs (fig. , _a_) in the worker cells. these in time develop into white larvæ (fig. , _b_, _c_), which grow to fill the cells. they are then capped over and transform first into pupæ (fig. , _d_) and then into adult worker bees. as the weather grows warmer, and the colony increases in size by the emergence of the young bees, the quantity of brood is increased. the workers continue to bring in pollen, nectar to be made into honey, and water for brood rearing. when the hive is nearly filled with bees and stores, or when a heavy honey flow is on, the queen begins to lay eggs in the larger cells, and these develop into drones or males. continued increase of the colony would result in the formation of enormous, colonies, and unless some division takes place no increase in the number of colonies will result. finally, however, the workers begin to build queen cells (fig. ). these are larger than any other cells in the hive and hang on the comb vertically. in size and shape they may be likened to a peanut, and are also rough on the outside. in preparing for swarming the queen sometimes lays eggs in partly constructed queen cells, but when a colony becomes queenless the cells are built around female larvæ. the larvæ in these cells receive special food, and when they have grown to full size they, too, are sealed up, and the colony is then ready for swarming. [illustration: fig. .--comb architecture: _a_, vertical section at top of comb; _b_, vertical section showing transition from worker to drone cells; _c_, horizontal section at side of comb showing end bar of frame; _d_, horizontal section of worker brood cells; e, diagram showing transition cells. natural size.] the issuing of the first swarm from a colony consists of the departure of the original queen with part of the workers. they leave behind the honev stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stomachs, the brood, some workers, drones, several queen cells, from which will later emerge young queens, but no adult queen. by this interesting process the original colony is divided into two. the swarm finds a new location in some place, such as a hollow tree, or, if cared for by the bee keeper, in a hive. the workers build new combs, the queen begins laying, and in a short time the swarm becomes a normal colony. [illustration: fig. .--the honey bee: _a_, egg; _b_, young larva; _c_, old larva; _d_, pupa. three times natural size.] the colony on the old stand (parent colony) is increased by the bees emerging from the brood. after a time (usually about seven or eight days) the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. if the colony is only moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the workers to tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not yet emerged, but if a "second swarm" is to be given off the queen cells are protected. if the weather permits, when from to days old, the young queen flies from the hive to mate with a drone. mating usually occurs but once during the life of the queen and always takes place on the wing. in mating she receives enough spermatozoa (male sex cells) to last throughout her life. she returns to the hive after mating, and in about two days begins egg laying. the queen never leaves the hive except at mating time or with a swarm, and her sole duty in the colony is to lay eggs to keep up the population. when the flowers which furnish most nectar are in bloom, the bees usually gather more honey than they need for their own use, and this the bee keeper can safely remove. they continue the collection of honey and other activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when brood rearing ceases; they then become relatively quiet, remaining in the hive all winter, except for short flights on warm days. when the main honey flow is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. by that time the virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no further use. they are not usually stung to death, but are merely carried or driven from the hive by the workers and starve. a colony of bees which for any reason is without a queen does not expel the drones. [illustration: fig. .--queen cells. natural size.] many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, and it is therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand most of these, so that when they occur he may overcome them. if a virgin queen is prevented from mating she generally dies, but occasionally begins to lay eggs after about four weeks. in this event, however, all of the eggs which develop become males. such a queen is commonly called a "drone layer." if the virgin queen is lost while on her flight, or the colony at any other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional queens, it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay eggs. these eggs also develop only into drones. it also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa is exhausted, at which tune her eggs also develop only into drones. these facts are the basis of the theory that the drone of the bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno-genetic. a full discussion of this point is impossible in this place. the work of the hive is very nicely apportioned among the inmates, so that there is little lost effort. as has been stated, the rearing of young is accomplished by having one individual to lay eggs and numerous others (immature females or workers) to care for the larvæ. in like manner all work of the colony is apportioned. in general, it may be stated that all inside work--wax building, care of brood, and cleaning--is done by the younger workers, those less than days old, while the outside work of collecting pollen and nectar to be made into honey is done by the older workers. this plan may be changed by special conditions. for example, if the colony has been queenless for a tune and a queen is then given, old workers may begin the inside work of feeding larvæ, and these may also secrete wax. or, if the old workers are all removed, the younger bees may begin outside work. as a rule, however, the general plan of division of labor according to age is probably followed rather closely. =directions for general manipulations.= bees should be handled so that they will be little disturbed in their work. as much as possible, stings should be avoided during manipulation. this is true, not so much because they are painful to the operator, but because the odor of poison which gets into the air irritates the other bees and makes them more difficult to manage. for this reason it is most advisable to wear a black veil (fig. ) over a wide-brimmed hat and to have a good smoker (fig. ). gloves, however, are usually more an inconvenience than otherwise. gauntlets or rubber bands around the cuffs keep the bees from crawling up the sleeve. it is best to avoid black clothing, since that color seems to excite bees; a black felt hat is especially to be avoided. superfluous quick movements tend to irritate the bees. the hive should not be jarred or disturbed any more than necessary. rapid movements are objectionable, because with their peculiar eye structure bees probably perceive motion more readily than they do objects. persons not accustomed to bees, on approaching a hive, often strike at bees which fly toward them or make some quick movement of the head or hand to avoid the sting which they fear is to follow. this should not be done, for the rapid movement, even if not toward the bee, is far more likely to be followed by a sting than remaining quiet. the best time to handle bees is during the middle of warm days, particularly during a honey flow. never handle bees at night or on cold, wet days unless absolutely necessary. the work of a beginner may be made much easier and more pleasant by keeping gentle bees. caucasians, carniolans, banats, and some strains of italians ordinarily do not sting much unless unusually provoked or except in bad weather. common black bees or crosses of blacks with other races are more irritable. it may be well worth while for the beginner to procure gentle bees while gaining experience in manipulation. later on, this is less important, for the bee keeper learns to handle bees with little inconvenience to himself or to the bees. various remedies for bee stings have been advocated, but they are all useless. the puncture made by the sting is so small that it closes when the sting is removed and liquids can not be expected to enter. the best thing to do when stung is to remove the sting as soon as possible without squeezing the poison sac, which is usually attached. this can be done by scraping it out with a knife or finger nail. after this is done the injured spot should be let alone and not rubbed with any liniment. the intense itching will soon disappear; any irritation only serves to increase the afterswelling. before opening a hive the smoker should be lighted and the veil put on. a few puffs of smoke directed into the entrance will cause the bees to fill themselves with honey and will drive back the guards. the hive cover should be raised gently, if necessary being pried loose with a screwdriver or special hive tool. when slightly raised, a little more smoke should be blown in vigorously on the tops of the frames, or if a mat covering for the frames is used, the cover should be entirely removed and one corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. it is not desirable to use any more smoke than just enough to subdue the bees and keep them down on the frames. if at any time during manipulation they become excited, more smoke may be necessary. do not stand in front of the entrance, but at one side or the back. after the frames are exposed they may be loosened by prying gently with the hive tool and crowded together a little so as to give room for the removal of one frame. in cool weather the propolis (bee glue) may be brittle. care should be exercised not to loosen this propolis with a jar. the first frame removed can be leaned against the hive, so that there will be more room inside for handling the others. during all manipulations bees must not be mashed or crowded, for it irritates the colony greatly and may make it necessary to discontinue operations. undue crowding may also crush the queen. if bees crawl on the hands, they may be gently brushed off or thrown off. [illustration: fig. .--handling the frame: first position.] in examining a frame hold it over the hive if possible, so that any bees or queen which fall may drop into it. freshly gathered honey also often drops from the frame, and if it falls in the hive the bees can quickly clean it up, whereas if it drops outside it is untidy and may cause robbing. if a frame is temporarily leaned against the hive, it should be placed in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and leaking of honey. the frame on which the queen is located should not be placed on the ground, for fear she may crawl away and be lost. it is best to lean the frame on the side of the hive away from the operator, so that bees will not crawl up his legs. [illustration: fig. .--handling the frame: second position.] in hanging frames the comb should always be held in a vertical position, especially if it contains much honey. when a frame is lifted from the hive by the top bar, the comb is vertical with one side toward the operator (fig. ). to examine the reverse side, raise one end of the top bar until it is perpendicular (fig. ), turn the frame on the top bar as an axis until the reverse side is in view, and then lower to a horizontal position with the top bar below (fig. ). in this way there is no extra strain on the comb and the bees are not irritated. this care is not so necessary with wired combs, but it is a good habit to form in handling frames. it is desirable to have combs composed entirely of worker cells in order to reduce the amount of drone brood. the use of full sheets of foundation will bring this about and is also of value in making the combs straight, so that bees are not mashed in removing the frame. it is extremely difficult to remove combs built crosswise in the hive, and this should never be allowed to occur. such a hive is even worse than a plain box hive. superfluous inside fixtures should be avoided, as they tend only to impede manipulation. the hive should also be placed so that the entrance is perfectly horizontal and a little lower than the back of the hive. the frames will then hang in a vertical position, and the outer ones will not be fastened by the bees to the hive body if properly spaced at the top. [illustration: fig. .--handling the frame: third position.] in placing frames in the hive great care should be exercised that they are properly spaced. some frames are self-spacing, having projections on the side, so that when placed as close as possible they are the correct distance apart. these are good for beginners or persons who do not judge distances well and are preferred by many professional bee keepers. if unspaced frames are used, the brood frames should be - / inches from center to center. a little practice will usually enable anyone to space quickly and accurately. careful spacing is necessary to prevent the building of combs of irregular thickness and to retard the building of pieces of comb from one frame to another. a beginner in beekeeping should by all means, if possible, visit some experienced bee keeper to get suggestions in handling bees. more can be learned in a short visit than in a considerably longer time in reading directions, and numerous short cuts which are acquired by experience will well repay the trouble or expense of such a visit. not all professional bee keepers manipulate in the very best way, but later personal experience will correct any erroneous information. above all, personal experimentation and a study of bee activity are absolute necessities in the practical handling of bees. =transferring.= in increasing the apiary it is sometimes best to buy colonies in box hives on account of their smaller cost and to transfer them to hives with movable frames. this should be done as soon as possible, for box hive colonies are of small value as producers. the best time to transfer is in the spring (during fruit bloom in the north) when the amount of honey and the population of the colony are at a minimum. transferring should not be delayed until spring merely because that season is best for the work. it may be done at any time during the active season, but, whenever possible, during a honey flow, to prevent robbing. if necessary, it may be done in a tent such as is often used in manipulating colonies. by choosing a time of the day when the largest number of bees are in the field the work will be lessened. =plan .=--the box hive should be moved a few feet from its stand and in its place should be put a hive with movable frames containing full sheets of foundation. the box hive should be turned upside down and a small, empty box inverted over it. by drumming continuously on the box hive with sticks for a considerable time the bees will be made to desert their combs and go to the upper box, and when most of them are clustered above, the bees may be dumped in front of the entrance of the hive which is to house them. the queen will usually be seen as the bees enter the hive, but, in case she has not left the old combs, more drumming will induce her to do so. it is necessary that the queen be in the hive before this manipulation is finished. the old box hive containing brood may now be placed right side up in a new location and in days all of the worker brood will have emerged and probably some new queens will have been reared. these bees may then be drummed out and united with their former hive mates by vigorously smoking the colony and the drummed bees and allowing the latter to enter the hive through a perforated zinc to keep out the young queens. the comb in the box hive may then be melted up and any honey which it may contain used as the bee keeper sees fit. by this method good straight combs are obtained. if little honey is being gathered, the colony in the hive must be provided with food. =plan .=--if, on the other hand, the operator desires to save the combs of the box hive, the bees may be drummed into a box and the brood combs and other fairly good combs cut to fit frames and tied in place or held with rubber bands, strings, or strips of wood until the bees can repair the damage and fill up the breaks. these frames can then be hung in a hive on the old stand and the bees allowed to go in. the cutting of combs containing brood with more or less bees on them is a disagreeable job, and, since the combs so obtained are usually of little value in an apiary, the first method is recommended. =plan .=--another good plan is to wait until the colony swarms and then move the box hive to one side. a movable frame hive is now placed in the former location of the box hive and the swarm is hived in it. in this way all returning field bees are forced to join the swarm. in days all of the worker brood in the box hive will have emerged. these young bees may then be united with the bees in the frame hive and the box hive destroyed. colonies often take up their abode in walls of houses and it is often necessary to remove them to prevent damage from melting combs. if the cavity in which the combs are built can be reached, the method of procedure is like that of transferring, except that drumming is impractical and the bees must simply be subdued with smoke and the combs cut out with the bees on them. another method which is often better is to place a bee escape over the entrance to the cavity, so that the bees can come out, but can not return. a cone of wire cloth about inches high with a hole at the apex just large enough for one bee to pass will serve as a bee escape, or regular bee escapes (fig. ) such as are sold by dealers may be used. a hive which they can enter is then placed beside the entrance. the queen is not obtained in this way and, of course, goes right on laying eggs, but as the colony is rapidly reduced in size the amount of brood decreases. as brood emerges, the younger bees leave the cavity and join the bees in the hive, until finally the queen is left practically alone. a new queen should be given to the bees in the hive as soon as possible, and in a short time they are fully established in their new quarters. after about four weeks, when all or nearly all of the brood in the cavity has emerged, the bee escape should be removed and as large a hole made at the entrance of the cavity as possible. the bees will then go in and rob out the honey and carry it to the hive, leaving only empty combs. the empty combs will probably do no damage, as moths usually soon destroy them and they may be left in the cavity and the old entrance carefully closed to prevent another swarm from taking up quarters there. in transferring bees from a hollow tree the method will depend on the accessibility of the cavity. usually it is difficult to drum out the bees and the combs can be cut out after subduing the colony with smoke. =uniting.= frequently colonies become queenless when it is not practicable to give them a new queen, and the best practice under such conditions is to unite the queenless bees to a normal colony. if any colonies are weak in the fall, even if they have a queen, safe wintering is better insured if two or more weak colonies are united, keeping the best queen. under various other conditions which may arise the bee keeper may find it desirable to unite bees from different colonies. some fundamental facts in bee behavior must be thoroughly understood to make this a success. every colony of bees has a distinctive colony odor and by this means bees recognize the entering of their hive by bees from other colonies and usually resent it. if, however, a bee comes heavily laden from the field and flies directly into the wrong hive without hesitation it is rarely molested. in uniting colonies, the separate colony odors must be hidden, and this is done by smoking each colony vigorously. it may at times be desirable to use tobacco smoke, which not only covers the colony odor but stupefies the bees somewhat. care should be taken not to use too much tobacco, as it will completely overcome the bees. the queen to be saved should be caged for a day or two to prevent the strange bees from killing her in the first excitement. another fact which must be considered is that the bees of a colony carefully mark the location of their own hive and remember that location for some time after they are removed. if, therefore, two colonies in the apiary which are not close together are to be united, they should be moved gradually nearer, not more than a foot at a time, until they are side by side, so that the bees will not return to their original locations and be lost. as the hives are moved gradually the slight changes are noted and no such loss occurs. as a further precaution, a board should be placed in front of the entrance in a slanting position, or brush and weeds may be thrown down so that when the bees fly out they recognize the fact that there has been a change and accustom themselves to the new place. if uniting can be done during a honey flow, there is less danger of loss of bees by fighting, or if done in cool weather, when the bees are not actively rearing brood, the colony odors are diminished and the danger is reduced. it is an easy matter to unite two or more weak swarms to make one strong one, for during swarming the bees have lost their memory of the old location, are full of honey, and are easily placed wherever the bee keeper wishes. they may simply be thrown together in front of a hive. swarms may also be given to a newly established colony with little difficulty. =preventing robbing in the apiary.= when there is no honey flow bees are inclined to rob other colonies, and every precaution must be taken to prevent this. feeding often attracts other bees, and, if there are indications of robbing, the sirup or honey should be given late in the day. as soon as robbing begins, manipulation of colonies should be discontinued, the hives closed, and, if necessary, the entrances contracted as far as the weather will permit. if brush is thrown in front of the entrance, robbers are less likely to attempt entering. at all times honey which has been removed from the hives should be kept where no bees can get at it, so as not to incite robbing. =feeding.= during spring manipulations, in preparing bees for winter, and at other times it may be necessary to feed bees for stimulation or to provide stores. _honey from an unknown source should never be used_, for fear of introducing disease, and sirup made of granulated sugar is cheapest and best for this purpose. the cheaper grades of sugar or molasses should never be used for winter stores. the proportion of sugar to water depends on the season and the purpose of the feeding. for stimulation a proportion of one-fourth to one-third sugar by volume is enough, and for fall feeding, especially if rather late, a solution containing as much sugar as it will hold when cold is best. there seems to be little advantage in boiling the sirup. tartaric acid in small quantity may be added for the purpose of changing part of the cane sugar to invert sugar, thus retarding granulation. the medication of sirup as a preventive or cure of brood disease is often practiced, but it has not been shown that such a procedure is of any value. if honey is fed, it should be diluted somewhat, the amount of dilution depending on the season. if robbing is likely to occur, feeding should be done in the evening. numerous feeders are on the market, adapted for different purposes and methods of manipulation (figs. , , ). a simple feeder can be made of a tin pan filled with excelsior or shavings (fig. ). this is filled with sirup and placed on top of the frames in a super or hive body. it is advisable to lean pieces of wood on the pan as runways for the bees, and to attract them first to the sirup, either by mixing in a little honey or by spilling a little sirup over the frames and sticks. it may be stated positively that it does not pay financially, or in any other way, to feed sugar sirup to be stored in sections and sold as comb honey. of course, such things have been tried, but the consumption of sugar during the storing makes the cost greater than the value of pure floral honey. =spring management.= the condition of a colony of bees in the early spring depends largely upon the care given the bees the preceding autumn and in the method of wintering. if the colony has wintered well and has a good prolific queen, preferably young, the chances are that it will become strong in time to store a good surplus when the honey flow comes. the bees which come through the winter, reared the previous autumn, are old and incapable of much work. as the season opens they go out to collect the early nectar and pollen, and also care for the brood. the amount of brood is at first small, and as the new workers emerge they assist in the brood rearing so that the extent of the brood can be gradually increased until it reaches its maximum about the beginning of the summer. the old bees die off rapidly. if brood rearing does not continue late in the fall, so that the colony goes into winter with a large percentage of young bees, the old bees may die off in the spring faster than they are replaced by emerging brood. this is known as "spring dwindling." a preventive remedy for this may be applied by feeding, if necessary, the autumn before, or keeping up brood rearing as late as possible by some other means. [illustration: fig. .--division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame.] if spring dwindling begins, however, it can be diminished somewhat by keeping the colony warm and by stimulative feeding, so that all the energy of the old bees may be put to the best advantage in rearing brood to replace those drying off. the size of the brood chamber can also be reduced to conserve heat. [illustration: fig. .--feeder set in collar under hive body.] it sometimes happens that when a hive is examined in the spring the hive body and combs are spotted with brownish yellow excrement. this is an evidence of what is commonly called "dysentery." the cause of this trouble is long-continued confinement with a poor quality of honey for food. honeydew honey and some of the inferior floral honeys contain a relatively large percentage of material which bees can not digest, and, if they are not able to fly for some time, the intestines become clogged with fæcal matter and a diseased condition results. worker bees never normally deposit their fæces in the hive. the obvious preventive for this is to provide the colony with good honey or sugar sirup the previous fall. "dysentery" frequently entirely destroys colonies, but if the bees can pull through until warm days permit a cleansing flight they recover promptly. [illustration: fig. .--"pepper-box" feeder for use on top of frames.] bees should not be handled in the early spring any more than necessary, for to open a hive in cool weather wastes heat and may even kill the brood by chilling. the hive should be kept as warm as possible in early spring as an aid to brood rearing. it is a good practice to wrap hives in black tar paper in the spring, not only that it may aid in conserving the heat of the colony, but in holding the suns heat rays as a help to the warmth of the hive. this wrapping should be put on as soon as an early examination has shown the colony to be in good condition, and there need be no hurry in taking it off. a black wrapping during the winter is not desirable, as it might induce brood rearing too early and waste the strength of the bees. as a further stimulus to brood rearing, stimulative feeding of sugar sirup in early spring may be practiced. this produces much the same effect as a light honey flow does and the results are often good. others prefer to give the bees such a large supply of stores in the fall that when spring comes they will have an abundance for brood rearing, and it will not be necessary to disturb them in cool weather. both ideas are good, but judicious stimulative feeding usually more than pays for the labor. colonies should be fed late in the day, so that the bees will not fly as a result of it, and so that robbing will not be started. when the weather is warmer and more settled the brood cluster may be artificially enlarged by spreading the frames so as to insert an empty comb in the middle. the bees will attempt to cover all the brood that they already had, and the queen will at once begin laying in the newly inserted comb, thus making a great increase in the brood. this practice is desirable when carefully done, but may lead to serious results if too much new brood is produced. a beginner had better leave the quantity of brood to the bees. [illustration: fig. .--pan in super arranged for feeding.] it is desirable early in the season, before any preparations are made for swarming, to go through the apiary and clip one wing of each queen (see p. ). this should be done before the hive becomes too populous. it is perhaps best to clip queens as they are introduced, but some colonies may rear new ones without the knowledge of the owner, and a spring examination will insure no escaping swarms. the beginner should perhaps be warned not to clip the wings of a virgin queen. queens sometimes die during the winter and early spring, and since there is no brood from which the bees can replace them, the queenless colonies are "hopelessly queenless." such colonies are usually restless and are not active in pollen gathering. if, on opening a colony, it is found to be without a queen and reduced in numbers, it should be united with another colony by smoking both vigorously and caging the queen in the queen-right colony for a day or two to prevent her being killed. a frame or two of brood may be added to a queenless colony, not only to increase its strength, but to provide young brood from which they can rear a queen bee keepers in the north can frequently buy queens from southern breeders early in the spring and naturally this is better than leaving the colony without a queen until the bees can rear one, as it is important that there be no stoppage in brood rearing at this season. =swarm management and increase.= the excessive rearing of brood at the wrong season or increase in the number of colonies greatly reduces the surplus honey crop by consumption. the ideal to which all progressive bee keepers work, when operating simply for honey, is to stimulate brood rearing to prepare bees for gathering, to retard breeding when it is less desirable, and to prevent swarming. formerly the measure of success in beekeeping was the amount of increase by swarming, but this is now recognized as being quite the contrary of success. the stimulation of brood rearing in the spring, however, makes it more likely that swarming will occur; so that the operator must counteract the tendency to swarm. this is especially true in comb honey production. very few succeed in entirely preventing swarming, but by various methods the situation can be largely controlled. when a swarm issues, it usually first settles on a limb of a tree or bush near the apiary. it was formerly common to make a noise by beating pans or ringing bells in the belief that this causes the swarm to settle. there is no foundation for such action on the part of the bee keeper. if the bees alight on a small limb that can be spared it may simply be sawed off and the bees carried to the hive and thrown on a sheet or hive cover in front of the entrance. if the limb can not be cut, the swarm can be shaken off into a box or basket on a pole and hived. if the bees light on the trunk of a tree or in some inaccessible place they can first be attracted away by a comb, preferably containing unsealed brood. in these manipulations it is not necessary to get all the bees, but if the queen is not with those which are put into the hive the bees will go into the air again and join the cluster. if a queen is clipped as recommended under "spring management" (p. ) the swarm will issue just the same, but the queen, not being able to fly, will simply wander about on the ground in front of the hive, where she can be caught and caged. the parent colony can then be removed to a new stand and a new hive put in its place. the bees will soon return and the queen can be freed among them as they enter. the field bees on returning will enter the new hive with the swarm, thus decreasing still more the parent colony and making a second swarm less probable. to make sure of this, however, all queen cells except one good one can be removed soon after the swarm issues. another method of preventing second swarms is to set the old hive beside the swarm and in a week move the old hive to another place. the field bees of the parent colony then join the swarm and the parent colony is so much reduced that a second swarm does not issue. to hold a swarm it is desirable to put one frame containing healthy unsealed brood in the new hive. the other frames may contain full sheets or starters of foundation. usually comb honey supers or surplus bodies for extracting frames will have been put on before swarming occurs. these are given to the swarm on the old stand and separated from the brood chamber by queen-excluding perforated zinc. in three or four days the perforated zinc may be removed if desired. when clipping the queen's wing is not practiced, swarms may be prevented from leaving by the use of queen traps of perforated zinc (fig. ). these allow the workers to pass out, but not drones or queens, which, on leaving the entrance, pass up to an upper compartment from which they can not return. these are also used for keeping undesirable drones from escaping, and the drones die of starvation. when a swarm issues from a hive provided with a queen trap, the queen goes to the upper compartment and remains there until released by the bee keeper. the workers soon return to the hive. when the operator discovers the queen outside, the colony may be artificially swarmed to prevent another attempt at natural swarming. a queen trap should not be kept on the hive all the time for fear the old queen may be superseded and the young queen prevented from flying out to mate. =artificial swarming= if increase is desired, it is better to practice some method of artificial swarming and to forestall natural swarming rather than be compelled to await the whims of the colonies. the situation should be under the control of the bee keeper as much as possible. the bees, combs, and brood may be divided into two nearly equal parts and a queen provided for the queenless portion; or small colonies, called nuclei, may be made from the parent colony, so reducing its strength that swarming is not attempted. these plans are not as satisfactory as shaken swarms, since divided colonies lack the vigor of swarms. a good method of artificially swarming a colony is to shake most of the bees from the combs into another hive on the old stand with starters (narrow strips) of foundation. the hive containing the brood with some bees still adhering is then moved to a new location. if receptacles for surplus honey have been put on previously, as they generally should be, they should now be put over the artificial swarm separated from the brood compartment by perforated zinc. this method of artificially swarming (usually called by bee keepers "shook" swarming) should not be practiced too early, since natural swarming may take place later. the colony should first have begun its preparations for swarming. the method is particularly useful in comb honey production. the bees may be prevented from leaving the hive by the use of a drone trap (fig. ) or by putting in one frame containing unsealed brood. some bee keepers prefer using full sheets of foundation or even drawn combs for the artificial swarm, but narrow strips of foundation have some advantages. by using narrow strips the queen has no cells in which to lay eggs for a time, thus reducing brood rearing, but, since by the time artificial swarming is practiced the profitable brood rearing is usually over, this is no loss but rather a gain. there are also in the brood compartment no cells in which the gathering workers can deposit fresh honey, and they consequently put it in the supers. gradually the combs below are built out and brood rearing is increased. later the colony is allowed to put honey in the brood combs for its winter supply. if no increase is desired, the bees which emerge from the removed brood combs may later be united with the artificial swarm and by that time there will usually be little danger of natural swarming. artificial swarming can readily be combined with the shaking treatment for bee diseases, thus accomplishing two objects with one manipulation. if disease is present in the parent colony, only strips of foundation should be used and the colony should be confined to the hive until a queen and drone trap and not with a frame of brood. =prevention of swarming.= unless increase is particularly desired, both natural and artificial swarming should be done away with as far as possible, so that the energy of the bees shall go into the gathering of honey. since crowded and overheated hives are particularly conducive to swarming, this tendency may be largely overcome by giving plenty of ventilation and additional room in the hive. shade is also a good preventive of swarming. extra space in the hive may be furnished by adding more hive bodies and frames or by frequent extracting, so that there may be plenty of room for brood rearing and storage at all times. these manipulations are, of course, particularly applicable to extracted honey production. to curb the swarming impulse frequent examinations of the colonies (about every week or days during the swarming season) for the purpose of cutting out queen cells is a help, but this requires considerable work, and since some cells may be overlooked, and particularly since it frequently fails in spite of the greatest care, it is not usually practiced. requeening with young queens early in the season, when possible, generally prevents swarming. swarming is largely due to crowded brood chambers, and since eggs laid immediately before and during the honey flow do not produce gatherers, several methods have been tried of reducing the brood. the queen may either be entirely removed or be caged in the hive to prevent her from laying. in either event the bees will usually build queen cells to replace her, and these must be kept cut out. these plans would answer the purpose very well were it not for the fact that queenless colonies often do not work vigorously. under most circumstances these methods can not be recommended. a better method is to remove brood about swarming time and thus reduce the amount. there are generally colonies in the apiary to which frames of brood can be given to advantage. in addition to these methods various nonswarming devices have been invented, and later a nonswarming hive so constructed that there is no opportunity for the bees to form a dense cluster. the breeding of bees by selecting colonies with less tendency to swarm has been suggested. on the whole, the best methods are the giving of plenty of room, shade, and ventilation to colonies run for extracted honey; and ventilation, shade, and artificial swarming of colonies run for comb honey. frequent requeening (about once in two years) is desirable for other reasons, and requeening before swarming time helps in the solution of that difficulty, =preparation for the harvest.= an essential in honey production is to have the hive overflowing with bees at the beginning of the honey flow, so that the field force will be large enough to gather more honey than the bees need for their own use. to accomplish this, the bee keeper must see to it that brood rearing is heavy some time before the harvest, and he must know accurately when the honey flows come, so that he may time his manipulations properly. brood rearing during the honey flow usually produces bees which consume stores, while brood reared before the flow furnishes the surplus gatherers. the best methods of procedure may be illustrated by giving as an example the conditions in the white clover region. in the spring the bees gather pollen and nectar from various early flowers, and often a considerable quantity from fruit bloom and dandelions. during this time brood rearing is stimulated by the new honey, but afterwards there is usually a period of drought when brood rearing is normally diminished or not still more increased as it should be. this condition continues until the white clover flow comes on, usually with a rush, when brood rearing is again augmented. if such a condition exists, the bee keeper should keep brood rearing at a maximum by stimulative feeding during the drought. when white clover comes in bloom he may even find it desirable to prevent brood rearing to turn the attention of his bees to gathering. a worker bee emerges from its cell days after the egg is laid, and it usually begins field work in from to days later. it is evident, therefore, that an egg must be laid five weeks before the honey flow to produce a gatherer. since the flow continues for some time and since bees often go to the field earlier than days, egg laying should be pushed up to within two or three weeks of the opening of the honey flow. in addition to stimulative feeding, the care of the colony described under the heading of "spring management" (p. ) will increase brood production. =the production of honey.= the obtaining of honey from bees is generally the primary object of their culture. bees gather nectar to make into honey for their own use as food, but generally store more than they need, and this surplus the bee keeper takes away. by managing colonies early in the spring as previously described the surplus may be considerably increased. the secret of maximum crops is to "keep all colonies strong." honey is gathered in the form of nectar secreted by various flowers, is transformed by the bees, and stored in the comb. bees also often gather a sweet liquid called "honeydew," produced by various scale insects and plant-lice, but the honeydew honey made from it is quite unlike floral honey in flavor and composition and should not be sold for honey. it is usually unpalatable and should never be used as winter food for bees, since it usually causes dysentery (p. ). when nectar or honeydew has been thickened by evaporation and otherwise changed, the honey is sealed in the cells with cappings of beeswax. it is not profitable to cultivate any plant solely for the nectar which it will produce, but various" plants, such as clovers, alfalfa, and buckwheat, are valuable for other purposes and are at the same time excellent honey plants; their cultivation is therefore a benefit to the bee keeper. it is often profitable to sow some plant on waste land; sweet clovers are often used in this way. the majority of honey-producing plants are wild, and the bee keeper must largely accept the locality as he finds it and manage his apiary so as to get the largest possible amount of the available nectar. since bees often fly as far as or miles to obtain nectar, it is obvious that the bee keeper can rarely influence the nectar supply appreciably. before deciding what kind of honey to produce the bee keeper should have a clear knowledge of the honey resources of his locality and of the demands of the market in which he will sell his crop. if the bulk of the honey is dark, or if the main honey flows are slow and protracted, it will not pay to produce comb honey, since the production of fancy comb honey depends on a rapid flow. the best localities for comb honey production are in the northern part of the united states east of the mississippi river, where white clover is a rapid and abundant yielder. other parts of the united states where similar conditions of rapidity of flow exist are also good. unless these favorable conditions are present it is better to produce extracted honev. [illustration: fig. .--knives for uncapping honey.] =extracted honey.=[ ] [ ] for farther discussion of the production and care of extracted honey, see bulletin , part i, bureau of entomology. extracted honey is honey which has been removed by means of centrifugal force from the combs in which the bees stored it. while it is possible to adulterate extracted honey by the addition of cheap sirups, this is rarely done, perhaps largely on account of the possibility of detection. it may be said to the credit of bee keepers as a class that they have always opposed adulteration of honey. in providing combs for the storage of honey to be extracted the usual practice is to add to the top of the brood chamber one or more hive bodies just like the one in which brood is reared, and fill these with frames. if preferred, shallower frames with bodies of proper size may be used, but most honey extractors are made for full-size frames. the surplus bodies should be put on in plenty of time to prevent the crowding of the brood chamber, and also to act as a preventive of swarming. honey for extracting should not be removed until it is well ripened and a large percentage of it capped. it is best, however, to remove the crop from each honey flow before another heavy producing plant comes into bloom, so that the different grades of honey may be kept separate. it is better to extract while honey is still coming in, so that the bees will not be apt to rob. the extracting should be done in a building, preferably one provided with wire-cloth at the windows (p. ). [illustration: fig. .--honey extractor.] the frames containing honey to be extracted are removed from the hive, the cappings cut off with a sharp, warm knife (fig. ) made specially for this purpose, and the frames are then put into the baskets of the honey extractor (fig. ) . by revolving these rapidly the honey is thrown out of one side. the basket is then reversed and the honey from the other side is removed. the combs can then be returned to the bees to be refilled, or if the honey flow is over, they can be returned to the bees to be cleaned and then removed and stored until needed again. this method is much to be preferred to mashing the comb and straining out the honey, as was formerly done. in large apiaries special boxes to receive cappings, capping melters to render the cappings directly into wax, and power-driven extractors are often used. these will be found listed in supply catalogues. the extracted honey is then strained and run into vessels. it is advisable not to put it in bottles at once, but to let it settle in open vessels for a time, so that it can be skimmed. most honeys will granulate and become quite hard if exposed to changes of temperature, and to liquefy granulated extracted honey it should be heated in a water bath. never heat honey directly over a stove or flame, as the flavor is thereby injured. the honey should never be heated higher than ° f. unless it is necessary to sterilize it because of contamination by disease. extracted honey is put up in bottles or small tin cans for the retail trade, and in -gallon square tin cans or barrels for the wholesale market. great care must be exercised if barrels are used, as honey will absorb moisture from the wood, if any is present, and cause leakage. the tin package is much to be preferred in most cases. in bottling honey for retail trade, it will well repay the bee keeper or bottler to go to considerable expense and trouble to make an attractive package, as the increased price received will more than compensate for the increased labor and expense. honey should be heated to ° f. and kept there for a time before bottling, and the bottle should be filled as full as possible and sealed hermetically. =granulated honey.=--some honeys, such as alfalfa, granulate quickly after being extracted. such honeys are sometimes allowed to granulate in large cans and the semisolid mass is then cut into -pound bricks like a butter print and wrapped in paraffin paper. it may be put into paraffined receptacles before granulation, if desired. there is always a ready market for granulated honey, since many people prefer it to the liquid honey. =comb honey.= comb honey is honey as stored in the comb by the bees, the size and shape being determined by the small wooden sections provided by the bee keeper. instead of having comb in large frames in which to store surplus honey, the bees are compelled to build comb in the sections and to store honey there (fig. ). a full section weighs about pound; larger ones are rarely used. by the use of modern sections and foundation the comb honey now produced is a truly beautiful, very uniform product, so uniform in fact that it is often charged that it must be artificially manufactured. the purchaser of a section of comb honey may be absolutely certain, however, that he is obtaining a product of the bees, for never has anyone been able to imitate the bees' work successfully. to show their confidence in the purity of comb honey, the national bee keepers' association offers $ , for a single pound of artificial comb filled with an artificially prepared sirup, which is at all difficult of detection. there are several different styles of sections now in use, the usual sizes being - / inches square and by inches. there are also two methods of spacing, so that there will be room for the passage of bees from the brood chamber into the sections and from one super of sections to another. this is done either by cutting "bee ways" in the sections and using plain flat separators or by using "no bee-way" or plain sections and using "fences"--separators with cleats fastened on each side, to provide the bee space. to describe all the different "supers" or bodies for holding sections would be impossible in a bulletin of this size, and the reader must be referred to catalogues of dealers in beekeeping supplies. instead of using regular comb honey supers, some bee keepers use wide frames to hold two tiers of sections. it is better, however, to have the supers smaller, so that the bees may be crowded more to produce full sections. to overcome this difficulty, shallow wide frames holding one tier of sections may be used. the majority of bee keepers find it advisable to use special comb honey supers. in producing comb honey it is even more necessary to know the plants which produce surplus honey, and just when they come in bloom, than it is in extracted honey production. the colony should be so manipulated that the maximum field force is ready for the beginning of the flow. this requires care in spring management, and, above all, the prevention of swarming. supers should be put on just before the heavy flow begins. a good indication of the need of supers is the whitening of the brood combs at the top. if the bees are in two hive bodies they should generally be reduced to one, and the frames should be filled with brood and honey so that as the new crop comes in the bees will carry it immediately to the sections above. if large hives are used for the brood chamber it is often advisable to remove some of the frames and use a division board to crowd the bees above. to prevent the queen from going into the sections to lay, a sheet of perforated zinc (fig. ) may be put between the brood chamber and the super (fig. ). it is often difficult to get bees to begin work in the small sections, but this should be brought about as soon as possible to prevent loss of honey. if there are at hand some sections which have been partly drawn the previous year, these may be put in the super with the new sections as "bait." another good plan is to put a shallow extracting frame on either side of the sections. if a few colonies in the apiary that are strong enough to go above refuse to do so, lift supers from some colonies that have started to work above and give them to the slow colonies. the super should generally be shaded somewhat to keep it from getting too hot. artificial swarming will quickly force bees into the supers. to produce the finest quality of comb honey full sheets of foundation should be used in the sections. some bee keepers use nearly a full sheet hung from the top of the section and a narrow bottom starter. the use of foundation of worker-cell size is much preferred. when one super becomes half full or more and there are indications that there will be honey enough to fill others, the first one should be raised and an empty one put on the hive under it. this tiering up can be continued as long as necessary, but it is advisable to remove filled sections as soon as possible after they are nicely capped, for they soon become discolored and less attractive. honey removed immediately after capping finds a better market, but if left on the hive even until the end of the summer the quality of the honey is improved. a careful watch must be kept on the honey flow, so as to give the bees only enough sections to store the crop. if this is not done a lot of unfinished sections will be left at the end of the flow. honeys from different sources should not be mixed in the sections, as it usually gives the comb a bad appearance [illustration: fig. .--perforated zinc queen excluder.] to remove bees from sections, the super may be put over a bee escape so that the bees can pass down but can not return, or the supers may be removed and covered with a wire-cloth-cone bee escape. [illustration: fig. .--shipping case for comb honey.] after sections are removed the wood should be scraped free of propolis (bee glue) and then packed in shipping cases (fig. ) for the market. shipping cases to hold , , or sections, in which the various styles of sections fit exactly, are manufactured by dealers in supplies. in shipping these cases, several of them should be put in a box or crate packed in straw and paper and handles provided to reduce the chances of breakage. when loaded in a freight car the combs should be parallel with the length of the car. in preparing comb honey for market it should be carefully graded so that the sections in each shipping case are as uniform as possible. nothing will more likely cause wholesale purchasers to cut the price than to find the first row of sections in a case fancy and those behind of inferior grade. grading rules have been adopted by various bee keepers' associations or drawn up by honey dealers. the following sets of rules are in general use: eastern grading rules for comb honey. _fancy._--all sections -well filled; combs straight; firmly attached to all four sides; the combs unsoiled by travel, stain, or otherwise; all the cells sealed except an occasional one; the outside surface of the wood well scraped of propolis. _a no. ._--all sections well filled except the row of cells next to the wood; combs straight; one-eighth part of comb surface soiled, or the entire surface slightly soiled; the outside surface of the wood well scraped of propolis. _no. ._--all sections well filled except the row of cells next to the wood; combs comparatively even; one-eighth part of comb surface soiled, or the entire surface slightly soiled. _no. ._--three-fourths of the total surface must be filled and sealed. _no. ._--must weigh at least half as much as a full-weight section. in addition to this the honey is to be classified according to color, using the terms white, amber, and dark; that is, there will be "fancy white," "no. dark," etc. new comb honey grading rules adopted by the colorado state bee keepers' association. _no. white._--sections to be well filled and evenly capped, except the outside row, next to the wood ; honey white or slightly amber, comb and cappings white, and not projecting beyond the wood; wood to be well cleaned; cases of separatored honey to average pounds net per case of sections; no section in this grade to weigh less than - / ounces. cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. _no. light amber._--sections to be well filled and evenly capped, except the outside row next to the wood; honey white or light amber; comb and cappings from white to off color, but not dark; comb not projecting beyond the wood; wood to be well cleaned. cases of separatored honey to average pounds net per case of sections; no section in this grade to weigh less than - / ounces. cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. _no. ._--this includes all white honey, and amber honey not included in the above grades; sections to be fairly well filled and capped, no more than uncapped cells, exclusive of outside row, permitted in this grade; wood to be well cleaned; no section in this grade to weigh less than ounces. cases of separatored honey to average not less than pounds net. cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than pounds net per case of sections. =the production of wax.= beeswax, which is secreted by the bees and used by them for building their combs, is an important commercial product. there are times in almost every apiary when there are combs to be melted up, and it pays to take care of even scraps of comb and the cappings taken off in extracting. a common method of taking out the wax is to melt the combs in a solar wax extractor. this is perhaps the most feasible method where little wax is produced, but considerable wax still remains in old brood combs after such heating. various wax presses are on the market, or one can be made at home. if much wax is produced, the bee keeper should make a careful study of the methods of wax extraction, as there is usually much wax wasted even after pressing. =preparations for wintering.= after the main honey flow is over the management must depend on what may be expected later in the season from minor honey flows. if no crop is to be expected, the colony may well be kept only moderately strong, so that there will not be so many consumers in the hive. in localities where winters are severe and breeding is suspended for several months great care should be taken that brood rearing is rather active during the late summer, so that the colony may go into winter with plenty of young bees. in case any queens show lack of vitality they should be replaced early, so that the bees will not become queenless during the winter. the important considerations in wintering are plenty of young bees, a good queen, plenty of stores of good quality, sound hives, and proper protection from cold and dampness. if, as cold weather approaches, the bees do not have stores enough, they must be fed. every colony should have from to pounds, depending on the length of winter and the methods of wintering. it is better to have too much honey than not enough, for what is left is good next season. if feeding is practiced, honey may be used, but sirup made of granulated sugar is just as good and is perfectly safe. if honey is purchased for feeding, great care should be taken that it comes from a healthy apiary, otherwise the apiary may be ruined by disease. _never feed honey bought on the open market._ the bees should be provided with stores early enough so that it will not be necessary to feed or to open the colonies after cold weather comes on. honeydew honey should not be left in the hives, as it produces "dysentery." some honeys are also not ideal for winter stores. those which show a high percentage of gums (most tree honeys) are not so desirable, but will usually cause no trouble. in wintering out of doors the amount of protection depends on the severity of the winter. in the south no packing is necessary, and even in very cold climates good colonies with plenty of stores can often pass the winter with little protection, but packing and protection make it necessary for the bees to generate less heat, and consequently they consume less stores and their vitality is not reduced. dampness is probably harder for bees to withstand than cold, and when it is considered that bees give off considerable moisture, precautions should be taken that as it condenses it does not get on the cluster. an opening at the top would allow the moisture to pass out, but it would also waste heat, so it is better to put a mat of burlap or other absorbent material on top of the frames. the hive may also be packed in chaff, leaves, or other similar dry material to diminish the loss of heat. some hives are made with double walls, the space being filled with chaff; these are good for outdoor wintering. the hive entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive, so that any condensed moisture may run out. the hives should be sound and the covers tight and waterproof. entrances should be contracted in cold weather not only to keep out cold wind, but to prevent mice from entering. there should always be enough room, however, for bees to pass in and out if warmer weather permits a flight. in the hands of experienced bee keepers cellar wintering is very successful, but this method requires careful study. the cellar must be dry and so protected that the temperature never varies more than from to ° f.; ° f. seems to be the optimum temperature. the ventilation must be good or the bees become fretful. light should not be admitted to the cellar, and consequently some means of indirect ventilation is necessary. cellar wintering requires the consumption of less honey to maintain the proper temperature in the cluster and is therefore economical. bees so wintered do not have an opportunity for a cleansing flight, often for several months, but the low consumption makes this less necessary. some bee keepers advocate carrying the colonies out a few times on warm days, but it is not fully established whether this is entirely beneficial and it is usually not practiced. the time for putting colonies in the cellar is a point of dispute, and practice in this regard varies considerably. they should certainly be put in before the weather becomes severe and as soon as they have ceased brood rearing. the time chosen may be at night when they are all in the hive, or on some chilly day. the hives may be piled one on top of the other, the lower tier raised a little from the floor. the entrances should not be contracted unless the colony is comparatively weak. it is usually not considered good policy to close the entrances with ordinary wire cloth, as the dead bees which accumulate more or less on the bottom boards may cut off ventilation, and the entrance should be free so that these may be cleaned out. it is, however, good policy to cover the entrance with wire-cloth having three meshes to the inch to keep out mice. the time of removing bees from the cellar is less easily determined than that of putting them in. the colonies may be removed early and wrapped in _black_ tar paper or left until the weather is settled. if the weather is very warm and the bees become fretful, the cellar must either be cooled or the bees removed. some bee keepers prefer to remove bees at night, so that they can recover from the excitement and fly from the hive normally in the morning. one of the chief difficulties is to prevent the bees from getting into the wrong hives after their first flights. they often "drift" badly with the wind, and sometimes an outside row will become abnormally strong, leaving other colonies weak. the night before the bees are removed from the cellar it is good practice to leave the cellar doors and windows wide open. =diseases and enemies.= there are two infectious diseases of the brood of bees which cause great losses to the beekeeping industry of the united states. these are known as american foul brood and european foul brood. both of these diseases destroy colonies by killing the brood, so that there are not enough young bees emerging to take the place of the old adult bees as these die from natural causes. the adult bees are not attacked by either disease. in the hands of careful bee keepers both diseases may be controlled, and this requires careful study and constant watching. in view of the fact that these diseases are now widely distributed throughout the united states, every bee keeper should read the available literature on the subject, so that if disease enters his apiary he may be able to recognize it before it gets a start. the symptoms and the treatment recommended by this department are given in another publication which will be sent free on request.[ ] [ ] farmers' bulletin no. . "the treatment of bee diseases." it is difficult for a bee keeper to keep his apiary free from disease if others about him have diseased colonies which are not properly treated. the only way to keep disease under control is for the bee keepers in the neighborhood to cooperate in doing everything possible to stamp out disease as soon as it appears in a single colony. the progressive bee keeper who learns of disease in his neighborhood should see to it that the other bee keepers around him are supplied with literature describing symptoms and treatment, and should also try to induce them to unite in eradicating the malady. since it is so often impossible to get all of the bee keepers in a community to treat infected colonies properly and promptly, it is desirable that the states pass laws providing for the inspection of apiaries and granting to the inspector the power to compel negligent bee keepers to treat diseased colonies so that the property of others may not be endangered and destroyed. this has been done in a number of states, but there are still some where the need is great and in which no such provision has been made. when no inspection is provided, bee keepers should unite in asking for such protection, so that the danger to the industry may be lessened. in case there is an inspector for the state or county, he should be notified as soon as disease is suspected in the neighborhood. some bee keepers hesitate to report disease through fear that the inspector will destroy their bees or because they feel that it is a disgrace to have disease in the apiary. there is no disgrace in having colonies become diseased; the discredit is in not treating them promptly. the inspectors are usually, if not universally, good practical bee keepers who from a wide experience are able to tell what should be done in individual cases to give the best results with the least cost in material and labor. they do not destroy colonies needlessly, and, in fact, they all advocate and teach treatment. the brood diseases are frequently introduced into a locality by the shipping in of diseased colonies; or, more often, the bees get honey from infected colonies which is fed to them, or which they rob, from discarded honey cans. it is decidedly dangerous to purchase honey on the market, with no knowledge of its source, to be used in feeding bees. many outbreaks of disease can be traced to this practice (see "feeding," p. ). it is difficult to prevent bees from getting contaminated honey accidentally. if colonies are purchased, great care should be taken that there is no disease present. whenever possible, colonies should be purchased near at home, unless disease is already present in the neighborhood. there are other diseased conditions of the brood, known to bee keepers as "pickle brood," but these can usually be distinguished from the two diseases previously mentioned. the so-called "pickle brood" is not contagious and no treatment is necessary. bees also suffer from "dysentery," which is discussed in the earlier part of this bulletin, and from the so-called "paralysis," a disease of adult bees. no treatment for the latter disease can as yet be recommended as reliable. the sprinkling of powdered sulphur on the top bars of frames or at the entrance is sometimes claimed to be effective, but under what circumstances it is beneficial is unknown. a number of insects, birds, and mammals must be classed as enemies of bees, but of these the two wax moths, and ants, are the only ones of importance. there are two species of moth, the larger wax moth (_galleria mellonella_ l.), and the lesser wax moth (_achroia grisella_ fab.), the larvæ of which destroy combs by burrowing through them.[ ] reports are frequently received in the department that the larvæ of these moths (usually the larger species) are destroying colonies of bees. it may be stated positively that moths do not destroy strong, healthy colonies in good hives, and if it is supposed that they are causing damage the bee keeper should carefully study his colonies to see what other trouble has weakened them enough for the moths to enter. queenlessness, lack of stores, or some such trouble may be the condition favorable to the entrance of the pest, but a careful examination should be made of the brood to see whether there is any evidence of disease. this is the most frequent cause of the cases of moth depredation reported to this department. black bees are less capable of driving moth larvæ out, but, even with these bees, strong colonies rarely allow them to remain. the observance of the golden rule of beekeeping, "keep all colonies strong," will solve the moth question unless disease appears. [ ] bee keepers refer to these insects as "moths," "wax moths," "bee moths," "millers," "wax worms," "honey moths," "moth worms," "moth millers," and "grubs." the last six terms are not correct. moth larvæ often destroy combs stored outside the hive. to prevent this the combs may be fumigated with sulphur fumes or bisulphid of carbon in tiers of hives or in tight rooms. if bisulphid of carbon is used, great care should be taken not to bring it near a flame, as it is highly inflammable. combs should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated, light room. in the warmer parts of the country ants are often a serious pest. they may enter the hive for protection against changes of temperature, or to prey on the honey stores or the brood. the usual method of keeping them out is to put the hive on a stand, the legs of which rest in vessels containing water or creosote. another method is to wrap a tape soaked in corrosive sublimate around the bottom board. =general information.= for the purpose of answering numerous questions which are asked of this department the following brief topics are included. =breeders of queens.= there are a large number of bee keepers who make a business of rearing queens of good stock for sale. the queens are usually sent by mail. if poor stock is all that can be obtained locally, it is recommended that such colonies be purchased and the queens removed and replaced with those obtained from a good breeder. this department can supply names of breeders, nearest the applicant, of any race raised in this country. =introducing queens.= when queens are shipped by mail they usually come in cages (fig. ) which can be used for introducing. if the colony to receive the new queen has one, she must be removed and the cage inserted between the frames. the small hole leading into the candy compartment is uncovered, and the bees gradually eat through and release the queen. if queens are reared at home, a similar cage may be used for introducing. in view of the fact that disease may be transmitted in mailing cages, it is always a wise precaution to remove the new queen and destroy the accompanying workers and the cage and its contents. the queen may then be put into a clean cage without worker bees, with candy known to be free from contamination (made from honey from healthy hives), and introduced in the regular way. queens sold by breeders are always mated unless otherwise specified, and consequently the colony in which they are introduced has no effect on her offspring. during the active season the bees in the colony are all the offspring of the new queen in about nine weeks. three weeks is required for the previous brood to emerge (if the colony has not been queenless). and in six weeks after all the old brood emerges most of the workers from it will have died. queens are usually sold according to the following classification: "_untested queen_"--one that has mated, but the race of the drone is not known. "_tested queen_"--one that has mated and has been kept only long enough to show, from the markings of her progeny, that she mated with a drone of her own race. "_breeding queen_"--a tested queen which has shown points of superiority, making her desirable for breeding purposes. [illustration: fig. .--queen mailing cage.] =dealers in bee keepers' supplies.= there are several manufacturers of supplies in this country who can furnish almost anything desired by the bee keeper. some of them have agents in various parts of the country from whom supplies may be purchased, thus saving considerable in freight. =bee keepers' associations.= there are a large number of associations of bee keepers in all parts of the country, formed for the betterment of the industry, and a few associations which are organized to aid the members in purchasing supplies and in selling the crops. of these the national bee keepers" association is the largest. it helps its members in obtaining their legal rights, and aids in securing legislation for the furtherance of the industry. the annual conventions are held in different parts of the country, and copies of the proceedings are sent to the members. there are also numerous state, county, and town associations, some of which publish proceedings. the names of officers of the nearest associations or of the national bee keepers' association will be sent from this department on request. =laws affecting beekeeping.= =disease inspection.=--various states have passed laws providing for the state or county inspection of apiaries for bee-disease control, and every bee keeper should get in touch with an inspector when disease is suspected, if one is provided. the inspectors are practical bee keepers who fully understand how to control the diseases, and are of great help in giving directions in this matter. the name of the inspector of any locality can usually be furnished, and this department is glad to aid bee keepers in reaching the proper officers. =laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom.=--the spraying of fruit trees while in bloom is not now advised by economic entomologists, and to prevent the practice some states have passed laws making it a misdemeanor. such spraying not only kills off honey bees, causing a loss to the bee keeper, but interferes with the proper pollination of the blossoms and is thus a detriment to the fruit grower. bee keepers should do everything in their power to prevent the practice. =laws against the adulteration of honey.=--the national food and drugs act of , and various state pure food laws, are a great aid to the bee keeper in preventing the sale of adulterated extracted honey as pure honey. bee keepers can often aid in this work by reporting to the proper officials infringements of these laws which come to their notice. =when bees are a nuisance.=--some cities have passed ordinances prohibiting the keeping of bees in certain areas, but so far none has been able to enforce them. if bees are a nuisance in individual cases, the owner may be compelled to remove them. the national bee keepers' association "will help any of its members in such cases, if they are in the right, as well as in cases where bees sting horses. bee keepers should be careful not to locate bees where they can cause any trouble of this kind. =supposed injury of crops by bees.= bee keepers are often compelled to combat the idea that bees cause damage to fruit or other crops by sucking the nectar from the flower. this is not only untrue, but in many cases the bees are a great aid in the pollination of the flowers, making a good crop possible. a more frequent complaint is that bees puncture fruit and suck the juices. bees never puncture sound fruit, but if the skin is broken by some other means bees will often suck the fruit dry. in doing it, however, they are sucking fruit which is already damaged. these and similar charges against the honey bee are prompted by a lack of information concerning their activities. bees may, of course, become a nuisance to others through their stinging propensities, but bee keepers should not be criticized for things which their bees do not do. =journals and books on beekeeping.= the progressive bee keeper will find it to his profit to subscribe for at least one journal devoted to beekeeping. several of these are published in the united states. the names and addresses of such journals may usually be obtained from a subscription agent for periodicals, or from a supply dealer. it will also be advantageous to read and study books on beekeeping, of which several are published in this country. these are advertised in journals devoted to beekeeping, or may usually be obtained through the local book dealer or through dealers in bee keepers' supplies. =publications of the department of agriculture on bee keeping.=[ ] [ ] list revised to april , . (vii.) there are several publications of this department which are of interest to bee keepers, and new ones are added from time to time in regard to the different lines of investigation. the following publications relating to bee culture, prepared in the bureau of entomology, are for free distribution and may be obtained by addressing the secretary of agriculture:[ ] [ ] farmers' bulletin no. , "bee keeping," and farmers' bulletin no. , "bees," have been superseded by farmers' bulletin no. . circular no. , "the brood diseases of bees," has been superseded by farmers' bulletin no. . bulletin no. , "the honey bee," has been discontinued. farmers' bulletin no. , "bees." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp., figs. a general account of the management of bees. farmers' bulletin no. , "the treatment of bee diseases." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp., figs. this publication gives briefly the symptoms of the various bee diseases, with directions for treatment. circular no. , "the cause of american foul brood." by g. f. white, ph. d. . pp. this publication contains a brief account of the investigations which demonstrated for the first time the cause of one of the brood diseases of bees, american foul brood. circular no. . "the occurrence of bee diseases in the united states. (preliminary report.)" by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp. a record of the localities from which samples of diseased brood were received prior to march , . bulletin no. , "the rearing of queen bees." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp., figs. a general account of the methods used in queen rearing. several methods are given, so that the bee keeper may choose those best suited to his individual needs. bulletin no. , "report of the meeting of inspectors of apiaries, san antonio, tex., november , ." . pp., plate. contains a brief history of bee-disease investigations, an account of the relationship of bacteria to bee diseases, and a discussion of treatment by various inspectors of apiaries and other practical bee keepers who are familiar with diseases of bees. bulletin no. , part i, "production and care of extracted honey." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. "methods of honey testing for bee keepers." by c. a. browne, ph. d. . pp. the methods of producing extracted honey, with special reference to the care of honey after it is taken from the bees, so that its value may not be decreased by improper handling. the second portion of the publication gives some simple tests for adulteration. bulletin no. , part ii, "wax moths and american foul brood." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp. - , plates. an account of the behavior of the two species of wax moths on combs containing american foul brood, showing that moths do not destroy the disease-carrying scales. bulletin no. , part iii, "bee diseases in massachusetts." by burton n. gates. . pp. - , map. an account of the distribution of the brood diseases of bees in the state, with brief directions for controlling them. bulletin no. , part iv. "the relation of the etiologv (cause) of bee diseases to the treatment." by g. f. white, ph. d. . pp: - . the necessity for a knowledge of the cause of bee diseases before rational treatment is possible is pointed out. the present state of knowledge of the causes of disease is summarized. bulletin no. , part v, "a brief survey of hawaiian bee keeping." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp. - , plates. an account of the beekeeping methods used in a tropical country and a comparison with mainland conditions. some new manipulations are recommended. bulletin no , part vi, "the status of apiculture in the united states." by e. f. phillips, ph. d. . pp. - . a survey of present-day beekeeping in the united states, with suggestions as to the work yet to be done before apiculture will have reached its fullest development. bulletin no. , part vii, "bee keeping in massachusetts." by burton n. gates. . pp. - , figs. an account of a detailed study of the apicultural conditions in massachusetts. the object of this paper is to point out the actual conditions and needs of beekeeping in new england. bulletin no. , contents and index. . pp. vii+ - . bulletin no. , parts i-vii, complete with contents and index. . pp. viii+ . bulletin no. . "historical notes on the causes of bee diseases." by e. f. phillips, ph. d., and g. f. white, ph. d., m. d. (in press.) a summary of the various investigations concerning the etiology (cause) of bee diseases. technical series, no. , "the bacteria of the apiary with special reference to bee diseases." by g. f. white, ph. d. . pp. a study of the bacteria present in both the healthy and the diseased colony, with special reference to the diseases of bees. technical series no. , "the anatomy of the honey bee." by r. e. snodgrass. . pp., figs. an account of the structure of the bee, with technical terms omitted so far as possible. practically all of the illustrations are new, and the various parts are interpreted according to the best usage in comparative anatomy of insects. a brief discussion of the physiology of the various organs is included . bureau of chemistry. bulletin no. , "chemical analysis and composition of american honeys." by c. a. browne. including "a microscopical study of honey pollen." by w. j. young. . pp., fig., plates. a comprehensive study of the chemical composition of american honeys. this publication is technical in nature and will perhaps be little used by practical bee keepers, but it is an important contribution to apicultural literature. by means of this work the detection of honey adulteration is much aided. hawaii agricultural experimental station. honolulu, hawaii. bulletin no. , "hawaiian honeys." by d. l. van dine and alice r. thompson. . pp., plate. a study of the source and composition of the honeys of hawaii. the peculiar conditions found on these islands are dealt with. transcriber note illustrations were moved so as not to split paragraphs. texas agricultural experiment stations. bulletin no. . january -------------------------- department of entomology. college station, texas. [photograph: honey bee on horse-mint] _honey bee on horse-mint_ texas honey plants. c. e. sanborn, u. s. cooperative entomologist and acting state entomologist. e. e. scholl, assistant state entomologist and apiarist. -------------------------- postoffice, college station, brazos county, texas. * * * * * texas agricultural experiment stations -------------------------- officers. -------------------------- governing board. (board of directors a. & m. college.) k. k. leggett, president abilene t. d. rowell, vice president jefferson a. haidusek la grange j. m. green yoakum walton peteet dallas r. t. milner austin l. l. mcinnis bryan w. b. sebastian breckenridge station officers. h. h. harrington ll. d., president of the college and director j. w. carson assistant to director and state feed inspector w. g. welborn vice director and agriculturist m. francis veterinarian e. j. kyle horticulturist john c. burns animal husbandry r. l. bennett cotton specialist o. m. ball botanist g. s. fraps chemist c. e. sanborn co-operative entomologist n. c. hamner assistant chemist e. c. carlyle assistant chemist l. mclennan deputy feed inspector a. t. potts deputy feed inspector j. h. rodgers deputy peed inspector h. e. hanna deputy feed inspector c. w. crisler chief clerk w. l. boyett clerk feed control f. r. navaille stenographer a. s. ware stenographer state sub-stations. w. s. hotchkiss, superintendent troupe, smith county s. a. waschka, superintendent beeville, bee county note--the main station is located on the grounds of the agricultural and mechanical college, in brazos county. the postoffice address is college station, texas. reports and bulletins are sent free upon application to the director. preface. this preliminary bulletin on texas honey plants represents work of the department of entomology dating through the office tenures of professors mally, newell, sanderson and conradi. they each have authorized and aided in the collection of the flora and data contained in this publication. to mr. louis h. scholl, of new braunfels, texas, assistant and apiarist from until , the department is directly indebted for the material contained herein, except as is otherwise designated. mr. ernest scholl, now assistant and apiarist, has furnished material as shown herein. he is now working on a continuation of the subject. mr. d. c. milam, of uvalde, formerly foul brood inspector, has also contributed, as is shown. the main body of the work, however, has been accomplished through the services of mr. louis h. scholl, and much credit is due him, since he has done more in this department, and perhaps more than any other person in helping to build up the bee industry of texas. his data are followed by this mark * introduction. this publication treats of many of the texas honey plants in a brief technical manner. in addition, wherever possible, the common name is used in connection with the description. the sequence followed by coulter in his botany of south west texas is herein mainly followed. in some instances quotations from small's botany of texas were used, as is shown in the publication. the plants are discussed by families. not only is the honey producing qualities of the plants mentioned, but frequent mention is also made of the respective quality and yield of pollen and propolis. data are included in many instances concerning the weather conditions and its effects upon the yield of certain plants. it is hoped that this will be a great help to apiarists in selecting locations for bees, since the value of bees depends entirely on the environment under which they may be placed. again it may help in selecting certain plants to be planted that might prove to be very beneficial to an established apiary. the geographical distribution is given in a general brief way, so that one is less apt to be confused concerning the abundance in nature of certain plants. in this connection it must be remembered, however, that on account of extended cultivation in texas, some of the common wild plants are becoming less numerous than formerly, while cultivated varieties are becoming more common. two indices are contained in this bulletin. the first contains all the common or vernacular names, and the second contains the latin or technical names. the latter is complete, since some plants are known only by the technical appellation. ***** triple-leafed barberry. berberis trifoliata moric. barberry family. berberideae. "on gravelly slopes and foothills from the gulf coast to the limpia mountains." (coulter). hunter, gravelly hills; honey yield abundant, also pollen; fine for early brood rearing. january and february.* prickly poppy. argemone platyceras (link. and otto.) poppy family. papaveraceae. "abundant in valleys and along dry hillsides." (coulter). roadsides, waste fields and prairies. honey yield unimportant, but abundance of pollen during the dearth of summer. may and july.* "this plant is abundant along the brazos valley. bees work heavily on it in june, carrying heavy loads of pollen, which they store in nearly every comb, thus making it disagreeable in the honey combs sometimes." (e. scholl). poppy. papaver rhoeas l. poppy family. papaveraceae. cultivated in flower gardens. honey yield not important and plants few. may.* peppergrass. pepperwort. lepidium virginicum l. mustard family. cruciferae. "in all situations, quebec to minnesota, kansas, florida, texas and mexico. naturalized in europe." (small). found in all kinds of places; honey yield not important; some pollen. june to august.* greggia. greggia camporum gray. mustard family. cruciferae. "mountains of western texas." (coulter). honey yield early but not abundant; also pollen helps early brood rearing. hunter; waste fields and fertile prairies. honey yield early, but not abundant; also pollen; helps early brood rearing. february.* common turnip. brassica rapa l. mustard family. cruciferae. cultivated and sometimes escaped; bees work on the blossoms, honey and pollen. june and july.* black mustard. brassica nigra koch. mustard family. cruciferae. cultivated and escaped; bees sometimes busy on it. june and july.* mignonette. reseda odorata l. mignonette family. resedaceae. college: cultivated on apiary experimental plats. honey yield good; plants not plentiful enough for surplus. june and july.* portulaca. portulaca grandiflora hook. purslane family. portulaceae. cultivated in ornamental flower beds. honey yield good as it comes during time when few others in bloom; also abundance of highly colored pollen, red, orange and yellows. june until frost.* salt cedar. tamarix gallica l. tamarisc family. tamariscineae. "a common european mediterranean shrub which seems to have escaped in many places in texas." (coulter). "on roadsides, in thickets and waste places; warmer parts of southern united states, naturalized from southern europe." (small). college station; cultivated ornamental shrub bees worked well on it, but number of trees scarce. may and june.* fringed poppy mallow. callirrhoe digitata nutt. mallow family. malvaceae. "common on prairies and in valleys." (coulter). hunter; prairies and lowlands. honey yield not important; some pollen. may and june. a good pollen yielder during may at college station.* spanish apple. malvaviscus drummondii. torr & gray. mallow family. malvaceae. "from rio grande to the colorado and northeastward." (coulter). in lowlands and along streams. june and july.* "plentiful along comal and guadalupe rivers, new braunfels, texas. not important." (e. scholl). rose of sharon. shrubby althaea. hibiscus syriacus l. mallow family. malvaceae. "in various situations new jersey and pennsylvania to florida and texas." (small). cultivated ornamental, in gardens and parks; honey yield not important and plants few, but bees work busily on it; honey and pollen. may to sept.* spring sida. sida spinosa l. mallow family. malvaceae. "in cultivated grounds, waste places on roadsides, new york to iowa, florida and texas. widely distributed in the tropics." (small). waste places, fields and along roads; some honey and pollen; not important. june to august.* narrow-leafed sida. sida angustifolia lam. mallow family. malvaceae. "in dry soil texas to arizona; also in mexico and tropical america." (small). in dry soils; bees found upon it; yields pollen. june to august.* cotton. gossypium herbaceum l. mallow family. malvaceae. cultivated staple crop in the fields for fibre. honey yield good, steady flow till frost, honey white and of good quality. main source throughout cotton belt. nectar glands on ribs of leaves and on bracts of buds, blooms and bolls. june to frost.* japanese varnish tree. firmiana platinifolia (l.) r. br. chocolate family. buettneriaceae. hbk. college station: cultivated ornamental tree on campus; honey yield very heavy but of short duration some seasons longer. may and june.* basswood. american linden. tilia americana l. linden family. tiliaceae. "a large and handsome tree of the atlantic states, extending in texas to the valley of the san antonio river." (coulter). on forests of eastern texas, yields large quantities of excellent honey. may and june.* large-flowered caltrop. tribulus cistoides l. bean-caper family. zygophylleae. hunter: in fields and waste lands; honey yield good until noon when flowers close; also much pollen. april, august.* greater caltrop. kallstroemia maxima (l) t. & g. bean-caper family. zygophylleae. "tribulus maxima." (coulter). "common in dry soil throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: in fields and waste lands. honey yield good in morning, blossoms closing by noon except in cool weather; good as it comes in the dearth of summer; also abundance of pollen. april to august.* yellow wood sorrel. oxalis stricta l. geranium family. geraniaceae. "eastern and southern texas." (coulter). waste soils and open woodlands; not plentiful for bee forage. may, august.* tooth-ache tree. prickly ash. sea ash. pepperwood. xanthoxylum clava-herculis l. rue family. rutaceae. "colorado to rio grande." (coulter). "along or near the coast, virginia to florida, arkansas and texas." (small). hunter: woodland prairies; honey yield good; bees work busily on it. april, june.* hop tree. ptelea trifoliata l. rue family. rutaceae. "throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). in woodlands and along rivers and creeks. honey yield good; very good in favorable seasons where abundant. may and july.* hardy orange. citrus trifoliata l. rue family. rutaceae. college: planted for hedges, scarce; honey yield fair for early brood. bees worked on it abundantly. march.* tree of heaven. ailanthus glandulosus desf. quassia family. simarubaceae. "in waste places and along streams, more or less extensively naturalized in the united states and southern british america. native of china." (small). hunter: cultivated for shade and escaped. honey yield fair in good seasons, pollen; also nectar glands on leaf blades. april.* umbrella china tree. melia azedarach l. melia family. meliaceae. "a favorite shade tree and extensively naturalized in central and southern texas." (coulter). cultivated ornamental shade tree and escaped. honey yield helps early brood rearing. february, march.* possum haw. bear berry. ilex decidua walt. holly family. ilicineae. "a species of southern states and extending in texas to the valley of the san antonio." (coulter). college; along lowlands, creeks and streams. honey yield good but short; in warm spring early and valuable for early brood. march, may.* youpon. ilex caroliniana trelease. holly family. ilicineae. "a species of the gulf states and extending into texas. limit uncertain." (coulter). hunter: low woodland thickets; not important. march, april.* brasil wood. logwood. condalia obovata hook. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "from the guadalupe to the rio grande and west of new mexico." (coulter). hunter: in woodlands, dry soils; honey yield not very important but comes well in dearth of summer. july, august.* "abundant along carter's creek. honey yield good during may." (e. scholl). rattan vine. berchemia scandens trelease. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "a species of the southern states extending into texas where its western limit is uncertain." (coulter). along ravines and low woodlands; honey yield good, giving surplus in favorable years but dark amber colored, used in manufacturing-houses. april.* columbrina texensis. gray. buckthorn family. rhamneae. "from the colorado to the rio grande westward to new mexico." (coulter). floresville, slopes, adobe hills. honey yield good but not enough for surplus. also some pollen. april.* cultivated wine grapes. vitis (?) (varieties). vine family. ampelidaceae. cultivated in orchards; good for pollen. april, may.* mountain grape. vitis monticola buckley. vine family. ampelidaceae. "peculiar to the hilly limestone regions of western texas, not extending to the low country nor to the granite mountains." (coulter.) hunter: in woods and forests; honey yield fairly good and pollen valuable for brood rearing. march.* cow itch. cissus incisa desmoul. vine family. ampelidaceae. "in shady places from the colorado to the rio grande and westward. an ornamental vine known as "yerba del buey." (coulter). hunter: along fences and edge of thickets; honey yield keeps bees out of mischief during dearth. surplus where plentiful. april, to august.* soapberry. wild china. sapindus marginatus willd. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "common along creeks throughout texas from louisiana to new mexico and mexico. smaller west of the colorado river." (coulter). along rivers and creeks and sometimes along uplands; honey yield good, heavy flow in favorable seasons gives surplus. june.* evergreen shrub, blooms in april; yields quantities of honey and pollen where enough bushes." (milam, uvalde). common balloon vine. cardiospermum halicacabum l. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "guadalupe to rio grande." (coulter). "in thickets and waste places new jersey, missouri, florida, texas and tropical america; summer and fall." (small). hunter: in creek bottoms; honey yield fair but plants not abundant. april, july.* mexican buckeye. ungnadia speciosa endl. soapberry family. sapindaceae. "common along rocky valleys and in the mountains from the valley of the trinity through western texas to new mexico." (coulter). hunter: "mountainous woodlands. honey yield good in dearth but not plentiful. july." dwarf sumach. rhus copallina l. sumach family. anacardiaceae. "a sumach of the atlantic states extending through eastern and southern texas to the rio grande." (coulter). hunter: small shrubby tree rocky hillsides and woodland prairies. honey yield good giving surplus in favorable seasons depending upon rains. reported as a honey plant in most of the beekeepers reports received. august.* green sumach. rhus virens lindh. sumach family. anacardiaceae. "from the colorado to the rio grande and westward." (coulter). in stony, hilly woodlands. bees are some seasons busy on it. october.* blue lupine. bluebonnet. lupinus subcarnosus hook. pulse family. leguminosae. "common lupine of southern and western texas, 'covering fertile slopes with a carpet of purple blue.' (harvard), as early as march." (coulter). hunter: places in open woodlands. honey yield good; also pollen of very bright and orange colors. march, april.* alfalfa or lucerne. medicago sativa l. pulse family. leguminosae. "an extensively cultivated forage plant which has long been an introduced plant in southern and western texas." (coulter). cultivated for hay crops; honey yield fair; early summer and fall; better in irrigated regions. may, august.* "large number of bees were seen on it at new braunfels, texas. june th, . a good thing in north texas." (e. scholl). medick. burr clover. medicago denticulata willd. pulse family. leguminosae. "naturalized in western texas." (coulter). college: abundant on campus lawns. honey yield sparingly in summer, not important. february to may.* sweet clover. melilotus alba desv. pulse family. leguminosae. distribution not definite. cultivated and along fence rows; honey yield good and of fine quality; scarce and should be cultivated for honey. may to october.* "an important honey plant in north texas." (e. scholl). yellow sweet clover. melilotus officinalis (l) lam. pulse family. leguminosae. colorado along roadsides, escaped. honey yield good; claimed to be superior to and earlier than m. alba by beemen. should be cultivated on the poor soils of texas. april to september.* red clover. trifolium pratense l. pulse family. leguminosae. college station: cultivated on experimental plats. blooms in summer; not important, not much grown and deep corollas. june.* white clover. trifolium repens l. pulse family. leguminosae. "may be found wild in texas." (coulter). along roadsides and on lawns. cultivated at college, but did not grow as conditions were too dry. honey yield good and one of main sources in states north of texas. june, july.* eysenhardtia. eysenhardtia amorphoides. h b k. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout southern and western texas, south of the colorado." (coulter). hunter: on light soils and woodlands and known as "rock brush" by beemen. honey yield abundant. blooming after heavy rains. honey fine quality. march, may.* black locust. robinia pseudacacia l. pulse family. leguminosae. "native from pennsylvania to iowa, georgia and indian territory. also naturalized in the northeastern part of north america." (small). college: cultivated on campus; honey yield good if no cold weather; bees work on it abundantly. march, april.* cassia. daubentonia longifolia (cav.) dc. pulse family. leguminosae. low and damp places; sandy soils; bees on it frequently but apparently of little value. july, september.* mexican ground-plum. astragalus mexicanus. a. dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "prairies throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: in open prairies honey yield abundant when season is favorable; drouth injures it. june.* cow pea. vigna (sp.) pulse family. leguminosae. honey yield good; fair quality, light color. cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils. june, august.* cow pea. vigna sinensis (l) endl. (var. ?). pulse family. leguminosae. cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils; honey yield good; fair quality, light color. june, august.* japanese delchos. dolichos lablab l. pulse family. leguminosae. cultivated in apiary experimental plats; no bees on it; other plants in bloom. june, august.* garden pea. pisum sativum l. pulse family. leguminosae. hunter: cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant, some pollen; not visited much by bees. march, april.* red bud. cercis occidentalis torr. pulse family. leguminosae. "far western and north mexican species extending into western texas." (coulter). aids early brood rearing. march.* red bud. judas tree. cercis canadensis l. pulse family. leguminosae. "in rich soil ontario to minnesota, new jersey, florida and texas." (small). hunter: in woodlands. honey yield fair, aiding in early brood rearing. march, april.* retama. parkinsonia aculeata l. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout southern and western texas." (coulter). in sandy soils and low swamps. blooms spring and throughout summer; bees work on it more or less all summer. may, sept.* honey locust. gleditschia triacanthos l. pulse family. leguminosae. "an atlantic species extending at least to the valley of the brazos river and common in cultivation." (coulter). college station: along ravines and valleys; very heavy honey yield but of short duration. april.* mezquit tree. screw bean. prosopis juliflora dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "the chief woody plant of the wooded table-lands and high valleys throughout southern and western texas, often forming impenetrable thickets." (coulter) hunter: throughout the black land prairies; honey yield abundant, main source in state, good light honey. april, and again in june.* neptunia lutea benth. pulse family. leguminosae. "in eastern and southern texas, extending as far up the rio grande as eagle pass." (coulter). college, open prairies; not plentiful, bees rarely found on it; some pollen. may.* sensitive briar. schrankia angustata torr. and gray. pulse family. leguminosae. "found in texas as far as san diego and probably in the san antonio region." (coulter). hunter: open prairies; honey yield not important; plants scarce; pollen. april to september.* huisache. acacia farnesiana willd. pulse family. leguminosae. "from san antonio to the gulf coast and lower rio grande." (coulter). very plentiful in richer soil of southwest texas; honey yield good for stimulating early brood rearing; also pollen. february, april.* huajilli. acacia berlandiera benth. pulse family. leguminosae. "from the nueces to the rio grande and west to devil's river. common on the bluffs of the lower rio grande." (coulter). on dry and rocky hills in solid masses generally. honey yield very heavy and main surplus in southwest texas; fine quality, white; considered the best honey in texas in quality. april.* paradise flower. catsclaw. devils claws. acacia greggii gray. pulse family. leguminosae. "in dry or rocky soil, texas, new mexico." (small). floresville: all over southwest texas. honey yield very abundant, a main yielder of fine quality honey. april.* round-flowered catsclaw. acacia roemeriana schlecht. pulse family. leguminosae. "throughout texas south of the colorado and west to el paso." (coulter). hunter: in brushy woodlands; honey yield is heavy, of fine quality, but plants not abundant. april and may.* acacia amentacea dc. pulse family. leguminosae. "from the guadalupe to the lower rio grande and west to the pecos." (coulter). very plentiful throughout southwest texas, on prairies. honey yield of no importance. bees gather pollen from it occasionally in early summer.* plum. prunus domestica l. rose family. rosaceae. hunter: in orchards and escaped. honey yield good with "fruit bloom." helps to build up colonies of bees. february.* wild plum. prunus (sp.) rose family. rosaceae. college station: planted on campus. honey yield good but of short duration. march.* peach. amygdalus persica l. rose family. rosaceae. "in waste places and cultivated grounds throughout the united states." (small). cultivated in orchards; honey yield good; with "fruit bloom" builds up colonies in spring. january to april.* bridal wreath. spiraea virginiana britt. rose family. rosaceae. cultivated ornamental shrub. honey yield unimportant; bees sometimes busy on it. march.* dew-berry. rubus trivialis michx. rose family. rosaceae. "a southern blackberry, apparently common in eastern, southern and western texas." (coulter). common wild, little cultivated; bees on it busy; honey and pollen. february, april.* rose. rosa tourn. cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant; pollen gathered from it sometimes. spring, summer and fall.* apple. malus malus (l) britt. rose family. rosaceae. cultivated in orchards; honey yield early; helps in brood rearing; good where abundant. march, april.* pear. pyrus communis l. rose family. rosaceae. a much cultivated fruit tree, important for early honey and pollen. february, march.* hawthorn. white thorn. crataegus spathulata michx. rose family. rosaceae. "a species of the gulf states and extending to the lower colorado in texas." (coulter). in woodlands and creeks; good for honey and pollen. april.* hawthorn. white thorn. crataegus arborescens ell. rose family. rosaceae. "a species of the gulf states and extending to the lower colorado in texas." (coulter). college station; in woodlands and creek banks; honey yield good, bees found busily on it; also pollen. april.* crepe myrtle. lagerstroemia indica l. loose strife family. lythraceae. "in waste places in and near gardens; widely cultivated and sparingly naturalized from maryland, florida and texas." (small). cultivated ornamental on campus; honey yield occasionally good and visited much by bees. june, october.* jussiaea. jussiaea repens l. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. "in streams from the san antonio northward and eastward." (coulter). in water edge of rivers and lakes. not affected by drouth; it is important for bees during dearth. june to september.* jussiaea. jussiaea diffusa forskl. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. "in and about ponds, kentucky to kansas, florida and texas, also in tropical america and asia." (small) in water edge of pasture tanks and pools. honey yield good; important as it is not affected by drouths but better after rains. june, august.* gaura filiformis small. evening primrose family. onagrarieae. sandy soils and along creeks; honey yield good; sometimes yielding surplus in spurts when favorable season and rains prevail. june, october.* musk melon. cucumis melo l. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. hunter: cultivated. honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings. also pollen. early summer to fall. important in melon growing sections, south texas. july and september.* cucumber. cucumis sativa. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated; honey yield very good; short duration; pollen; but plants not abundant. april, july.* watermelon. citrullus citrullus (l) small. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated; honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings, also pollen; from early summer to frosts in late autumn. may to october.* "successful in honey plant plot at college in ." (e. scholl). wild gourd. cucurbita foetidissima hbk. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. "abundant in the valleys of southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: in a variety of places. honey yield not important; plants scattered and few, good for pollen. april, july.* common pumpkin. cucurbita pepo l. gourd family. cucurbitaceae. cultivated: not important for honey, but much pollen. may, june.* common cactus or prickly pear. opuntia englemannii salm. & dyk. cactus family. cactaceae. "common throughout southern and western texas. this seems to be common "prickly pear" of texas, though all the flat-jointed opuntias bear that name. the joints are commonly spoken of as "leaves" and form an important food for grazing of animals, under the name of "nopal." the "nopal leaf" is also much used for poultices, etc." (coulter). hunter: over entire southwestern texas; honey yield abundant; sometimes surplus; honey of rank flavor when first stored. may, june.* dogwood. cornus asperifolia michx. dogwood family. cornaceae. "an eastern species extending to central texas where the variety drummondii is the common form." (coulter). lowlands and along banks; honey yield good and bees fairly roam over blossoms, but species not plentiful. march, april.* elder. sambucus canadensis l. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "moist grounds throughout texas." (coulter). along rivers and wet places; honey yield good but not plentiful. april, may.* black haw. virburnum prunifolium l. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "an atlantic species, extending westward into texas as far as the valley of the guadalupe and probably the san antonio." (coulter). hunter: in woodlands and forests. honey yield good, early, valuable for brood rearing. march, april.* coral berry. indian currant. symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos (l) macm. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "an atlantic species extending into texas. near new braunfels. (lindheimer)." (coulter). in woodlands along rivers and rocky soil. honey yield good and of long duration. july, september.* bush honeysuckle. lonicera fragrantissima lindle. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. shrubby vine; cultivated species on campus; honey yield extremely early, valuable to stimulate bees if weather is favorable; also pollen. january.* white-flowered honeysuckle. lonicera albiflora torn. & gray. honey suckle family. caprifoliaceae. "abundant throughout western texas and especially in the mountains west of the pecos." (coulter). hunter: cultivated for ornamental purposes. honey yield good, but few plants. may, july.* houstonia. houstonia angustifolia michx. madder family. rubiaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). college station: on dry soils and prairies. bees work on it well but plants not abundant. may, july.* button bush. cephalanthus occidentalis l. madder family. rubiaceae. "swamps and along streams throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: along rivers and creeks. bees work on it. july.* button weed. diodia teres walt. madder family. rubiaceae. "sandy soil, low grounds of texas to mouth of rio grande." (coulter). low sandy soils; honey yield good and valuable as it comes during drouth. no surplus. july, august.* broomweed. gutierrezia texana t. & g. composite family. compositae. "sterile plains throughout texas." (coulter). in open prairies; honey yield good in fall for winter stores; dark amber and strong flavor. september, october.* goldenrod. solidago sp. (?). composite family. compositae. occurs in all parts of texas. september. see a. b. c. . parthenium hysterophorus l. composite family. compositae. "throughout eastern and central texas. dr. harvard remarks that it is one of the commonest weeds about the streets of san antonio." (coulter). hunter: in waste places and open town lots of which it takes possession. honey yield good in favorable seasons when not too dry. white pollen. april, november.* roman wormwood. ambrosia artemisiaefolia l. composite family. compositae. "a common weed of waste grounds, extremely variable." (coulter). dry upland soils and waste places; probably pollen only. july, august.* tall ragweed. ambrosia aptera dc. composite family. compositae. "low grounds in southern and western texas." (coulter). hunter: along field fences and low places. some honey but more pollen of a resinous nature. july and august.* great ragweed. ambrosia trifida l. composite family. compositae. "moist river banks throughout eastern and central texas." (coulter). college: in low moist creeks and along brazos river. honey yield not important, but yields much pollen. july and august.* cockle-burr. clot burr. xanthium canadense mill. composite family. compositae. "alluvial shores and waste ground." (coulter). hunter: along creeks, in pastures and fields; not important; furnishes pollen late in the fall. september, october.* cone flower. nigger head. rudbeckia hirta l. composite family. compositae. "dry and open ground throughout texas." (coulter). waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. may, june.* cone flower. nigger head. rudbeckia bicolor nutt. composite family. compositae. "pine woods or sandy soil, eastern and southern texas." (coulter). "in woods and sandy soil, arkansas to alabama and texas." (small). waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. may, june.* common sunflower. helianthus annuus l. composite family. compositae. "abundant in all valleys." (coulter). hunter: along roadsides and in waste fields. honey yield sometimes good in the fall but strong in flavor. much propolis gathered from the large composite heads of the flower and stems and leaves of the plant. may, september.* virginian crown-beard. verbesina virginica l. composite family. compositae. "rich dry soil from the mississippi and gulf states through texas to mexico." (coulter). in rich soils, lowlands and woodlands; honey yield very abundant, depending upon seasons; fine quality of honey. october.* sneeze weed. bitter weed. helenium tenuifolium nutt. composite family. compositae. "river bottoms, etc., extending from the gulf and mississippi states to western texas." (coulter). college: abundant on open woodland prairies and plains of eastern texas. honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; honey golden yellow, heavy body but very bitter, as if per cent quinine and some pepper was added. june to october.* marigold. gaillardia pulchella foug. composite family. compositae. "extending from plains of arkansas and louisiana through texas to those of arizona and mexico." (coulter). hunter: waysides and prairies. honey yield of good quality, dark amber colored. a main yielder of surplus. may, june.* blue thistle. cnicus altissimus willd. composite family. compositae. "borders of woods and open ground. common in the atlantic states and extending into texas." (coulter). hunter: scattered over open prairies; honey yield unimportant; some pollen. july, august.* "bees working heavily on it in june, along guadalupe river, new braunfels, texas, where some of the pastures were literally covered with it." (e. scholl). american knapweed. centaurea americana nutt. composite family. compositae. "extending from the plains of arkansas and louisiana through texas to arizona and adjacent mexico." (coulter). hunter: open prairies and pastures. not important. july, august.* dandelion. taraxacum officinale weber. composite family. compositae. "common everywhere; an introduction from europe." (coulter). see a. b. c. of bee culture. february.* marigold. tagetes patalus l. composite family. compositae. cultivated in flower gardens; honey yield not important; bees only occasionally visiting it. july.* narrow-leafed iron wood. bumelia angustifolia nutt. appodilla family. sapotaceae. "valley of the lower rio grande." (coulter). specimen sent from the nueces river. (cotulla). june.* mexican persimmon. diospyros texana scheele. ebony family. ebenaceae. "woods along streams, matagorda bay to the concho river and southward." (coulter). "mexicans call it "chapote," also known as "black persimmon." often found on rocky mesas but thrives best in canyons and on the edges of ravines." (harvard). hunter: in woodlands: honey yield abundant, not harmed by showers on account of bell-shaped flowers. april.* persimmon (common). diospyros virginiana l. ebony family. ebenaceae. "a common tree of the atlantic states. extending into texas to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). throughout east texas; honey yield good, not long and trees not abundant. bell-shaped blossoms are protected in rain. april.* california privet. ligustrum vulgare l. olive family. oleaceae. "thickets and on roadsides, ontario to pennsylvania and north carolina." (small). ornamental shrub cultivated for hedges, etc., honey yield good; flowering trees scarce, trimmed and kept down in hedges. april, may.* "a good flow at college station in ." (e. scholl). silver berry. elaeagnus argentia, pursh. oleaster family. elaeagnaceae. college station; cultivated ornamental on campus. honey yield abundant in narrowly funnel-shaped blossoms hanging downward. nectar runs to mouth of flower. protected from rains. corolla mm. deep. long-tongue bees would be of advantage. october, november.* sweet olive. elaeagnus angustifolia l. oleaster family. elaeagnaceae. college station: cultivated ornamental shrub on campus; honey yield good; bees work on blossom. april.* silk weed. asclepias sp. milk weed family. asclepiadeae. beeville; on plains and prairies. honey yield good but pollen attaches to bee's feet and cripples them. march.* dense-flowered phacelia. phacelia congesta hook. water-leaf family. hydrophyllaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). rich places and moist woods; honey yield sparing. april, june.* phacelia glabra nutt. water-leaf family. hydrophyllaceae. "low prairies arkansas and east texas." (coulter). on prairies eastern texas. march, april.* borage. borage officinalis l. borage family. boragineae. college: cultivated; honey yield good; bees working busily on it during june. old stalks die down in july and large lower leaves protect root stock during severe drouth and sprout out for bees to work on bloom in august. june, july.* morning glory. ipomoea caroliniana pursh. convolvulus family. convolvulaceae. most common in cultivated fields. honey yield light, pollen. june to november.* night-shade. solanum rostratum dunal. night-shade family. solanaceae. "plains throughout texas." (coulter). hunter: waste lands, prairies and roadsides. honey very little; some pollen. may, october.* trumpet creeper. trumpet flower. campsis radicans (l) seem. bigonia family. bignoniaceae. "moist soil, extending from atlantic and gulf states into texas and common in cultivation." (coulter). cultivated and along river bottoms: honey yield of little importance; external nectar glands; pollen from flowers. july to october.* large-flowered verbena. verbena urticaefolia l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "waste or open grounds, extending from the atlantic regions through texas to tropical america." (coulter). college station: in waste open ground. april, august.* blue vervain. verbena xutha lehm. vervain family. verbenaceae. "extending from louisiana through texas to southern california and mexico." (coulter). college: in sandy soils, honey yield sparing and scattering throughout its season. april, august.* spatulate-leafed fog-fruit. lippia nodiflora michx. vervain family. verbenaceae. "low ground extending from the gulf states to western texas." (coulter). in moist places, rivers and creeks; honey yield very light and of little importance. july.* white brush. lippia ligustrina britt. vervain family. verbenaceae. "common on rocky slopes throughout texas." (coulter). "foliage eaten by cattle, sheep and goats." (harvard). all over southwest texas; honey yield very heavy of fine quality but very short duration, only a few days; blooms after each rain during season. may to november.* lantana. lantana camara l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "extending from the gulf states through southeastern texas to tropical america." (coulter). on light soils of southwest texas; unimportant; bees seldom on it. april, october.* french mulberry. callicarpa americana l. vervain family. verbenaceae. "rich or moist grounds, extending from gulf states to southern texas." (coulter). brazos bottoms, college; rich soil in woods, abundant: honey yield only fair. may.* roemer's sage. salvia roemeriana scheele. mint family. labiatae. "in light fertile soils, western texas." (coulter). hunter: rich soils in forests. unimportant as a honey plant; not abundant; deep corollas. may, june.* blue sage. salvia azurea lam. mint family. labiatae. "from gulf states to extreme western texas." (coulter). hunter: dry soil and waste places; corolla deep and visited much more frequently by bumble bees than honey bees. april, october.* catnip. nepeta cataria l. mint family. labiatae. cultivated on apiary experimental plats, ; only a few plants grew and bloomed. a few bees visited it. soon died. july.* wild bergamont. monarda fistulosa l. mint family. labiatae. "dry soil throughout texas, etc." (coulter). college: along banks of ravines. honey yield good but plants not abundant. may, july.* horse-mint. monarda clinopodioides gray. mint family. labiatae. "eastern and southern texas." (coulter). prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main yielders; honey compared to bass-wood in flavor. may, june.* horse-mint. monarda punctata l. (see frontis-piece). mint family. labiatae. "sandy ground extending from the atlantic regions to southern and western texas." (coulter). in open prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main crop yielders; honey compared with basswood. may, july.* "a good yielder in brazos bottoms. college station, texas, in , june." (e. scholl). drummond's skull-cap. scutellaria drummondii benth. mint family. labiatae. "common throughout texas in damp rich soil." (coulter). "on prairies, kansas to texas." (small). hunter: waste places in fields and prairies. honey yield abundant in spring; much visited by bees. april, may.* common hoarhound. marrubium vulgare l. mint family. labiatae. "a common escape in waste or open ground." (coulter). hunter: most all parts of the south; fertile places; fence corners and pens; honey yield abundant; steady flow; dark amber colored. claimed bitter by some. february, july.* coleus. coleus blumei benth. mint family. labiatae. college; ornament for borders, etc. honey yield of no importance. bees gather pollen from it only occasionally. july.* common pigweed. amaranthus retroflexus l. amaranth family. amaranthaceae. "throughout texas." (coulter). waste lands and fields; honey yield of no importance; some pollen. july, september.* thorny amaranth. amaranthus spinosus l. amaranth family. amaranthaceae. "from tom green county to laredo." (coulter). annual weedy herbs. in waste places and cultivated soils presumably pollen only; not important. august.* madeira vine. anredera scandens (l). moq. goosefoot family. chenopodiaceae. "from the upper pecos to the lower rio grande, (ringgold)." (coulter). hunter. texas; cultivated for shade on verandas; honey yield fair, bees work on it industriously, but the plants are scarce. may, september.* japanese buckwheat. fagopyrum fagopyrum (l) karst. buckwheat family. polygonaceae. cultivated in fields in a small way; honey yield good on favorable moist mornings, not in dry weather. honey very dark and strong in flavor; not important for bees in texas. june, july.* "a good yielder to bridge over from early spring flower to cotton bloom at college station, texas." (e. scholl). american mistletoe. phoradendron flavescens nutt. mistletoe family. loranthaceae. "from eagle pass to central texas. reported on ulmus, prosopis, quercus, etc." (coulter). honey yield abundant and also pollen, very valuable for early brood rearing. the first source for bees in the season. december, january.* "blooms in january and february if weather is not too cold, yields pollen and honey." (milam, d. c, uvalde, texas). spurge. euphorbia marginata pursh. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "throughout the valleys of the pecos and rio grande." (coulter). along valleys and lowlands; honey yield of no importance. june, october.* sonora croton. croton sonorae torr. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "on rocky bluffs of the upper llano." (coulter). hunter: open places in woodland bluffs; honey yield only light, but comes in dearth and good if rains; pollen. july, august.* croton capitatus michx. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "from the pecos to southern and central texas." (coulter). roadsides and prairies; unimportant; some pollen when no other bloom. july, september.* "plenty of pollen at college station in august, ." (e. scholl). texas croton. croton texensis muell. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "from the staked plains to corpus christi." (coulter). hunter: roadsides and fields; honey yield very light, not important. june, august.* one-seeded croton. croton monanthogynus michx. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "central and southern texas." (coulter). hunter: open prairies and pastures; honey yield fair, but unimportant. may, june. castor-oil plant. ricinus communis l. spurge family. euphorbiaceae. "cultivated extensively for ornament and sparingly escaped in missouri and southwestward to central mexico." (coulter). planted for ornamental purposes; honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; has glands at base of leaves. march, april.* american or white elm. ulmus americana l. nettle family. urticaceae. "extending westward to the streams of southern and central texas." (coulter). college: along moist creeks and streams; honey yield good but not very plentiful. august.* winged elm or wahoo. ulmus alata michx. nettle family. urticaceae. "on streams extending to the valley of the trinity." (coulter). tree with corky winged branches, along streams and low soils in woods; honey yield good sometimes giving surplus; much pollen; honey of amber color and strong characteristic aroma. august, september.* granjeno. celtis pallida torr. nettle family. urticaceae. "very common on all mesas and foot-hills of western and southern texas." (coulter). beekeepers value it as an important plant in southwest texas. march, april.* hackberry. celtis mississippiensis bosc. nettle family. urticaceae. "extending to central texas." (coulter). in woodlands; much planted for shade; honey yield fair, valuable for pollen in the spring. march, april.* hackberry. celtis occidentalis l. nettle family. urticaceae. "very common in the valleys of western and southwestern texas, 'palo blanco'" (coulter). in woods and valleys, planted for shade; honey yield fair, much pollen, valuable for early brood rearing. march, april.* osage orange. toxylon pomiferum raf. nettle family. urticaceae. "near waters from eastern to central and southern texas. extensively used for hedges." (coulter). planted for hedges and timber; honey yield not important on account of scarcity of trees. april.* pecan-nut. hicoria pecan (marsh) britt. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending from the mississippi states to the streams of central and southwestern texas as far west as fort concho." (coulter). along rivers and creeks; honey yield where plentiful; valuable for brood rearing on account of its pollen. march.* mockernut. whiteheart hickory. hicoria alba (l) britt. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending to the valley of the brazos." (coulter). college station, brazos river. abundant in the sandy valley land; some honey and pollen. march.* black walnut. juglans nigra l. walnut family. juglandeae. "extending from the east to the valley of the colorado and san antonio." (coulter). in forests, along creeks and rivers; some honey, more pollen; good to stimulate bees. march.* post oak. quercus minor (marsh) sarg. oak family. cupuliferae. "sandy or sterile soils, extending from the atlantic states to central texas." (coulter). in sandy land sections of the country; honey yield inferior but with large amount of pollen; good for early brood rearing. march, april.* live oak. quercus virginiana mill. oak family. cupuliferae. "common along water courses extending from the gulf states through southern and western texas to the mountains of new mexico." (coulter). hunter: in forests, honey yield good, poor in quality, dark; valuable for early brood rearing; much pollen. march.* red oak. quercus rubra l. oak family. cupuliferae. "extending to the valleys of the colorado and san antonio. not abundant and timber poor." (coulter). along creeks and low-lands; scarce; pollen. march, april.* swamp, spanish, or pin oak. quercus palustris du roi. oak family. cupuliferae. "low grounds extending to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). forests; good honey yield and also pollen; valuable for brood rearing, march, april.* water oak. quercus aquatica walt. oak family. cupuliferae. "wet grounds extending from the south atlantic states to the valley of the colorado." (coulter). college: along creeks and streams; scarce and scattering; pollen. march.* black jack or barren oak. quercus nigra l. oak family. cupuliferae. "extending to the valleys of the colorado and nueces." (coulter). in post oak woods in sandy sections of the country; early pollen. march, april.* black willow. salix nigra marsh. willow family. salicineae. "on banks bending over the water of most streams of western texas." (coulter). along rivers and creeks; honey yield good and valuable for brood rearing, and for abundance of pollen. february to april.* cottonwood. necklace poplar. populus monilifera ait. willow family. salicineae. "extending into the mountains of western texas." (coulter). lowlands and along streams; some honey but more pollen; valuable for early brood rearing. march.* green briar. cat briar. smilax bona-nox l. lily family. liliaceae. "abundant along the rio grande and pecos." (coulter). "in thickets massachusetts to florida and texas. stretch berry." (small). in thickets; honey yield fair; bees work on it well, but of short duration. april.* asparagus. asparagus officinalis linn. lily family. liliaceae. "in waste places and salt marshes. new brunswick to georgia and louisiana. naturalized from europe." (small). cultivated for its young shoots for food; honey yield of no importance, but good for pollen. march, april.* virginian spiderwort. commelina virginica l. spiderwort family. commelinaceae. "moist thickets and borders of rivers southern and southwestern texas." (coulter). hunter: moist fence corners and open woods; honey yield unimportant, valuable for pollen. april, may.* spiderwort. tradescantia gigantea rose. spiderwort family. commelinaceae. "on plains or prairies, texas." (small). new braunfels; in and about hedges of woodlands; honey yield unimportant but good for early pollen. march, may.* sorghum. sorghum vulgare pers. grass family. gramineae. hunter: cultivated for hay crops, etc., valuable for abundant yield of pollen; some honey. june, august.* indian corn. zea mays l. grass family. gramineae. "cultivated in fields for grain; honey yield not positively known; valuable for its pollen in abundance. may, june.* index latin or technical names. acacia amentacea acacia berlandiera acacia farnesiana acacia greggii acacia roemeriana ailanthus glandulosus amaranthaceae amaranthus retroflexus amaranthus spinosus ambrosia aptera ambrosia artemisiaefolia ambrosia trifida ampelidaceae amygdalus persica anacardiaceae anredera scandens argemone platyceras asclepiadeae asclepias sp asparagus officinalis astragalus mexicanus berberideae berberis trifoliata bignoniaceae berchemia scandens borage officinalis boragineae brassica nigra brassica rapa bumelia angustifolia callicarpa americana callirrhoe digitata cactaceae campsis radicans caprifoliaceae cardiospermum halicacabum celtis pallida celtis occidentalis celtis mississippiensis centaurea americana cephalanthus occidentalis cercis canadensis cercis occidentalis chenopodiaceae cissus incisa citrullus citrullus citrus trifoliata cnicus altissimus coleus blumei columbrina texensis commelinaceae commelina virginica compositae condalia obovata convolvulaceae cornaceae cornus asperifolia crataegus arborescens crataegus spathulata croton capitatus croton monanthogynus croton sonorae croton texensis cruciferae cucumis melo cucumis sativa cucurbitaceae cucurbita foetidissima cucurbita pepo cupuliferae daubentonia longifolia diodia teres diospyros texana diospyros virginiana dolichos lablab ebenaceae elaeagnaceae elaeagnus angustifolia elaeagnus argentia euphorbiaceae euphorbia marginata eysenhardtia amorphoides firmiana platinifolia fagopyrum fagopyrum gaillardia pulchella gaura filiformis geraniaceae gleditschia triacanthos gossypium herbaceum gramineae greggia camporum gutierrezia texana helenium tenuifolium helianthus annuus hibiscus syriacus hicoria alba hicoria pecan houstonia angustifolia hydrophyllaceae ilex caroliniana ilex decidua ilicineae ipomoea caroliniana juglandeae juglans nigra jussiaea diffusa jussiaea repens kallstroemia maxima labiatae lagerstroemia indica lantana camara leguminosae lepidium virginicum ligustrum vulgare liliaceae lippia ligustrina lippia nodiflora lonicera albiflora lonicera fragrantissima loranthaceae lupinus subcarnosus lythraceae malus malus malvaceae malvaviscus drummondii marrubium vulgare medicago denticulata medicago sativa meliaceae melia azedarach melilotus alba melilotus officinalis monarda clinopodioides monarda fistulosa monarda punctata nepeta cataria neptunia lutea oleaceae onagrarieae opuntia englemannii oxalis stricta papaveraceae papaver rhoeas parkinsonia aculeata parthenium hysterophorus phacelia congesta phacelia glabra phoradendron flavescens pisum sativum polygonaceae populus monilifera portulaceae portulaca grandiflora prosopis juliflora prunus (sp.) prunus domestica ptelea trifoliata pyrus communis quercus aquatica quercus minor quercus nigra quercus palustris quercus rubra quercus virginiana reseda odorata resedaceae rhamneae rhus copallina rhus virens ricinus communis robinia pseudacacia rosa rosaceae rudbeckia bicolor rudbeckia hirta rubiaceae rubus trivialis rutaceae salicineae salix nigra salvia azurea salvia roemeriana sambucus canadensis sapindaceae sapindus marginatus sapotaceae schrankia angustata scutellaria drummondii sida spinosa sida angustifolia simarubaceae smilax bona-nox solanaceae solanum rostratum solidago sp. (?) sorghum vulgare spiraea virginiana symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos tagetes patalus tamariscineae tamarix gallica taraxacum officinale tilia americana tiliaceae toxylon pomiferum tradescantia gigantea tribulus cistoides trifolium pratense trifolium repens ulmus americana ulmus alata ungnadia speciosa urticaceae verbenaceae verbena urticaefolia verbena xutha verbesina virginica vigna sinensis (var. ?) vigna (sp). virburnum prunifolium vitis monticola vitis (?) (varieties) xanthium canadense xanthoxylum clava-herculis zea mays zygophylleae index vernacular or common names. alfalfa or lucerne amaranth family american knapweed american mistletoe american or white elm apple appodilla family asparagus barberry family basswood. american linden bean-caper family bigonia family black haw black jack or barren oak black locust black walnut black willow blue lupine. bluebonnet blue sage blue thistle blue vervain borage borage family brasil wood bridal wreath broomweed buckthorn family buckwheat family bush honeysuckle button bush button weed cactus family california privet cassia castor-oil plant catnip catsclaw cockle-burr. clot-burr coleus common balloon vine common cactus or prickly pear common hoarhound common pigweed common pumpkin common sunflower common turnip composite family cone flower. nigger head convolvulus family coral berry. indian currant cotton cottonwood. necklace poplar cow itch crepe myrtle cucumber cultivated wine grapes cow pea dandelion dense-flowered phacelia devils claws dew-berry dogwood family drummond's skull-cap dwarf sumach ebony family elder evening primrose family eysenhardtia french mulberry fringed poppy mallow garden pea geranium family goldenrod goosefoot family gourd family grass family granjeno greater caltrop great ragweed green briar. cat briar green sumach greggia hardy orange hackberry hawthorn. white thorn holly family honey locust honey suckle family hop tree horse-mint houstonia huajilla huisache indian corn japanese buckwheat japanese delchos japanese varnish tree jussiaea lantana large-flowered caltrop large-flowered verbena lily family linden family live oak loose strife family madder family madeira vine mallow family marigold medick. burr clover melia family mezquit tree. screw bean mexican buckeye mexican ground plum mexican persimmon mignonette mignonette family milk weed family mint family mistletoe family mockernut. whiteheart hickory morning glory mountain grape musk melon mustard family narrow-leafed iron wood narrow-leafed sida nettle family night-shade night-shade family oak family oleaster family olive family one-seeded croton osage orange paradise flower peach pear pecan-nut persimmon (common) peppergrass. pepperwort plum poppy family portulaca possum haw. bear berry post oak prickly poppy pulse family purslane family quassia family rattan vine red bud red bud. judas tree red clover red oak retama roemer's sage roman wormwood rose rose family rose of sharon. shrubby althaea round-flowered catsclaw rue family salt cedar sensitive briar silk weed silver berry sneeze weed. bitter weed soapberry. wild china soapberry family sonora croton sorgum spanish apple spatulate-leafed fog-fruit spiderwort family spring sida spurge spurge family sumach family swamp, spanish, or pin oak sweet clover sweet olive tall ragweed tamarisc family texas croton thorny amaranth tooth-ache tree. prickly ash. sea ash. pepperwood tree of heaven triple-leafed barberry trumpet creeper. trumpet flower umbrella china tree vervain family vine family virginian crown-beard virginian spiderwort walnut family water-leaf family watermelon water oak white brush white clover white-flowered honey suckle willow family wild bergamont wild gourd wild plum winged elm or wahoo yellow wood sorrel yellow sweet clover youpon ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [transcriber's note: electronic version produced by frank zago - april nd, . notes about this edition: only the obvious typos were fixed; and several missing opening or closing quotes were added. otherwise no other change was made. the original book used is freely available from texas a&m university at: http://repository.tamu.edu/handle/ . / ] +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes: | | | | the scans on which this e-book was based have been generously made| | available by the internet archive. | | | | the original text has been preserved for this e-book, including | | (minor) inconsistencies (for example, right-hand v. right hand). | | | | the footnote has been moved to directly underneath the section it | | refers to. | | | | transcription used in this e-text: italics in the original are | | presented here between underscores, as in _text_; small capitals | | in the original document are presented here as all capitals. | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ apiary inspection. bulletin no. a. the commonwealth of massachusetts. state board of agriculture. soft candy for bees. by dr. burton n. gates. from the sixty-first annual report of the state board of agriculture. [illustration] boston: wright & potter printing co., state printers, derne street. . approved by the state board of publication. soft candy for bees. the so-called "fuller candy" for queen cages, transportation of combless colonies, stimulative and general feeding. the well-informed beekeeper has learned that it is unwise and hazardous to feed under any circumstances honey in any form, even though it be from his own apiary. there have been many sad and general infections with bee diseases by such unguarded feeding. thus it has become almost an axiom, "feed no honey." consequently, substitutes have necessarily been adopted and among these are sugar syrups of various dilutions and compositions; "hard candy," which is virtually a taffy; and recently, the so-called "fuller candy," which is a soft fondant, not dissimilar to the fondant of chocolate creams. for several years mr. fuller of blackstone, mass., as well as others, has been experimenting with this modified english candy, which should not harden beyond usefulness. beekeepers of massachusetts and elsewhere about the country have found it advantageous to use this as a substitute for honey or syrup. so numerous are the inquiries and satisfactory the results, that it seems desirable to prepare information in printed form. the soft candy has numerous advantages and possibilities. it is found to be a most satisfactory stimulative feed; a food for bees in transit, either full colonies on combs, in combless packages, or for queens in mailing cages. it is also found satisfactory and advantageous as winter stores. colonies have been observed to leave natural stores for the candy. this has occurred in colonies out of doors or in the cellar during winter, as well as with colonies which are flying. some of the advantages of the candy are the ease with which it is handled or supplied; the fact that it may be made up in quantities and stored until needed for use; its failure to excite robbing; the ability to provision colonies with known amounts or weights; and its freedom from bee disease infection. it is furthermore found to be economical, there being no waste by evaporation or spilling, as is the case with liquid feeds. it is proving exceedingly practical in all feeding purposes and methods. the candy may be made in any degree of hardness or softness, according to the preference of the individual or the needs of the season. as is inferred above, it may be made and stored for months and even years if properly handled. it may be molded in pulp, or wooden pie-plates, shallow tins or specially constructed feeders (see figs. and ), "division-board feeders," overhead or super feeders, or boards may be nailed to the side of a frame and the candy poured and molded within the frame, allowing this to be hung in the hive adjacent to the cluster. with the candy may be mixed pollen substitutes, but these are as yet in the experimental stage, and their efficiency or satisfactoriness is uncertain. the latest formula or recipe for the cream, or soft candy, fondant, which is practically a confectioner's recipe, is as follows:-- pounds granulated sugar. ½ pounds liquid glucose.[ ] ¼ quarts water (equals ounces, which equals cupfuls). ¼ teaspoonful (about) cream of tartar, added when the temperature reaches about ° f. or ° c. boil to ° f. or . ° c. [ ] granular or crystal glucose may be used, mixing it with the usual amount of water. it may be desirable to modify the amount of glucose. the measurements should be accurate. a wooden paddle whittled about a foot long, with a -inch blade, is found to be superior to a spoon in stirring or beating the candy. a confectioner's thermometer is an advantage. those experienced in making maple sugar may dispense with the thermometer, although more accurate results are obtained by using it. [illustration: fig. .--these are the usual and convenient types of candy box or feeder. the right-hand one is placed as it would appear on the top of the frames. notice that one end is slightly elevated. to its left is a box of candy, which is darker, being made with "coffee a" sugar; the glass side of this faces out, as also in the upper box. the box at the extreme left shows the surface of white candy, made with granulated sugar; it also shows the projection which tilts the box. upon it is a pie plate filled with the candy, which may be inverted upon the frames. (author's illustration.)] [illustration: fig. .--molds in the form of division-board feeders (left-hand mold filled with candy; right hand, empty). the lower frames are the standard langstroth dimensions; the upper are benton nuclei frames. the central box shows the position of a feeder on top of the frames. (author's illustration.)] as soon as the sugar has begun to dissolve, _prior to boiling_, the spoon or paddle used in stirring should be removed from the kettle. _the candy should not be stirred while cooking_; to do it will cause a coarse grain. remove from the stove and cool to °- ° f. (or . °- . ° c.), when the specified boiling point has been reached. while cooling, in order to equalize the temperature, the mass may be stirred; or preferably, when cooled to the specified degree, it should be stirred until it commences to grain. mr. fuller's directions are to stir vigorously until the mass appears in color and consistency like boiled starch or paste. at once pour into molds or feeders and cool. _fine-grain fondant for queen cages._--another way to cool the candy is to prepare a marble slab or feet square with bars of square iron, making a form. the candy may be poured upon the marble, and with broad putty knives, similar to those used by paper hangers, the mass may be beaten or worked upon the marble. experience teaches that this, which is virtually a confectioner's method, produces a finer grain and usually a whiter fondant than when stirred in the kettle. this is the process in preparing candy for use in queen mailing cages, or the transportation of bees. by it, a firmer consistency is usually obtained. as a warning or explanation it may be said that the higher the temperature at which the candy is boiled the harder it will become; consequently, by varying the boiling point at which the candy is removed from the stove, the hardness or softness of the product may be governed. furthermore, as is the experience of confection makers, candy should be boiled to one or two degrees higher on cloudy or humid days than on a clear, dry day. by means of a thermometer and a little experience, these features are readily learned. _storing the candy._--the fondant is best stored in earthen crocks, either as a mass or in the feeders. these preserve the normal moisture. over the mass should be placed a sheet of paraffin paper upon which is a moist cloth or towel. the crock should be covered. queen-cage candy should always be kept in this way in order to preserve its consistency. similarly, candy molded in feeders may be stored in large crocks or tins. _remaking the candy._--if at any time the candy hardens from any cause, either in making, storage or in use, it may be softened by the application of a few drops of water. furthermore, it may be removed from the molds and recooked to the desired consistency. to recook, add a small amount of water and boil as before. [illustration: fig. .--when the bees of a strong colony eat up the candy almost entirely, they not infrequently build combs, and have been known even to rear brood, in the box. this shows (upper part of the picture, in corners) the remaining candy upon which the bees were still at work, also having attached combs to the glass. some beekeepers have removed such a box of combs and brood, starting there from a new colony. in order to get the correct relation of the picture, hold it directly above your head. the combs will then appear pendulous from the glass, and in their correct position, as if lifted off from the tops of the frames.] at the internet archive (https://www.archive.org). transcriber notes text emphasis is displayed as _italics_ and =bold=. whole and fractional parts of numbers are displayed as - / . * * * * * u. s. department of agriculture. farmers' bulletin no. . bee keeping. by frank benton, m. s., in charge of apicultural investigations. =[revised, march .]= [illustration] washington: government printing office. . * * * * * letter of transmittal. u. s. department of agriculture, bureau of entomology, _washington, d. o., march ._ sir: frequent inquiries from correspondents of the department of agriculture for information on matters pertaining to the culture of bees, and particularly as to the conditions under which one may reasonably expect to meet with success in this pursuit, led to the preparation of this bulletin in july, . though designed by the author primarily to answer a few of the specific questions which are most likely to present themselves to the mind of the inquirer wholly unfamiliar with the subject, the aim has been also to introduce in the treatment of the various topics information which it is hoped will lead many of longer experience into more successful methods than they have yet practiced. the stereotype plates of the earlier editions having become much worn, necessitating the resetting of the type of the entire bulletin, the opportunity has been afforded of inserting several new paragraphs and making a few slight changes in the text as heretofore published. respectfully, l. o. howard, _entomologist,_ hon. james wilson, _secretary of agriculture,_ contents. page. locations suited to the keeping of bees the returns to be expected from an apiary anyone who desires to do so can learn to manipulate bees how to avoid stings what race of bees to choose caucasians carniolans italians cyprians cyprio-carniolans and cyprio-caucasians syrian and palestine or "holy-land" bees german, common black, or brown bees what hive to adopt management in swarming natural swarming artificial swarming dividing nucleus system shaken or brushed swarms prevention of swarming dequeening requeening space near entrances selection in breeding special crops for honey alone not profitable economic plants and trees for cultivation for honey and pollen how to obtain surplus honey and wax extracted honey comb honey grading and shipping comb honey production of wax the wintering of bees general considerations indoor wintering outdoor wintering the risk of loss through disease and enemies foul brood or bacillus of the hive bee paralysis insect and other enemies robber bees legislation affecting apiarian interests journals treating of apiculture illustrations. page. fig. . the bingham bee smoker . bee veil . the porter spring bee escape . langstroth hive with two half-depth supers for surplus honey . the langstroth hive--dadant-quinby form--cross section showing construction . quinby closed-end frames . the simmins nonswarming system--single-story hive with supers . the simmins nonswarming system--double-story hive with supers . quinby uncapping knife . the automatic reversible honey extractor . langstroth hive--super above, holding sections for comb honey . comb honey stored in pound section . perforated zinc queen excluder . shipping cases for comb honey . solar wax-extractor . steam wax-extractor . double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering, as well as summer use . the american straw hive (langstroth principle) of hayek brothers . colony of bees with newspapers packed between inner and outer cases and brood frames on end for the winter bee keeping. locations suited to the keeping of bees. it may be safely said that any place where farming, gardening, or fruit raising can be successfully followed is adapted to the profitable keeping of bees--in a limited way at least, if not extensively. many of these localities will support extensive apiaries. in addition to this there are, within the borders of the united states, thousands of good locations for the apiarist--forest, prairie, swamp, and mountain regions--where agriculture has as yet not gained a foothold, either because of remoteness from markets or the uninviting character of soil or climate. this pursuit may also be followed in or near towns and, to a limited extent, in large cities. it even happens in some instances that bees in cities or towns find more abundant pasturage than in country locations which are considered fair. the city of washington is an example of this, bees located here doing better during the spring and summer months than those in the surrounding country, owing to the bee pasturage found in the numerous gardens and parks and the nectar-yielding shade trees along the streets. this is due mainly to the fact that the linden, or basswood, which is rarely seen in the country about washington, has been planted extensively in the parks and for miles on both sides of many of the streets and avenues of the city.[a] another source in the city not found extensively in the country adjacent is melilot, bokhara or sweet clover (_melilotus alba_), which has crept into vacant lots and neglected corners, and diffuses its agreeable perfume to the delight of all city dwellers, whether human or insect. the writer has practiced with profit the transportation of nearly a hundred colonies from a country apiary miles distant to washington for the linden and sweet clover yield. he has also seen a prosperous apiary kept on the roof of a business house in the heart of new york city, and on several occasions has visited another apiary of to colonies, which a skillful apiarist had located on the roof of his store in the business portion of cincinnati, ohio, and from which to pounds of honey per colony were usually obtained each year. [a] several species of lindens are included in these plantings, but none yields more than our common american linden, or basswood (_tilia americana_). another apiary personally inspected was located directly on the sand banks forming the eastern shore of lake michigan. these bees were, of course, unable to forage westward from the apiary, hence had but half "a field." the soil of the area over which the bees ranged was a light sand, unproductive for most crops, and the region was little developed agriculturally, most of the honey coming from forest trees and from shrubs and wild plants growing in old burnings and windfalls, yet to pounds of excellent honey per colony was the usual surplus obtained. at one time the writer had an apiary in the city of detroit, mich., where the wide river on one side cut off nearly half of the pasturage, yet the bees did will. and again for several years he had an apiary containing from to colonies of bees on a very sterile coast of the island of cyprus, and another nearly as large located but a few rods from the seashore on a rocky point of syria. both of these apiaries were devoted in the main to queen rearing, yet the yield of honey was not an unimportant item, especially in the syrian apiary, while in the cyprus apiary some honey was frequently taken, and it was rarely necessary to feed the bees for stores. in the latter case about one-fourth of the range was out off by the sea, the bees being located at the head of an open bay and a short distance from the shore, while the location of the syrian apiary prevented the bees from securing half of the usual range, hence their greater prosperity was due to the nature and quantity of the pasturage of their limited range. it is evident, therefore, that no one similarly located need be deterred from keeping bees, provided the nectar-yielding trees and plants of the half range are of the right sort and abundant. moreover, regions so rough and sterile or so swampy as to give no encouragement to the agriculturist, or even to the stock raiser, will often yield a good income to the bee keeper, insignificant and apparently worthless herbs and shrubs furnishing forage for the bees. the ability of the bees to range over areas inaccessible to other farm stock and to draw their sustenance from dense forests when the timber is of the right kind, and the freedom which, because of their nature, must be accorded them to pasture on whatever natural sources are within their range of or miles, must be taken into account in estimating the possibilities of a locality. it will be found that very few localities exist in our country where at least a few colonies of bees may not be kept. whether a large number might be profitably kept in a given locality can be decided only by a careful examination as to the honey-producing flora within range of the apiary (see pp. and - ). the danger of overstocking a given locality is very frequently exaggerated. each range, it is self-evident, has a limit. the writer is, however, fully convinced, after long experience in numerous localities and under the most varied circumstances, that three or four times as many colonies as are commonly considered sufficient to stock a given range may usually be kept with a relative degree of profit. but to secure such results sufficient care and close observation have too frequently not been given in the selection of bees adapted to the locality and conditions. a more frequent failure has been lack of proper attention to the individual colonies, particularly as to the age and character of the queens in each. the space given for brood rearing is often too small, and frequently no care is given to secure the proper amount of brood in time to insure a population ready for each harvest. attention to these points would enable great numbers of bee keepers who now regard to colonies as fully stocking their range to reach several hundreds in a single apiary, with slight or no diminution in the average yield per colony. the returns to be expected from an apiary. although apiculture is extremely fascinating to most people who have a taste for the study of nature, requiring, as it does, out-of-door life, with enough exercise to be of benefit to one whose main occupation is sedentary, the income to be derived from it when rightly followed is a consideration which generally has some weight and is often the chief factor in leading one to undertake the care of bees. certainly, where large apiaries are planned, the prime object is the material profit, for they require much hard labor and great watchfulness, and the performance of the work at stated times is imperative, so that in this case there is less opportunity than where but a few colonies are kept to make a leisurely study of the natural history and habits of these interesting insects, because--unless the keeper is willing to forego a considerable portion of his profits--his time must necessarily be almost wholly taken up in attending to the most apparent wants of his charges. one very naturally supposes that the return from a single hive, or several of them, in a given locality, may be taken as a fair index of what may be expected each season. such return, if considered average, may serve as a basis on which to reckon, but as so many conditions influence it, great differences in actual results-will be found to occur in successive seasons. apiculture, like all other branches of agriculture, depends largely upon the natural resources of the location, and the favorableness or unfavorableness of any particular season, no matter how skillful the management, may make great differences in the year's return. the knowledge, skill, industry, and promptness of the one who undertakes the care of the apiary have likewise much to do with the return. furthermore, profits are of course largely affected by the nature and proximity of the markets. a moderate estimate for a fairly good locality would be to pounds of extracted honey or pounds of comb honey per colony. this presupposes good wintering and an average season. when two or more of the important honey-yielding plants are present in abundance and are fairly supplemented by minor miscellaneous honey plants the locality may be considered excellent, and an expectation of realizing more than the yield mentioned above may be entertained. with extracted honey of good quality at its present wholesale price of to cents per pound and comb honey at to cents, each hive should under favorable circumstances give a gross annual return of $ . to $ . from this about one-third is to be deducted to cover expenses other than the item of labor. these will include the purchase of comb foundation and sections, repairs, eventual replacing of hives and implements, and the interest on the capital invested. by locating in some section particularly favorable to apiculture--that is, near large linden forests, with clover fields within range, supplemented by buckwheat; or in a section where alfalfa is raised for seed; where mesquite, california sages, and wild buckwheat abound; where mangrove, palmettos, and titi, or where sourwood, tulip tree, and asters are plentiful--the net profits here indicated may frequently be doubled or trebled. but these favored locations, like all others, are also subject to reverses--the result of droughts, great wet, freezes which kill back the bee pasturage, etc., and though some years the profits are so much larger than those named above as to lend a very roseate hue to the outlook for the accumulation of wealth on the part of anyone who can possess himself of a hundred or two colonies of bees, the beginner will do well to proceed cautiously, bearing in mind that much experience is necessary to enable him to turn to the best account seasons below the average, while during poor seasons it will take considerable under standing of the subject, energetic action, and some sacrifice to tide over, without disaster, or at least without such great discouragement as to cause neglect and loss of faith in the business. on the whole, there should be expected from the raising of bees for any purpose whatever only fair pay for one's time, good interest on the money invested, and a sufficient margin to cover contingencies. with no greater expectations from it than this, and where intelligence directs the work, apiculture will be found, in the long run, to rank among the best and safest of rural industries. the value of bees in the pollination of various fruit and seed crops is often sufficient reason to warrant the keeping of a small apiary, even if circumstances do not favor its management in such a manner as to secure the largest possible crops of honey or to insure the saving of all swarms. the quality and quantity of many varieties of apples, pears, plums, and small fruits depend absolutely upon complete cross-pollination. the most active agents in this work are honey bees. anyone who desires to do so can learn to manipulate bees. any person with fairly steady nerves and some patience and courage can easily learn to control and manipulate bees. there are, it is true, a few exceptional individuals whose systems are particularly susceptible to the poison injected by the bee, so much so that serious effects follow a single sting. such cases are, however, very rare. in most instances where care is not taken to avoid all stings the system eventually becomes accustomed to the poison, so that beyond momentary pain a sting causes no inconvenience. to a certain extent the belief exists that bees have, without apparent cause, a violent dislike for some people, while others, without any effort, are received into their favor. the latter part of this proposition has a better foundation than the first part, for it is the actions, rather than any peculiarity of the individual himself, that anger the bees. bees prefer, of course, not to be disturbed; hence they usually keep guards on the lookout for intruders. when visitors approach the hives these guards are very apt to fly toward them as if to inquire whether harm is intended or not, and should the visitor not inspire them with fear by using smoke or some similar means, but should himself show fear and nervousness, he will be very likely to arouse their suspicions still further, or even to anger them should he strike at them or endeavor to dodge their approach. indeed, one not accustomed to the notes of bees is very likely, unconsciously, to dodge his head about when a worker buzzes uncomfortably close to his face. it may be a movement of but an inch or two, but perhaps a quick jerk, and being noticed by the suspicious guard is resented; a sting follows, and yet the recipient declares that he did nothing to cause the attack, but that bees merely hate him and always sting him when he approaches them. on the other hand, an equally unprotected person who moves about with deliberation may generally, under the same circumstances, be let off without receiving a sting. it is in this case not so much what he does as what he does not do. it is not to be understood that bees will always refrain from stinging if one remains somewhat passive in the vicinity of their hives, for the fact is that at some seasons common black bees and crosses having blood of this race fly some distance to attack passers-by, or even, without just provocation and with but slight warning, to plant a sting in the face of one who is standing near the apiary. but as the avoidance of such unpleasant occurrences depends largely upon the kind of bees kept, and, to a certain extent, upon an acquaintance with a few facts with which anyone of intelligence may easily familiarize himself, and the observance of certain precautions which are quite simple and after a little practice will become easy, and as the opening and manipulation of hives in securing honey, etc., is equally simple and attended with no greater risks, it is safe to say that almost anyone can, with perseverance and the exercise of due caution, learn to manipulate bees with perfect freedom and without serious risk of being stung. how to avoid stings. stings can be avoided, first, by having gentle bees. if no other point of superiority over the common brown or black bee than that of gentleness could be fairly claimed for some of the races introduced and some of the strains developed in recent years, it would still be worth while to get them on this account alone. when the fact of superiority in several other important points is considered also, there should be no further question as to the advisability of procuring them in preference to the common variety. the beginner is advised never to think of doing otherwise. no one likes stings, and even the veteran who affects insensibility to the wrath of his charges will find his interest and pleasure in them much increased by replacing blacks and their crosses with better varieties. nor is this merely to gratify a fancy or for convenience alone. if, by reason of the stinging qualities of the bees kept, an examination for the purpose of ascertaining the condition of a colony of bees becomes a disagreeable task to the one who cares for the apiary, little things necessary to the welfare of the colonies will be postponed or omitted altogether and the apiary will soon present a neglected appearance, and the actual profits will be affected. [illustration: fig. .--the bingham bee smoker.] of the races already in general cultivation, carniolans are the gentlest, although caucasians, more recently introduced from south-eastern russia and only now being put on sale, are by far the least inclined to sting of any bees, and may be handled at all times without resorting to the protection of a bee veil, and generally without smoke, or at most a very slight application of smoke. some strains of italians equal in gentleness average carniolans, but in general the race native to italy is by no means as gentle as that found in carniola, austria, and the caucasians are much to be preferred for the beginner. in case these gentler races are not easily procurable he need not hesitate, however, to undertake, after adopting due precautions, the manipulation of pure italians. in crossing well-established breeds the males of a gentle race should be used, otherwise the workers of the cross may vary greatly in temper, especially in the first few generations. only careful selection continued for some time will so fix the desirable traits as to result in their reproduction with a fair degree of certainty in the offspring. bees having the blood of blacks and italians are nearly always quite vicious in the case of the first cross, and are even harder to subdue with smoke than are pure blacks. other races need not be considered here, as they are adapted to special purposes; and the skill of the bee-master, the conditions of climate, flora, etc., and the particular line of production to be followed, should decide whether their introduction is advisable or not.[b] [b] for a fuller discussion of this subject, see "the honey bee: a manual of instruction in apiculture," by frank benton, m. s., bulletin no. , new series, bureau of entomology, u. s. dept. of agriculture, third edition, , chap. i, pp. - . the second essential to enable one to avoid stings is to have a good smoker at hand whenever the bees are to be handled. any way of getting smoke of any kind into the hive and about it may answer the purpose, but for ease and effectiveness in keeping bees under control nothing will take the place of the modern bellows smoker (fig. ). a good one lasts years, and its cost is so slight ($ to $ . for the medium sizes) that the expenditure may be considered one of the wisest that can be made in fitting up an apiary. [illustration: fig. .--bee veil.] a veil (fig. ), made of black bobinet or brussels net, to draw over the hat, and a pair of gloves, preferably of rubber, may be used at first. but whoever has fairly peaceable bees and learns even a little about their ways will soon discard the gloves, unless, indeed, he be exceedingly timid, or one of those to whom a bee sting would be a dreadful affliction. the veil can be safely dispensed with if the gentlest bees are kept. simple and convenient hives, employing the langstroth principle, and with stories and frames interchangeable and so constructed as to reduce propolization to a minimum and to insure straight combs, will much facilitate the avoidance of stings. the use of the bee escape (fig. ) in removing surplus honey greatly reduces the risk of being stung during this operation, for it saves much manipulation of combs and shaking and brushing of bees. this useful device is fitted into a slot made in a board the same size as the top of the hive, and the whole, when slipped in between the brood apartment and an upper story or super, will permit all of the workers above to go down into the lower story but not to return to the top above to go down into the lower story, but not to return to the top one, so that in one night it is possible to free entirely a set of combs from bees without any manipulation of the combs, and without smoking, shaking, or brushing the bees. [illustration: fig. .--the porter spring bee escape.] lastly, reasonable care in manipulation and a suitable system of management, which, of course, implies the doing of work in proper season, will, with the observance of the foregoing points, make the risk of stings exceedingly slight. indeed, intelligent attention to the most important of the points mentioned above, with extra gentleness and moderation in manipulation, will enable anyone who so desires to avoid all stings. what race of bees to choose. reference has already been made to the relative gentleness of the various races, and since the gentler types are themselves excellent honey gatherers, and the particular advantages to be derived from some of the more energetic races which do not happen to be so mild in temperament are not likely to be secured by the beginner who is unfamiliar with the most approved methods of manipulation of such bees, it is strongly recommended that only the gentle ones be at first adopted--either caucasians, carniolans, or italians. should full colonies of these not be obtainable near home, colonies of ordinary bees may be changed by replacing their queens with queens of the desired race, the latter having been procured in small boxes by mail. if possible the introduction had better be made by an expert, although in general, by following the instructions which accompany the new queen, success will also be attained by the beginner. a brief summary of the leading traits of the various races now in this country will be of use in guiding the purchaser, as well as instructive to him for reference. =caucasians= are natives of that portion of russia lying between the black and caspian seas, are exceedingly gentle, good workers, good defenders of their hives, prolific, build many queen cells, and swarm often if confined to small hives. the workers are dark leaden gray in their general color, and present quite a ringed appearance because of the alternation of this dark color with the lighter fuzz which edges the segments of the abdomen. they also show frequently one to two yellow or leather-colored bands, are somewhat smaller bodied than italians or carniolans, have good wing-expanse, and hence are nimble flyers. the drones are rather small and quite dark in color; queens not large, and vary in color from a coppery-yellow to a dark bronze. =carniolans= are much larger bodied and somewhat lighter gray in color than the caucasians, but show likewise in many instances one or two rusty or dark-red bands. their great hardiness and excellent wing-power enable them to fly freely in much cooler weather than some other races stand, and to regain their hive entrances under adverse conditions. they are prolific, active, and good honey gatherers, producing combs of snowy whiteness. as in the case of the caucasians, their prolificness causes them to fill small hives to overflowing with bees, and this naturally results in numerous swarms. it is therefore advisable to use hives containing ten to twelve frames in the brood chamber. the nature of the carniolans is essentially a quiet one, so that upon the approach of cold weather they settle down in a very compact and extremely quiet cluster, a condition which contributes in no small degree to their excellent wintering qualities. the drones are the largest of all drones of this species, and are covered with a thick coat of gray fuzz. the queens vary from a light color to a very dark leather color, the typical queen being, however, dark bronze, large, well rounded, strong, and active. =italians=, the first of the foreign races to be introduced into this country, are much more widely known, and have with reason found great favor, since they are industrious, good defenders of their hives, and excellent honey gatherers, as well as handsome in appearance, being usually evenly marked with three yellow bands across the anterior portion of the abdomen. the blood has become so disseminated through the apiaries of the country that many hybrid bees having but one to two yellow bands are counted as italians, and their cross disposition, derived through the males of the common race, is charged to the italians. strains of italians pure in blood have been bred by selection in this country until the three yellow bands have become so wide as to be nearly or quite joined, and in some instances nearly the whole abdomen is yellow. in general, however, as regards gathering powers it does not seem that any improvement has been made by this selection, the dark or leather-colored italians proving, all in all, more vigorous, gentle, and better honey gatherers, while as regards wintering they are also superior. it must be acknowledged, however, that the italian race is slightly inferior in wintering qualities to all of the others which have been generally introduced into america. =cyprians=, from the island of cyprus, may be taken as a general type with which to compare other eastern races. they are small bodied, more slender, in fact, than any of the european races of bees. the abdomen is more pointed and shows, when the bees are purely bred, three light-colored bands on the upper surface, and considerable yellow on the under side. between the wing attachments on the thorax is a little prominence, shaped like a half moon, which is usually quite plainly yellow in color. the queens are small bodied, yellow in color, with more or less black at the tip of the abdomen. the drones have a heavy coat of fuzz on the thorax, and the abdomen presents a mottled yellow appearance, being often highly yellow. cyprians possess longer tongues and greater wing-power than other races. this, combined with great prolificness and most remarkable activity, renders them the best of honey gatherers. in temper, however, they may be regarded as rather aggressive, rendering their management by any who are not experts extremely difficult. this feature may, however, be largely overcome by crossing the queens of this race with the drones of very gentle types. in this manner bees are produced that are readily amenable to smoke and ordinary methods in manipulation, combined with the excellent honey-gathering powers and prolificness of the eastern races. =cyprio-carniolans and cyprio-caucasians.=--the author conceived the idea in the early eighties that by crossing the cyprian and carniolan races a type might be developed which would combine the excellent traits of both of these. the first matings of cyprians and carniolans were made by him in in carniola itself, thus insuring positively the fecundation of the cyprian queens by carniolan drones. bees combining the blood of the two races in various proportions have since been tested for years in comparison with all other known races, with the result that the cross mentioned above has been found to exceed all of the pure races in honey-gathering powers, owing undoubtedly to the combination of great energy, hardiness, prolificness, and wing-power, as well as greater length of tongue--a fact established by actual measurements. similar results, with even greater gentleness, may be expected from the cross obtained between cyprian queens and caucasian drones. =syrian and palestine or "holy-land" bees.=--what has been said of cyprians may be taken to apply in a general sense to syrian and palestine bees, except that in these the good qualities are slightly less prominent, while some of the bad ones of the cyprians are accentuated. no separate description of these is, therefore, particularly necessary in this place. =german, common black, or brown bees.=--the bees commonly found wild, and cultivated to a greater or less extent, in this country, and known under the above name, are probably derived from early introductions from the old world. in comparison with the races above enumerated, they may be said to be inferior, since they possess the least energy in honey collecting, are less prolific, and not as good defenders of their hives. under favorable conditions, however, as regards pasturage they may be relied upon for excellent results. they are, however, spiteful under manipulation, and have the disagreeable habit of running from the combs and dropping in bunches on the ground, likewise of flying from the hive entrance and attacking passers-by. they are more easily discouraged than other bees during slack times as regards honey production, and this is doubtless the main reason for their generally inferior economic value. what hive to adopt. the suspended langstroth frame is used more than any other frame among english-speaking bee keepers. it is safe to say that in the united states hives are made and used which are essentially langstroth in principle to one frame hive of any other kind whatever. in the british islands, australia, and new zealand the proportion of frames on the langstroth principle in use is probably even greater, scarcely any other frame hives being employed. the success of american bee culture in the last twenty years was first attributed by european bee keepers to the honey-producing power of the country; but the most intelligent apiarists who have tried the american methods with the langstroth hive now recognize that success is principally due to the manipulations that it permits. ("the hive and honey bee," revised, , page .) we can predict, and without any fear of mistake, that the principles on which the langstroth hive is based will be admitted sooner or later by the most progressive bee keepers of the world. ("revue internationale d'apiculture" (switzerland), september, , edited by edouard bertrand.) [illustration: fig. .--langstroth hive with two half-depth supers for surplus honey.] there being no patent on the langstroth hive, and accurately made hives being obtainable at moderate prices from hive factories in various parts of the country, it is taken for granted that the enterprising beginner will adopt a simple form embodying this principle--the loose-fitting, suspended comb frame--as its main feature. the hive should not only be substantially built, but should have accurate bee-spaces and a close-fitting, rain-proof cover or roof. factory-made hives, as a rule, best meet these requirements, as both lock joints and halved corners can only be made to advantage by machinery, and the expert hive builder understands, of course, the absolute necessity of great accuracy in bee-spaces, as well as the great desirability of good material and workmanship (figs. , , and ). provision should also be made for winter protection. (see pages - .) [illustration: fig. .--the langstroth hive--dadant-quinby form--cross section showing construction.] for comb honey, hives permitting the insertion in the brood apartment of any number of frames up to eight, or frequently up to ten, are most in use. in securing extracted honey, those with ten to twelve frames in each story are preferable, and as many stories, one above the other, are employed as the strength of the colony and a given harvest may require. a construction, therefore, which readily admits of expansion and of contraction, as occasion demands, is desirable. mention should be made of a hive of quite different construction, a prominent feature of which is this ease of contraction and expansion. it is the last hive which the late m. quinby gave to the public--the quinby closed-end frame hive (fig. ). this hive is used with great success by certain american bee keepers of long experience and whose apiaries are among the largest in the world. [illustration: fig. .--quinby closed-end frames.] management in swarming. natural swarming. when a swarm is seen issuing or in the air, the best thing to do is, in general, simply to wait a bit. the weather is usually rather warm then, and rushing about to get tin pans, dinner gongs, spraying outfits, etc., aside from its disagreeableness, may get one so excited and into such a perspiration as to unfit him to do with the bees that which is likely to be necessary a few minutes later. the bees will probably gather in a clump on a tree or bush near the apiary, and however formidable getting them into the hive may at first seem, nothing will be simpler than shaking them into their new hive, or into a basket or box, from which they may be poured in front of the hive, just as one would pour out a measure of wheat or beans. if any stick to the basket or box, invert it and give a sharp thump with one edge against the ground. if the hive has been standing in the shade so that the boards composing it are not heated, and if it be now well shaded and plenty of ventilation be given above and below, the bees are almost certain to take possession at once and begin work actively. the securing of swarms can be made, however, even simpler than this by having the colonies placed several feet apart on a smooth lawn or dooryard and clipping one wing of each laying queen so as to prevent her flying. the prime or first swarm from each hive is accompanied by the old queen, and if she be clipped she will of course fall from the alighting board to the ground and may be secured in a cage. the bees will circle about a few times and return. meanwhile the only thing for the attendant to do is to replace the parent colony by an empty hive. the returning bees will enter the latter and the queen may be allowed to go in with them, the cage being placed with its open end directly against the entrance to insure this. the swarm is thus made to hive itself. the parent colony removed to a new stand a rod or more away will rarely give a second swarm. but to make certain all queen cells except one may be cut out four or five days after the issuance of the first swarm. at the same time one-third to one-half of the remaining bee's of the removed colony may be shaken at the entrance of the hive containing the swarm. this reduces the population of the parent colony greatly, but the loss is soon made good by the young workers emerging daily, and the new queen which will issue from the single queen cell, spared when cutting out cells, will soon restock the hive with brood. the shaking out of additional bees, coupled with the removal of all queen cells but one, will prevent for the time all further swarming from the given hive, and in most instances end it for the season. the bees thus added to the newly hived swarm, even though too young to enter the field at once as honey gatherers, will nevertheless release from inside work an equal number of older bees, enabling the latter to go out as field bees. each after-swarm (second, third, etc.), it should be borne in mind, is accompanied by one or more unimpregnated queens, and these must not be clipped until they have flown out and mated. the regular deposition of eggs in worker cells may nearly always be regarded as a safe sign that mating has taken place. eggs will usually be found in such cells within the first ten days of the queen's life. after-swarms may remain in the air, circling about for some time, and they frequently cluster high--a good reason, in addition to the more important fact that their issuance is not consistent with the production of the most surplus honey, for the prevention of all after-swarming. artificial swarming. where an increase of colonies is desired, and in case no one can be near the apiary to care for natural swarms with clipped queens, some one of the artificial methods of forming new colonies may be advantageously employed. natural swarming is, however, to be preferred to a poor system of artificial increase. and no matter which of the artificial methods be adopted, it should be cautiously followed, lest, should unfavorable weather appear suddenly, considerable labor and expense be incurred to prevent disastrous results. it is also of prime importance not to weaken materially the gathering powers of strong colonies just at the opening of the harvest or during its progress; hence, whatever division takes place then must leave the field force--the gatherers--in one mass and in normal condition for work, that is, not discouraged by being queenless, and not overburdened by having brood without a sufficient number of nurse bees to care for it. =dividing.=--a plan which fulfills these conditions is the following: from a populous colony a comb or two with adhering bees and the queen may be taken and placed in a new hive, which, when other frames with starters have been added, is then to be put on the stand of the populous colony from which the combs were taken. the removed colony is to be taken a rod or more from its old stand, so that the flight bees returning from the field will enter the newly established colony. the old colony may be given a laying queen or a mature queen cell a day or two later this finishes the work in a short time. =nucleus system.=--a better plan, though not so quickly completed, is to take from the populous colony only enough bees and combs to make a fair nucleus on a new stand. a queen is easily and safely introduced into this nucleus, or a queen cell is readily accepted a day or two later. as soon as the young queen has begun egg laying, combs of emerging brood may be added from time to time. these may be obtained from any populous colonies whose tendency to swarm it is desirable to check, the bees adhering to them when they are removed being in all instances brushed back into their own hive. with fair pasturage the nucleus will soon be able to build combs and may be given frames of comb foundation, or, if the queen be of the current year's raising, frames with narrow strips of foundation as guides may be inserted, since all combs constructed by the nucleus will be composed of worker cells. =shaken or brushed swarms.=--the practice of shaking or brushing bees from the combs of populous colonies into new hives to form artificial or forced swarms has been practiced for many years, to a limited extent in this country and more largely abroad. as early, at least, as the late c. j. h. gravenhorst, the editor of die illustrierte bienenzeitung, author of der praktische imker, and inventor of the bogenstuelper hive, made artificial swarms in this manner. his articles led the author to experiment in this line and finally to settle upon the plan of placing colonies designed for honey production in pairs in the apiary and, after having brought them up to a suitable strength, shaking or brushing most of the bees of the two into a third hive at the approach of the main honey flow, one queen being allowed to enter the new hive with the shaken swarm. the latter is to be placed on the old stand midway in position between the spots previously occupied by the parent colonies, these having been removed some distance, to be managed thereafter as colonies that have swarmed. the newly shaken swarm is to receive comb foundation starters in the frames and within a day or two surplus receptacles for honey. in case, however, drawn combs be used in the super, there had better be one or two frames in the brood apartment partly filled with completed comb to hold the first pollen collected. the shaking or brushing should be done toward the latter part of the day and during a time when new honey is coming in, or in the absence of the latter liberal feeding should precede the shaking and be kept up until the start of the honey flow. the shaken swarm is thus brought into quite the same condition as usually obtains in the case of a natural swarm. it is able to send out a strong gathering force at once and will store honey rapidly. the increase of per cent is as large as is consistent with the securing of the best honey yield. prevention of swarming. under the conditions most frequently occurring, however--that is, where it is not practicable to be present at all times during the swarming season, or where the desired number of colonies has been attained--a system of management is advisable which in general contemplates the prevention, in so far as possible, of the issuance of swarms without at the same time interfering with honey storing. the paragraphs following on this subject are taken from the department publication "the honey bee," cited on page , footnote: the most commonly practiced and easily applied preventive measure is that of giving abundant room for storage of honey. this to be effective should be given early in the season, before the bees get fairly into the swarming notion, and the honey should be removed frequently, unless additional empty combs can be given in the case of colonies managed for extracted honey, while those storing in sections should be given additional supers before those already on are completed. with colonies run for comb honey it is not so easy to keep down swarming as in those run for extracted honey and kept supplied with empty comb. free ventilation and shading of the hives as soon as warm days come will also tend toward prevention. opening the hives once or twice weekly and destroying all queen cells that have been commenced will check swarming for a time in many instances, and is a plan which seems very thorough and the most plausible of any to beginners. but sometimes swarms issue without waiting to form cells; it is also very difficult to find all cells without shaking the bees from each comb in succession, an operation which, besides consuming much time, is very laborious when supers have to be removed, and greatly disturbs the labors of the bees. if but one cell is overlooked the colony will still swarm. the plan therefore leaves at best much to be desired, and is in general not worth the effort it costs and can not be depended on. [illustration: fig. .--the simmins nonswarming system--single-story hive with supers: _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, supers; _st_, starters of foundation; _e_, entrance.] =dequeening.=--the removal of a queen at the opening of a swarming season interferes, of course, with the plans of the bees, and they will then delay swarming until they get a young queen. then, if the bee keeper destroys all queen cells before the tenth day, swarming will again be checked. but to prevent swarming by keeping colonies queenless longer than a few days at most is to attain a certain desired result at a disproportionate cost, for the bees will not store diligently when first made queenless, and the whole yield of honey, especially if the flow is extended over some time, or other yields come later in the season, is likely or even nearly sure to be less from such colonies, while the interruption to brood roaring may decimate the colony and prove very disastrous to it. the plan is therefore not to be commended. =requeening.=--quite the opposite of this, and more efficacious in the prevention of swarming, is the practice of replacing the old queen early in the season with a young one of the same season's raising, produced, perhaps, in the south before it is possible to rear queens in the north. such queens are not likely to swarm during the first season, and, as they are vigorous layers, the hive will be well populated at all times and thus ready for any harvest. this is important, inasmuch as a flow of honey may come unexpectedly from some plant ordinarily not counted upon; and also, since the conditions essential to the development of the various honey-yielding plants differ greatly, their time and succession of honey yield will also differ with the season the same as the quantity may vary. young queens are also safest to head the colonies for the winter. the plan is conducive to the highest prosperity of the colonies, and is consistent with the securing of the largest average yield of honey, since, besides giving them vigorous layers, it generally keeps the population together in powerful colonies. it is therefore to be commended on all accounts as being in line with the most progressive management, without at the same time interfering with the application of other preventive measures. =space near entrances.=--arranging frames with starters, or combs merely begun, between the brood nest and the flight hole of the hive, while the bees are given storing space above or back of the brood nest (figs. and ), is a plan strongly recommended by mr. samuel simmins, of england, and which has come to be known as "the simmins nonswarming method," some features of it and the combination into a well-defined method having been original with him. it is an excellent preventive measure, though not invariably successful, even when the distinctive features brought forward prominently by mr. simmins--empty space between the brood combs and entrance, together with the employment of drawn combs in the supers--are supplemented by other measures already mentioned; but when, in addition to the space between the brood and the flight hole, the precaution be taken to get supers on in time, to ventilate the hive well, and to keep queens not over two years old, swarming will be very limited. if to these precautions be added that of substituting for the old queens young ones of the current season's raising, before swarming has begun, practical immunity from swarming is generally insured. =selection in breeding.=--some races of bees show greater inclination than others toward swarming, and the same difference can be noted between individual colonies of a given race; therefore, whatever methods be adopted to prevent or limit increase, no doubt the constant selection of those queens to breed from whose workers show the least tendency toward swarming would in time greatly reduce this disposition. indeed, it is perfectly consistent to believe that persistent effort, coupled with rigid and intelligent selection, will eventually result in a strain of bees quite as much entitled to be termed nonswarming as certain breeds of fowls which have been produced by artificial selection are to be called nonsitters. these terms are of course only relative, being merely indicative of the possession of a certain disposition in a less degree than that shown by others of the same species. it might never be possible to change the nature of our honeybees so completely that they would never swarm under any circumstances, and even if possible it would take a long period, so strongly implanted seems this instinct. but to modify it is within the reach of any intelligent breeder who will persistently make the effort. such work should be undertaken in experimental apiaries where its continuance when a single point has been gained will not be affected by the changes of individual fortunes. [illustration: fig. .--the simmins nonswarming system--double-story hive with supers: _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, supers; _st_, chamber with starters of comb foundation; _e_, entrance.] special crops for honey alone not profitable. with a small apiary, planting for honey alone certainly can not be made profitable. small plats of honey-producing plants are valuable mainly because they afford an opportunity of observing when and under what circumstances the bees work on certain blossoms, and for the purpose of determining what might be depended upon to fill a gap in the honey resources of a given locality whenever the size of the apiary might make this a consideration of some importance. even with a large apiary probably no case exists in which, in the present condition of the subject, planting for honey alone would prove profitable. but when selecting crops for cultivation for other purposes, or shrubs and trees for planting, the bee keeper should of course choose such as will also furnish honey at a time when pasturage for his bees would otherwise be wanting. as complete a list as possible should be made of the plants and trees visited by honeybees, and notes should be added as to period of blossoming, importance of yield, whether honey or pollen or both of these are collected, quality of the product, etc. if gaps occur during which no natural forage abounds for the bees, some crop can usually be selected which will fill the interval, and, while supplying a continuous succession of honey-yielding blossoms for the bees, will give in addition a yield of fruit, grain, or forage from the same land. the novice is warned, however, not to expect too much from a small area. he must remember that as the bees commonly go - / to miles in all directions from the apiary, they thus range over an area of , to , acres, and if but square foot in produces a honey-yielding plant they still have to acres of pasturage, and quite likely the equivalent of to acres may be in bloom at one time within range of the bees. a few acres more or less at such a time will therefore not make a great deal of difference. but if coming between the principal crops--especially if the bees, as is often the case, would otherwise have no pasturage at all--the area provided for them may be of greater relative importance than the larger area of natural pasturage; for it frequently occurs that the smaller part only of the honey produced by the field over which the bees of an apiary range can be collected by them before it is washed out by rains, or the liquid portion is evaporated and the blossoms withered, while a smaller area may be more assiduously visited, and, the nectar being gathered as fast as secreted, a greater yield per acre may result. it is further of some importance to fill in such a gap with something to keep the bees busy, instead of letting them spend their time trying to rob one another; and, what is probably even more important, the pasturage thus furnished will keep up brood rearing and comb building and assist materially in preparing the colonies for the succeeding honey flow. there are many plants and trees of economic value, in addition to their production of honey, which may be utilized in one portion or another of the united states in the manner indicated. adaptability to climate and soil, the periods of honey dearth to be filled in, markets for the crop produced, etc., must all come in to influence the choice. the following list includes the more important plants of economic value in this country which are good honey and pollen yielders. most of those named are adapted to a considerable portion of the union. except in the case of plants restricted to the south, the dates given are applicable, in the main, to middle latitudes. economic plants and trees for cultivation for honey and pollen. =filbert bushes=, useful for wind-breaks and for their nuts, yield pollen in february and march. =rape= can be grown successfully in the north for pasturage, for green manuring, or for seed, and when permitted to blossom yields considerable pollen and honey. winter varieties are sown late in the summer or early in the autumn, and blossom in april or may following. this early yield forms an excellent stimulus to brood rearing. summer or bird rape, grown chiefly for its seed, blossoms about a month after sowing. it does best during the cooler months of the growing season. =russian or hairy vetch= is a hardy leguminous plant of great value for forage and use in green manuring. the blossoms appear early in the season, and, where there is any lack in early pollen, especially in northern and cool regions, this vetch will be found of great value to the bees. =fruit blossoms=--apricot, peach, pear, plum, cherry, apple, currant, and gooseberry--yield pollen and honey in abundance during april or may; strawberry and blackberry are sometimes visited freely by bees, but are generally far less important than the others mentioned. colonies that have wintered well often gather during apple bloom to pounds of surplus honey of fine quality. the raspberry secretes a large amount of nectar of superb quality, and coming in may or june, thus later than the other fruit blossoms and when the colonies are stronger and the weather is more settled, full advantage can nearly always be taken of this yield. grape and persimmon blossom also in june; the latter is an excellent source. in subtropical portions of the country orange and lemon trees yield fine honey in march and april, and the cultivation of the banana has added a profuse honey yielder which puts forth successive blossoms all through the summer months. =locust=, =tulip tree= ("poplar," or whitewood), and =horse-chestnut=, useful for shade, ornament, and timber, are all fine honey producers in may. the locust yields light-colored, clear honey of fine quality, the others amber-colored honey of good body and fair flavor. =clovers.=--crimson, blossoming in april or may, yields fine, light-colored honey; white, alsike, and mammoth or medium, blossoming in may, june, and july, give honey of excellent quality and rich yellow color. =mustard= grown for seed flowers from june to august. the honey is somewhat acrid and crystallizes soon, yet the plant, where abundant, is of much importance to the bees and the bee keeper in case other forage is scant at the time. =asparagus= blossoms are much visited by bees in june and july. =esparcet=, or =sainfoin=, yields in may and june fine honey, almost as clear as spring water. it is a perennial leguminous plant, rather hardy, an excellent forage crop, and particularly valuable for milch cows. it succeeds best on a limestone soil or when lime is used as a fertilizer, and is itself an excellent green manure for soils deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. =sulla, or sulla clover=, a perennial plant, closely related to esparcet or sainfoin, succeeds, like the latter, best upon limestone soil or when fertilized with lime. it yields a splendid quality of honey from beautiful pink blossoms, which continue during may and june. the plant is an excellent soil fertilizer and of great value in connection with the feeding of stock, particularly dairy animals. it is, however, much less hardy than esparcet, and success with it can therefore hardly be looked for above the latitude of north carolina and arkansas. when the qualities and requirements of this plant were brought by the writer to the notice of a prominent scientific agriculturist of the south, this gentleman suggested as very probable that the black belt of alabama, mississippi, louisiana, and texas would be well adapted to it, the lands of this region being exceedingly strong in lime. in portions of southern europe sulla clover is a most important forage crop for farm stock as well as for honey bees. =serradella= is an annual leguminous plant which will grow on sandy land, and which yields, besides good forage, clear honey of good quality in june and july. =chestnut=, valuable for timber, ornament, shade, and nuts, yields honey and pollen in june or july. =linden=, =sourwood=, and =catalpa=, fine shade, ornamental, and timber trees, yield great quantities of first quality honey in june and july. =cotton.=--in the south cotton blossoms, appearing as they do in succession during the whole summer, often yield considerable honey. it would appear, however, that when the plants are very rank in growth the blossoms--being correspondingly large--are too deep for the bees to reach the nectar. =chicory=, raised for salad and for its roots, is, whenever permitted to blossom, eagerly visited for honey in july and august. =sweet, medicinal, and pot herbs=, such as marjoram, savory, lavender, catnip, balm, sage, thyme, etc., when allowed to blossom, nearly all yield honey in june, july, or august. where fields of them are grown for the seed the honey yield may be considerable from this source. =alfalfa= furnishes in the west a large amount of very fine honey during june and july. its importance there as a forage crop is well known, but how far eastward its cultivation may be profitably extended is still a question, and even should it prove of value in the east as a forage plant, its honey-producing qualities there would be still uncertain. =parsnips=, when left for seed, blossom freely from june to august, inclusive, and are much frequented by honey bees. =peppermint=, raised for its foliage, from which oil is distilled, is most frequently cut before the bees derive much benefit from it, but whenever allowed to blossom it is eagerly sought after by them, and yields honey freely during july and august. =bokhara=, or =sweet clover=, is in some sections of the country considered a valuable forage crop. animals can be taught to like it, and it is very valuable as a restorer of exhausted lime soils, while in regions lacking in bee pasturage during the summer months it is a very important addition. it withstands drought remarkably well and yields a large quantity of fine honey. =cucumber=, =squash=, =pumpkin=, and =melon= blossoms furnish honey and some pollen to the bees in july and august. =eucalypti=, valuable for their timber and as ornaments to lawn and roadside, are quick-growing trees adapted to the southern portions of the united states. they yield much honey between july and october. the =carob tree=, whose cultivation has been commenced in the southwest, is an excellent honey yielder in late summer. it is an ornamental tree and gives, in addition to honey, another valuable product--the carob bean of commerce. =sacaline=, a forage and ornamental plant of recent introduction, is a great favorite with bees. it blossoms profusely during august, is a hardy perennial, and thrives in wet and also fairly in dry situations, withstanding the ordinary summer drought of the eastern states because of its deeply penetrating roots. =buckwheat= is an important honey and pollen producer. its blossoms appear about four weeks after the seed is sown, hence it may be made to fill in a summer dearth of honey plants. how to obtain surplus honey and wax. good wintering, followed by careful conservation of the natural warmth of the colony, the presence of a prolific queen--preferably a young one--with abundant stores for brood rearing, are, together with the prevention, in so far as possible, of swarming, the prime conditions necessary to bring a colony of bees to the chief honey flow in shape to enable it to take full advantage of the harvest. in addition it is only necessary to adjust the surplus honey receptacles in time, making the space given proportionate to the strength of the colony, and, while continuing to prevent as far as possible the issuance of swarms, to remove the accumulated honey fast enough to give abundant storage room. extracted honey. to secure extracted honey, the requisite number of combs may be in one long hive, or in stories one above another. preference is most generally given to the latter plan. the brood apartment is made in this case to hold eight to twelve langstroth frames, and a second, and sometimes a third or even a fourth story, may be added temporarily. these added stories may be for full-depth frames, or, for convenience in handling and in order to be able to control more closely the amount of space given, they may be half the usual depth, and but one of the half-depth stories added at a time. if numerous sets of combs are at hand, or if it is desirable to have others built, additional stories are put on as fast as the combs already occupied by the bees are filled. before removing the filled combs time should be allowed the bees to ripen and cap the honey; hence enough combs are necessary to give the bees storage room while they are capping others, the honey in combs that are quite or nearly sealed over may be considered sufficiently ripened to be removed from the hive. [illustration: fig. .--quinby uncapping knife.] it should also be taken promptly, in order to keep the various grades or kinds separate. however, when the combs of a given super are completely filled and sealed it may be marked and left on the hive if more convenient to be extracted later. the cells are uncapped by means of a sharp knife, made especially for this purpose (fig. ), and the combs are then made to revolve rapidly in the honey extractor (fig. ). the centrifugal force exerted on the honey throws it out, leaving the comb cells uninjured, or so slightly injured that they are wholly repaired within an hour or so after the return of the comb to the hive. the chief advantages of this method of harvesting over that of crushing the combs are at once apparent when it is known that each pound of comb saved represents several pounds of honey (consumed in its construction), and may, with care be used over almost indefinitely in securing surplus honey. furthermore, extracted honey is of much finer quality than that obtained by crushing the combs and straining out the liquid part, since it is free from crushed bees, larvæ, pollen or "bee bread," etc., which not only render strained honey dark and strong in flavor, but also make it liable to fermentation and souring. the extracted honey is run into open buckets or tanks and left, covered with cheese cloth, to stand a week or so in a dry, warm room not frequented by ants. it should be skimmed each day until perfectly clear, and is then ready to be put into cans or barrels for marketing, or to be stored in a dry place. square tin cans, each made to hold pounds of extracted honey, are sold by dealers in apiarian supplies. this style of package is a convenient one to transport, and is also acceptable to dealers. wooden shipping cases are usually constructed so as to hold two of these cans. barrels and kegs may be used, especially for the cheaper grades of honey used chiefly in the manufacture of other articles. they should be dry, made of well-seasoned, sound wood, and the hoops driven tight and secured, as well-ripened honey readily absorbs moisture from wood, causing shrinkage and leakage. they should also be coated inside with bees-wax or paraffin. this is easily done by warming the barrels and then pouring in a gallon or two of hot wax or paraffin, and, after having driven in the bungs tightly, rolling the barrels about a few times and turning them on end. the work should be done quickly and the liquid not adhering to the inner surfaces poured out at once, in order to leave but a thin coating inside. the surplus combs are to be removed at the close of the season and hung an inch or so apart on racks placed in a dry, airy room, where no artificial heat is felt. mice, if permitted to reach them, will do considerable damage by gnawing away the cells containing pollen or those in which bees have been bred, and which therefore contain larval and pupal skins. moth larvæ are not likely to trouble them until the following spring, but upon the appearance of milder weather their ravages will begin, and if the combs can not be placed under the care of the bees at once they must be fumigated with burning sulphur or with bisulphide of carbon. comb honey. the main difference to be observed in preparing colonies for the production of comb honey, instead of extracted, is in the adjustment of the brood apartment at the time the supers are added. after the colony has been bred up to the greatest possible strength, the brood apartment should be so regulated in size, when the honey flow begins and the supers are added, as to crowd many of the bees out and into the supers placed above. [illustration: fig. .--automatic reversible honey extractor.] on each hive a super is placed (fig. ) holding to sections, each section supplied with a strip or a full sheet of very thin foundation. it is best not to give too much space at once, as considerable warmth is necessary to enable the bees to draw out foundation or to build comb. a single set of sections is usually sufficient at a time. when the honey is designed for home use or for a local market, half-depth frames are sometimes used, the same as those often used above the brood nests when colonies are run for extracted honey, but for the general market pound sections (fig. ) are better adapted. it is the practice of many to have nice white comb partially drawn out before the main honey flow begins, or even the season before, feeding the colonies, if necessary, to secure this; and, when the honey yield begins, to supply sets of sections with these combs having cells deep enough for the bees to begin storing in as soon as any honey is collected. earlier work in the sections is thus secured, and this, as is well known, is an important point in the prevention of swarming. mr. samuel simmins, of england, has long contended for this use of partially drawn combs, and though it forms a feature of his system for the prevention of swarming it has been too often overlooked. comb foundation is now manufactured with extra thin septum or base and with the beginnings of the cells marked out by somewhat thicker walls which the bees immediately thin down, using the extra wax in deepening the cells. this is not artificial comb, but a thin sheet of wax having the bases of the cells outlined on it. complete artificial combs have never been used in a commercial way, although there exists a widespread belief to this effect, which is founded on extravagant claims that have appeared from time to time in newspaper articles. [illustration: fig. .--langstroth hive--super above holding sections for comb honey.] [illustration: fig. .--comb honey stored in pound section--size - / by - / inches.] if the brood apartment has been much contracted when the supers were added, the queen may go into the sections and deposit eggs unless prevented by the insertion of a queen excluder (fig. ). this, merely a sheet of zinc with perforations which permit workers, but not the queen, to pass, is placed between the brood apartment and the supers. the great inconvenience of having brood in some of the sections is thereby prevented. when the honey in the sections has been nearly capped over, the super may be lifted up and another added between it and the brood apartment. or, should the strength of the colony not be sufficient, or the harvest not abundant enough to warrant the giving of so much space, the sections which are completely finished may be removed and the partly finished ones used as "bait sections" to encourage work in another set of sections on this hive or in new supers elsewhere. the objections to the removal of sections one by one, and brushing the bees from them, are ( ) the time it takes, and ( ) the danger that the bees when disturbed, and especially if smoked, will bite open the capping and begin the removal of the honey, thus injuring the appearance of the completed sections. a recent valuable invention, the bee escape (fig. ), the use of which is explained on pages and , when placed between the super and the brood nest, permits the bees then above the escape to go down into the brood apartment, but does not permit their reentering the super. if inserted twelve to twenty-four hours before the sections are to be removed, the latter will be found free from bees at the time of removal, provided all brood has been kept out of the supers. =grading and shipping comb honey.=--before marketing the honey it should be carefully graded, and all propolis ("bee-glue"), if there be any, scraped from the edges of the sections. in grading for the city markets the following rules are, in the main, observed. they were adopted by the north american bee-keepers' association at its twenty-third annual convention, held in washington, d. c, in december, , and are copied from the official report of that meeting: =fancy.=--all sections to be well filled; combs straight, of even thickness, and firmly attached to all four sides; both wood and comb unsoiled by travel stain or otherwise; all cells sealed except the row of cells next to the wood. =no. .=--all sections well filled, but with combs crooked or uneven, detached at the bottom, or with but few cells unsealed; both wood and comb unsoiled by travel stain or otherwise. in addition to the above, honey is to be classified, according to color, into light, amber, and dark. for instance, there will be "fancy light," "fancy amber," and "fancy dark," "no. light," "no. amber," and "no. dark." [illustration: fig. .--perforated zinc queen excluder.] the sections, after grading and scraping, are to be placed in clean shipping cases having glass in one or both ends (fig. ). several of these may be placed in a single crate for shipment. to prevent breaking down of the combs it is best to put straw in the bottom of the crate for the shipping cases to rest on, and the crates should be so placed as to keep the combs in a perpendicular position. the crates are also likely to be kept right side up if convenient handles are attached to the sides--preferably strips with the ends projecting beyond the corners. care in handling will generally be given if the glass in the shipping cases shows. [illustration: fig. .--shipping cases for comb honey.] owing to the appearance of statements of a sensational character to the effect that complete honey combs are manufactured by machinery and filled with sweets lower in price than honey (glucose, cane sugar, or mixtures of these), then sealed over and sold in the market as genuine honey, a strong suspicion exists regarding the comb honey commonly offered for sale. wide circulation has been given to these wild stories by sensational newspaper writers, and even monthly periodicals, usually far more discriminating and accurate, have repeated them. some writers have even tried to locate the "comb honey factories" in given cities, but investigation has always shown that the locations were mythical. the forfeit of $ , which a reputable firm has had standing for fifteen years past for a pound of manufactured comb honey of a nature to deceive the buyer still remains unclaimed. the national bee-keepers' association, at its annual convention held in st. louis in , offered also a like forfeit of $ , for satisfactory proof of the existence of such a thing as manufactured comb honey. but no claimant has come forward, notwithstanding the $ , which awaits his proof. the fact is, there is no truth in the "yarn," and no one has thus far shown the thing possible. the comb honey in the markets is pure and wholesome--a healthful and nourishing sweet, easier to digest than cane sugar or any of the sirups so commonly sold. it is worth a place on the tables of all who can afford to use it. production of wax. no method has yet been brought forward which will enable one, at the present relative prices of honey and wax, to turn the whole working force of the bees, or even the greater part of it, into the production of wax instead of honey; in fact, the small amount of wax produced incidentally in apiaries managed for extracted or for section honey is usually turned into honey the following season; that is, it is made into comb foundation, which is then employed in the same hives to increase their yield of marketable honey. it is even the case that in most apiaries managed on approved modern methods more pounds of foundation are employed than wax produced; hence less progressive bee keepers--those who adhere to the use of box hives and who can not therefore utilize comb foundation--are called upon for their wax product. as each pound of wax represents several pounds of honey, all cappings removed when preparing combs for the extractor, all scrapings and trimmings and bits of drone comb, are to be saved and rendered into wax. this is best done in the solar wax-extractor (fig. ), the essential parts of which are a metal tank with wire-cloth strainer and a glass cover, the latter generally made double. the bottom of the metal tank is strewn with pieces of comb, the glass cover adjusted, and the whole exposed to the direct rays of the sun. a superior quality of wax filters through the strainer. [illustration: fig. .--solar wax-extractor.] [illustration: fig. .--steam wax-extractor.] another method is to inclose the cappings or combs to be rendered in a coarse sack and weight this down in a tin boiler partly filled with rain water or soft spring water and boil slowly until little or no more wax can be pressed out of the material in the sack. melting in an iron receptacle makes the wax dark colored. a special utensil made of tin, for use as a wax-extractor (fig. ) over boiling water, can also be had. the bits of comb are placed in this, in an inside can having fine perforations, through which the steam from below enters and melts out the wax, which drips from a spout into another receptacle partly filled with water, from the surface of which the cake of wax may be removed when cold. the wintering of bees. how to bring bees successfully through the winter in the colder portions of the united states is a problem which gives anxiety to all who are about to attempt it for the first time in those sections, and even many who have kept bees for years still find it their greatest difficulty. it may happen occasionally that a queen, apparently young and vigorous in the autumn, will die during the winter, when a young one can not be reared, and as a result the colony will dwindle away. such losses are, however, rare, and, aside from the possible results of fire, flood, or violent storms, are about the only ones which can not be avoided by careful attention to right methods in wintering. insufficient or poor winter stores, hives faulty in construction, lack of protection from cold and dampness, too much or too little ventilation, too great a proportion of old bees or too great a proportion of young ones, overmanipulation late in the season, etc., are the most important and most easily detected causes of loss in wintering bees. in some instances colonies supposed to have been placed in the same condition under which others have wintered well become diseased and die or dwindle away without prominent signs of disease. it is evident, however, that some condition existed in one case which was not present in the other, or that, in spite of some unfavorable condition, the favorable ones combined, in the first instance, to render the wintering successful. in the south wintering in the open air on the summer stands is the only method followed, while in the colder portions of the country, although with proper precautions bees may be wintered successfully in the open air, many prefer to house them in special repositories built with double walls, or to place them in darkened cellars, or in clamps. indoor wintering should be confined to regions where there are several weeks, at least, of continued severe weather. when all conditions are right, consumption of honey will be less indoors and loss of bee life less than with the methods usually practiced in outdoor wintering. under proper conditions, however, especially when abundant protection has been given, colonies out of doors will consume no more food nor meet with greater losses in numbers than those wintered under favorable conditions indoors. in wintering indoors certain essential conditions are, in a measure, beyond the control of the bee keeper, hence must be left to chance, and certain other conditions and emergencies liable to arise, though easily understood and met by the man of experience in this direction, are yet very likely to be overlooked by the novice or to be puzzling and disastrous to him. for these reasons it is safer for him to keep closer to the natural method at first and try outdoor wintering. in wintering out of doors the conditions within the control of the bee keeper are more readily perceived and easier to meet, and though the original work of preparation for good wintering out of doors is greater per colony, yet the work during the winter itself and the following spring is likely to be less; moreover, the feeling of greater security, as well as the greater certainty of finding the colonies in good condition to begin gathering in the spring, are points well worthy of consideration. in other words, indoor wintering should be left to such experienced bee keepers as may prefer it and are located in cold climates, while novices, wherever located, should first endeavor to meet the requirements of successful outdoor wintering; that is, to prepare the colonies so that nature, whatever her mood as regards the weather, will bring her tiny charges safely through the perils and vicissitudes of the winter months. general considerations. whatever method be followed in wintering, certain conditions regarding the colony itself are plainly essential: first, it should have a good queen; second, a fair-sized cluster of healthy bees, neither too old nor too young; third, a plentiful supply of good food. the first of these conditions may be counted as fulfilled if the queen at the head of the colony is not more than two years old, is still active, and has always kept her colony populous; yet a younger queen--even one of the current season's rearing, and thus but a few weeks or months old--is if raised under favorable conditions, much to be preferred. the second point is met if brood rearing has been continued without serious interruption during the latter part of the summer and the cluster of bees occupies, on a cool day in autumn, six to eight or more spaces between the combs, or forms a compact cluster or inches in diameter. young bees, if not weir protected by older ones, succumb readily to the cold, while quite old bees die early in the spring, and others, which emerged late in the summer or autumn preceding, are needed to replace them. the third essential--good food--is secured if the hive is liberally supplied with well-ripened honey from any source whatever, or with fairly thick sirup, made from white cane sugar, which was fed early enough to enable the bees to seal it over before they ceased flying. the sirup is prepared by dissolving pounds of granulated sugar in quart of boiling water and adding to this pound of pure extracted honey. twenty to pounds for outdoor wintering in the south, up to or pounds in the north, when wintered outside with but slight protection--or, if wintered indoors, about pounds--may be considered a fair supply of winter food. a smaller amount should not be trusted except in case much greater protection be furnished against the effects of severe weather than is usually given. a greater amount of stores will do no harm if properly arranged over and about the center of the cluster, or, in case the combs are narrow, wholly above the cluster. in many instances it will be a benefit by equalizing in a measure the temperature in the hive, as well as by giving to the bees greater confidence in extending the brood nest in early spring. indoor wintering. a dry, dark cellar or special repository built in a sidehill or with double, filled walls, like those of an ice house, may be utilized for wintering bees in extremely cold climates. it should be so built that a temperature of ° to ° f. (the air being fairly dry in the cellar) can be maintained during the greater part of the winter. to this end it should be well drained, furnished with adjustable ventilators, and covered all over with earth, except the entrance, where close-fitting doors, preferably three of them, should open in succession, so as to separate the main room from the outside by a double entry way. the colonies, supplied with good queens, plenty of bees, to pounds of stores each, and with chaff cushions placed over the frames, are carried in shortly before snow and severe freezing weather come. any repository which is damp or one whose temperature falls below freezing or remains long below ° f. is not a suitable place in which to winter bees. when in repositories, the bees have no opportunity for a cleansing flight, nor do they, when the temperature rises outside, always warm up sufficiently to enable the cluster to move from combs from which the stores have been exhausted to full ones; hence in a cold repository they may possibly starve with plenty of food in the hive. as a rule, colonies would be better off out of doors on their summer stands than in such places. outdoor wintering. cold and dampness are the great winter enemies of bee life. a single bee can withstand very little cold, but a good cluster, if all other conditions are favorable, can defy the most rigorous winters of our coldest states. but if not thoroughly dry, even a moderate degree of cold is always injurious, if not absolutely fatal. dampness in winter is therefore the most dangerous element with which the bee keeper has to contend. the matter would, of course, be quite simple if only that dampness which might come from the outside were to be considered, but when the air of the hive, somewhat warmed by the bees and more or less charged with the moisture of respiration, comes in contact with hive walls or comb surfaces made cold by outside air, condensation takes place, and the moisture trickles over the cold surfaces and cluster of bees, saturating the air about them or even drenching them, unless by forming a very compact cluster they are able to prevent it from penetrating, or by greater activity to raise the temperature sufficiently to evaporate the surplus moisture, or at least that portion near them. but this greater activity is, of course, at the expense of muscular power and requires the consumption of nitrogenous as well as carbonaceous food. increased cold or its long continuance greatly aggravates conditions. nature has provided that the accumulation of waste products in the body of the bee during its winter confinement should be small under normal conditions, but unusual consumption of food, especially of a highly nitrogenous nature like pollen, necessitates a cleansing flight, or diarrheal difficulties ensue, combs and hives are soiled, the air of the hive becomes polluted, and at last the individual bees become too weak to generate proper warmth or drive off the surplus moisture which then invades the cluster and brings death to the colony; or, what is more frequently the case, a cold snap destroys the last remnant of the colony, which has been reduced by constant loss of bees impelled by disease to leave the cluster or even to venture out for a cleansing flight when snows and great cold prevail. the problem then is: _to retain the warmth generated by the bees, which is necessary to their well-being, and at the same time to prevent the accumulation of moisture in the hive._ a simple opening at the top of the hive would permit much of the moisture to pass off, but of course heat would escape with it and a draft would be produced. absorbent material about the cluster creates, without free ventilation, damp surroundings, and again the temperature is lowered. it is only necessary, however, to surround the bees with sufficient material to protect them fully against the greatest cold likely to occur, and to take care also that this enveloping material is of such a nature and so disposed as to permit the free passage of the moisture which would otherwise collect in the interior of the hive, and to permit the escape into the surrounding atmosphere of such moisture as enters this material from within. this packing should also be fully protected from outside moisture. [illustration: fig. .--double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering as well as summer use below ° north latitude in the united states. thickness of each wall, / inch, space between walls, inches, packed with dry chaff or ground cork.] south of virginia, kentucky, and kansas single-walled hives may be employed in most localities with good success in outdoor wintering. on the approach of the cool or the rainy season a close-fitting quilt should be laid over the frames and several folded newspapers pressed down on this, or a cushion filled with dry chaff or some other soft material may be used instead of paper. the cover or roof should be absolutely rain-proof, yet between this cover and the cushion or papers should be several inches of space with free circulation of air. in order to permit this ventilation above the top packing, the cover should not rest upon the cap or upper story all of the way around, or if it does, an auger hole in each end, protected by wire-cloth against the entrance of mice, should give free passage to the air. in the more northern portion of the section referred to some further protection is advisable (fig. ), and is really necessary in the mountainous parts of the same territory if the best results are to be obtained. farther north, and especially in the cold northwest, much greater protection becomes an absolute necessity. quilts with newspapers or thin packing above do not alone suffice. the side walls of the hive may be made of pressed straw (fig. ). these, with top packing, if kept dry outside, are excellent for outdoor wintering, even in climates so cold that ordinary wooden hives do not afford sufficient protection. in the severest climates, however, still greater protection on all sides of the colony is needed, and packing with chaff or other soft material is decidedly the best plan. the thickness of this surrounding packing should be from inches to or inches for single colonies, according to the severity of the climate, but if four or more colonies are grouped for the winter, so as to make the natural warmth generated mutually advantageous, somewhat less packing will be sufficient. a most important point is to have the soft warmth-retaining packing come in close contact with the edges of the combs, and above all _not to have a hive wall, either thick or thin, between this material and the bees_. a good plan is to construct an open framework or skeleton hive of laths, cover it with sacking, or, preferably, some less fuzzy cloth which the bees will not gnaw, and after placing it in an outer wooden case large enough every way to admit of the necessary packing about the colony, to fill in on all sides with some dry, porous material (fig. ). if the frames are shallow, like the langstroth, it is better to construct the inner case so as to place them on end, and thus give a deeper comb for the winter. layers of newspapers may come next outside the cloth covering of the framework. wheat chaff answers well to complete the packing. wool is to be preferred, but is of course too expensive unless a waste product. ground cork, waste flax, hemp, sawdust, etc., in fact, any fine porous material, if thoroughly dry, may be used. [illustration: fig. .--the american straw hive (langstroth principle) of hayek brothers.] a board passageway or inches wide and three-eighths of an inch high should connect this inner apartment and the flight hole of the outer case, thus affording an exit for the bees whenever the weather may permit them to fly. when these preparations have been completed, the hive is ready for the combs, which, with adhering bees, are taken from the summer hive and inserted in the winter hive. a quilt is then laid on the frames and the top packing put on. this, for convenience, may be held in a cloth-bottomed tray. it is quite important, as already mentioned, that air be allowed to circulate freely above the packing. the outside case must be quite rain-proof or else wholly protected from the rain by a roof. all other necessary conditions having been complied with shortly after the gathering season closed, the combs may be lifted from the summer hives and placed in these specially arranged winter cases before cold weather wholly stops the bees from flying out. thus prepared for the winter the colonies will need but slight attention from october until march, or, in the north, even later, and the losses will be limited to the small percentage of cases due to failure of apparently good queens. [illustration: fig. .--colony of bees with newspapers packed between inner and outer cases and brood frames on end for the winter.] the risk of loss through disease and enemies. winter losses through disease superinduced by unfavorable surroundings which it is within the power of the bee keeper to avoid have already been considered. but one other very serious disease has been widespread. foul brood or bacillus of the hive. this is a highly contagious affection which, as it mainly affects the developing brood in the cells, is commonly known as "foul brood." it is due to a microbe (_bacillus alvei_) whose spores are easily transported from hive to hive by the bees themselves, by the operator, in honey, or in combs changed from one hive to another. once established in an apiary, it usually spreads, unless speedily and energetically checked, until all of the colonies in the neighborhood are ruined and even exterminated. the most apparent symptoms are the turning black of larvæ in open cells, many sealed cells with sunken caps, frequently broken in and containing dead larvæ or pupæ in a putrid condition, brown or coffee-colored, jelly-like or ropy in consistency, and giving off an offensive odor. the disease, though known to exist in nearly all countries, can hardly be said to be common. the writer, in an experience of over thirty years in bee keeping in several states of the union, as well as in a number of foreign countries, has met the disease but rarely, and has had but one experience with it in his own apiary, it having been in this instance brought in by a neighbor who purchased bees at a distance. it was easily cured, without great loss. thus the beginner's risks of disaster in this direction are, if he be forewarned, comparatively small. he may, furthermore, gain assurance from the fact that, should the disease invade his apiary, prompt and intelligent action will prevent serious loss. the following is the treatment for a colony which still has sufficient strength of numbers to be worth saving: the bees are to be shaken from their combs just at nightfall into an empty box, which is to be removed at once to a cool, dark place. they are to be confined to the box, but it must be well ventilated through openings covered with wire cloth. during the first forty-eight hours no food should be given to them, and during the second forty-eight hours only a small amount of medicated sirup--a half pint daily for a small colony to a pint for a strong one. this food is prepared by adding one part of pure carbolic acid or phenol to or parts of sugar sirup or honey. at the end of the fourth day the bees are to be shaken into a clean hive supplied with starters of comb foundation. this hive is to be placed outside on a stand some distance from all other colonies, and moderate feeding with medicated sirup or honey should be continued for a few days thereafter. the combs of diseased colonies which contain brood may be assembled over a single one of these colonies, or, if the amount of brood be too great for one colony to care for, over several such diseased colonies, until the young bees have emerged. all of the honey is then to be extracted. while it is wholesome as food, it should not be offered for sale, lest some of it be used in feeding bees or be inadvertently exposed where foraging bees might find it and carry to their hives the germs of this disease, harmless to other creatures but so fatal to bee life. a good use for this honey is to employ it in making vinegar. one and one-third pounds added to each gallon of rain water or soft spring water and allowed to ferment for three months in a warm place makes a quality of vinegar quite equal to the best cider vinegar. provision for the free circulation of air through the cask should be made. this is easily secured by placing the cask, not completely filled, on its side and boring an auger hole in each end near the upper side, the holes to be covered with cheese cloth or fine gauze, to keep out insects. if the honey containing the germs is to be used for feeding bees, it is to be diluted with half its own quantity, by measure, of water and kept at the boiling point for three hours in a water bath--a vessel within another containing water. the combs from which the honey has been extracted, as well as all of the pieces built by the bees during their four days' confinement, may be melted into wax, by thorough boiling in soft water. this wax should be kept liquid for hours or longer, to allow all impurities to settle. these will include the foul brood spores, which may then be removed with, the impure wax by scraping or cutting away the bottom of the cake. these scrapings should be burned. the same disposition had better be made of the frames from which the combs containing germs were removed. in all of this work the utmost care should be exercised to avoid the dripping of honey about the apiary or the exposure of implements, receptacles, or combs smeared with or containing honey from the diseased colonies. it may even be better, in order to save time and possible risk, where but few combs and a comparatively small amount of honey are involved, to destroy all of these immediately after their removal from the hive. the old hive and all utensils used about the diseased colony should be disinfected by washing in a solution of corrosive sublimate--one-eighth ounce in one gallon of water--and should afterwards be exposed to the air and sun for some time. if healthy colonies are to be manipulated immediately after handling diseased ones the hands of the operator must also be disinfected by washing in the solution just mentioned. those who care to try and save combs and brood should employ the remedial method developed by the late professor cheshire. this is explained in full in his work on bee keeping,[c] and a brief statement of it may also be found in "the honey bee," bulletin no. , new series, of the bureau of entomology, united states department of agriculture. notwithstanding these remedies, some will prefer, where healthy colonies of bees can be bought at moderate prices, to burn diseased bees, combs, and frames rather than spend time to effect a cure, and risk, as they fear they may, the further spread of the pest. to kill the bees thus is, however, neither profitable, humane, nor necessary, for if confined as described above and separated at once from the other colonies, this work being done at nightfall, when all of the bees are in their hives, the risk of spreading the disease will not thereby be increased, nor is the labor much greater than that involved in the removal of combs and bees for burning. and if it be found that the diseased colonies are weak in numbers and seem, therefore, individually hardly worth saving, this need not be taken as an excuse for the death sentence, as several colonies may be smoked and shaken together into the same box to make a single strong colony, the best queen of the lot having been selected and caged in the box in such a way that the workers can release her within a few hours by eating through candy. [c] "bees and bee keeping," by frank k. cheshire, f. l. s., f. e. m. s., london, , vol. ii, pages - . bee paralysis. among other diseases of a bacterial nature paralysis is most noticeable, although not to be dreaded as foul brood. it affects the adult bees only, producing a paralyzed condition of their members and a swelling up of their bodies. the diseased bees, often set upon by other workers, lose the hairy covering of their bodies, and, black and shiny in appearance, may often be seen wriggling away from their hives to die. in such cases the working force of the affected colony frequently becomes so greatly reduced as to preclude any return in the form of honey or swarms during the given season. the source from which the bees obtain the original infection is unknown, but, once in the apiary, it is spread mainly by the entrance of affected workers into healthy colonies, and probably also by the visits which bees from healthy colonies make to the diseased ones, the latter often being so weakened in numbers as to be unable to protect their stores from healthy bees out on robbing expeditions. ordinary paralysis may generally be cured by strewing powdered sulphur over the combs, bees, and along the top bars of the frames, the precaution first having been taken of removing all unsealed brood. this brood would be killed by the application of sulphur, but as there is no danger whatever of spreading the disease by the transfer of brood or honey from one hive to another, provided absolutely every one of the adult bees has first been shaken or brushed from the combs, the latter may be given to healthy colonies which need strengthening. another simple plan for getting rid of the disease and yet utilizing the available strength of the affected colonies is to close their hives at night and move them a mile or more, locating them, if possible, outside of the range of other bees. as the brood in these colonies remains healthy all that is sealed or even well advanced in the larval stage may have the bees shaken from it and be distributed among the remaining colonies of the apiary. the bees of the diseased colonies thus become rapidly reduced in numbers, and several of the colonies themselves may soon be combined, the best queen being selected to continue egg deposition. eventually the diseased apiary becomes, by the removal of the developing brood and the death of the old bees, reduced to nothing. none of the queens should be saved nor should any of the adult workers be returned to the healthy apiary. a combination of the sulphur cure with the last plan mentioned--that of getting rid of the disease through the removal of brood combs from affected colonies--is really, all in all, the best procedure. when a fairly strong colony has been made up by shaking the adult bees of two or more together and this removed to an isolated locality, the application of sulphur may be made before any brood has been started. it is well, also, to replace the queen with a vigorous one from stock entirely unrelated to the diseased bees. should any signs of the disease reappear, constant removal of the brood should be followed, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph. other bacterial diseases, though existing, have developed only very locally or have been too limited in the amount of injury inflicted to require special mention here. insect and other enemies. the bee or wax-moth (_galleria mellonella_ linn.) is regarded by those unfamiliar with modern methods in bee keeping as a very serious enemy to success in this work. it was frequently such when only the common black bee was kept and the old way of managing, or rather of trusting to luck, was followed. but with the better races now introduced and with improved hives and methods, and especially with the care that is now given to have no colonies queenless long at a time, the wax-moth larvæ are no longer regarded with great concern. some species of wasps take a little honey at times--more particularly when hives are opened--and they annoy the bees; others capture and eat workers, as do also the large ant-like "cow-killers" (mutillidæ), and certain predaceous flies (asilidæ), true bugs (phymatidæ), and neuropterous and orthopterous insects (libellulidæ and mantidæ). the larvæ of certain beetles (dermestidæ and tenebrio) feed upon pollen and the cast-off skins of developing larvæ and pupæ, and certain of the meloid larvæ attach themselves to the bodies of bees as parasites. ants (formicidæ) and cockroaches (blattidæ), which gather above the quilts and between the quilts and the tops of the frames in order to be benefited by the warmth of the cluster of bees, sometimes help themselves to honey, and their presence annoys the bees more or less. some of the insects here mentioned are only found locally, the predaceous ones being confined mainly to the south, while it may be said that the general welfare of strong colonies is not often materially affected nor the return noticeably reduced through the attacks of any of them. spiders, toads, and lizards destroy, in addition to many injurious insects, also some bees, and should be tolerated in the vegetable garden rather than in the apiary. swallows, kingbirds or bee martins, mice, skunks, and bears only occasionally commit depredations in the apiary. properly constructed hives enable the bees to limit in a great measure the injury which these various enemies might inflict, and the avoidance of overswarming, with care to insure the constant presence of a prolific queen and a supply of food suited to the needs of the colony at the time, will keep it populous and therefore in shape to repel attacks or to make good most of the unavoidable losses. robber bees. robbing is sometimes a more serious matter, although it very rarely happens that a little careful attention just at the right time on the part of the bee keeper would not avoid all serious trouble on this score. when bees find nothing to gather during weather when they can still fly out they are easily tempted to appropriate the stores of weaker colonies. exposure of combs of honey at such times may even occasion a combined attack upon a good colony otherwise quite able to take care of itself. it is then that the greatest destruction ensues, for such a colony will defend itself vigorously, and a pitched battle, with perhaps fifty or sixty thousand amazons on either side, leaves the ground literally strewn with dead and dying. if the invaders conquer, every drop of honey is taken from the few vanquished that are likely to be still alive; and in turn the despoilers invariably fight among themselves as to the possession of the booty. when the robbing takes place during the absence of the owner, the condition of the robbed colony may not attract immediate attention, and during warm weather moth larvæ gain full possession of the combs within a few days. when this condition is observed, the whole damage is very likely to be attributed to the moth larvæ. colonies that have been left queenless for some time, and those weakened by disease or by overswarming, are especial marks for such attacks. of course these defects should be remedied whenever observed, but meanwhile, if legitimate field work is likely to be interrupted, every colony should be assisted in protecting itself against assault by having its hive made secure and the entrance such a narrow pass as to enable a few workers to repel attack there. should robbers get well started before being observed, the entrance of the hive should be narrowed at once, and wet grass or weeds may be thrown loosely over it, or a pane of glass may be stood against the front of the hive in a slanting manner to confuse the intruders. in extreme cases the attacked colonies may be removed to a cellar for a few days, plenty of ventilation being given during confinement, and a new location, apart from other colonies, selected, on which they are to be placed just at nightfall; or, instead of putting them in the cellar, they may be taken a mile or more away and returned only when the danger has passed. with these precautions, little loss is to be feared on this score. in general, the intelligent owner who gives careful attention to certain important points in bee management finds that he very rarely has disease to contend with, and that the reduction of profits through the depredations of bee enemies is not, in most parts of the union, a serious discouragement. altogether it seems to the writer that the risks in these directions are even less in bee keeping than those usually met in the keeping of other animals, which, like bees, are legitimately made to contribute to the wealth of the individual and of the nation. legislation affecting apiarian interests. many states have in recent years passed laws having for their purpose the eradication or suppression of contagious diseases among bees. state and county inspectors have been appointed under these laws, whose duty it is to go about and ascertain where diseased colonies of bees are located, and recommend the treatment to be given, or in some cases to carry out this treatment, even to the complete destruction of colonies or apiaries where the virulence of the attack seems to warrant it. where these laws have been conscientiously and energetically executed, much has been accomplished toward freeing the apiaries of the given state from disease. some states have passed laws making it a misdemeanor to spray fruit trees during the time of blossoming, since thereby bees are poisoned, and besides the injury to the apiarist the pollination of the fruit blossoms is seriously interfered with. laws against the sale of adulterated goods as genuine, known commonly as pure-food laws, are in operation in some of the states, and where bee inspectors or bee keepers have taken the pains to have these laws applied to the marketing of honey, a check has been put upon the selling of adulterated honey in the liquid form, which has been practiced to a greater or less extent and still occurs in some of the city markets. in general, the rights of bee keepers to own and cultivate bees, either within the limits of cities or on farms adjoining those devoted to grazing and general stock raising, are becoming more clearly defined through decisions of supreme and county courts. in this connection the work of the national bee-keepers' association should receive mention. this organization is in no sense a trades union, but has for its purpose the defense of its members against unjust attacks upon their legal rights, the suppression, in so far as possible, of the sale of adulterated honey, the securing of legislation for the protection of its members and favorable to the general advance of the industry, as well as the dissemination among its members of advanced ideas in bee management and information regarding the marketing of apiarian products. the membership fee of one dollar per annum entitles every honey producer to membership and participation in all of the benefits enumerated, as well as to the published report of the annual convention held by the association. the membership numbers nearly , at the present time, and the influence of this large body of intelligent beemasters is already being appreciably felt in the general advance of the industry in this country. journals treating of apiculture. as a matter of general information, the following list of journals relating to apiculture is given. it comprises all those published in this country at the present time. the american bee journal, chicago, ill. gleanings in bee culture, medina, ohio. the bee keepers' review, flint, mich. the american bee keeper, falconer, n. y. the progressive bee keeper, higginsville, mo. western bee journal, kingsburg, cal. the rural bee keeper, river falls, wis. farmers' bulletins. the following is a list of the farmers' bulletins available for distribution, showing the number and title of each. copies will be sent to any address on application to any senator, representative, or delegate in congress, or to the secretary of agriculture, washington, d. c. the missing numbers have been discontinued, being superseded by later bulletins: no. . leguminous plants. no. . the feeding of farm animals. no. . hog cholera and swine plague. no. . peanuts: culture and uses. no. . flax for seed and fiber. no. . weeds: and how to kill them. no. . souring and other changes in milk. no. . grape diseases on the pacific coast. no. . alfalfa, or lucern. no. . silos and silage. no. . peach growing for market. no. . moats: composition and cooking. no. . potato culture. no. . cotton seed and its products. no. . kafir com: culture and uses. no. . spraying for fruit diseases. no. . onion culture. no. . fowls: care and feeding. no. . facts about milk. no. . sewage disposal on the farm. no. . commercial fertilizers. no. . insects injurious to stored grain. no. . irrigation in humid climates. no. . insects affecting the cotton plant. no. . the manuring of cotton. no. . sheep feeding. no. . sorghum as a forage crop. no. . standard varieties of chickens. no. . the sugar beet. no. . some common birds. no. . the dairy herd. no. . experiment station work--i. no. . butter making on the farm. no. . the soy bean as a forage crop. no. . bee keeping. no. . methods of curing tobacco. no. . asparagus culture. no. . marketing farm produce. no. . care of milk on the farm. no. . ducks and geese. no. . experiment station work--ii. no. . meadows and pastures. no. . the black rot of the cabbage. no. . experiment station work--iii. no. . insect enemies of the grape. no. . essentials in beef production. no. . cattle ranges of the southwest. no. . experiment station work--iv. no. . milk as food. no. . the grain smuts. no. . the liming of soils. no. . experiment station work--v. no. . experiment station work--vi. no. . the peach twig-borer. no. . com culture in the south. no. . the culture of tobacco. no. . tobacco soils. no. . experiment station work--vii. no. . fish as food. no. . thirty poisonous plants. no. . experiment station work--viii. no. . alkali lands. no. . cowpeas. no. . potato diseases and treatment. no. . experiment station work--ix. no. . sugar as food. no. . the vegetable garden. no. . good roads for farmers. no. . raising sheep for mutton. no. . experiment station work--x. no. . suggestions to southern farmers. no. . insect enemies of shade trees. no. . hog raising in the south. no. . millets. no. . southern forage plants. no. . experiment station work--xi. no. . notes on frost. no. . experiment station work--xii. no. . breeds of dairy cattle. no. . experiment station work--xiii. no. . saltbushes. no. . farmers' reading courses. no. . rice culture in the united states. no. . farmers' interest in good seed. no. . bread and bread making. no. . the apple and how to grow it. no. . experiment station work--xiv. no. . hop culture in california. no. . irrigation in fruit growing. no. . grape growing in the south. no. . experiment station work--xv. no. . insects afflicting tobacco. no. . beans, peas, and other legumes as food. no. . experiment station work--xvi. no. . red clover seed: information for purchasers. no. . experiment station work--xvii. no. . protection of food products from injurious temperatures. no. . practical suggestions for farm buildings. no. . important insecticides. no. . eggs and their uses as food. no. . sweet potatoes. no. . household tests for detection of oleomargarine and renovated butter. no. . insect enemies of growing wheat. no. . experiment station work--xviii. no. . tree planting in rural school grounds. no. . sorghum sirup manufacture. no. . earth roads. no. . the angora goat. no. . irrigation in field and garden. no. . emmer: a grain for the semiarid regions. no. . pineapple growing. no. . poultry raising on the farm. no. . principles of nutrition and nutritive value of food. no. . the conformation of beef and dairy cattle. no. . experiment station work--xix. no. . carbon bisulphid as an insecticide. no. . insecticides and fungicides. no. . winter forage crops for the south. no. . celery culture. no. . experiment station work--xx. no. . clearing new land. no. . dairying in the south. no. . scabies in cattle. no. . orchard enemies in the pacific northwest. no. . the home fruit garden: preparation and care. no. . how insects affect health in rural districts. no. . the home vineyard. no. . the propagation of plants. no. . how to build small irrigation ditches. no. . scab in sheep. no. . practical suggestions for fruit growers. no. . experiment station work--xxi. no. . rape as a forage crop. no. . culture of the silkworm. no. . cheese making on the farm. no. . cassava. no. . pearl millet. no. . experiment station work--xxii. no. . principles of horse feeding. no. . the control of the codling moth. no. . scale insects and mites on citrus trees. no. . primer of forestry. no. . broom com. no. . home manufacture and use of unfermented grape juice. no. . cranberry culture. no. . squab raising. no. . insects injurious in cranberry culture. no. . horseshoeing. no. . pruning. no. . poultry as food. no. . meat on the farm.--butchering, curing, etc. no. . marketing live stock. no. . beautifying the home grounds. no. . experiment station work--xxiii. no. . drainage of farm lands. no. . weeds used in medicine. no. . information concerning the mexican cotton boll weevil. no. . experiment station work--xxiv. no. . the cotton bollworm-- . no. . barnyard manure. no. . experiment station work--xxv. no. . alfalfa seed. no. . annual flowering plants. no. . usefulness of the american toad. no. . importation of game birds and eggs for propagation. no. . strawberries. no. . corn growing. no. . turkeys. no. . cream separator on western farms. no. . experiment station work--xxvi. no. . canned fruits, preserves, and jellies. no. . the cultivation of mushrooms. no. . pig management. no. . milk fever and its treatment. no. . game laws for . no. . varieties of fruits recommended for planting. no. . controlling the boll weevil in cotton seed and at ginneries. no. . experiment station work--xxvii. no. . the use of paris green in controlling the cotton boll weevil. no. . the cotton bollworm-- . no. . raspberries. no. . beneficial bacteria for leguminous crops. no. . alfalfa in the eastern states. no. . control of the cotton boll weevil. no. . essential steps in securing an early crop of cotton. no. . the school garden. no. . lessons taught by the grain rust epidemic of . no, . tomatoes. no. . fungous diseases of the cranberry. * * * * * transcribers note illustrations moved so as not to split paragraphs. the listing of publications was reformatted to enhance readability. by the internet archive. transcriber note text emphasis denote by _italics_. whole and fractional parts of numbers as - / . [illustration: the preparation of bees for outdoor wintering] one of the most vital parts of the beekeeper's work is the preparation of bees for outdoor wintering. no other phase of beekeeping has so direct an influence on the honey crop of the following season. the apiary should be located in a protected place and the colonies should not be moved at the time of packing. directions are given in this bulletin for the proper arrangement of the apiary to prevent confusion due to the shifting of hives. the amount and character of the packing materials and the most economical type of packing cases are discussed. a schedule of dates for packing and unpacking the hives is presented for all parts of the united states, and the amount and character of winter stores are indicated. it is important that none of the factors of good wintering be omitted, and several tests are given so that the beekeeper may determine whether his bees are wintering properly. contribution from the bureau of entomology l. o. howard, chief washington, d. c. september, the preparation of bees for outdoor wintering. e. f. phillips, _apiculturist_, and george s. demuth, _apicultural assistant_. contents. page. the essentials to success necessity for strong colonies in the fall arrangement of the apiary insulation of the hive arrangement within the hive winter schedule winter stores all the factors of good wintering are needed measures of success in wintering no problem confronting the beekeeper in most parts of the united states is of more importance than the proper wintering of bees, yet it is one which is sadly neglected. it is urged that before attempting to make packing cases for the wintering of bees the beekeeper study department bulletin , temperature of the honeybee cluster in winter, and farmers' bulletin , outdoor wintering of bees. the essentials to success. the essentials to success in caring for a normal colony of bees from the end of one season's honey-flow to the beginning of the next lie in providing three things in abundance: ( ) stores of good quality, ( ) protection from wind and cold, and ( ) room for the rearing of brood at appropriate times. these factors are all of the greatest importance, and an omission of any one of them may prevent completely the gathering of the honey crop of the following year, and if any of the factors are given in less degree the honey crop invariably is reduced. the importance of these essentials does not apply equally at all times from the end of one season to the beginning of the next, but at some time they are all vitally essential; and it is the purpose of this bulletin to show how all three may be given in the early fall, so that, without further handling, the colonies will come through the spring with the maximum population. if, for example, the room for breeding is not provided in the fall, it becomes necessary to handle the colony early in the spring, and this may be detrimental. similarly, it is the practice of some beekeepers to add to the stores of the colony in the spring, rather than to leave enough in the fall to last until new honey comes in. this is dangerous for two reasons: too often the stores are not given on time or in adequate quantity, and frequently they can not be given without exposing the colony too greatly. it is therefore the best practice by far to provide all of these factors in the fall, and no other methods are so safe and certain of success. by practicing the methods here given the enormous annual loss of colonies in winter may be almost entirely eliminated, and, what is more important, much stronger colonies may be obtained for the early sources of honey. necessity for strong colonies in the fall. a common cause of loss is through attempting to winter colonies that are too small. it is somewhat difficult to set a standard for colony strength at this season, but in general it may be stated that it is unwise to attempt to winter colonies that are not strong enough to have brood sufficient to fill three to four langstroth frames two months before the packing is applied. if the colonies in the apiary are not of the proper strength it is wise to unite until the proper strength is reached. any uniting should be done at least two weeks before packing. there is a tendency in some localities for colonies to weaken rapidly in early fall, due to the nature of the honey-flow from fall flowers. to some degree this may be offset by putting on the packing earlier than otherwise would be necessary. it is highly important that each colony have a vigorous queen in order that brood-rearing may continue in the fall and may proceed rapidly in the spring. with colonies such as are obtained by the methods here described it is not desirable to keep queens more than two years and it is preferable to requeen the entire apiary every season. to get the best results in requeening all young queens should be introduced so that they will begin laying two months before packing. it will be found that queens wear out more rapidly in the unusually strong colonies obtained by the methods of wintering here described, but every good beekeeper realizes that it is these enormous colonies which get the greatest crops. arrangement of the apiary. wind protection. it is of the greatest importance that the apiary be located where the wind in winter is virtually eliminated. a grove of trees or an adjacent hill usually offers the best protection, or it is possible to make an artificial windbreak such as a high fence. a natural windbreak usually is better, for it is more extensive in most cases. it has been found by the authors that if a wind of miles an hour blows on the winter packing cases for a few hours the temperature of the inside of the packed hive may be greatly reduced and may even fall as low as that of an unpacked hive. too much reliance should not be placed in buildings as windbreaks, for they often serve simply to divert the wind slightly and may even make conditions worse. a fence made of close boards usually is unsatisfactory for it causes whirls that may destroy many colonies. a heavy blanket of snow serves to reduce the effect of the wind. [illustration: fig. .--colonies of bees in summer position in groups of four. this arrangement is advantageous whether or not the bees are wintered in four-colony packing cases.] arrangement of the hives. in arranging the hives in an apiary it is necessary to take into account the method of wintering to be followed. if the bees are to be wintered in the four-colony cases to be described later the hives should be kept in groups of four all the season (fig. ), for if colonies are moved more than a foot just before packing and then moved again as they are unpacked there is a considerable amount of "drifting"--that is, bees from some colonies join other colonies during flight, and the result is an actual reduction of the number of colonies and of bees in the apiary. a failure to keep the colonies properly arranged for their winter stands during the entire summer is a common cause of failure in using the four-colony cases. whatever type of case is used for outdoor wintering, the bees should occupy the same place during the entire year. since the outside of the winter case is quite different an appearance from the hives the bees often are somewhat confused. to prevent drifting from this cause it is a good plan to set a large stake between the two entrances on each end of the four-colony winter cases; this will serve to help the bees in orienting themselves during flights in winter and especially in spring. if it is possible to plant some shrubbery among the hives it is a good plan to have the plants arranged so that they will act as markers for the bees during these early flights (fig. ). they will not be amiss during the summer, and, if properly placed, they need not interfere with movement through the apiary during the summer's work, while they add to its attractiveness. insulation of the hive. amount of packing needed. it is impossible to insulate bees too heavily during the winter. it is obvious, however, that the beekeeper will not want to put on more packing than is practically necessary. for a climate such as that of washington, d. c., it is found desirable to provide inches of packing underneath the hives, inches on all sides, and or more inches on top. in warmer climates less will be needed, but the beekeeper must not think that simply because he lives south of washington he can be safe with less packing or none at all. there are many places farther south than washington where more packing is needed, and there are, indeed, few places except along the gulf or in southern california where less may be used if the best results are to be obtained. for more northern localities more protection is needed. the amount indicated for washington has been used with success in places as cold as northern ohio and even in canada, but in these places the insulation during the coldest seasons is usually augmented by heavy snows. these are not at hand every winter, or may be lacking during the coldest part of the winter, and it is, therefore, wise to provide more packing, especially on the sides and top. for a climate such as that of new york or wisconsin, inches of good packing on the sides and foot on the top probably will be enough for good wintering every year. the amounts recommended for the different zones of the united states are given in table i (p. ). a belief is current among many amateur beekeepers that good results may be obtained by using hives which have inches of packing built in the sides and somewhat more on top. this amount is insufficient in winter in all parts of the country except the southern portions of the gulf states. a common practice is to wrap some straw or corn fodder around the hives, but this may do more harm than good if the wind can blow directly through it. a covering of roofing paper with perhaps a little paper packing underneath is practically worthless in insulating value. types of packing material. there is little difference in the insulating value of the various materials which may be obtained easily for the packing of hives in winter. exaggerated claims have been made by some beekeepers for such materials as broken cork or certain commercial insulating materials, but it is safe to say that there is not per cent difference between the poorest and the best of the available insulating materials, provided, of course, that obviously poor things such as corn fodder and straw be eliminated. sawdust, fine planer shavings, forest leaves, chaff, broken cork, and such materials may be used, the choice depending chiefly on the availability of the materials. in general it may be stated that the smaller and the more numerous the dead air spaces confined in the packing, the greater will be its efficiency in insulation. if forest leaves are used they must be gathered the year before and stored, as the leaves fall some time after the bees should be packed. if sawdust is used it is best not to pack it down tight, but if forest leaves or planer shavings are employed it is essential that they be packed in closely and that the containers be completely filled. broken cork, such as is used in the shipping of certain types of grapes, is good and has the advantage that it does not hold moisture as does sawdust. in all cases the packing should be placed in some sort of box which will be rain-proof and thus protect the insulation from rains and snow, for all insulating materials lose part of their efficiency when wet. bottom packing. there has been considerable discussion among beekeepers as to the value of placing packing material below the bottom boards of the hives. this is usually provided by placing the hives on by inch supports or on racks of -inch material. those who have opposed this have pointed out that "heat rises," overlooking the fact that while warm air attempts to rise, if this is impossible other avenues of escape of warm-air currents may be set up. furthermore, and more important, they have overlooked the important fact that heat escapes from the hive not only by convection currents but by conduction and radiation as well. in an extensive series of experiments performed by the writers it was found that in hives packed at the top and sides most of the heat escapes through the bottom boards; in fact, this was so noticeable that the packing at the top and sides never served its full purpose so long as heat was escaping rapidly at the bottoms. it may be stated, therefore, that so long as the bottoms are unprotected there is little insulating value in materials piled on the top and sides beyond about inches. this amount is insufficient for most parts of the united states, therefore bottom packing should be considered as absolutely essential wherever bees are packed. to get the value of bottom packing it is absolutely essential that the entrance be reduced, but it need not be closed. in a long series of temperature readings on hives packed for several winters, the authors were able to keep a temperature of ° f. on the bottom boards of packed hives directly behind the entrance openings. those who have condemned bottom packing have labored under the mistaken notion that it is impossible to prevent currents of cold air through the entrance. this is entirely possible if the entrances are adequately reduced. the conclusion to be drawn from the experiments performed is that unless the bottoms of hives are well packed, the beekeeper ought not to imagine that he has packed his hives at all well. [illustration: fig. .--the winter packing cases used in the bureau of entomology apiary: _a_, detail of tunnel to hives. in the specifications given in this bulletin (p. ) provision is made for room for a third hive body to be added in the spring.] the packing case. there is no virtue in any special type of case, but in all types there are a few points which must be observed. there must be provision for abundant packing on the top, bottom, and sides, the entrances must be small, the case must be rain-proof, and the construction of the case should be such that it may be taken apart and put together easily. the parts of various cases used in one series of apiaries should be interchangeable. the authors have refrained in the past from giving explicit directions for making a winter packing case for fear that some beekeepers might think that there may be peculiar virtue in the case used and recommended by the department (fig. ). so many beekeepers, however, have written for exact dimensions for making the case used in the apiary of the bureau of entomology that it is considered best to give these in this bulletin. in order that protection adequate for bees in a climate such as that of washington may be provided, inches of packing below the bottom board, inches on all sides, and at least inches on top are desired. there is advantage in packing several colonies together, in order that they may warm each other and to reduce the cost of the case and the labor of putting it on. the bureau, therefore, has adopted the four-colony type of case which has been much used for years in all parts of the country. in this case, two colonies face east and two west. provision is made for wintering all colonies in two full-depth hive bodies. in the following dimensions it is assumed that / -inch tongued-and-grooved lumber is used, that the -frame langstroth hive is in use, and that two hive bodies are employed for each colony, with adequate space above the hive so that, if needed, a third hive body may be put on before time for the removal of the packing. in this packing case the sides overlap the ends. for hives of other sizes the lumber must be cut so as to provide the packing specified in table i (p. ). for zones f and g (fig. ) provision should be made for additional packing by increasing the length of all parts inches, and for zone c a correspondingly smaller case may be made. bottom of case inches (exact) by inches (exact). sides of case - / inches (exact) by - / inches (minimum). ends of case inches (exact) by - / inches (minimum). telescope cover of case inches by inches (minimum). if -inch boards (laying - / inches) are used, it is desirable to use boards for the height of the case; if -inch boards (laying - / inches) are used, will be sufficient. in figure only boards, laying - / inches, are shown, but in this case no allowance is made for a third hive body in the spring. for the telescoping part of the cover, -inch boards are used. as was pointed out earlier, the hives should rest throughout the summer on the floor of the winter case (fig. ). the plan of putting them in groups of four, two facing east and two west, has much to commend it during the entire year. the bottom therefore should be made strong enough to stand the weight of four colonies without getting out of shape. since this weight may be over , pounds in a good year, it is advised that the cleats on the bottom of the case be of by inch material. the supports of the bottom and the position of the cleats should be arranged so that the weight will not rest too largely on the boards, and the stones or bricks used should be directly under the center of the hives when they are in their summer position. obviously the hives will be moved to the outer corners of the bottom during the summer to facilitate handling. the sides of the case should be so constructed that the cleats which hold the boards together will serve to support the overlapping sides on the bottom. this is clearly shown in figure . there should also be a central cleat on the sides to prevent warping, for the cases must be rain-proof. if cleats are properly placed as shown in the illustration, they make the equivalent of a halved joint at the corners. the sides may be held in place and together by nails or by any sort of special hook. the entrances for the colonies during winter should be in the ends of the case, as shown. these will be discussed later. the top of the case may be made to telescope over the sides, as shown in figure , or it may be made in any other way desired so that it is adequate to keep the packing absolutely dry throughout the winter. the telescope cover has much to commend it, especially in the case with which the covers may be stored in summer. the top of the wooden cover should be covered with a roofing paper of first quality in order that the protection will last for years. if the telescope type of cover is used, no cleats other than the sides and ends of the telescoping portion will be needed. [illustration: fig. .--an apiary packed for winter in four-colony cases such as are used in the bureau of entomology apiary.] a tunnel (fig. , a) is also needed through which the bees may pass on warm days and to permit ventilation. this is best made of two boards, one the width of the packing (e. g., inches) and the other this width loss the extension of the bottom board. in most cases this extension is inches, so the lower board will be inches wide. these are held apart by strips three-eighths of an inch thick. this is the height of the usual hive entrance in winter, and the passage between the boards is therefore the same height as the hive entrance. in order that the tunnel may not get out of alignment, these strips are continued back, as shown in the figure, and these projections extend into the hive entrances at the corners. the arrangement for keeping alignment at the outer edge is discussed under "the entrance" (p. ). single or double cases. for those having only a few colonies, it is not always convenient to build cases for colonies in groups of four. it is not necessary to give dimensions in detail for those having a few colonies, however, for they will usually wish to use whatever they have at hand. it is often possible to arrange a heavy wooden box, such as those used for shipping dry goods (fig. ), so as to make a winter case for one colony which will answer every purpose. it is, of course, necessary that the salient feature of a good winter case be preserved. if the arrangement of the apiary makes it inconvenient to have the colonies in groups of four throughout the year, it is quite possible to make good cases for two colonies. anything other than the four-colony case, however, will probably cost more per colony, or if too many colonies are put into larger cases there may be trouble from other causes, as from drifting. [illustration: fig. .--an improvised winter case for one colony.] arrangement within the hive. capacity of the winter hive. as has been pointed out, bees need room for breeding in the fall and again in the spring. during the winter season there is no brood-rearing in normal colonies which are adequately protected, and room for breeding therefore is not essential during the winter. if the bees are to have room for the proper development of colony strength, however, they should have two hive bodies each of -frame langstroth size by about the beginning of april in most parts of the country, and earlier in the south. in order that it may be unnecessary to open colonies during a period of such unsettled weather as obtains at this season, it is advised that the room for breeding be provided in the fall and left with the bees all winter. to make this a safe procedure, it is necessary to provide more packing than would be necessary if the colony were provided with only enough room for the cluster and winter stores during the winter. it has been found desirable also to leave more stores with the bees than have been left by many beekeepers, and this is additional reason for the giving of more room during the winter. it is recommended, therefore, that in all parts of the united states colonies of full strength be wintered in two hive-bodies of -frame langstroth size. they should, of course, be provided with abundant protection and the entrances should be reduced. space above the frames. formerly it was commonly recommended that corn cobs, or other objects designed for the purpose, be placed above the top bars of the frames, and then that quilts be placed over these. the purpose of these objects, was to lift the quilts so that the bees could pass over the tops of the frames. in former years it was advised that holes be bored through the combs to permit passage from one space to the other. of late years these things have been abandoned, to a large degree, for it is known now that if bees are packed as they should be they may pass easily at all times to any part of the hive as need arises. it is often stated that bees die of starvation in the hives when there is abundant honey not many inches away from the cluster. this, of course, never happens in colonies that are well packed. in colonies that are adequately protected there is no better plan than simply to leave the regular wooden cover in place and sealed down by the bees. quilts directly over the frames are a nuisance at any time, and during the winter they are of no value for upward ventilation in well packed colonies and should be used only as a poor makeshift for good packing. upward ventilation. a common practice has been to remove the hive cover when the bees are packed for winter and to cover the frames with burlap or some such porous material, the object being to allow the escape of any moisture which may be generated within the hive during the winter. moisture is being generated constantly as the bees consume the honey stores, but if the bees are adequately packed the amount of moisture will be reduced to the minimum. the chief dancer, of course, is from moisture which condenses, and in an adequately packed hive there is no condensation. the temperature never goes low enough for water vapor to condense. therefore it is obvious that upward ventilation for the escape of moisture is never needed in hives that are packed as they should be. any beekeeper who has had trouble in the past with condensed moisture in the hives, or with wet packing over the porous tops, may be sure that he has not provided enough packing material. another thing is to be considered in connection with the subject of upward ventilation. the entrances to the hives must be greatly reduced in order that there may not be excessive loss of heat at that point. if upward ventilation is provided, there is opportunity for the wind to blow through even the small entrance, through the hive and out through the porous cover. this current of air will be slight but nevertheless it exists, and serves as an avenue for the escape of considerable heat. if insufficient packing is provided, upward ventilation becomes almost necessary, unless a large entrance is left. the beekeeper must see to it that he is providing adequate packing material before he gives up the upward ventilation, but he should not count his bees well packed for winter so long as he must provide for the escape of condensed moisture. the entrance. as has been pointed out, the entrances of hives must be greatly reduced during the winter in order that the efficacy of the bottom packing may be preserved. it is desirable, however, that provision be made for larger entrances during the early fall and again in the spring. to provide conditions suitable at all times while the packing cases are on, the bureau of entomology has adopted a type of entrance which to some extent has been used previously in the north. five / -inch anger holes are bored in the ends of the packing case at a height that will allow for the thickness of the case floor, the bottom packing, and the thickness of the bottom of the hive. this usually is a little over inches from the lower edge of the case ends. no alighting board should be placed at the outer entrance holes, as it is not needed and serves only to collect snow and ice. to prevent the tunnels from getting out of alignment at the outer edge, a peg of the diameter of the holes is inserted through the outer hole for each hive and into the tunnel (see fig. ). this peg is usually about - / inches long. this leaves four auger holes, each three-eighths of an inch in diameter, for the bees to use as an entrance during the fall and spring, and during the colder weather a piece of section material or a small board is tacked over three of the holes. (see fig. .) this gives in winter a single hole for an entrance, three-eighths of an inch in diameter. this provides a place for the bees to remove their dead, a place for flight on moderately warm days, and also provides adequate ventilation for the hive while the bees are confined without an opportunity for flight. however, the size of entrance should not be discussed without warning beekeepers that unless adequate packing is provided, such a small entrance may result in the death of the colony. furthermore, a poorly packed colony will not be able to carry out the bees as they die, and the death rate will be higher; and these things combined may result in an accumulation of dead bees at the entrance, which will serve to suffocate the remaining bees. a colony that is well packed, however, is able to remove all dead bees as fast as they die, and there will never be an accumulation on the floor of the hive. furthermore, a well-packed colony does not need so large an entrance for ventilation as does one that is not packed or which has not enough packing. if snow drifts over the small entrance here described, the beekeeper need have no anxiety, for the bees can still receive adequate ventilation. if a crust of ice closes the entrance it will be well to break it, but usually the escaping heat will melt this ice before any damage is done. [illustration: fig. .--map of the eastern united states indicating average date of first killing frost in autumn. on this the zones for winter packing are based. no packing is recommended in zones a and b.] winter schedule. great confusion has existed among beekeepers as to the right time to pack the bees for winter, and especially as to the right time to remove the packing in the spring. it is quite possible to give definite directions for both procedures and to place the recommendations on a firm foundation by basing them on weather phenomena. the maps (figs. and ), showing the time of the first average killing frost in the fall, serve as a basis for the recommendations for each of the zones into which the map of the eastern united states is divided. perhaps it will be a matter of surprise to beekeepers in parts of the south to see that, so far as the wintering of the bees is concerned, they are as far north as beekeepers who live many miles farther toward the pole. the lines on figure indicate the average dates of the first killing frost in the fall, and these dates, given at the ends of the heavy lines, are of direct value to the beekeeper as giving the proper time for putting on the winter cases. the average dates of the last killing frost in the spring do not show exactly the same lines on the maps, but the differences are not sufficiently great to justify the use of a separate map for this purpose. the authors have chosen therefore to divide the country into the zones indicated, and the recommendations given below apply to each of the zones shown. on account of the variations in elevation, it is impossible to carry these lines into the rocky mountain region, but as packing is just as necessary in the west as in the east, figure is inserted to indicate roughly the time for the putting on of the packing in the fall. the dates in this map are the average dates of the first killing frost. by consulting table i the beekeeper of the west may learn the time advised for the removal of the packing, by placing his locality in its proper zone, on the basis of the first killing frost. table i.--_dates for the packing and unpacking of been in the various parts of the united states, board on data furnished by the weather bureau for the average dates of the first and last killing frosts. the amount of packing recommended for each zone is included._ ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- | date for | date for | packing | zone.| packing. | unpacking.| recommended.[ ]| remarks. ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- a | ..... | ..... | ..... | none needed. b | ..... | ..... | ..... | do. c | november | march | - - | d | november | april | - - | e | october | may | - - | f | october | may | - - | g | september | june | - - | cellar wintering | | | | much safer. ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- [ ] in this column the first figure represents in inches the amount of packing needed below the bottom boards, the second the amount of side packing, and the last the amount needed on top. time for putting on the winter packing. frequently great loss of colony strength is due to delay in putting on the packing. perhaps this is the most common source of loss in outdoor wintering aside from that due to a failure to pack the bees at all. packing should not be deferred after the flowers furnishing the last honey are killed by frost. in case the late fall flowers furnish honey that is to be removed, then it is necessary to wait until nectar is no longer coming in before applying the packing, but it is indeed rare that the last honey should be taken away, and it is good beekeeping to apply the packing even before there is any frost at all. the determining factor is the necessity for handling the bees. if more stores must be given them or if some of the late honey is to be removed in order that it may be replaced by better honey or by sugar sirup, then handling of the bees after frost may be needed, but after the last essential handling it is much the best plan to pack the bees. in pints of the country where bees are wintered outdoors it is quite customary to delay packing until thanksgiving day, but this is too late by far except in the extreme south (zone c). it is safe, therefore, for the beekeeper to use the dates shown in figures and and the data given in table i as a guide to the time of packing. he may be assured that if he delays packing later than the dates shown therein the bees will suffer by a loss of colony strength and vitality at a season of the year when they can ill afford to be weakened by neglect. under no circumstances should packing be delayed more, than two weeks after the date given for each zone. further, if packing is delayed until after cold weather begins, the disturbance of the colony may induce the beginning of brood-rearing, find this in turn may result in the death of the colony. if by chance a colony has been left unpacked until after the bees have been confined by cold weather for three or four weeks, the packing may do more harm than good. time for the removal of packing. if bees are given the right amount of room, stores, and protection early in the fall, nothing that the beekeeper can do will benefit them until it is necessary to handle them because of preparations for swarming or because of the incoming nectar. of course if bees are well packed they get so strong in the spring that if crowded they begin preparations for swarming earlier than do colonies which have been neglected during the winter. by following the methods here described the season for swarm control is advanced, so that usually it is entirely passed before the honey-flow begins. in the region of washington it has been found best not to remove the packing until at least may . further south or in warmer regions it may be well to remove the packing earlier, but in localities such as new york or wisconsin (zone f) the packing should be left in place until at least may , and usually until june . obviously this will be impossible unless two hive bodies are left on the bees all winter, or unless more room is given in the early spring, before unpacking. it has been found that if the bees are allowed to remain in the cases until the dates named they may then be taken out ready for whatever nectar may come. by that time they should have frames of brood--far more than is found in the average colony throughout the country oven in the midst of the honey-flow. such colonies are so strong that if cooler weather comes after they are unpacked, as it sometimes does, they are not injured by it. of course the bees would be as well of even better off if the packing could be left on throughout the year, but as yet no practicable way has been devised for giving the bees enough packing during the winter and then leaving it on throughout the summer. the commercial double-walled hives which have been devised for this purpose are all too scant in packing material for good results, and none of them can be recommended. [illustration: fig. .--map of the western united states, showing variation in average date of first killing frost. for each locality the recommendations for packing and unpacking are the same as in corresponding zones in figure . the dryer atmosphere of most of the west does not diminish the need of packing. for localities where the first frost occurs after november no packing is recommended.] the dates given for the removal of packing in the spring follow approximately the average dates of the last killing frost in the spring for each locality. in case local conditions make the removal of the packing unnecessary as early as the dates indicated, it is entirely safe to leave the packing on until some manipulation makes it desirable to handle the combs, as this can not well be done while the hives are heavily packed. winter stores. in packing bees for winter two things require attention so far as stores are concerned, and one is as important as the other: ( ) there must be plenty of honey in the hive to last until the spring honey-flow, and ( ) the stores which will be used by the bees during the period of confinement in winter must be of the best quality and well ripened. it is, of course, possible to give the bees more honey or sugar sirup after spring opens, but this means that the colonies will need to be handled during this period, and this is not the best plan. it is commonly said among the best beekeepers that "the best time to do spring feeding is the fall before." the safest plan by all means is to allow each colony to have at least pounds of honey at the time the bees are packed. they should then be allowed to keep any honey which may come in later, and it will be adequately ripened if the colony is well packed. this will be small in extent if they are packed at the right time, and the bees will also have their stores replenished by small amounts of honey which come in during the early spring before they are unpacked. this amount of stores for winter will seem large to many beekeepers who have been in the habit of leaving loss, but the object of the plans herein set forth is to have much stronger colonies than are found in the average apiary in the spring, and the amount of stores mentioned may be needed. the only places where beekeepers might have some reason to reduce the amount of stores are locations where the honey granulates quickly, in which event it can not be extracted later. such honey, however, usually is as good for winter stores as if it were not granulated, and it may then be saved for stores the following winter. forty-five pounds of honey on the hive is a better investment for the beekeeper than money in the bank, and more beekeepers make mistakes in this regard than anywhere else in the work of the year. honey that is high in gums, as many of the honeys which come from various trees, is not good for winter stores. honeydew honey is still less desirable. when either is present it is best to remove it and either to give frames of good honey to take its place or to feed about pounds of good honey or sirup made of granulated sugar after all brood-rearing has ceased. honey or sugar sirup which is fed late is stored in the place where the last brood emerged; it is therefore the first of the stores that the bees use. as long as they are having good honey or sugar stores for winter use the condition known as dysentery will be warded off. then, later, when they have used up the good stores, the weather will permit frequent flights, and then the less satisfactory stores will do no harm. honeydew honeys usually may be detected by their bad taste, accompanied ordinarily by a dark, muddy appearance. in case of doubt as to the stores it is always safe to give good honey or sugar sirup. unfortunately it is true that many of the fall honeys are not of the best quality for winter use, and this, in part, accounts for the heavy losses of bees occurring regularly in some parts of the country. all the factors of good wintering are needed. one frequently encounters beekeepers who condemn winter packing, stating that they have tried it without success. the writers have met many such beekeepers, and many of them are good beekeepers in other respects. on careful inquiry it is learned that in all cases they have omitted some vitally important factor. the most common fault in winter packing is to leave the entrances of the hives wide open. this, of course, nullifies the benefit of the packing to a large degree, and one need not be surprised that these men do not find virtue in packing heavily. another common fault in packing is to omit the packing from the bottom. snow acts as an excellent insulation, but one can not be sure that there will be snow at just the right times, and it is therefore necessary, to insure good wintering, that good packing be placed on the bottoms. it is also common to face the hives to the south and then leave the fronts without packing, under the erroneous impression that since the heat from the sun will enter more readily, the colonies will be benefited more than they would be if they were heavily packed in front. to combat this view it should be necessary only to point out that the sun shines only a small fraction of the hours during winter. furthermore, any place through which heat may enter easily serves also as a place through which heat escapes. in certain well-known cases the other factors of good wintering, strong colonies and good stores, are so well provided that the loss from this lack of protection is not detected, yet it is certain that in any such method of wintering there is a great loss of bee vitality, and the bees are compelled to do more work in heat generation than would be the case were they well packed. it can not be stated too strongly that the right way to winter bees is to provide all the factors needed, and not to omit any of them simply because in most years the bees can get through without all dying when less help is given. the three things necessary for successful earing for bees from the time they are packed until they are unpacked in the late spring are ( ) plenty of protection, ( ) plenty of stores of good quality, and ( ) plenty of room for the building up of the colony strength in the spring. none of these may be omitted without reducing the colony strength in the spring, and, as every good beekeeper knows, it is the strong colonies which get the maximum crop. measures of success in wintering. it is often difficult for a beekeeper to know whether he is wintering his bees as well as he should, for he may not have been able to learn from reading or visiting other apiaries how well colonies may be brought through the winter. the writers therefore have attempted to give here a few measures which the beekeeper may apply to his apiary, that he may be able to decide whether his methods of wintering should be improved. . when bees are adequately packed and protected from the wind, they are able to push out the dead bees as they die in winter. there should never be an accumulation of dead bees on the bottom board. . a colony of full strength will have langstroth frames filled with brood by the time that the bees should be unpacked. the bees should not be taken from their cases until it is necessary to handle them, and if two hive bodies have been given each colony, unpacking may be deferred until time for the control of swarming or until the new honey is coming in freely. sometimes it even happens that colonies need a third hive as a swarm prevention measure before it is time to remove the packing, in which case it can be given and the packing replaced, at least around the sides of the third hive body. space for this is indicated in the dimensions given on page . . a colony is not of proper strength for winter unless it has between three and four frames of brood two months before the time for putting on packing. usually this will be six weeks before brood-rearing ceases. if there is less brood at that time it indicates either that the queen is not good or that the colony has been weakened from some other cause. if taken in time this condition may be remedied by adding brood or honey or by uniting. it is extravagant to attempt to winter weak colonies. . if a thermometer is inserted into the hive through the auger hole entrance at the time of the coldest weather in winter it should show a temperature above the freezing point. at no time should the temperature of any part of the hive go below freezing, and the point just within the entrance is the most convenient one at which to take the temperature readings. the lowest temperature obviously will be at this point. the president to the farmers of america. [extracts from president wilson's message to the farmers' conference at urbana, ill., january , .] the forces that fight for freedom, the freedom of men all over the world as well as our own, depend upon us in an extraordinary and unexpected degree for sustenance, for the supply of the materials by which men are to live and to fight, and it will be our glory when the war is over that we have supplied those materials and supplied them abundantly, and it will be all the more glory because in supplying them we have made our supreme effort and sacrifice. in the field of agriculture we have agencies and instrumentalities, fortunately, such as no other government in the world can show. the department of agriculture is undoubtedly the greatest practical and scientific agricultural organization in the world. its total annual budget of $ , , has been increased during the last four years more than per cent. it has a staff of , , including a large number of highly trained experts, and alongside of it stand the unique land-grant colleges, which are without example elsewhere, and the state and federal experiment stations. these colleges and experiment stations have a total endowment of plant and equipment of $ , , and an income or more than $ , , with , teachers, a resident student body of , , and a vast additional number receiving instructions at their homes. county agents, joint officers of the department of agriculture and of the colleges, are everywhere cooperating with the farmers and assisting them. the number of extension workers under the smith-lever act and under the recent emergency legislation has grown to , men and women working regularly in the various communities and taking to the farmer the latest scientific and practical information. alongside these great public agencies stand the very effective voluntary organizations among the farmers themselves which are more and more learning the best methods of cooperation and the best methods of putting to practical use the assistance derived from governmental sources. the banking legislation of the last two or three years has given the farmers access to the great lendable capital of the country, and it has become the duly both of the men in charge of the federal reserve banking system and of the farm loan banking system to see to it that the farmers obtain the credit, both short term and long term, to which they are entitled not only, but which it is imperatively necessary should be extended to them if the present tasks of the country are to be adequately performed. both by direct purchase of nitrates and by the establishment of plants to produce nitrates, the government is doing its utmost to assist in the problem of fertilization. the department of agriculture and other agencies are actively assisting the farmers to locate, safeguard, and secure at cost an adequate supply of sound seed. the farmers of this country are as efficient as any other farmers in the world. they do not produce more per acre than the farmers in europe. it is not necessary that they should do so. it would perhaps be bad economy for them to attempt it. but they do produce by two to three or four times more per man, per unit of labor and capital, than the farmers of any european country. they are more alert and use more labor-saving devices than any other farmers, in the world. and their response to the demands of the present emergency has been in every way remarkable. last spring their planting exceeded by , , acres the largest planting of any previous year, and the yields from the crops were record-breaking yields. in the fall of a wheat acreage of , , was planted, which was , , larger than for any preceding year, , , greater than the next largest, and , , greater than the preceding five-year average. but i ought to say to you that it is not only necessary that these achievements should be repeated, but that they should be exceeded. i know what this advice involves. it involves not only labor but sacrifice, the painstaking application of every hit of scientific knowledge and every tested practice that is available. it means the utmost economy, even to the point where the pinch comes. it means the kind of concentration and self-sacrifice which is involved in the field of battle itself, where the object always looms greater than the individual. and yet the government will help and help in every way that it is possible. it was farmers from whom came the first shots at lexington, that set aflame the revolution that made america free. i hope and believe that the farmers of america will willingly and conspicuously stand by to win this war also. the toil, the intelligence, the energy, the foresight, the self-sacrifice and devotion of the farmers of america will, i believe, bring to a triumphant conclusion this great last war for the emancipation of men from the control of arbitrary government and the selfishness of class legislation and control, and then, when the end has come, we may look each other in the face and be glad that we are americans and have had the privilege to play such a part. the business of agriculture. [extracts from addresses.] the next great factor to enlist for the betterment of agriculture and rural life in this nation is the business man of the town and the city. he has not always been alive to his obligations. he has contented himself, in too many instances, with plans to secure profit in agricultural trade, instead of sympathetically and eagerly planning constructive assistance. this duty, pressing in peace time, is of the most urgent and impelling character in this crisis; and i appeal to the bankers and business men to see that they omit no effort to familiarize themselves with the agencies serving to aid the farmers and to promote wise plans to secure the necessary results. d. f. houston, secretary of agriculture. in the interest of our national development at all times and in the interest of war efficiency just now our agriculture must be well maintained. it should be remembered that the agricultural unit is a small unit. there are , , farms in this country, each an individual unit. it is to the interest of persons who do not live on farms, even more than to the interest of those who do live on farms, that production shall be kept up. this means that all people, not farmers alone, but those who live in cities as well as the farmers, are interested in experimental and educational activities along agricultural lines as conducted by the federal government and the states. these efforts should be liberally supported. r. a. pearson, assistant secretary of agriculture. in a time like this no man has a moral right, whatever his fortune may be, to employ another man to render any service, of mere comfort or convenience. when the finest young men of the united states are in france digging ditches, sawing lumber, laying rails, and playing with death, and when the finest young women of the united states are scrubbing floors in hospitals, it is a sin that almost approaches the unpardonable offense against civilization for any man or women in the united states to engage in a wasteful or unnecessary service. clarence ousley, assistant secretary of agriculture. beekeeping in wartimes. it is imperative that the sugar crop of the united states be increased, and every supply of supplemental sweet should be augmented to the greatest possible extent. honey is one of the best of these and its production may be increased without great effort. the supply of nectar from which the bees make honey is bountiful and the only limitation to honey production is whether the price obtainable for the honey justifies the labor of the beekeeper. there is no question of this in wartimes. the recent demand for honey for export has been greater than ever before and the home demand has also greatly increased. because of the shortage of sugar, all forms of supplemental sweets are being utilized and none of these appeals to the tastes of the consuming public more strongly than does honey. this increased demand has raised the price of honey and it is therefore a paying business to produce it to meet this need, in addition to the fact that the beekeeper may feel that he is materially assisting in the food crisis of the nation. it is to be expected that even after the war is over this demand for honey will not cease, for many people are eating honey now who were not familiar with its delicious qualities, and they will not forget how good it is. in the production of honey, it is of the first importance that the colonies of bees be kept strong, especially that they be strong before the beginning of the main honey-flows of the early summer. to bring about this essential condition, the most important step is the proper wintering of the bees, and this bulletin has been prepared that beekeepers throughout the country may be able to get their bees through the winter without the great loss of colonies and reduction in strength of those which still live which have been so common in the past. the proper preparation of the bees for winter now becomes not only a patriotic duty, but it is good business. keep more bees. keep bees better * * * * * transcriber notes illustrations moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. by the internet archive. wintering bees in cellars e. f. phillips, apiculturist and george s. demuth, apicultural assistant bureau of entomology [illustration] farmers' bulletin united states department of agriculture contribution from the bureau of entomology l. o. howard. chief washington, d. c. september, show this bulletin to a neighbor. additional copies may be obtained free from the division of publications, united states department of agriculture washington government printing office : results from wintering bees in a cellar are excellent when conditions in the cellar are such as to keep the bees from wearing themselves out by excessive activity. cellar wintering is practicable where the average outdoor temperature during the winter months is as low as ° f. a map is given (p. ) so that the beekeeper may know whether this method is advisable in his locality. the cellar should be arranged so that the ceiling is below the frost line, and so that the ceiling and side walls are thoroughly protected at all points. the cellar should be kept so that the lowest temperature within the hives is at least ° f. at this temperature there will be little need of special ventilating arrangements. there should be no condensation of moisture within the hives, and the cellar should be well drained. bees should be put into the cellar after a good flight in late november, or earlier in the more northern localities. they should be removed when fresh pollen and nectar are available, usually about the last of march. soon after the hives are placed on their summer stands, each colony should be given additional stores and room for the development of a large quantity of brood. it is important that none of the factors of good wintering be omitted. several tests are given in this bulletin so that the beekeeper may determine whether his cellar is a satisfactory place for wintering bees. wintering bees in cellars. contents. page. cellar wintering versus outdoor wintering where is cellar wintering advisable essentials to success necessity of strong colonies in the fall winter stores arrangement of the apiary the bee cellar putting the bees into the cellar maintenance of the cellar during the winter removal of the bees from the cellar providing breeding room and stores in the spring measures of success in cellar wintering cellar wintering versus outdoor wintering. bees in the more northern parts of the united states for many years have been placed by some of the best beekeepers in cellars or special repositories during the coldest parts of the winter. there has been a growing feeling, however, that if outdoor wintering is practicable, in most cases it gives better results, and there has been a decided change from cellar wintering to outdoor wintering within the past decade. the difficulty seems to be that the methods of cellar wintering practiced have not been satisfactory and it seems probable that if as much attention had been given, to the perfection of the methods of cellar wintering as has been given to an improvement of the methods of outdoor wintering, there would not have been as great a change to the outdoor methods as has taken place. [illustration: fig. .--map of the united states showing regions where cellar wintering is practicable, based on the average temperature of january. from data furnished by the united states weather bureau.] the placing of bees in a cellar is only another way of putting insulation about the hives, the only difference being that in the cellar all of the hives are protected alike and the protection is placed about the apiary instead of around hives in groups or singly. it follows that the principles which apply to successful outdoor wintering apply equally to the protection of the bees in the cellar. it is urged, therefore, that before attempting to winter bees in the cellar, the beekeeper study the bulletins[ ] of the department in which these principles are set forth. [ ] department bulletin , the temperature of the honeybee cluster in winter. farmers' bulletin , outdoor wintering of bees. where is cellar wintering advisable? before deciding whether or not the bees are to be wintered in a cellar, several factors should be considered, the chief of these being ( ) the winter climate, ( ) the kind of winter stores, and ( ) the location of the apiary as regards wind protection. winter climate. in any locality where the average temperature of the winter months falls below ° f. (zone ) cellar wintering may be practiced with profit, and in localities where the average temperature of these months falls as low as ° f. (zone ) cellar wintering is much to be preferred. figure shows the boundaries of these zones for the united states for the month of january, which may be taken as typical of the winter months. it will be noted that these zones do not follow parallels of latitude. as was pointed out in the bulletin of the department on outdoor wintering,[ ] it is quite possible to protect bees in zone sufficiently to winter them outdoors, but if a proper cellar is provided, if conditions within the cellar are correct, and if the stores are good and the colonies are strong, just as good results may be obtained from cellar wintering. [ ] farmers' bulletin , preparation of bees for outdoor wintering. in zone the average temperature of the outside air during the mouth of january is ° f., or lower in the more northern parts of the zone. this means that in colonies wintered outdoors the bees are compelled to overcome this degree of cold at all times during the coldest part of the winter. if they are so well packed that the heat which they generate is lost slowly, they are able to generate sufficient heat to make the interior of the hive warm enough to allow them to break their cluster as is necessary. in zone , however, the bees will be compelled to generate heat sufficient to overcome the more severe cold of that zone, and this calls for the expenditure by the bees of so much more food and vitality that it is more economical to put them in a good cellar during the months of the most severe cold, and cellar wintering is therefore preferable. character of winter stores. in localities where the stores for the bees gathered during the latter part of the summer are not of the first quality, it is safer to winter the bees outdoors. this is a large factor in the placing of the zones shown in figure , for it is quite common in the region south of zone for the full honey to be of inferior quality. it is extremely fortunate that in both of the zones shown the stores available in winter are usually of the finest quality. as will be shown later, it is highly important that the beekeeper pay special attention to the character of the stores in the hive at the beginning of the winter, and if they are not as good as they should be, this deficiency should be corrected. location as regards wind protection. in zone , if the apiary is so badly located that the winter winds are severe, the beekeeper will do well to winter in a cellar, although, as will be shown later, it is not best to choose such a site for the apiary even during the rest of the year. essentials to success. as in the case of outdoor wintering, the essentials to success in caring for a normal colony of bees from the end of one season's honey-flow to the beginning of the next lie in providing three things in abundance: ( ) stores of good quality, ( ) protection from wind and cold, and ( ) room for the rearing of brood at appropriate times. these factors must not be lacking at the right times, and if any one is omitted it may prevent the bees from gathering the crop of the following season. these three factors do not apply equally throughout the period of relative inactivity, but as certainly as any one of them is decreased, just so certainly will the crop of the following year be reduced. in practicing cellar wintering it is unnecessary to leave so much honey with the bees during the time that they are in the cellar, and it is not necessary during that period to leave room for the rearing of brood. during the coldest part of the winter the bees need especially protection from cold and wind, although enough good stores must be in the hive to keep them through that period in good condition. probably a large part of the failure of beekeepers in practicing cellar wintering comes from the fact that before and after the bees are in the cellar the important factors of stores and breeding room have not been adequately supplied. before the bees are put into the cellar they must have room for breeding and stores in abundance, and after they are taken out these two factors must be present in greatly increased abundance. necessity of strong colonies in the fall. as in the case of wintering outdoors, it is wasteful to attempt to winter weak colonies. it is difficult to set standards of colony strength at this season, but it is unwise to attempt to winter colonies that are not strong enough to have brood sufficient to fill three or four langstroth frames two months before the first killing frost. if the colonies in the apiary are not of the proper strength, it is wise to unite until the proper strength is reached. any uniting should be done before the close of brood-rearing. it is of the greatest importance that every colony have a good queen in order that brood-rearing may continue in the fall and may then again proceed rapidly in the spring. usually it is best to requeen at least every two years, but if good wintering is practiced the colonies will come out of winter quarters so strong and will build up so rapidly in the spring that the queens will soon wear out, making it safer to requeen every year. to get the best results from requeening, all young queens should be introduced so that they begin to lay about two months before the first killing frost. winter stores. the stores given to the bees from the end of one season to the beginning of the next are of the first importance. it is necessary to consider both the quality and the quantity of these stores. quality of stores. as has been stated, it is fortunate that in both of the zones where cellar wintering is or might be practiced the natural stores usually are good. honeys such as those from white and alsike clovers, sweet clover, alfalfa, wild raspberry, buckwheat, and willowherb are fine stores for winter, while honeys from basswood, heartsease (smart-weed), asters, goldenrod, and most of the other fall flowers are less desirable. it is especially important during the period when the bees are in the cellar that the stores shall be of the very finest quality, and it is therefore the practice of many good beekeepers to feed each colony pounds or more of sirup made of granulated sugar into in the fall, after all brood-rearing has ceased. this insures that the bees will have for their use, during the period of confinement in the cellar, stores which will not bring about the condition known as dysentery. in general it may be stated that honeys from mixed sources and dark honeys, except buckwheat, are to be avoided. honeydew honeys are highly injurious and in all cases where such stores are present granulated sugar sirup should be fed. quantity of stores. from the end of one honey season to the beginning of the next a good colony of bees will need fully pounds of honey. when the bees are wintered in the cellar, it is usual not to have all of this honey in the one hive body in which they are wintered. it is a good practice to have at least pounds within this hive, although pounds will be safe. it is absolutely imperative, however, that the remainder of the pounds shall be available to be given to the bees soon after, they are taken from the cellar. the most common cause of poor colonies in the spring is poverty, directly due to neglect on the part of the beekeeper. a good beekeeper sees to it that at no time when brood is being reared do his bees have less than pounds of stores in the hive, and the full amount of pounds often will all be used, and is always needed if the colonies are to come to full strength on time for the gathering of the full crop. this amount is always augmented by honey from spring flowers, for pounds of honey is not enough to bring a colony to full strength in time for the main honey-flow. arrangement of the apiary. where bees are wintered in cellars the particular arrangement of the hives in the apiary is not so important a problem as where they are wintered on their summer stands, yet there are certain important considerations in the arrangement of the entire apiary which should be kept in mind. wind protection. it is important that a place be chosen where the bees will be protected from cold winds in the spring after they are taken from the cellar and again in the fall before they are taken to the cellar. a grove of trees or an adjacent hill usually offers the best protection, or it is possible to make an artificial windbreak such as a high fence. a natural windbreak usually is better, for it is more extensive in most cases. too much reliance should not be placed in buildings, for often they merely divert the wind slightly and may make conditions worse. a fence made of close boards usually is unsatisfactory, for it causes whirls. distance of the apiary from the cellar. to carry colonies of bees a long distance from the apiary to the cellar is not an easy task, even though the hives be light at that time of the year. it is best, therefore, that the apiary be located not more than yards from the cellar, and even this distance is objectionable. if a special cellar is built for the bees, the apiary should be so located that the cellar may be built immediately adjacent. if the bees are to be wintered in the cellar under the beekeeper's residence, the apiary should be located as near as possible to the cellar door. the bee cellar. in order that the beekeeper may have reason to expect success in cellar wintering, it is imperative that he give careful consideration to the construction of the bee cellar. there has been a tendency among beekeepers greatly to overestimate the value of their own cellars, and especially to assume that the conditions which they are able to get in their cellars are exactly correct. cellar under the residence. some of the best bee cellars are those under the residences of beekeepers, and in general such a cellar is better than one built especially for cellar wintering. this is because the temperature of such a cellar usually is quite a little higher than that in a specially constructed repository. the best results in cellar wintering have been obtained in cellars under residences which are heated by furnaces, thus having a higher cellar temperature. in such a cellar provision must be made for partitioning off a space where the bees will be located so that there is no light or other disturbing factor during the time of their confinement. since a cellar temperature about ° f. is desirable, it is well to choose a part of the cellar through which some of the furnace pipes run, and if this results in too high a temperature these pipes may be insulated somewhat. it is best to choose a part of the cellar where there are no windows and where the outside walls are thoroughly protected to the top, either by a bank of soil or in some other fashion. this will result in a more equable temperature than is possible in a cellar exposed to sudden changes of temperature on the outside walls, for even a stone wall inches thick will allow a considerable amount of heat to escape. in a cellar under a residence there will be abundant ventilation without any special provision being made for this. a test of the value of such a cellar is the even temperature which may be obtained, as will be discussed later. special winter repository. if properly constructed and protected, a special cellar or cave for the bees gives the best possible results in wintering, yet few such cellars have been built, for the reason that most beekeepers have omitted some vitally important factors. the usual fault is in having too great a variation in temperature and in giving excessive ventilation, which in turn causes fluctuations in temperature. soil and contour of the surface of the ground. to provide good drainage and adequate ventilation for the bee cellar without making any special ventilators, it is desirable to build it in a sandy hillside. if it is possible to choose a place for the cellar where the snow drifts deeply, this will afford a valuable addition to the insulation of the cellar. if the cellar is on level ground, drifting of snow may be increased by the proper building of open fences, such as are used to prevent drifting over railway tracks. if it is impossible to utilize a sandy hillside, it will be necessary to build walls and a floor for the cellar and to make adequate provision for the drainage of the cellar. the hillside cellar has, the great advantage of having easy drainage. capacity of the cellar. if the bees are kept in apiaries of perhaps colonies and if a cellar is built for each apiary, then it is possible to build a cellar of just the right capacity. if a central cellar is built for all the apiaries and the bees in outapiaries are brought into the home apiary for winter, the beekeeper will wish to build the cellar sufficiently large for future expansion of his business, and beekeepers are finding out, that they can keep many more colonies of bees than they formerly thought possible. perhaps the better plan is to have a cellar in each apiary. [illustration: fig. .--interior of bee cellar with hives in piles of four. insulation above the ceiling is not shown.] the usual practice is to allow - / to square feet of floor surface for each colony, on the assumption that the colonies will be placed in piles of four (fig. ). it is not desirable to pile hives higher than this, if the cellar roof is - / feet high in the clear, and it is difficult to lift heavy hives any higher than the number specified. for an apiary of colonies, it will be found desirable to have a cellar feet wide and from to feet long, clear of the inner walls. if one is just getting a start in beekeeping he should build his cellar on the assumption that later he will increase the number of his colonies, and should allow for this, for it is better to have the cellar too large than too small. walls and floor. it has been claimed by many beekeepers that concrete walls and floor are not desirable, yet if the cellar is properly insulated there is no better material. if the cellar is built in a hillside of sandy soil, wooden sides will be satisfactory and no floor other than the soil need be provided. in such soil the drainage is good and the only function of the side walls is to hold the sides up to prevent caving in. in a moist soil a concrete floor and walls should be built, and the concrete should be waterproof. under no circumstances should any of the side walls below the ceiling be exposed above ground. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of bee cellar. clearance - / feet, ceiling - / feet below ground level, packed with about feet of sawdust.] roof. the ceiling of the cellar should be below ground level sufficiently to bring it below the level of frost. for the regions where bees should be wintered in cellars this usually will be at least - / feet below the level of the ground (fig. ). the ceiling should be - / feet above the floor, just sufficiently high to permit a tall man to work with comfort. if the ceiling is higher it will result usually in too low a temperature at the floor. the ceiling then should be covered completely on top with some insulating material, such as sawdust, and if sawdust is used it should be piled on about - / feet thick. unless about this amount of protection is given on the ceiling it will be impossible to get the right cellar temperature during the coldest part of the winter. if the cellar is built in a sandy soil, it is possible to use the soil as a cover for the ceiling, in which event about feet of soil should be placed over the inner roof of the cellar. the entire insulating material, of whatever kind used, should then be protected from rain and snow by having a roof over it. this roof should project at least feet, preferably more, beyond the outside of the cellar wall, and provision should be made for currying off the water from the roof. in case the beekeeper desires to build an apiary house over the bee, cellar, as is done frequently, he must provide a floor for this house at least at ground level, and he can not successfully use the ceiling of the cellar as the floor of the upper house. there is no objection to building a house above the cellar if adequate protection is given the cellar, but it must not be assumed that the house offers any material insulation to the cellar, for in most cases these houses are not heated in the winter. the relation of the house floor to the ceiling of the cellar is shown in figure . entrance to the cellar. frequently the entrance is a weak spot in the insulation of the cellar, and it is useless to protect the roof and sides unless care is used in the building of the entrance. if the entrance is at the end or one side of the cellar, it will be necessary to build a sort of vestibule with double doors so that the heat of the cellar will not be lost rapidly. the heavier and thicker these doors, the better for the bees. the best type of vestibule is a long, narrow passage lending into the hillside, and it should be closed by doors at both the inside and outside ends. if possible the vestibule should be built and protected so that the temperature within the vestibule will never fall below freezing. in the building of the vestibule, also, the beekeeper should consider the ease with which the bees may be carried in and out of the cellar. drainage. as has been mentioned previously, the cellar must be well drained, either by natural or by artificial means. no stagnant water should be allowed to remain in the cellar, although at the higher temperatures of the best cellars this does less harm than it does in cellars that are too cold. some beekeepers have advocated having a stream of water flowing through the cellar, and this will do no harm in warm cellars, and it may serve to assist somewhat in maintaining an even temperature. ventilation. one of the most serious faults of bee cellars is in providing for too much ventilation, resulting in great fluctuations in temperature. in a cellar which maintains a temperature of ° f. or more there is little need for ventilation, for the was then need little oxygen and only a small amount of carbon dioxide is given off. other things being equal, the colder the cellar, the greater the need of ventilation. if poor stores are in the hives, the bees will need more ventilation than will be desirable when good stores are used. in a warm cellar in a sandy hillside no ventilating shaft need be built. in any event, one shaft inches square running through the ceiling of the cellar to the outside will be sufficient for any cellar that is fit for the wintering of bees. during the coldest part of the winter the interchange of air between the inside of the cellar and the outside will be materially increased by the great difference in temperature and this one ventilator may be entirely or nearly closed. during the milder weather of the fall and spring this amount of ventilation will do no harm. the top of the ventilating shaft, which should extend at least feet above the outer roof, may be painted black in order to induce greater movement of air when the sun shines. the shaft should be so arranged that it does not admit light to the cellar. putting the bees into the cellar. before the bees are carried into the cellar it should be well aired and cleaned, and it will be well to keep it open for several days beforehand. no debris or refuse should be left in the cellar when the bees are taken in. time. for zone (fig. ) it is usually desirable to wait until about the middle of november before putting the bees into winter quarters. if one could know exactly when the bees would have the last opportunity for a cleansing flight, they would be put into the cellar just after that, but we can not always be sure that there will be suitable weather for such flight in late november, and there is, therefore, considerable doubt every year as to just the right time to put the bees away. frequently it happens that the weather is suitable for a flight about november , and it is best to wait until then before attempting to put the bees in the cellar. the flight of only a few bees from the hive should not be construed as a cleansing flight. in this connection it is highly desirable that the beekeeper keep a careful watch of the weather maps daily, so that he may know at all times about what weather may be expected for a few days in advance. for the beekeeper's purpose the daily forecasts published in newspapers are scarcely enough; and if no daily weather maps are convenient near by, it will repay the beekeeper well to subscribe for them. they are valuable not only at the time of putting the bees into the cellar but at many other times of the year. soon after a period when the barometric pressure has been low, bringing high temperatures suitable for flights (at least ° f.), there usually will be a period when the barometric pressure is high, bringing lower, temperatures. at the shifting from low to high barometric pressure there is frequently a time when it is cloudy. this is a fine time to put the bees into the cellar. these periods of high and low barometric pressure follow each other with rather marked regularity in the fall, and it is rather safe to assume that just at the end of the well-defined low pressure which next follows after november is the best time to put the bees into the cellar. it is better to put the bees in the cellar a week or so before the last opportunity for flight than to put them in after exposure to cold which is not followed by a cleansing flight. for zone it will be desirable to put the bees away a little earlier, although the oncoming of winter is not so much earlier in the north as one might imagine. how to carry the bees. when one person carries the bees into the cellar the best method is to stand at the back of the hive and grasp the bottom of the hive with both hands. the hive is then lifted and the cover brought up against the chest firmly, permitting the operator to walk without interference and with a minimum of stooping. if there are cleats on the ends of the hive bodies, those may be rested on the forearms, although with this method there is some danger that the bottoms will drop off unless they are stapled. if the temperature is sufficiently low (slightly above freezing), there will be no need of closing the entrances when the bees are being carried in. every care should be taken not to jar the hives more than is absolutely necessary from the time that they are lifted until they are in their final place in the cellar. if more than one person is engaged in carrying in the hives, the hives may be placed carefully on carriers with handles, and two or more of them may be carried at one time. how to stack the hives. the bottom hive in a pile should rest on an empty hive body or some other such support of about that size (figs. and ). the hives then should be placed one on top of the other until they are four high. it is best by far to put each pile of four hives about inches from adjacent piles, so that in handling the hives on one pile there is no disturbance of bees in other piles. allowance is made for this space between the piles of hives in the estimate of the floor space needed for each colony (p. ). maintenance of the cellar during the winter. if the cellar is properly constructed it will need little if any care during the time that the bees are inside. it is only the poor bee cellar which requires constant attention to prevent changes in temperature. temperature of the cellar. there has been much discussion as to the best temperature of the cellar during the winter. commonly it is stated that a temperature of ° to ° f. is best, but this is colder than usually is best for the finest results. a temperature below ° f. is invariably bad for the bees, and a cellar in which the temperature goes as low as freezing is not a fit place for bees. it has been found by the authors that bees do the least amount of work when the temperature of the air immediately surrounding them (inside the hive) stands at ° f. this is, therefore, the temperature which the beekeeper should bear in mind, rather than to lay too much stress on the temperature of the cellar itself. the place for a thermometer in the bee cellar is inside the entrance of a good colony where it may be read easily by simply pulling it out. a chemical thermometer is best for this purpose, and it should register ° f. or more inside the hive entrance. in order to have the right temperature within the hive it usually will be best to have the temperature of the cellar at about ° f. or slightly higher. as will be shown later, however, it is quite possible to have the right temperature within the hive when the temperature of the cellar is a few degrees lower than that stated. if the beekeeper will pay attention to the temperature of the interior of the hive he will find that in colder cellars it is desirable to give the hives some insulation to conserve the heat generated by the bees in much the same way that this heat is conserved when bees are packed outdoors, although the amount of protection will be much less. in a cellar where the temperature falls to ° f. it will be found best to have the covers of the hives sealed on tightly and the entrances reduced to / inch by inches. in a cellar with a temperature of ° f. or more the entrances may be left open the full width of the hive. if there is a tendency for the temperature to fall to ° f. or less, the tops of the hives may be protected by cushions of chaff or other materials placed at least on the top of the uppermost hives, for each of the lower three hives is protected somewhat by the one above it. it will be impossible to maintain the temperatures recommended unless the cellar is built in the way described, or in some other way by which the cellar is equally well insulated. it is impossible to maintain an equable and high temperature in a cellar the walls and ceiling of which are exposed to the outside air. ventilation of the cellar. if the proper temperature is maintained in the cellar there will be little need of ventilation, for in almost all cases there will be sufficient interchange of air to keep the bees in good condition. if the temperature is as low as ° f., a little ventilation will be needed, although most of the bee cellars that have been built have had too much ventilation, and as a result it has been impossible to maintain a correct temperature within them. in cold weather the tendency toward an interchange of air is greatest, and at such times the ventilators may be entirely closed. in mild weather it makes no difference if large ventilators are open, unless this results in too great a rise in temperature. in a well-insulated cellar it should not be necessary to ventilate at night at the approach of spring to cool the air inside, for the bees will not get so warm from their own activity as will bees in a cellar that is or has been too cold. the greatest problem in most cellars is to maintain the right temperature during the spring just before the bees are to be removed. the trouble is that in most cellars--those which are too cold in winter--the bees generate heat constantly during the winter and as a result have an accumulation of feces in the intestines, resulting in a condition known as dysentery. for this reason they become excited easily, and beekeepers have thought it necessary to ventilate the cellar at night freely in order to remedy this trouble. the proper method, of course, is to prevent it by keeping the temperature higher during the winter, but if the temperature has fallen too low during the winter ventilation at night seems to help somewhat. it is safe, however, to say that a cellar in which this happens is not satisfactory as a place to keep bees during the winter, and steps should be taken to insulate it more completely before bees are put into it again. if the bees are wintering on stores that are not of the best quality the tendency to accumulate feces will be far greater, even with the right temperatures inside the hives, and if there is dysentery it may be relieved somewhat by ventilation, although this is simply reducing a symptom and is not removing the cause of the trouble. ventilation of the hive. since bees in a good cellar require little ventilation, practically no attention need be paid to this subject if the cellar has been built in the way advised. if the temperature of the cellar tends to fall too low, it is advisable to reduce the entrances of the hives, for with a greater difference between the temperatures within and outside the hive the tendency for interchange of air will be correspondingly greater. in any cellar fit for the wintering of bees it will be neither necessary nor desirable to ventilate the hives at the top, as sometimes has been recommended. the ventilation of the hive within the cellar is not so much for the elimination of foul air as for the escape of moisture, and therefore the amount of ventilation needed for the hive depends upon the humidity of the air within the cellar. if the temperature of the cellar is kept high enough there will be no condensation of moisture within the hive, and if water is ever observed on the covers of the hives it is conclusive proof that the cellar is too cold for the bees. in a cellar so cold that condensed moisture shows on the bottoms of the hives stops should be taken at once to raise the temperature. various attempts have been made in the past to provide for the cellar fresh air which has been warmed somewhat before entry. the most common method is to have the air pass through tiles under ground for perhaps feet before it enters the cellar. in general, it may be said that none of these devices has been worth the trouble and expense involved and none of them has served the purpose for which it was intended. it has been proposed also to ventilate the bee cellar by wind pressure. the devices which have been made for such ventilation will function only when there is considerable wind and then only when the wind is in the right quarter; therefore they are not at all to be recommended. by far the best plan is simply to build the bee cellar correctly, for, then little ventilation will be needed. cleaning the cellar. in even the best of cellars there will be some dead bees on the floor, and those may be cleaned up once or twice during the winter. in a cellar with proper temperature there will be few dead bees until after the middle of the winter, but the death rate increases toward the close of the winter. if the cellar is cleaned, it should be done with as little disturbance as possible. no bright light should be admitted at this time, although a moderate amount seems to do little harm until after the bees have an accumulation of feces in the intestines. removing the bees for flight during the winter. some beekeepers have advocated removing the colonies toward the end of the winter for a flight on some warm day and then replacing them, on the supposition that the flight would enable the bees to stand a longer period of confinement. it is found, however, that if bees are disturbed, as by carrying them out, they begin brood-rearing almost invariably, and this does more harm than the flight does good. disturbance during the winter. work in or about the bee cellar while the bees are confined should be done with the least possible disturbance of the bees, for often a little handling or jarring of the hive causes sufficient excitement to increase the temperature of the cluster to the point where brood-rearing begins. this is true especially in late winter. it is by far the wisest plan, therefore, to stay out of the cellar during the winter, except on the few occasions when a little work, such as cleaning out, makes a visit seem needed. care should be taken not to jar the hives or to allow light to strike the entrance. of course, if bees are being wintered in a cellar which has the right temperature, a little disturbance does little or no harm, but there is no reason why bees should be disturbed in winter and the beekeeper should not run any risk of starting brood-rearing. removal of the bees from the cellar. time. the old rule of many beekeepers is to take the bees from the cellar when the soft maples are in bloom. this is an excellent rule in localities where there are trees of this species. in general, in zone the right time to take the bees out of the cellar is about the time of the spring equinox (march ). in choosing a time for the removal of the bees, the beekeeper again should watch the weather maps closely. he should choose a time when a high-pressure area is just passing and at the approach of a well-defined low-pressure area. at such a time the weather will be cool, not permitting the bees to fly, but at the time of the low-pressure area the weather will become warmer, allowing the good flights, which are then badly needed. if the bees are taken out at a time when they can fly at once--and some beekeepers prefer this--they should be taken out in the early morning, so that they can have a good flight before night. bees should not be taken from the cellar at a time when they can fly only a little, but they should either be taken out when they can not fly at all or at a time when they can fly freely almost at once. bees in good condition rarely fly freely unless the outside temperature is as high as ° f. prevention of drifting. when the bees are taken from the cellar and placed on their summer positions they sometimes tend to leave the weaker, colonies and on their return to collect in those with greater populations. this is known as "drifting." in general, the bees tend to drift toward the windward side of the apiary. most frequently they join the hives that were first set out and which have established a strong flight by the time the neighboring colonies have first taken wing. the tendencies, therefore, are to join flying colonies, stronger colonies, and the end colonies in a row. the condition of the bees plays a large part in drifting, for if the bees are badly in need of a flight because of dysentery they go at once into the air without properly marking the location of their hive, and therefore are not able to find it when they return. to prevent drifting, it is best to set the bees out when it is too cold for them to fly, so that as the weather warms, permitting flight, this will take place more naturally. it is also well to reduce the entrances so that as the bees leave the hive their tendency to orient themselves will be greater. it is claimed by some beekeepers that if the cellar is well aired the night before the bees are to be removed, they will be in better condition and will drift less, but it is not clear what difference this can make unless the clusters are made tighter because of lower temperatures. beekeepers have discussed the question whether, after removal, the bees should be placed on the same stands occupied by them the fall before. if the bees could remember their old location so that they would return to it, even after an interval of four months, it would be necessary, or at least desirable, to place each colony on the same stand which it occupied previously. there is no evidence, however, that the memory of the bees is so good, and it is usually the ease that the bees of a colony will lose the memory of location within a week; therefore no attention need be paid to this feature. protection of the hives in the spring. the greatest objection to wintering bees in cellars is that after they are removed they are exposed to low temperatures. the ideal practice would be to pack the bees after taking them out in much the same way that bees are packed for outdoor wintering, but the work involved makes this impracticable. there can be no doubt that protection at this time would be beneficial. as has been pointed out, the apiary site should be one in which the hives are well protected from wind, and it is advantageous if the apiary grounds slope toward the south in order that the bees may have the fullest advantage of heat from the sun. if the bees have been wintered in the cellar in double-walled hives they will have the advantage of some protection when they are taken from the cellar. the beekeeper may feel safe in giving the bees all the protection possible at the time that they are taken from the cellar, knowing that it is impossible at this time or any other to insulate the hive too well. in deciding whether the hives should be packed in the spring the beekeeper should be governed largely by the condition of the bees. if they have wintered well they will be able to stand greater extremes of temperature in the spring without loss, but if they have been wintered in a cold cellar they will be greatly injured by cold weather after they have been set out. of course, the need of protection is determined chiefly by the kind of weather prevailing during the first few weeks after the bees have been taken from the cellar. in some seasons the weather is so fine that the bees would be little benefited by packing or other protection, but the beekeeper can not influence the weather, and the only safe plan is so to place the bees that if the weather does turn cold they will still be safe. here, as everywhere else in beekeeping, it pays to be on the safe side, so far as protecting the bees is concerned. providing breeding room and stores in the spring. after the main honey-flow is past it is usually desirable that each colony be kept in two hive bodies of full depth. most producers of extracted honey do this, but too many producers of comb-honey are not adequately supplied with hive bodies and do not give the second body. these two hive bodies should be left with the bees at least until brood-rearing ceases, and at this time one of them should be removed if the bees are to be wintered in the cellar. as has been pointed out in other bulletins of the department, if the bees are wintered outdoors they will do better in the two hive bodies throughout the winter. in the upper hive body will be found a considerable amount of the honey to be used by the bees up to the time of the next honey-flow. usually there will be enough in the lower hive body for the bees while they are in the cellar, especially where comb-honey is produced, but if the lower hive body is not adequately supplied with winter stores (perhaps to pounds) the beekeeper should move some of the stores. it is also a good practice to winter the bees in the cellar in a hive containing the full stores, except that this makes it necessary to carry in hives weighing perhaps pounds. after the second hive bodies have been removed, if they contain honey they should be stored in a warm, dry place, where the honey will not be injured. if it is possible to place such hive bodies in the furnace room of the residence, this will be found to be ideal. if no such place is available, the beekeeper may keep these in a dry cellar or other location where the honey will not be exposed to rapid changes in temperature. for this purpose a place suitable for the storage of comb-honey is desirable. it should be pointed out that the honey in these combs should not be extracted. it will be needed for the building up of the colonies the next spring, and to remove it is simply to reduce the crop of the next season. some time within two weeks after the bees have been taken from the cellar, depending on the weather, each colony should be provided with its second hive body. preferably, this should be placed underneath the hive body in which the bees were wintered in order that the propolis at the top of the hive may not be broken. at this time an examination of the colonies may be made from below to see whether any of them are queenless or require immediate attention for other reasons, but at this season there is little that the beekeeper can do that will help the bees other than to provide them with room for the brood and with adequate supplies of stores. queens should not be clipped at this time, and usually not until settled weather has arrived. further spring manipulation is not necessary and the bees are better off if the beekeeper lets them alone. if the bees have been requeened at the proper time and if the total amount of stores is given as indicated, it will not be worth while to go through the bees to look for queenless colonies. the beekeeper should see to it that at least pounds of honey are provided for each colony from the time of the last honey-flow in the fall to the beginning of the first main honey-flow of the following season. if this is not given in full, the beekeeper may be sure that the crop of the following year will be reduced. this amount of honey left for the use of the bees is a better investment for the beekeeper than money in the bank. it should be pointed out that the giving of a second hive body in the spring is not simply a means of supplying additional stores, but more than one hive body will be needed for the development of the brood. a single -frame langstroth hive is not large enough for the development of a good colony of bees, which, before the beginning of the main honey flow, should have brood to fill at least frames. as was stated earlier in this bulletin, a colony of bees from one season to the next needs three things in abundance--room for the development of the brood, stores of good quality, and protection from wind and cold. in cellar wintering the protection is given by putting the bees in the cellar; the room and stores must be supplied later or the population of the colony will be reduced at the critical time of the honey-flow. if the early sources of honey are abundant, the amount of honey advised will not be consumed. the wise beekeeper, however, does not gamble on the early honey-flows, but invests this honey as life insurance for his bees. measures of success in cellar wintering. it is often difficult for the beekeeper to know whether his bee cellar is giving the best results, for he may not have been able to determine from reading or the observation of other cellars whether it is satisfactory. the writers, therefore, have attempted below to give a few measures which the beekeeper may apply to his apiary and his cellar, so that he may be able to decide whether his methods of cellar wintering should be improved. ( ) during the winter a thermometer inserted in the entrance of the hive should show a temperature of at least ° f. ( ) there should never be any condensed moisture on the covers of the hives, and certainly never any on the bottoms. ( ) while, the cellar should be kept dark at all times, if a candle is held at the entrance of a hive at the end of january it should be several seconds before any of the bees break cluster. frequently the cellar doors may be opened in march without disturbing the bees. ( ) there should never be many dead bees on the bottom of the hives. the live bees should be able to push them out as they die during the winter. the bees thus carried out will be found on the cellar floor just below the entrances. if there are bees all over the floor, it shows that these bees have flown from the hives--an indication of poor wintering. ( ) the bees should be quiet during the late winter. noise at this time indicates that the bees are disturbed by an accumulation of feces, caused by low temperatures or poor food. ( ) if the bees were in good condition in the fall and have been wintered well, the loss during the winter will never be more than one-sixth of the total population of the hive. such a loss is excessive, however, and in a well-wintered colony it may be as low as a hundred bees. this probably depends to a large extent on the age of the bees which go into winter, and if the temperature is right and the stores good there will be almost no loss of vigorous bees. ( ) the bees should not leave the hive while they are being carried from the cellar. if they do, it indicates that they are excited by an accumulation of feces. ( ) before removal from the cellar there should be no spotting of the hives from dysentery. there may be a little spotting after the bees have had a free flight outside, but if this is small in amount it does not indicate a serious condition. ( ) when the bees are taken from the cellar there should be no moldy combs, for the cellar at the right temperature will be too dry for the growth of molds. ( ) there should be no brood when the colonies are taken from the cellar. brood-rearing in the cellar is proof that the cellar is too cold or that the food used by the bees is inferior. ( ) enough brood should be in each colony at the opening of the main honey-flow to fill completely langstroth frames. ( ) the population of the hive should not decrease appreciably after the bees are removed from the cellar. such a condition, known as spring dwindling, is an indication of poor wintering. for three weeks after the hives are set out no new bees will be emerging, but the loss of bees during this time should be so small as not to be noticeable. the president to the farmers of america. [extracts from president wilson's message to the farmers' conference at urbana, ill., january , .] the forces that fight for freedom, the freedom of men all over the world as well as our own, depend upon us in an extraordinary and unexpected degree for sustenance, for the supply of the materials by which men are to live and to fight, and it will be our glory when the war is over that we have supplied those materials and supplied them abundantly, and it will be all the more glory because in supplying them we have made our supreme effort and sacrifice. in the field of agriculture we have agencies and instrumentalities, fortunately, such as no other government in the world can show. the department of agriculture is undoubtedly the greatest practical and scientific agricultural organization in the world. its total annual budget of $ , , has been increased during the last four years more than per cent. it has a staff of , , including a large number, of highly trained experts, and alongside of it stands the unique land grant colleges, which are without example elsewhere, and the state and federal experiment stations. these colleges and experiment stations have a total endowment of plant and equipment of $ , , and an income of more than $ , , with , teachers, a resident student body of , , and a vast additional number receiving instructions at their homes. county agents, joint officers of the department of agriculture and of the colleges, are everywhere cooperating with the farmers and assisting them. the number of extension workers under the smith-lever act and under the recent emergency legislation has grown to , men and women working regularly in the various communities and taking to the farmer the latest scientific and practical information. alongside these great public agencies stand the very effective voluntary organizations among the farmers themselves which are more and more learning the best methods of cooperation and the best methods of putting to practical use the assistance derived from governmental sources. the banking legislation of the last two or three years has given the farmers access to the great lendable capital of the country, and it has become the duty both of the men in charge of the federal reserve banking system and of the farm loan banking system to see to it that the farmers obtain the credit, both short term and long term, to which they are entitled not only, but which it is imperatively necessary should be extended to them if the present tasks of the country are to be adequately performed. both by direct purchase of nitrates and by the establishment of plants to produce nitrates, the government is doing its utmost to assist in the problem of fertilization. the department of agriculture and other agencies are actively assisting the farmers to locate, safeguard, and secure at cost an adequate supply of sound seed. the farmers of this country are as efficient as any other farmers in the world. they do not produce more per acre than the farmers in europe. it is not necessary that they should do so. it would perhaps be bad economy for them to attempt it. but they do produce by two to three or four times more per man, per unit of labor and capital, than the farmers of any european country. they are more alert and use more labor-saving devices than any other farmers in the world. and their response to the demands of the present emergency has been in every way remarkable. last spring their planting exceeded by , , acres the largest planting of any previous year, and the yields from the crops were record-breaking yields. in the fall of a wheat acreage of , , was planted, which was , , larger than for any preceding year, , , greater than the next largest, and , , greater than the preceding five-year average. but i ought to say to you that it is not only necessary that these achievements should be repeated, but that they should be exceeded. i know what this advice involves. it involves not only labor but sacrifice, the painstaking application of every bit of scientific knowledge and every tested practice that is available. it means the utmost economy, even to the point where the pinch comes. it means the kind of concentration and self-sacrifice which is involved in the field of battle itself, where the object always looms greater than the individual. and yet the government will help and help in every way that it is possible. it was farmers from whom came the first shots at lexington, that set aflame the revolution that made america free. i hope and believe that the farmers of america will willingly and conspicuously stand by to win this war also. the toil, the intelligence, the energy, the foresight, the self-sacrifice, and devotion of the farmers of america will, i believe, bring to a triumphant conclusion this great last war for the emancipation of men from the control of arbitrary government and the selfishness of class legislation and control, and then, when the end has come, we may look each other in the face and be glad that we are americans and have had the privilege to play such a part. the business of agriculture. [extracts from addresses.] the next great factor to enlist for the betterment of agriculture and rural life in this nation is the business man of the town and the city. he has not always been alive to his obligations. he has contented himself, in too many instances, with plans to secure profit in agricultural trade, instead of sympathetically and eagerly planning constructive assistance. this duty, pressing in peace time, is of the most urgent and impelling character in this crisis; and i appeal to the bankers and business men to see that they omit no effort to familiarize themselves with the agencies serving to aid the farmers and to promote wise plans to secure the necessary results. d. f. houston, secretary of agriculture. in the interest of our national development at all times and in the interest of war efficiency just now our agriculture must be well maintained. it should be remembered that the agricultural unit is a small unit. there are , , farms in this country, each an individual unit. it is to the interest of persons who do not live on farms, even more than to the interest of those who do live on farms, that production shall be kept up. this means that all people, not farmers alone, but those who live in cities as well as the farmers, are interested in experimental and educational activities along agricultural lines as conducted by the federal government and the states. these efforts should be liberally supported. r. a. pearson, assistant secretary of agriculture. in a time like this no man has a moral right, whatever his fortune may he, to employ another man to render any service of mere comfort or convenience. when the finest young men of the united states are in france digging ditches, sawing lumber, laying rails, and playing with death, and when the finest young women of the united states are scrubbing floors in hospitals, it is a sin that almost approaches the unpardonable offense against civilization for any man or women in the united states to engage in a wasteful or unnecessary service. clarence ousley, assistant secretary of agriculture. * * * * * transcriber note none transcriber note text emphasis denoted by _italics_. whole and fractional parts of numbers as - / . [illustration: principio sedes apibus statioque petenda, ---- virgil.] humanity to honey-bees: or, _practical directions_ for the management of honey-bees upon an improved and humane plan, by which the lives of bees may be preserved, and abundance of honey of a superior quality may be obtained, by thomas nutt. ---- vos non vobis mellificatis apes: sic --------------------------------- virgil. second edition. wisbech: printed by h. and j. leach, for the author, of whom it may be had at moulton-chapel, or at , high holborn, london. sold also by longman and co. paternoster-row, london. _price ten shillings,_ . entered at stationers' hall. also may be had on application to my agent, mr. g. neighbour, , high holborn, near southampton street, london, honey taken on the principles here specified, with hives stocked with bees, or unstocked. all letters must be post paid to the author. dedication, by permission, to her most gracious majesty, queen adelaide may it please your majesty, to pen a dedication skilfully is generally the most difficult part of an author's task; but a dedication to royalty is so delicate a matter, that i almost tremble for the success of my undertaking--tremble lest i should fail to express myself dutifully, gratefully, properly; though i am not without hope that your majesty's goodness will graciously extend to the author that degree of indulgence of which he is sensible he stands so much in need, especially as nothing unbecoming a dutiful subject to write, or improper for a gracious sovereign to read, is intended to be here expressed. as, however, every colony of bees, wherever domiciled, whether in a box, or in a cottage-hive, in the roof of a house, or in the trunk of a hollow-tree, is under an admirable government, the presiding head and sovereign of which is a queen,--as no colony of bees, deprived of its queen, ever prospers, or long survives such loss,--as this insect government, or government of insects, exhibits to man the most perfect pattern of devoted attachment, and of true allegiance on the part of the subject bees to their sovereign, and of industry, ingenuity, prosperity, and apparently of general happiness in their well-ordered state,--and as these most curious and valuable little creatures have hitherto been most cruelly treated--have been, and still are, annually sacrificed by millions, for the sake of their sweet treasure; i do feel a pleasure, and think there is a sort of analogical propriety, in dedicating to your gracious majesty this work, the leading feature of which is--humanity to honey-bees. under your majesty's fostering and influential patronage, i cannot but anticipate that this object will be essentially promoted, and that the management of bees, in this country at least, will not hereafter reflect disgrace upon their owners. in this pleasing hope, i humbly beg to subscribe myself, your majesty's most dutiful and most grateful subject and servant, thomas nutt. moulton-chapel, lincolnshire, nov. th, . preface. could i disarm criticism as easily as i can deprive bees of their power to sting, this would be the proper place to do so; though i am doubtful whether it would be well-judged in me, or to my advantage, to stay the critics' pen. but, possessing no such talismanic power, i shall adventure my little book into the world, without any attempt to conciliate the critics' good-will, or to provoke their animosity, conscious that from _fair_ criticism i have nothing to fear. that i shall be attacked by those apiarians who are wedded to their own theories and systems, however faulty, is no more than i expect: of them, i trust, i have nowhere spoken disparagingly; towards none of them do i entertain unkindly feelings--far otherwise. their number, i am led to believe, is not formidable; and as gentlemen, and fellow-labourers in the same work of humanity, their more extensive learning will hardly be brought to bear against me with rancour and violence. should any one of them, or of any other class of writers, so far degrade himself, i shall have the advantage of the following preliminary observation, viz. that one set of my collateral-boxes, placed in a favourable situation, and _duly and properly attended to_, for one season only, will outweigh all the learning and arguments that can be adduced against my bee-practice,--will be proof positive, visible, tangible, that there is in my pretensions something more than empty boast. luckily for me, there are plenty of those proofs to be met with in the country, and there are some--several, not far from town; they are at blackheath, at kensington, at clapham, and at other places. as hundreds of the nobility and gentry of this country will recollect, there was one of these incontrovertible proofs of the truth of what i am stating, exhibited for several weeks at the national repository last autumn, where it was seen, examined, admired, and, i may without any exaggeration add, _universally approved_. practice, which has resulted from more than ten years' experience in the management of an apiary, and from innumerable experiments, carried on, and a hundred times repeated, during that period, is what i ground the utility of my discoveries upon. to theory i lay no claim. born and brought up in the fens of lincolnshire, where i have spent the greater part of my life amidst difficulties, misfortunes, and hardships, of which i will not here complain, though i am still smarting under the effects of some of them, my pretensions to learning are but small: for, though sent to the respectable grammar school at horncastle in my boyhood, my education was not extended beyond writing, arithmetic, and merchants' accompts. as soon as it was thought that i had acquired a competent knowledge of these useful branches of education, it was my lot to be bound apprentice to learn the trades and mysteries of grocer, draper, and tallow-chandler. whilst endeavouring to gain an honest livelihood as a grocer and draper, at moulton-chapel, in , i was afflicted with a severe illness, which, after long-protracted suffering, left me as helpless as a child, the natural use and strength of my limbs being gone; and, though supported by and tottering between my crutches, it was a long time before i was able to crawl into my garden. fatigued and exhausted with the exercise of journeying the length of a garden-walk of no great extent, it was my custom to rest my wearied limbs upon a bench placed near my bees. seated on that bench, i used to while away the lingering hours as best i could, ruminating now on this subject, now on that, just as my fancy chanced to fix. among other things my bees one day caught my attention: i watched their busy movements,--their activity pleased me,--their humming noise long-listened to became music to my ears, and i often fancied that i heard it afterwards when i was away from them. in short, i became fond of them and of their company, and visited them as often as the weather and my feebleness would permit. when kept from them a day or two, i felt uneasy, and less comfortable than when i could get to them. the swarming season arrived; and with it ideas took possession of my mind which had not until then possessed it:--i conceived that swarming was an act more of necessity than of choice,--that as such it was an evil; but how to provide a remedy for it--how to prevent it--was a problem that then puzzled me. i studied it for a long time, and to very little purpose. the old-fashioned method of eking did not by any means satisfy my mind; it might answer the purpose for one season, but how to proceed the next did not appear. then the time for taking honey was approaching: to get at that treasure without destroying my little friends that had collected it, and that had, moreover, so often soothed me in my sorrow and my sufferings, was another problem that long engaged my mind. after some years' unremitted attention to my bees, for i had formed a sort of attachment to them during the first stage of my convalescence, which never left me, an accident aided my studies by directing my attention to the effects of ventilation, as will be found related in the body of this work, and i began to make experiments, which being repeated, varied, improved, and then gone through again, have gradually led to the development of my improved mode of bee-management, attempted to be explained in the following pages. at the time i have been speaking of, i had not read one single book on bees; nor had i then one in my possession. whatever my practice may be, it has resulted from my own unaided experience and discoveries. to books i am not indebted for any part of it: nay, had i begun to attempt to improve the system of bee-management by books, i verily believe, i never should have improved it at all, nor have made one useful discovery. _the bees themselves have been my instructors._ after i had so far succeeded as to have from my apiary glasses and boxes of honey of a superior quality, to exhibit at the national repository, where, with grateful thanks to the managers of that institution for their kindness to me, i was encouraged to persevere, bee-books in profusion were presented to me, some of them by friends with names, some by friends whose names i have yet to learn. i have read them all: but nowhere find, in any of them, clear, practical directions, how honey of the very purest quality, and in more considerable quantity than by any of the plans heretofore proposed, may be taken from bees, without recourse to any suffocation whatever, or any other violent means;--how all the bees may be preserved uninjured;--and how swarming may be prevented. these are the grand features in my plan; and minute directions for the accomplishment of these most desirable objects are laid down in this book. i by no means maintain that my system of bee-management is incapable of improvement; but i do think that the principles upon which it is founded _are right_,--that the foundation is here properly laid,--and that every apiarian, who may hereafter conform to, or improve upon, my practice, will be instrumental in contributing a part towards raising the superstructure--namely--an asylum or sanctuary for honey-bees. i cannot close this preface without acknowledging myself to be under the greatest obligations to the rev. t. clark, of gedney-hill. but for his assistance the following work would not have made its appearance in its present form; if indeed it had appeared at all. he has revised, corrected, connected, and arranged the materials of which it is composed; and he has, moreover, gratuitously added much that is original and valuable from his own rich stores of knowledge. to him i am indebted for the selection of the latin mottos. as an apiarian he is one of my most improved and skilful pupils, and bids fair to become an ornament to the science of bee-management. as a mechanic he is ingenious enough to make his own bee-boxes, and has actually made some of the very best i have yet seen. to his knowledge of mechanics it is owing that the description and explanation of each of the different boxes, of all the other parts of my bee-machinery, and of my observatory-hive, in particular, are more detailed, clearer, and more intelligible than they would have been in my hands. as a scholar there are passages in the following work that afford no mean specimen of his abilities. i have only to regret that the reward for the pains he has taken with it must be my thanks--that it is not in my power to remunerate him for his kind labours more substantially than by this public acknowledgement of the obligations i am under, and of my sense of the debt of gratitude that is due to him. preface to the second edition. "out of print," though a somewhat laconic, might be a not inappropriate preface to this second edition, and of itself a quaint apology for its appearance. _out of print_ is certainly exhilarating news to the author anxious for the success of a work inculcating a new system of bee-management, in which not only is his reputation as an apiarian involved and evolved, but, it may be, the very means of his subsistence are _bound up_ in it; the oftener therefore he hears the bibliopolist expression--_out of print_--the more animating and welcome it becomes; because its reiteration can hardly fail to be considered by him an indication that the demand for his book continues.--that his system is progressing,--or, at any rate, that either curiosity respecting it, or some higher and more laudable motive, is still existent in the public mind. thus cheered on, thus, as it were, _encored_, it has become his duty to the public no less than to himself to proceed forthwith to the publication of a new edition. previously, however, to stating what alterations, emendations, &c. have been introduced in order to render the work, as far as i am yet able to render it, worthy a continuance of public patronage, i consider it to be my duty to record my grateful thanks for the success and encouragement i have already received. to the scientific and literary press, and to the several gentlemen of scientific attainments connected therewith, who, by their influence and kind professional assistance, and promptitude in the furtherance of my interest, have greatly contributed to my success, my best thanks are due, _and are hereby respectfully tendered:_ amongst these i have sincere pleasure in particularizing dr. birkbeck--the talented president of the london mechanics' institution,--dr. hancock--fellow of the medico-botanical society--a veteran of high and esteemed attainments,--and mr. booth--the popular lecturer on chemistry--a young man of first-rate abilities. to j. c. london--the erudite editor of the gardeners' magazine,--to e. j. robertson, esq.--the able and ingenious editor of the mechanics' magazine,--to richard newcomb--the editor and publisher of the stamford mercury,--and to the several editors of the metropolitan and provincial press, who have made favourable mention of my labours, my public thanks are justly due,--and particularly to the editor of the cambridge quarterly review, for a highly commendatory notice of my work, evidently written by a practical apiarian, and with competent knowledge of his subject, which appeared in no. of that review, published in march . also to my long-tried, worthy _friend_--george neighbour--it is gratifying to me to have this opportunity of offering my sincere thanks for his valuable services in my behalf;--and to the conductors of those excellent and useful institutions--the national gallery of practical science, adelaide street,--and the museum of national manufactures, leicester square, london, i gratefully acknowledge myself to be under no slight obligations for the advantageous opportunities which i have there possessed of extending the knowledge of my system, and of exhibiting, year after year, to thousands of visitors, the products of my apiary. with the view of making "the humane management of honey-bees" more interesting, the dialogue, which formed the introductory chapter in the first edition, has been withdrawn, and in its place have been substituted some valuable remarks of dr. birkbeck, dr. hancock, and mr. booth, respecting bees, honey, wax, &c. of course _the first chapter is new_; as is chapter x. giving an account of the apiary of the most noble the marquess of blandford, at delabere park, which can hardly fail of being interesting to every reader: it is principally from the able pen of mr. booth. chapter xviii. on apiarian societies, is new also. and, besides these three entire chapters, not short paragraphs merely, but whole pages of new matter have been introduced interspersedly by my most respected friend--the rev. t. clark, of gedney-hill, who has revised, corrected, and re-arranged the whole; and who has not only bestowed much time and pains upon the improvement of my work, but in the kindest and most disinterested manner has, in superintending this and the former edition through the press, actually travelled upwards of _eight hundred_ miles. the friendly performer of services so generous, so laborious, and so perseveringly attended to, without any stipulation for fee or reward, merits from me, and has from me, every expression of my gratitude, and, were it in my power, should have _one expression more_. table of contents. chapter page i. _introductory matters_ ii. _bee-boxes and management of bees in them_ iii. _ventilation_ iv. _thermometer_ v. _on driving bees_ vi. _inverted-hive_ vii. _observatory-hive_ ---- _mode of stocking an observatory-hive_ viii. _fumigation_ ix. _objections against piling boxes_ x. _apiary at delabere park_ xi. _honey-bees_ ---- _for the sting of a bee_ xii. _impregnation of the queen-bee_ xiii. _supernumerary queens_ xiv. _bee-feeding_ ---- _bee-food_ xv. _catalogue of bee-flowers, &c._ xvi. _honey-comb_ ---- _bees' wax_ xvii. _winter situation for bees_ xviii. _apiarian societies_ xix. _miscellaneous directions_ index to the engravings. frontispiece, to face title. page octagonal-cover for the pavilion collateral-boxes apart ditto closed. inverted-hive observatory-hive ditto with additions fumigator tower at delabere to face the three bees honey-comb management of bees. chapter i. introductory matters. the object of the generality of persons who keep bees, is--profit: and that profit might be indefinitely augmented were bees properly managed, and their lives preserved--were the still extensively-practised, cruel, and destructive system superseded by a conservative one. some few there may be in the higher ranks of life, who cultivate bees from motives of curiosity--for the gratification of witnessing and examining the formation and progress of their ingenious and most beautiful works, and with a view to study the instinct, habits, propensities, peculiarities, or, in one word, the nature, of these wonderful, little insects, in order to improve their condition, and to gain additional knowledge respecting their natural history, hitherto, it must be confessed, enveloped in much uncertainty, and very imperfectly understood. to this class of bee-masters and _bee-friends_ the system of management to be explained in the following pages, will, it is hoped, unfold discoveries and impart facilities and improvements hitherto unknown in apiarian science. and they, whose sole object in keeping bees is _profit_, may derive incalculable advantage from conforming to the mode of management, and strictly attending to the _practical directions_ hereinafter to be detailed: because as their profits are expected to arise principally from honey and wax, it evidently must be for their interest to know how to obtain those valuable bee-productions in their purest state and in the greatest quantity. the quantity obtained in a good honey-year (viz. ) from a well-stocked and exceedingly prosperous colony--still in existence, and still flourishing, (i. e. in ) was so considerable, and so far beyond anything ever realized from a common straw-hive colony, that my statements respecting it have been doubted by some, and totally discredited by others, unacquainted with my (i trust i may say) _improved_ system of bee-management. with respect to the purity of the honey taken according to my plan, and the general properties and medical virtues, and, of course, _value of honey when pure_, i have much pleasure in being enabled to submit to the reader the opinions of my scientific friends--dr. birkbeck, mr. abraham booth, lecturer on chemistry, and dr. hancock; because their opinions may safely be considered as unimpeachable authority on this subject, viz. the uses and medical virtues of _pure honey_. in some observations on the effect of the temperature of bee-hives on the quality of honey, published in a scientific journal, mr. booth observes--"notwithstanding the adequate justice which has been done to mr. nutt's improved and admirable system of bee-management, there is one point which does not appear to have elicited much attention--the superiority in quality both of the honey and the wax. it does not appear to me that the whole of this superiority consists in freedom from extraneous animal or vegetable matters, a point of very great importance, however, as its dietetic purposes are concerned; but that it greatly depends upon the modified degree of temperature at which the bees effect their labours, and which is insufficient to produce any chemical changes in the constitution of these substances; whereas under the old system, the continued high temperature of the hive is sufficient to induce those changes which impart the colour that so materially deteriorates the quality as well as the value of the products. _from mr. nutt's hives we obtain pure honey, as it is actually secreted by the bee_, which cannot be ensured by any other mode of management." to my very intelligent friend and patron, dr. birkbeck, whose uniform liberality and kindness, from the infancy of my pursuits, i have reason to appreciate, i am indebted for introducing this subject in a lecture[a] at the london institution, moorfields, on the application of the oxy-hydrogen light to illustrate the economy and structure of the insect world. in the course of his observations, on referring to the tongue of the bee, the learned doctor made copious allusions to my system, and the advantages which would in his view result from its general extension. he observed that "so small is the supply that we derive from the labours of bees in this country, that the production of wax does not even more than equal its consumption in the simple article of lip-salve. under this improved system, we may however hope that the advantages of bee-management may be more generally diffused throughout the kingdom,--that bee-hives will be multiplied, and that the choicest flowers of the field and forest will no longer 'waste their sweetness in the desert air.' in a dietetic point of view, it is of great importance that a saccharine, secreted by one of the most beautiful processes of nature, should be substituted for one produced by the most imperfect and complicated process of art, whilst the more salutary properties of the former would recommend it as far more eligible for use. he could not but hope that, in this view the system would soon receive that extension in practice to which its merits fitted it."[b] [footnote a: delivered april d .] [footnote b: dr. birkbeck related the following instance of the power of recognition possessed by bees to myself and mr. booth, which i cannot suffer to pass unnoticed. when a boy, he was accustomed to cover his hand with honey, and go to the front of one of the hives in his father's garden. his hand was soon covered by the bees, banquetting on the proffered sweets, and the whole of it was speedily removed. the bees appeared to recognize the learned doctor ever afterwards when he appeared in the garden, his hand being always surrounded by them in expectation of there finding their accustomed boon.] some very important observations on honey, in a medical point of view, are those which were contained in a paper written by my very learned and valued friend, dr. hancock, and read before the medico-botanical society at their sitting november th .[c] [footnote c: for a copy of the first edition of this work, with specimens of honey, &c. the author received the thanks of the society; and he has since been honoured with a diploma, which constitutes him a corresponding member thereof.] an abstract of this important paper[d] i shall communicate for the information of my readers. [footnote d: an abstract of the paper was published in the lancet and several other journals.] "the great objects which recommend mr. nutt's plan, consist in the great improvement in quality and augmentation of honey produced, and that without destroying the bees--a discovery equally creditable to mr. nutt, as a man of benevolent mind, and to his industry and indefatigable research. "the cultivation of honey-bees is of remote antiquity. the bee was regarded as the emblem of royalty with the ancient egyptians, and bees have been held in the highest esteem by all nations, whether barbarous or civilized; yet the united experience of ancients and moderns has never hitherto led to the happy results, which, by a connected series of experiments, patient research, and logical induction, have in twelve years been achieved by mr. nutt. in the course of his observation he saw, not only that the destruction of the bees was barbarous in the extreme, but that this cruelty was equally subversive of the crops of honey; his inquiries were hence directed to find how this destructive system could be exchanged for a conservative one. in this he has completely succeeded, and by preserving the bees has been enabled to increase their produce many-fold, and that too, in a far more salutary and improved quality. it is equal even to the samples usually obtained from young hives called virgin honey, which is scarce, dear, and seldom to be had genuine. "owing to the want of knowledge on the subject, the consequent impurities, and the great price of foreign honey, together with the adulterations practised, the use of this valuable article has been nearly abandoned in this country, whether as an article of the materia medica or of domestic economy; and for the reasons just stated, the preparations of honey have even been expunged from the edinburgh pharmacopeia. from the recent improvement, however, by the gentleman just mentioned, we have reason to hope its use will be restored in a condition vastly improved, and that at a great reduction in price, the facilities of production being greatly enhanced, and such as to render it in time available to all classes of society. "pure honey was justly considered by the ancients to possess the most valuable balsamic and pectoral properties--as a lenitive, ecoprotic, and detergent; and it is well-known to dissolve viscid phlegm and promote expectoration. as a medium for other remedies, it is in its pure state far superior to sirups, as being less liable to run into the acetous fermentation. it appears that honey procured on mr. nutt's plan is not excelled by the finest and most costly samples from the continent, as that of minorca, narbonne, or montpelier. the various impurities and extraneous matter usually contained in honey, cause it in many cases to produce griping pains, or uneasy sensations in the stomach and bowels; this however has no such effect, unless it be taken to an imprudent extent. "pure honey, though in its ultimate elements similar to refined sugar, yet differs considerably in its physiological effects on the body, being a _lenitive_, _aperient_ or gentle laxative, and hence incomparably more beneficial in costive habits. it has in a dietetic or medicinal point of view been recommended in gravel or calculous complaints; of this however i have no knowledge, but its utility in asthma i have experienced in my own person as well as in others;--as also as an efficacious remedy in hooping cough, taken with antimonial wine, camphor, arid opium. for sedentary persons and those troubled with constipation of the bowels, there is no dietetic or medicinal substance so useful as pure honey, whether taken in drink or with bread and butter, &c. it is well-known as a detergent of foul sores, and i have often found it to succeed in healing deep-seated sinuous or fistulous ulcers, and thus to obviate the necessity of surgical operations. "in south america and amongst the spaniards, honey is considered as one of the best detergents for sloughing sores and foul ulcerations; so it was formerly in europe. its uses in a surgical point of view have in this country long been lost sight of. its detergent power is such, that it was formerly denominated a _vegetable soap_, as we may see in the older writers. it is still made the basis of _cosmetics_, and this empirical practice goes to prove its efficacy--to those at least who have experienced its effects in cleansing and healing sinuous ulcers, its stimulating property producing withal the sanitary adhesive inflammation. a species of wine made from honey, called metheglin and mead--the _mulsum_ of the ancients--was formerly much in use in this country, and most deservedly so from its pleasant taste and salutary properties. by the perfection of honey, this may now be obtained no doubt of equal excellence here, and a rich mellifluous species of wine of the most wholesome kind will be acquired, and open a new source of national industry. "it has been said, that where the air is clear and hot, honey is better than where it is variable and cold, and this seems to have served as an apology for the inferiority of much of the honey contained in this country. it is a position, which i am persuaded is not well founded; for the honey in hot climates, notwithstanding the fragrance of the flowers, is mostly inferior to the commonest samples produced here. this inferiority, however, may be entirely owing to the difference in the bees--for i speak here of the wild or native honey--and it is probable that the _apis mellifica_ might, in south america, on mr. nutt's plan, produce the best of honey, and in very great abundance, because it would there work all the year, and the product therefore would be greatly increased. "i have seen honey taken in the forests of south america from several different species of bees; they were always destitute of a sting, although entomologists consider it as one of the generic characters of _apis_. it is also singular that their wax is always _black_, or dark brown, although the pollen of the flowers, which is said to give colour, is equally yellow as in this country. bees obtain honey from most kinds of flowers, but appear in general to prefer the labiati or lip flowers, as those of sage, marjoram, mint, thyme, lavender, &c. "mr. nutt, in the course of his observation, has noticed the curious fact, that the nectar or honey obtained from different plants is carefully deposited by the bees in separate cells, or at least that the nectar from different _genera_ of plants is kept distinct. it appears indeed, that the produce of the flowers is classed by them, and arranged with a precision not inferior to that of the most accurate botanist. what but a hand divine could guide these little insects thus to mock the boasted power of human reason! this consideration too, coupled with our own interests, should operate as a powerful argument in favour of mr. nutt's new conservative system of management, and against the reckless destruction of the bees. mr. nutt has already been patronised by the royal family and several of the nobility, and no doubt his plan will be adopted by all persons of intelligence, who engage in this pursuit, whether for profit or the most rational amusement." when i first entered into my apiarian pursuits, i felt convinced of the great and profitable extent to which they might be carried; and of this i have been all along since confirmed as success has crowned my efforts. if i could demonstrate--and i have repeatedly demonstrated--how much honey might be increased in quantity, its superior quality also struck me as a point of no less importance; and in this i am now most satisfactorily confirmed by the sanction of those scientific friends whose valuable opinions have been above quoted. with alacrity and pleasure i will therefore proceed, without further introduction, to give a description of my bee-boxes, and other hives, and of all my bee-machinery,--and directions for the proper construction of them,--and also for the proper ordering and management of bees in them. chapter ii. bee-boxes and management of bees in them. the schemes and contrivances, and ways and means, to which apiarians have had recourse, in order to deprive bees of their honey, without at the same time destroying their lives, have been various, and some of them ingenious; but hitherto not one of them has been crowned with the desired success. the leaf-hives of dunbar and of huber--huish's hive with cross-bars,--the piling of hive upon hive, or box upon box, (called storifying), and several other contrivances, have all had this great object in view,--have all had their patrons and admirers,--have all had fair trials,--but have, notwithstanding, all failed of fully accomplishing it. whether my inventions may merit and may meet with a similar or with a better fate, it is not for me to predict,--time will show. i feel warranted, however, in asserting of my collateral-box-hive, which i am now about to explain,--of my inverted-hive, and of my observatory-hive, of which in their proper places minute descriptions will be given,--i feel, i say, warranted in asserting that these--my inventions--possess such conveniences and accommodations both for bees and bee-masters, that the pure treasure stored in them by those industrious, little insects may at any time be abstracted from them, not only without destroying the bees, but without injuring them in the least, or even incommoding their labours by the operation;--that they afford accommodations to the bees which greatly accelerate the progress of their labours in the summer-season;--and that the bees never leave them in disgust, as it were, as they not unfrequently _do leave_ other hives, after being deprived of their stores; but, as if nothing had happened to them, continue day by day to accumulate fresh treasures, the quantity of which has astonished the beholders, and not only the quantity, but the quality also. that my boxes do not, admit of improvement is more than i assert; but having worked them most successfully for many years, and knowing that several other persons, following my directions, have succeeded with them as well as myself, and far beyond their most sanguine expectations, i do flatter myself that the principle of managing bees after my plan is right. [illustration] [illustration] the plates here presented to my readers exhibit a set of my collateral bee-boxes open, and every compartment exposed to view, especially to the view and for the examination of experienced workmen. i make use of the word _experienced_, because the better the boxes are made, the more certain will the apiarian be of success in the management of his bees in them. there has been some difference of opinion as to the most suitable dimensions for bee-boxes. i approve of and recommend those which are from eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or ten inches deep in the clear. the best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar; the chief grounds of preference of which wood are--its effects in keeping moths out of the boxes, and its being a bad conductor of heat. but of whatever kind of wood bee-boxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from what carpenters term _shakes_. good, sound, red deal answers the purpose very well, and is the sort of wood of which most of my boxes have been made hitherto. the sides of the boxes, particularly the front sides, should be at the least an inch and a half in thickness; for the ends, top, and back-part, good deal one inch thick is sufficiently substantial; the ends, that form the interior divisions and openings, must be of half-inch stuff, well dressed off, so that, when the boxes and the dividing-tins are closed, that is, when they are all placed together, the two adjoining ends should not exceed five-eighths of an inch in thickness. these communication-ends, the bars of which should be exactly parallel with each other, form a communication, or a division, as the case may require, which is very important to the bees, and by which the said boxes can be immediately divided without injuring any part of the combs, or deluging the bees with the liquid honey, which so frequently annoys them, by extracting their sweets from the piled or storified boxes. this is not the only advantage my boxes possess: the receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which appear upon each of the end-boxes,--the one with the cover off, the other with it on--must be four inches square, with a perforated, flat tin of nearly the same size, and in the middle of that tin must be a round hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, and in the centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the perforated, cylinder, tin ventilator, nine inches long. this flat tin must have a smooth piece of wood well-made to fit it closely, and to cover the frame-work just mentioned, so as to carry the wet off it, then placing this cover over the square, perforated tin, your box will be secure from the action of wind and rain. the perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator, and also for a secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is inserted. within this frame-work, and so that the perforated, flat tin already described may completely cover them, at each corner make a hole with a three-eighths centre-bit through the top of the box. these four small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential part of it. we next come to the long floor, on which the three square bee-boxes, (a. c. c.), which constitute _a set_, stand collaterally. this floor is the strong top of a long, shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three bee-boxes, and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when placed collaterally, require; or, if the bee-boxes project the eighth part of an inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better; because in that case the rain or wet, that may at any time fall upon them, will drain off completely. for ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project about two inches in front; but this projection must be sloped, or made an inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the front of the boxes. to the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part cut away for the entrance of the bees into the pavilion, is attached the alighting-board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. the passage from this alighting-board into the pavilion, (not seen in the plate, it being at the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, _but out of the floor-board_, and should be not less than four inches in length, and about half an inch in depth; or so as to make a clear half-inch-way under the edge of the box for the bee-passage. i recommend this as preferable to a cut in the edge of the box,--because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soon drain out, and the floor become dry; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out of the box, the rain that may, and at times will, be drifted in, will be kept in, and the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental to the bees. in depth the floor-box, measured from outside to outside, should be four inches, so that, if made of three-fourths inch-deal, there may be left for the depth of the box-part full two inches and a half. internally it is divided into three equal compartments, being one for each bee-box: admission to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer and drawer-fronts, or blocks, which will be described presently. the bottom, or open edge of each of the boxes, (a. c. c.) should be well planed, and made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the aforesaid floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them, or, technically expressed, _be a dead fit_ all round. in the floor-board are made three small openings, i. e. one near the back of each box. these openings are of a semi-lunar shape, (though any other shape would do as well) the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will be most convenient if made parallel with the back-edge of the box, and about an inch from it. they are covered by perforated, or by close tin-slides, as the circumstances of your apiary may require. the drawer (g.) the front of which appears under the middle-box, is of great importance, because it affords one of the greatest accommodations to the bees in the boxes. in this drawer is placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it, and in that tin, another thin frame covered with book-muslin, or other fine strainer, which floats on the liquid deposited for the sustenance of the bees. here, then, you have a feeder, containing the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother-hive, and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the bees. when you close the drawer thus prepared with bee-food, you must draw out the tin placed over the semi-lunar aperture, which will open to the bees a way to their food in the drawer beneath. the heat of the hive follows the bees into the feeding apartment, which soon becomes the temperature of their native-hive. here the bees banquet on the proffered boon in the utmost security, and in the temperature of their native domicile. under such favourable circumstances it is an idle excuse, not to say--a want of humanity, to suffer your bees to die for want of attention to proper feeding. i now come to notice the use of the block-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer, marked g. these two block-fronts answer many good purposes, and furnish the apiarian with several practical advantages: first, in the facility they afford of adding numbers to the establishment, as occasion may require, which is done without the least inconvenience or trouble to the apiarian, and without the least resentment from the native bees; second, in affording to the bees a place of egress when you are about to take from them one of the end-boxes; third, in the effectual and beautiful guard they furnish against robbers: for instead of the solid block, seen in the plate, a safety-block (of which a description will be given presently) may be substituted, which is so contrived that ten thousand bees can with ease leave their prison and their sweets in the possession of the humane apiarian, without the possible chance of a single intruder forcing its entrance to rob the magazine or to annoy the apiarian. perhaps this is the most pleasing part, and the most happy convenience attached to the boxes. its origin was this: whilst explaining to some scientific gentlemen at the national repository the method to be pursued in the management of bees in a set of collateral-boxes,--and, in particular, the manner of taking off a box of honey, it was objected--that, on removing the block-front and withdrawing the tin that opens a communication into the box above, though a passage would thereby be opened for the imprisoned bees to get away, it would at the same time afford an opening and an opportunity--nay, be a sort of invitation for the bees of other hives,--for strange bees and robbers to get in, annoy, and destroy the native bees, then subdued by having been imprisoned, and to plunder and carry away their treasures. this objection, to persons unskilled in bee-matters, may, i grant, appear to be plausible--nay, reasonable: but every _practical apiarian_, who has taken off two or three end-boxes of honey, knows very well that there is not the least danger to be apprehended from robbers or marauders during the short time that the liberated, native bees are hurrying away as fast as they can get. i have never witnessed any thing like an attempt to besiege and rob a box so situated. were, however, the communication to be left open for any considerable time after the bees have departed, i have no doubt that, if not discovered by bees belonging to other hives, it (the vacated box) would be re-entered by its own bees, and by them be soon entirely emptied of its honey. nothing, however, but down-right carelessness on the part of the operator will ever subject a box of honey to a visitation of this description. but, notwithstanding the conviction in _my_ mind that the above-stated objection is _in fact_ groundless, i set my wits to work to answer it in a way more satisfactory to the highly respectable persons who raised it, and, if by any means i could, to obviate it entirely. it did not cost me much mental labour to invent--_a safety-block_,--nor does it require much manual labour to make one. a safety-block must be made to fit the place of the common block, and may be cut out of a piece of half-inch deal board, having one side planed off so as to leave the bottom-edge less than one-fourth of an inch in thickness; then with a three-eighths-inch centre-bit cut as near the lower, that is--the thin edge, as you can, a row of holes. ten holes in a length of six inches will allow a convenient space between each hole. next, over each of these small holes, suspend a piece of talc, cut of a proper size for the purpose, by a thread of silk, and make that thread fast round a tiny brass nail above. the talc, which is a mineral substance as transparent as glass, and much lighter, and on that account much better than glass, thus suspended over each hole, is easily lifted and passed by bees from within, but is heavy enough to fall again as soon as a bee has made its exit, and forms an effectual bar or block against the entrance of bees from the outside. a block of this description may be had for a trifling expense, and is recommended to all such inexperienced and timid--timid because inexperienced---apiarians, as are apprehensive of being annoyed by intruders when they are taking off a box of honey. though this safety-block rather impedes the escape of the bees, it has nevertheless a pretty appearance when it is neatly made,--and it is amusing enough to see the beautiful, little creatures pushing open first one little trap-door and then another, popping out their heads, and then winging their flight to the entrance of the pavilion. after all, though it certainly is a complete _safety-block_, and was invented to obviate a groundless objection, it is more an article of curiosity than of real usefulness. lastly, i have to notice the security which the under-box or frame gives to the stability of the three upper boxes,--the firmness with which it supports them,--and the dry and comfortable way in which the bees by it are enabled to discharge their dead, and other superfluities of the colony, without their being exposed to the cold atmosphere of an autumn or a spring morning. the octagon-box, marked h, is a covering for the bell-glass, marked b, which is placed on the middle-box, or seat of nature. it matters not of what shape this covering is, because any covering over the glass will answer the same purpose, provided the under-board of it is wide enough to cover the divisional openings, and to throw off the wet. i choose an octagon because of the neatness of its appearance. in endeavouring to recommend these bee-boxes as worthy of general adoption, in order to succeed in my object, it is undoubtedly necessary that the parts and construction of them, and of every thing pertaining to them, be fully explained and clearly understood: i therefore proceed to give another view of them. in the former plate they are exhibited as open, or detached and apart from each other: in the following one they are represented as closed and standing together, as when stocked with bees, and in full operation in an apiary: in both it is the back of the boxes that is presented. with the exception of the alighting-board, the front is quite plain, being without window-shutters in the boxes, and without drawer and block-fronts in the under-board. [illustration] in this plate the engraver has made the floor-box to extend beyond the ends of the c. c. boxes; but, as has already been observed, and for the reason before given, it is better that the floor-box be made so that those (c. c.) boxes project a little over the ends and also over the back of the floor. explanation of the references to the different parts of a set of collateral-boxes. a. is the pavilion, or middle-box, which may be most easily stocked by a swarm of bees, just as a cottage-hive is stocked. b. is the bell-glass in the first plate,--in the second, it only points to the place where the glass stands. c. c. are the collateral, or two end-boxes. d. d. are neat mouldings, about three inches wide, made of three-fourths-inch deal, and are so fastened to the middle-box in front, (i. e. the side not here shown) as well as at the back, that an inch and a half of each may project beyond each corner of that box, and form a cover and protection for the edges of the dividing-tins, and also for the four seams, or joints, necessarily made by placing the end-boxes against the middle one. e. e. are the frame-work and covers of the ventilation and thermometer. f. f. are the block-fronts } g. is the feeding-drawer } already described. h. is the octagon-cover } i. i. i. are the window-shutters, five inches by four, or larger or smaller, as fancy may direct: these shutters open as so many little doors by means of small brass-joints, and are kept fast, when closed, by a brass-button set on the box. , , , , are so many tin-slides, to cut off, or to open, as the case may require, the communications between the pavilion and the bell-glass, between the pavilion and the feeding-drawer, and between the end-boxes and their under-boxes. for a bee-passage between the pavilion and the bell-glass, is cut, in the centre of the top of the pavilion, a circular hole, an inch in diameter, and from the edge of that circular hole are cut four or six passages, just wide enough to allow the bees space to pass and re-pass. these lineal cuts must of course terminate within the circumference of the circle formed by the edge of the bell-glass that is placed over them. perhaps it may be said,--in fact, it has been said--that these boxes are in reality nothing more than a common cottage-hive. be it so: but it is an _improved_ cottage-hive, made convenient by being divisible, and by having its parts well arranged. the middle-box, or department, marked a, is, however, square, and not round, like the common straw-hive. but beyond this one box the comparison cannot easily be carried; the common straw-hive possesses no such conveniences and accommodations as those afforded both to bees and bee-masters by the end-boxes of my hive. in the middle-box the bees are to be first placed: in it first they skilfully construct their beautiful combs,--and, under the prerogative of one sovereign--the mother of the hive--carry on their curious works, and display their astonishing, architectural ingenuity. in this box the regina of the colony, surrounded by her industrious, happy, humming subjects, carries on the propagation of her species,--deposits in the cells prepared for the purpose by the other bees, thousands upon thousands of her eggs, though she deposits no more than one egg in a cell at one time: these eggs are hatched and nursed up into a numerous progeny by the other inhabitants of the hive. it is at this time, viz. when hundreds of young bees are daily coming into existence, that my collateral-boxes are of the utmost importance to the bees domiciled in them: for when the young larvæ are perfected upon the cottage plan, a swarm is the necessary consequence. the queen, with thousands of her bee-subjects, leaves the colony, and seeks another place in which to carry on her astonishing labours. but as swarming may, by proper precaution and attention to my mode of management, generally be prevented, it is manifestly a good thing to do so; for the time necessarily required to establish another colony, even supposing the cottager succeeds in saving the swarm, would otherwise be employed in collecting the pure sweets, and in enriching the old hive. here, then, is one of the advantages of my plan, viz. _the prevention of swarming_. when symptoms of swarming begin to present themselves, and which may be known by an unusual noise in the hive or box (for it is of bees in boxes that i am now treating), and by the appearance of more than common activity among the bees; when these symptoms are apparent, then the bee-master may conclude that more space is required. at this period, therefore, he should draw out the sliding-tin, marked , from under the bell-glass, which simple operation will immediately open to the bees a new room--a palace--which they will adorn, and fill with their sweets as pure as the crystal stream. but if by mistake the manager should draw up either of the collateral-slides, which divide the end-boxes from the pavilion, the bees in that case will refuse to go up into the glass, and will commence their works in the collateral-box opened to them, in preference to the elevated glass; so well aware are these matchless insects of the inconvenience attending the carrying of their treasures into an upper room, when a more convenient store-house is to be had in a lower one. the natural movements of bees have demonstrated to me this fact by more than a thousand trials: year after year i have made this experiment to my entire satisfaction. the natural movements of the bees also suggested to me the idea of the utility of ventilation, and that by its influence their works might be both divided and purified; and that a place of safety might still be preserved for the queen in the pavilion. she wants a certain situation in which to carry on the work of propagating her species. like the fowls of the air, she will not, if she can avoid it, propagate her young whilst under the observation and influence of man: she, therefore, prefers the middle-box for her work of propagation; as well on account of its privacy, as because the ventilation of the end-boxes so cools their temperature, that they are not the situation nature requires to bring the young larvæ to perfection; yet they can be kept at such a temperature as to make them desirable store-rooms for the bees' treasures. by this mode of management we prevent the necessity of swarming; and behold the grandest chemists in the world, and stores after stores of their pure treasure, unadulterated by the necessary gathering of immense quantities of farina for the young larvæ, which we see in the piling system, as well as in the common cottage-hive; but this is all carried into the immediate vicinity of the seat of nature, the place where it is wanted. when the glass is nearly filled, which in a good season will be in a very short space of time, the bees will again want accommodation. previously, however, to drawing up the tin-slide to enlarge their crowded house, the manager should take off the empty end-box he intends to open to them, and smear or dress the inside of it with a little liquid honey. thus prepared, he must return the box to its proper situation, and then withdraw the sliding-tin between it and the pavilion, or middle-box, and thereby enlarge the bees' dominion, by opening an end-box to them, which will produce the greatest harmony in the hive. the bees will immediately commence their operations in this new apartment. this simple operation, _done at a proper time_, effectually prevents swarming; and by it the queen gains a vast addition to her dominions, and consequently additional space for the population of her enlarged domicile. there is now no want of store-house room, nor of employment, for our indefatigable labourers. and while the subjects are employed in collecting, and manufacturing (if i may so say) their various materials, the regina is engaged in carrying on the great, first principle of nature--the propagation of her species. this she does in the department (a.) re-filling with her eggs the cells which have been vacated by the young larvæ. when, however, her next new progeny are about to be brought into life, the bee-master must draw out the other tin-slide, and thereby open a communication to the other empty apartment, and so make a further addition to the queen's realm; which the new, and even veteran labourers, will presently occupy, and set about improving and enriching their again enlarged commonwealth. no sooner have the bees finished their operations in the several compartments of their box-hive, which may be ascertained by looking through the little windows at the back and ends of the boxes, than the bee-master gently puts in the tin-slide ( .) lifts up the lid of the octagon-box or cover (h.) and takes off the bell-glass, filled with the purest and most perfect honey. before, however, he endeavours to take away the glass, it is necessary that he should cut through between the bell-glass and the box, with a fine wire, in order that the tin may the more easily slide under the full glass of honey; when this is done, he may take off the full glass and replace it with an empty one. he must then draw out the tin-slide ( .) and so on for even the operation of taking off a glass, or a box, of honey, may be best performed in the middle of a fine, sunny day; and in taking off a glass, the operator, having put in the tin-slide ( .) as already directed, should wait a few minutes, to see whether the bees made prisoners in the glass manifest any symptoms of uneasiness; because, if they do not, it may be concluded that the queen-bee is amongst them; and in that case it is advisable to withdraw the slide ( .) and to re-commence the operation another day. but if, as it generally happens, the prisoners in the glass should run about in confusion and restlessness, and manifest signs of great uneasiness, _then_ the operator may conclude that all is right, and, having taken off the octagon-cover, may envelope the glass in a silk handkerchief, or dark cloth, so as to exclude the light, remove it with a steady hand, and place it on one side, or so that the bees may have egress from it, in some shady place, ten or fifteen yards from the boxes, and the bees that were imprisoned in it will in a few minutes effect their escape, and return with eagerness to the pavilion and their comrades. and what may be done with b, may also be done with either of the c. c. boxes, as occasion requires. it may not, however, be amiss to be more explanatory of the mode of taking away the treasures of the bees in the side-boxes. it will be necessary to examine minutely the state of your boxes, particularly when the whole of your colony is full of the bees' works. when the tin is put down to divide an end-box from the mother-hive, you, no doubt, make many prisoners; to prevent which, the night before separating an end-box from a middle one, lay open the ventilator, which will not only lower the heat of the box, but will admit the atmospheric air, which naturally causes the bees to leave that apartment, and to draw themselves into the middle-box--their native climate; when this is done, you may put down the tin-slide (d.) as already directed, and let your bees remain fifteen or twenty minutes in total darkness: then open the windows of the box you are about to take off, and if the queen-bee is not within that box, the bees that are in it will show a great desire to be liberated from their disagreeable confinement, by running about in the most hurried, agitated, and restless manner. but should the queen-bee be there, you will then find the bees show no desire to leave her;--the commotion will appear in the middle-box. under such circumstances, which sometimes happen, you must act with caution; for were you to open the egress from the box, that is, the block (f.) and tin-slide ( . or . as the case may be) to permit their departure, very shortly would the whole of the working bees join their sovereign in the box you intended to take; and this would be a great disappointment and complete puzzle to the bee-master, not thoroughly acquainted with the moves of, or proper mode of managing, his valuable hive. to me such an occurrence would be a repetition only of a demonstration of facts--of pleasures unspeakable, in beholding the grand works of nature, the noble influence of her majesty--the queen of the bees. when, however, you do find the queen in the box you are about to take off, is it not easy to draw the tin-slide up again? certainly it is easy to draw up the dividing-tin. do so, then, and that done, the queen-bee will readily embrace the opportunity of leaving the place of her confinement; and then, having put down the dividing-tin, you will presently be in a situation to accomplish your object. you will soon see the bees running to and fro upon the windows in the box you are about to take off, and when you thus find them anxious to leave your box of honey, close the windows, and you have then only to open an egress by withdrawing the tin, no. . or . as your box may require; the bees finding an aperture, with light to direct their departure, will immediately embrace the opportunity of regaining their liberty, will fly away from their prison, and join their fellow-labourers at the entrance of the mother-hive. in a few minutes you will be in possession of a box of honey, and all your bees will be in safety and harmonizing with their beloved parent--the queen of the hive. take from them the box your humanity entitles you to, minding that the tin-slide is safe to the middle-box. you will then empty the full box, and return it empty to its former place; then draw up your tin, and you again enlarge their domicil, having gained a rich reward for your operation, at the expense of their labour. a child of twelve years of age may be taught to do this without the least danger; there need no bee-dresses,--there needs no fumigation of any sort. it is a natural movement for the welfare of these worthies, that prevents their swarming, and at once secures to the sovereign queen of bees her rightful throne. reader, this declaration is founded on facts,--on the practical experience of many years. and that you may adopt this principle and mode of managing honey-bees, that is, of taking from them their superabundance of treasure, and preserving your bees uninjured, and, if you can contrive it, improve upon the instructions here given you, and upon the example here set you, is my hearty wish, for my country's welfare, and for the welfare of my admired, nay, my _beloved_ bees. should it, however, so happen, as it sometimes may, owing to a variety of causes, such, for instance, as the negligence, or unskilfulness, or unavoidable absence of the bee-master at a critical time, or from any other cause, should it, i say, so happen that the pavilion, or middle-box, should swarm, take such swarm into one of the end-boxes, prepared for such an event, by merely making an entrance to it, at or as near as possible to the corner farthest from the entrance into the middle-box; and before this new entrance fix a small alighting board. the swarm will thus become a family of itself, and as much a stock pro tempore, as if it were placed on a separate stand, provided the dividing-tin, which separates the middle-box from that in which the swarm is put, be carefully adjusted, and made perfectly tight and secure, so that a bee cannot pass from one box to the other. to this material point the apiarian will necessarily attend when he first removes the end-box in order to put the swarm into it. in the evening place the box containing the swarm on its floor, just where and as it was before it was taken off. let the bees thus managed work two or three weeks, or as the nature of the season may require,--i mean--until the end-box appears to be pretty well filled with combs. then close up the exterior entrance of the collateral-box containing the swarm of bees, and draw out the sliding-tin which hitherto has separated the two families or colonies, and the bees will unite, and become one family. the apiarian will likewise witness with pleasure the effect of ventilation in the hive; for as soon as the bees have deposed one of the queens, and the end-box has been cooled by means of the cylinder-ventilator, he will discover that the combs will be presently emptied of every material necessary for the support of the young larvæ; so that the combs, that had been so recently constructed for a seat of nature, soon become receptacles for pure honey, and the numerous bees become the subjects of one sovereign in the middle-box. this is a neat method of re-uniting a swarm to its parent-stock; and the operation is so easy that the most unpractised apiarian may perform it without subjecting himself to the slightest danger of being stung by the bees. it can however only be practised with bees in boxes. another and a more prompt method of returning a swarm to its parent-stock, and which is practicable with swarms from cottage-hives, as well as with those from boxes, is the following. after the swarm has been taken in the usual way into an empty box, or into a straw-hive, and suffered to settle and cluster therein for an hour or two, gently and with a steady hand take the box or hive, and, having a tub of clean water placed ready and conveniently for the purpose, with a sudden jerk dislodge the bees from the box or hive and immerse them in the water. let them remain therein two or three minutes: then drain it off through a sieve, or other strainer, and spread the now harmless bees--harmless, because apparently half-drowned, upon a dry towel or table-cloth, and search for and _secure the queen_. this done, and which may very easily be done, place a board or two in a slanting direction from the entrance of the parent-hive to the ground; upon this lay the cloth on which are your immersed bees, and spread them thinly over it, in order that they may the sooner become dry; and, as they become dry, you will with pleasure see them return to their native-hive, which they will be permitted to enter without the slightest opposition from the bees already therein. by this operation not only are the immersed bees cooled, but their re-union with those already in the hive cools them also, and considerably lowers the temperature of the whole stock. with a late swarm from any sort of hive, as well as with an accidental swarm from boxes, this is a good method to be adopted; and, if the apiarian possess sufficient coolness and dexterity to perform it cleverly, it is a practice i would recommend whenever it is advisable to return a swarm to its native-hive. when a swarm has thus been returned to a cottage-hive an eke should be added forthwith. before i further explain the nature of my collateral bee-boxes, i shall briefly express my desire that my readers will attend particularly to the discovery of the effects of ventilation. i have been asked--"of what use is ventilation in the domicil of bees?" i answer--one of its uses has already been described, and much more of its use, i may say, of its necessity, in the humane management of bees will be told presently. many treatises on the management of these valuable insects have appeared, but in none of them do i find any allusion to this important point--important in my practice at least, and essentially necessary in it. therefore-- to works of nature join the works of man, to show, by art improved, what nature can. nature's great efforts can no further tend, here fix'd her pillars, all her labours end. dryden. perhaps the divided labour of the honey-bees was anticipated by the author of these lines: but, be that as it might, i, in my turn, will ask--how can we preserve the bees uninjured, divide their works, and take away their superabundant treasure, without the influence of ventilation? i think it is impossible. a lesson, a true lesson from nature, has demonstrated this fact to me, and twelve years' constant labour and attention to this important subject have put into operation my plans for the welfare of that wonderful insect--the sovereign queen of bees. well might dr. bevan say-- first of the throng, and foremost of the whole, one stands confess'd the sovereign and the soul. curious facts respecting this extraordinary creature are before me, which have been ascertained and proved by means of my observatory-hive. this hive is unknown in any work hitherto published on the interesting subject of bee-management: and with reference to it i may observe--that when a new principle is discovered by studying nature, such principle will seldom fail to produce effects beneficial in proportion to its being understood and skilfully applied. so simple and so rational (if i may so say) is my observatory-hive, that it cannot but be approved, when it is once understood, by the followers of my apiarian practice. be my humble theory what it may, it hath truth for its foundation; and by perseverance and industry i flatter myself i shall materially improve, if not bring to perfection, the cultivation and management of honey-bees, merely by pointing out _how_ the produce of their labour may be divided, _how_ a part thereof may be taken away, a sufficiency be left for the sustenance of the stock, and _how_ their lives may be preserved notwithstanding. much has been said against the probable results of this practice: but facts are stubborn things; and luckily for me and my mode of bee-management, i have an abundance of the most incontrovertible facts to adduce, which will, i think and hope, convince all those who have heretofore entertained doubts upon the subject. the first movement in my apiarian practice commences with the pavilion of nature. this pavilion, which is equivalent to a cottage-hive, is the subject of my present observations and explanation. i say, then,---disturb not this hive--this pavilion of nature: weaken not its population; but support its influence, and extend to it those accommodations which no practice, except my own, has yet put into operation, or made any adequate provision for. this humane practice partakes not of the driving, nor of the fumigating, nor of the robbing system. it is a liberal principle of bee-cultivation founded on humanity. and it is by such practice that we must succeed, if we hope to be benefited by the culture of honey-bees. chapter iii. ventilation. to ascertain the degree of heat in a colony of bees, and to regulate it by means of ventilation, as circumstances may require, recourse must be had to the use of the thermometer, as will be explained presently. but here i would ask my worthy bee-keepers, whether, in the course of their experience, they have at any time beheld a honey-comb suspended beneath the pedestal of any of their hives--a circumstance that not unfrequently occurs under old stools? the beautiful appearance of a comb suspended in such a situation is, as it were, the very finger of providence, pointing out the effects of ventilation, and teaching us by an example the necessity there is for it in a crowded, busy hive. behold the purity of such a comb; examine the cause of that purity, and you will find that it is owing--solely and undoubtedly owing--to the powerful influence of ventilation. an occurrence of this description, i mean--the discovery of a beautiful comb suspended, as just described, having excited my curiosity and my admiration, led me to inquire into the cause of it, and to study to discover, if by any means i could, why my skilful, little bees should have constructed their combs in such a situation. my observations soon satisfied me that one of these two causes, viz. either a want of room in the hive,--or a disagreeable and oppressive heat in it,--or most probably, a combination of these two causes, had rendered it necessary for them, if they continued working at all, to carry on their work in that singular manner. my next step was to endeavour to prove the truth of my reasonings and conclusions, in which, i flatter myself, i have fully succeeded, after no inconsiderable labour, and many contrivances to accommodate the bees with additional room, as they have had occasion for it, and after repeated experiments to keep such room, when added, at a temperature agreeable to them by means of ventilation. in short, my collateral-boxes and ventilation are the results of my studies and experiments on this point of apiarian science. there are few persons, who are managers of honey-bees under the old hive system, who, if they have not seen a comb constructed and suspended in the manner just described, have not, however, beheld these little creatures, when oppressed with the internal heat of their crowded domicil, and straitened for want of room in it, unhappily clustering and hanging at the door, or from and under the floor-board of their hive, in a ball frequently as large as a man's head, and sometimes covering all the front part of it, for sixteen or twenty days together; and this, be it remarked, at the season of the year which is the most profitable for their labours in the fields and among the flowers. during this distress of the bees in, or belonging to, such a hive, their labours are of necessity suspended,--their gathering of honey ceases,--ceases too at the very time that that saccharine substance is most plentifully secreted by the vegetable world. and---why? because they want an enlargement of their domicil,--an extension of the dominion, or (if it may be so termed) of the territory of the queen; by which enlargement swarming is superseded, and the royal insect relieved from the necessity of abdicating her throne, retains it, continues and extends the propagation of her species, and of course increases the busy labours of her innumerable subjects. _this accommodation is provided for bees in my collateral-boxes._ ancient as well as modern bee-keepers have frequently adopted the plan of eking, that is--placing three or four rounds of a straw-hive (called an eke) under their hives. this method of enlarging a hive does in many instances prevent swarming during that one season. notwithstanding, from all that i can see in it, it tends only to put off the evil day, and to accumulate greater numbers of bees for destruction the following year. this is certain, because on minute examination of the pavilion of nature, we find an increase of wealth, as well as an increase of numbers in the state; but there is no provision or contrivance in the common hive for dividing the wealthy produce of the labours of those numbers: eking will not do it,--eking enlarges the hive, and that is all it does; consequently to get at their honey, the necessity for destroying the bees follows, and the suffocating fumes of brimstone at length bring these worthies to the ground--to the deadly pit in which they are first suffocated, then buried, and are, alas, no more! a few minutes close the existence of thousands that had laboured for their ungrateful masters; and their once happy domicil becomes a scene of murder, of plunder, and of devastation, which is a disgrace to bee-masters, and ought by all means to be discountenanced and discontinued. assuredly bees are given to us by the gracious giver of all good things for a better purpose than that of being destroyed by thousands and by millions. are we not instructed by the sacred writings to go to the bee and to the ant, and learn wisdom? we are not told, neither are we warranted, by this language, to go and destroy them and their works,---to disobey the commands of their, no less than of our maker, who has given bees to us for our edification and comfort, and not wantonly to commit a species of murder, in order to procure their delicious treasure. nor is there the slightest necessity for destroying bees in this cruel manner, when an act of humanity will obtain for us their purest honey, and secure to us their lives for future and profitable labour. surely, then, an act of humanity to bees cannot be displeasing to any one, especially when we are taught by the beneficial results of our experience, that their lives _may be preserved_, and their labours for us thereby continued. apiarian reader, take this subject into thy serious consideration: in the busy hive behold the curious works of god's creatures--the bees; misuse riot, then, the works of his hands; but improve upon this lesson from nature: and for a moment pause before thou lightest the deadly match,--before thou appliest it with murderous intent to the congregated thousands in thy hive. it's he who feels no rev'rence for god's sacred name, that lights the sulphur up to cause the dreadful flame: alas! i think, viewing the monster's busy hand taking the dreadful match, i see a murderer stand. these insects' indefatigable labours alone should humanize our feelings for them, and induce us to spare their lives, for the rich treasures which they first collect, and then unresistingly yield up to us when operated upon by the healthy influence of ventilation. why should we lay the axe to the root of the tree that produces such good fruit? rather let us gather from its pure branches, and let the root live. examine the nature and effects of my bee-machinery, and you will discover its utility and its value in the management of bees. by the proper application of that machinery you may instantaneously divide the treasures of the bees, even in the most vigorous part of their gathering season, without the least danger to the operator, and frequently without the destruction of a single bee. is not this, then, a rational and humane practice? i trust it wants only to be properly understood in order to be universally adopted. again: does not she that is a kind mother know the wants and desires of her children? take the lovely offspring from its mother's care and protection, and imprison it before her eyes, and will she not impatiently cry aloud for its release and restoration to liberty? and will not the child's screams show its affection for its fond parent? and when its liberty is restored, does not consolation quickly follow? the lost child being once more under its mother's care, both mother and child are happy. similar facts are exemplified by the mother of the hive, who loves her multitudinous offspring, and lives in harmony and affection with them. she evidently dislikes a separation from her subjects, who seem to be, and doubtless are, most devotedly attached to her. and when, on taking off a glass or a box, they are divided only for a few minutes, we witness their sorrow, and hear their lamentations in the hive,--the queen-mother calling for her children, anxious on their part to be released; and as soon as an opportunity is afforded them of effecting their escape, they embrace it,--the moment they feel their liberty, they gladly take advantage of it, and return to the pavilion in multitudes, so that in a short time tranquillity is restored, and peace and happiness are again enjoyed by the previously unhappy mother of the hive,--her subjects crowd round her, and the place that had lately been their prison soon becomes their palace, and a magazine for future treasure, which the humane apiarian will again be entitled to. much has been said on the piling or storifying mode of managing bees; and i admit that there are advantages in it which we do not meet with in the cottage-hive system. it is, notwithstanding, imperfect in the design,--it is founded in error,--in practice it is liable to many difficulties,--and it is particularly disadvantageous to the labours of these valuable insects, as will be more fully shown when i come to state my objections to it. we have only to study the nature and habits of bees, and to watch particularly the desires of these indefatigable creatures. they alone will teach us the lesson. but follow them through their movements during a summer's day, and you will behold them, as it were, pitifully asking for the assistance of man, according to the varying state of the thermometer. chapter iv. thermometer. as i have been frequently asked to explain the utility of ventilation in a hive or colony of bees, so have i as frequently been asked, sometimes with civility and politeness, sometimes jeeringly and in contempt,--"what has the thermometer to do with bees?" i answer--we shall see presently; and i trust, see enough to convince the veriest sceptic on the subject, that the thermometer is an instrument that is indispensably necessary in the management of bees according to my plan. such inquirers might as reasonably ask what the mainspring of a watch has to do with the movements of that machine? without the mainspring the watch would not work at all; and without the thermometer we cannot ascertain with any degree of accuracy the interior temperature of the hive; the knowledge of which temperature is of the utmost consequence in the humane management of honey-bees. the thermometer is the safest, if not the sole guide to a scientific knowledge of their state and works. to ventilate an apiary or colony of bees, when their interior temperature is under degrees, would be ruinous to them,--because contrary to the prosperous progress of their natural labours. from upwards of fifteen hundred observations in the summer of , i am fully satisfied on this point. their nature is to keep up at least that, and sometimes a much higher, degree of temperature by their indefatigable labours; and as the temperature of the hive rises, so does it invigorate and encourage an increase of population, as well as an increase of their treasured sweets. as the hive fills, so will the thermometer rise to and even to degrees, before these worthies will by over-heat be forced to leave their wealthy home. when the thermometer is at the above height, these wealthy colonists will have arrived at the highest state of perfection,--wealthy indeed, every store-house being filled nearly to suffocation with their abundant treasures, and they, as it were, petitioning the observer of their too-limited store-house for a fresh room. thus circumstanced then give them a fresh room,--accommodate them with such a store-house as either of my collateral-boxes will and is intended to afford them. _force them not to warm:_ an emigration from a prosperous colony of half its population cannot fail of being very disadvantageous, both to those that emigrate, who must necessarily be poor, and to those that remain, be they ever so industrious, or ever so wealthy. when you discover your thermometer rising rapidly, and, instead of standing, as it generally does in a well-stocked colony, at about degrees, rising in a few hours to , and perhaps to , or even to , you may conclude that ventilation is _then_ highly necessary. the more you ventilate, when their temperature gets to this oppressive and dangerous height, the more you benefit the bees labouring under it; for when they find a comfortable temperature within, they enjoy it, and will proceed to fill every vacant comb. nature has provided the queen of bees with the power of multiplying her species, and of providing against any casualty which in so numerous a state may frequently happen. that all-seeing eye that neither slumbers nor sleeps, but constantly superintends alike the affairs of insects and of men, has, doubtless, long beheld the shameful neglect of man, which is the main cause of the distress of the hive, and which _forces_ it to swarm. let man, then, remedy the distress and mischief which he occasions, by _preventing it_. it is the queen-bee that emigrates; were she not to lead, none would lead; nor would any follow were another than the queen to lead, to seek and to settle in some place more congenial to them than an over-heated, over-stocked, though rich hive. she well knows she cannot live in a state subjected to a suffocating heat, amidst an overgrown population. so she leaves the royal cradle, impregnated with the royal larva, and withdraws from the hive, reluctantly, one may suppose, though accompanied by thousands of her subjects. the queen-bee leads the swarm to seek a place of comfort, and to establish another home, where not one cell nor drop of honey exists. to establish the truth of these assertions, and to prove the utility of ventilation and of the thermometer, in regulating the degree of ventilation in the management of bees, i will now give my reader an account of some interesting experiments that i made in , and then add a few extracts from my thermometrical journal of that summer; which in fact guided me in those experiments, for without the assistance of my thermometer i could not have made them; from which, taken together, it will, i think, be sufficiently evident that ventilation and the thermometer are highly necessary,--are alike important,--in short, are _indispensable_ in the humane management of honey-bees. on the th of june , i suffered a colony of bees to swarm, in order to prove the truth of the foregoing statements. it was a very fine colony: the thermometer had been standing at for six days previously, in one of the collateral end-boxes; on the eighth day it rose suddenly to . i was then forcing my bees to leave their home; i could have lowered their temperature, and by so doing, i could have retained my worthies in their native boxes: but i was then about to prove a fact of the greatest moment to apiarians. on the ninth day, at half-past twelve o'clock, the finest swarm i ever beheld towered above my head, and literally darkened the atmosphere in the front of my apiary. after remaining about five minutes in the open air, the queen perched herself upon a tree in my garden, where she was exposed to the rays of a scorching sun; but her loyal subjects quickly surrounded her, and screened her from its influence. i immediately did what i could to assist my grand prize, by hanging a sheet before it, to ward off the intense heat of the sun. i allowed the bees to hang in this situation until the evening. during the absence of the swarm from the colony, my full employment was to watch the parent-stock, in order that i might, in the evening, return the bees of this beautiful swarm to their native-hive, which they had been forced to leave. curiosity and a desire to solve a doubtful problem, for the good of future apiarians, led me to act as already related, at the expense of much inconvenience to the bees. the remaining honey-bees continued labouring during the remainder of the day; and in the evening of that same day, the thermometer was standing at degrees in the old stock; so that the absence of the swarm had lowered the temperature of the pavilion degrees, and i was quite sure i could reduce it in the collateral end-box to that of the exterior atmosphere, which, after the sun had gone down, was only . to effect this, i resolved at once to take off a fine top-glass filled with honey. i did so: its weight was fourteen pounds. this operation reduced the interior heat of the colony to . but looking at my grand swarm, and intent as i was upon re-uniting it to the parent-stock, i thought it impossible for the vacant space conveniently to hold all the bees. i had one, and only one, alternative left,--and that was to take from my colony a collateral-box. i therefore took it; and a most beautiful box it was: its weight was fifty pounds. i immediately placed an empty box in the situation the full one had occupied. i then drew from the side of the pavilion the dividing tin-slide, and the whole of the colony was shortly at the desired temperature of , that being the exterior heat of the evening. i was now fully convinced of the propriety of returning the swarm. i commenced operations for accomplishing that object at ten o'clock in the evening, by constructing a temporary stage near the mouth of the parent-stock. i then procured a white sheet, and laid it upon the table or temporary stage, and in a moment struck the swarm from the hive into which the bees had been taken from the bough in the evening. my next difficulty was to imprison the sovereign of the swarm: but with a little labour i succeeded in discovering her, and made her my captive. no sooner was she my prisoner than the bees seemed to be acquainted with her absence. but so near were they placed to the mouth of the parent-stock that they soon caught the odour of the hive, and in the space of about fifteen minutes the whole swarm, save only her majesty, were under the roof of their parent-home. the following morning increased my anxiety about the welfare of my stock. fearful lest my carious anticipations should meet with a disappointment, at sun-rise in the morning i released from her imprisonment the captive queen. i placed her on the front-board, near the entrance of her hive, to ascertain, if possible, whether there was within the state one greater than herself. but no visible sign of such being the case presented itself. the influence of the cheery sun soon caused her to move her majestic body to the entrance of her native domicil, where she was met, surrounded, and no doubt welcomed, by thousands of her subjects, who soon conducted her into the hive, and, it may be presumed, re-instated her on the throne, which a few hours before she had been compelled to abdicate. the bees afterwards sallied forthwith extraordinary alacrity and regularity, and, beyond my most sanguine expectations, filled a large glass with honey in the short space of six days. that glass of honey was exhibited at the national repository, with a model of my apiary, and was much admired by many of the members and visitors of that noble institution. i have now to remark, that during the nine days after the swarm had been returned to the parent-stock, the thermometer continued rising until it reached the temperature of within the collateral-box; and on the tenth day, at five o'clock in the morning, i witnessed the grand secret,--i viewed with unutterable delight the extraordinary fact i had been endeavouring to ascertain,--viz.--_two royal nymphs laid prostrate on the alighting-board_, near the exterior entrance of the hive. this circumstance alone convinced me that no more swarming was necessary. i have further to notice, that on the third day afterwards the bees commenced their destruction of the drones,--which was a satisfactory proof that i had gained my point. that colony has never swarmed since the period i thus first satisfactorily established the utility of ventilation. and on minutely attending to the extraordinary movements of this my favourite colony, it was not uncommon to notice the most infant appearance of the royal brood lying upon the front-board of the pavilion. so that i am well satisfied that the royal larva is always in existence in the hive, independently of the reigning queen. let me not be misunderstood; i do not mean by this expression to assert--that the royal larva exists in the hive without the instrumentality or agency of the reigning queen;--far from it; for no common bees can make a sovereign bee without the egg from the royal body: what i do mean is--that the royal larva is always in existence in a colony of bees, notwithstanding the existence and presence of a reigning queen--that the queen is there, and that the royal larva is there at the same time. in this the wisdom of providence is manifest; for nature has _thus_ provided that the royal cradle should contain the royal brood, that in case any accident, misfortune, casualty, or necessity, should occasion the absence of the reigning queen, another may be brought forth. this larva in reserve, as it were, is protected and reared by the inhabitants with the utmost care, nay, in the absence of the queen, it is almost worshipped, until it becomes sufficiently matured to take the office and fulfil the duties of its royal predecessor; of course it then reigns supreme,--it is then queen absolute. on this point i not only coincide in opinion with thorley, but have seen enough in the course of my experience among bees to confirm the truth of what i have now stated. as, however, the further discussion of this nice point belongs to the natural history of the bee rather than to the explanation and inculcation of my practical mode of bee-management, i refrain from saying more upon it, lest by so doing i should inadvertently excite criticism and controversy. i therefore proceed with my proper subject. the following thermometrical observations are from the journal before mentioned. the first column gives the day of the month,--the second shows the hour of the day when the thermometer was examined,--and the third is its height at those several times in the colony of bees upon which my experiments were so successfully made. . at this state of the thermometer april hour ther. it is highly necessary to remove your bees to their summer stand. a great decrease -- of wealth in the hive will appear daily under this temperature; -- and feeding should be resorted to until it rise to : and if -- _moderate feeding_ be continued until the interior temperature reach , it will materially strengthen and invigorate your bees. and as the thermometer continues to rise, you will find -- your hive improve. it will soon be in a good state for the spring. considerable improvements in the combs, and immense gathering -- of farina, appear to occupy the bees at this time. -- the enemies of bees are numerous and active in this month. as much as possible guard against their attacks, and be careful to defend your bees against them. at all times keep their floor-boards clean; and now withdraw the dead bees, if there should appear to be any lying on the floor-boards or other stands. this will save the live bees much labour, and may be done very easily. may hour ther. swarming may be expected in this month if the hives be rich -- and the season favourable. to -- prevent which enlarge your hives, by adding three or four -- rounds, i. e. an eke, to the -- bottom of each of them. -- if you have the collateral-box hives, you need only draw up the tin-slides, or one of them, -- as occasion may require. by this means you enlarge the bees' -- domicil, without admitting the atmospheric air. this move so pleases these indefatigable creatures, that you will behold at once the utility and humanity of this mode of management. -- -- -- should the weather be seasonable, the boxes will now be filled rapidly, and the thermometer will rise quickly. at this period -- ventilation will demonstrate what has hitherto been a secret -- of nature;--viz. many young sovereigns in various states of -- perfection will be seen daily cast -- out of the hives: and the waxen cells will be extended to the -- remotest corners of their domicil. -- riches are now rapidly accumulated: -- and the glasses filled -- with the purest sweets. small glasses may be taken off from -- the inverted-hives, if the weather -- prove fine. -- mem.--a glass of honey, weighing -- lbs. and a collateral-box, -- weighing lbs. taken. -- after taking the above treasure -- from the collateral-hive, -- and placing an empty glass and -- an empty box in the places of those taken off, the interior -- temperature was reduced to -- degrees, while the atmosphere -- was at twelve o'clock at -- night. -- -- the pure honey taken was -- about one-fourth of the weight -- of the hive, and it will be -- observed that the heat shows a decrease in the temperature of -- one fourth. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- june hour ther. -- -- -- mem.--a collateral-box of -- honey, weighing lbs. and a -- glass on the th, weighing - / lbs. taken. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- mem.--a collateral-box, -- weighing lbs. and -- another, weighing lbs. taken. -- -- -- -- -------------------------- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- july hour ther. if the pasturage for bees begin -- to fail in your neighbourhood -- at this time, it is advisable, if -- it be practicable, to remove your colonies to a better and a more -- profitable situation. you will be -- richly rewarded for this attention -- to the prosperity of your apiary. -- -- -- -------------------------------- -- july hour ther. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- summary of memorandums of the several deprivations or takings of honey from one set of boxes this season: may . glass and box lbs. june . box .. ---- . glass - / .. ---- . box .. ---- . ditto .. collateral-box .. -------- - / lbs. did i deem it necessary, i could, from the letters of a variety of highly respectable correspondents, show that the mode of managing bees in the way, and upon the principles, now explained, has been adopted, and _has succeeded_ even beyond the most sanguine expectations of many of my worthy friends and patrons; but i will content myself at present with giving the two following letters, which i have just received from a gentleman in this neighbourhood, whose very name, to all who have any knowledge of or acquaintance with him, will be a sufficient guarantee that his statements are facts. besides, his letters are a condensed, and i must say--clever epitome of my practical directions for the management of bees in my boxes, and may be useful on that account; and moreover, i have, as will be seen presently, his unsolicited authority to make them public, and therefore run no risk of being called to order for so doing. "gedney-hill, th july, . "dear sir, "you will, i am persuaded, excuse me for troubling you with the information that i yesterday took off a fine glass of honey from one of my bee-colonies. i went to work secundum artem, that is, in one word, _scientifically_, or in four words, _according to your directions_; and i have the satisfaction, nay more,--i have the pleasure to add that i succeeded--i had almost said _completely_, but i must qualify that expression by saying, that _i succeeded all but completely_; for one luckless bee had the misfortune to be caught between the edges of the dividing-tin and the glass, and to be crushed to death in consequence. excepting that accident, i believe that not one bee was injured, nor lost. they left the glass, as soon as i gave them the opportunity of leaving it, in the most peaceable manner; in a subdued and plaintive tone they hummed round me,--settled upon me,--crept over me in all directions,--but not one of them stung me; in short, they returned to their home without manifesting the slightest symptoms of resentment, and in less than half an hour from the commencement of the operation, _there was not a single bee left in the glass_. in my eye it is a very handsome glass of honey; it weighs exactly lbs, and it has not one brood-cell in it. i intend to close it up,--to label it,--and to keep it, at least until i get another as handsome. it is a _rich_ curiosity to exhibit to one's friends, especially to those who have never seen such a thing. "on the other side, i send you a fortnight's register of the heights and variations of a thermometer, placed in the colony from which i have taken the glass, and also, of one placed in the shade, and apart from all bees; from which register you will know, in a moment, whether i have managed my bees properly. i am willing to flatter myself that i have, and that you will say i have been very attentive indeed. ther. ther. ther. ther. . in the in the . in the in the july hour colony shade july hour colony shade -------------------------------- ------------------------------- .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. "in addition to this i could, time and space permitting, tell you from what point the wind blew on each of these days, when it came full in front of my boxes, and when it came upon them in any other direction, when it was high, and when it was otherwise, on what days the bees were able to get abroad, and also when they were kept at home by rain, or by any other cause. from these observations of the wind and weather, and particularly from the manner in which the wind is directed towards, or into the ventilators in the boxes, in conjunction with the movements of the bees, i think i can account pretty satisfactorily for what may appear, at first sight, to be a little contradictory, viz. for the rising of the thermometer in the boxes sometimes when it was falling in the shade; and vice versa, for its sometimes rising in the shade when it was falling in the boxes. but instead of writing you a dissertation on these subjects, or on any of them, i choose rather to put you into possession of the whole of my bee-practice, by submitting to your notice a copy, or as nearly as i can make it a copy, of a letter i took the liberty of addressing to the editor of 'the voice of humanity,' in october last, after the appearance in no. v. of that publication, of a representation and _imperfect_ explanation of your boxes. i was encouraged to write that letter by the following announcement in an article in that no.--'a due regard of rational humanity towards the bee, though but an insect, we shall feel a pleasure in promoting in the future as well as the present pages of our publication. this subject has, moreover, a very strong claim, inasmuch as it also exemplifies the grand principle upon which the voice of humanity is founded--the true _prevention of cruelty_ to animals, by substituting a practical, an _improved system_, in the place of one which is defective; this, in reference to the present subject, &c, _is true prevention of cruelty_, not only to units, but to thousands and tens of thousands of animals.' notwithstanding this very _rational_ announcement, and the prompt acknowledgment of the receipt of my letter, it did not appear in either of the next two numbers, nor am i aware that it is in the last, but i have not yet seen the last no. of that publication, therefore must not be positive. but this is not all: in no. , the conductors of that work express i sincere pleasure' in inserting an article which, they say, c forms an admirable addition to that on mr. nutt's bee-hive;' and that 'the plan which it developes, in addition to its humanity, has the recommendation of being more simple and practicable than even the excellent improvements of mr. nutt.' now what do you suppose this _admirable_ addition to your bee-hive,---this plan recommended on account of its _humanity_, as well as on other accounts--is? it is no other than that most cruel and destructive one of depriving bees of their honey _and of every thing else_, by 'driving them out of a full hive into an empty one, so early in the season as to afford the bees sufficient time to provide themselves with another stock of winter food before the bad weather begins.' very considerate this, certainly! but who can tell how soon the bad weather may begin? of all the methods ever resorted to of getting their honey from bees, this, in my humble opinion, is the most cruel and _inhuman_: suffocating the bees and destroying them at once is far preferable to this (i had hoped) exploded mode of robbing them. if practised, it will, however, soon cure itself: but is it not a strange practice for 'the voice of humanity' to revive? either the utterers of that sweet voice are unacquainted with the humane management of bees upon your plan, or they are unaware of the mischievous and destructive consequences attendant on the driving mode of deprivation, or they have little claim to the title they bear on the score of their humanity to bees. i believe the former to be the case with them: and therefore, in addition to the reason already given for troubling you herewith, and in order to set them right on this _vital_ subject, i give you full power to do what you please with these letters. if they will be of any use to you in your projected publication, give them a place in it, and welcome: only do not garble them, _give them entire, if you give them at all_. i am decidedly opposed to the driving scheme; and i as decidedly approve of yours, which is, if properly attended to, at once simple, practicable, profitable, admirable, and truly humane. accept me, dear sir, yours very truly, thomas clark." "mr. editor, "since the publication of the last no. of 'the voice of humanity,' in which you treated your readers with some interesting particulars explanatory of the construction and different parts of mr. nutt's bee-boxes, and also of the mode of managing the bees in them, so far at least as regards the taking away a box when stored with the delicious sweet (i. e. with honey), it has been suggested to me, that a plain, simple history of a colony of bees in my possession, and managed according to mr. nutt's excellent plan, may not be altogether unacceptable to the general readers and friends of 'the voice of humanity' and may be even _a treat_ to amateur apiarians, who may be unacquainted with the merits of mr. nutt's plan; or who, if partially acquainted therewith, may have their doubts as to its practicability, or, at least, as to its advantages, i. e. superiority over other plans. as far, then, as the voice of humanity' can make them (the merits of mr. nutt's plan) known, i trust it will be as music to that voice to publish the following facts. "having had a complete set of mr. nutt's boxes presented to me, i, though comparatively a novice in apiarian science, and not at that time particularly attached to it, could not, in compliment to the donor, do less than endeavour to work them, that was--get them stocked. that was done with a swarm on the th of may ; and the middle-box, or pavilion of nature, as mr. nutt calls it, into which the said swarm was taken just in the same way it would have been if put into a common straw-hive, was conveyed a distance of nearly four miles and placed in my garden in the evening of the same day. the next day being fine, i observed that the bees were very busy constructing comb, and had, within twenty-four hours of their being domiciled in their new abode, actually made a progress in that most curious work that astonished me: they were passing and re-passing, and literally all alive; many were visibly loaded with materials for their ingenious work. my curiosity was excited, and so much was i pleased with my multitudinous labourers that i visited them daily, and many times in the course of each day, when the weather was favourable for their getting abroad. their combs were rapidly advanced; but to my great mortification they very soon obstructed my view of their interior works, by bringing a fine comb quite over the only little window at the back of the pavilion, at the distance of about half an inch from the glass. i was not, however, without the means of ascertaining that they were filling the pavilion with their treasures, and consequently that they would soon be in want of more room. i, therefore, at the end of a fortnight admitted them into the large bell-glass by withdrawing the slide, which, when closed, cuts oft' the communication between the pavilion and the said glass. they (the bees) immediately reconnoitred it, as it were, and examined it round and round, and presently took possession of it in great numbers; and in the course of the second day afterwards i could perceive that they began to continue their work upwards from and upon the combs in the box. here i was again inexpressibly gratified by daily observing the progress of their beautiful work, and by the busy thousands in perpetual motion. when they had about half-filled the glass, and before i was aware that there was any occasion for their admission into either of the collateral-boxes, they suddenly threw off a swarm. that event i attribute partly to my own inexperience in apiarian matters, and partly--principally to the want of a thermometer by which to ascertain and regulate the temperature of the crowded pavilion, so as to keep the bees _at the working, and below the swarming point of heat_. mr. nutt assures me that a barn would not contain a colony of bees if its temperature were raised above a certain degree. what that precise degree of heat is i leave to mr. nutt to determine and explain: at present it is enough to state that i am convinced it is possible, nay, quite easy, to keep bees at work, and to prevent their swarming, by giving them plenty of room, and by proper ventilation. after my bees had thrown off the swarm, as above mentioned, the work in the glass progressed but slowly, indeed it was for some time almost deserted, owing, i presume, to the room made in the pavilion by the absence of the thousands that had left it: for, whenever the weather was such that they could get abroad, they were always busy. the season, however, it is well-known, was so wet as to be very unfavourable for bees:--the summer of was not by any means what is called a bee-year; and early in the autumn i could see that, instead of adding to their store, they were under the necessity of living upon it. they were, however, abundantly provided for the winter, and lived through it almost to a bee. in the spring of this year ( ) they appeared to be strong and in excellent condition. as early as the middle of may they had replenished the emptied combs in the glass, and, it may be presumed, in the pavilion too. in the first week of june, the glass was completely filled in the most beautiful manner. i therefore opened the communication to one of the end or collateral-boxes, and two or three days afterwards, viz. on the th of june, i took off the glass and replaced it with another. so rapidly did those industrious little insects proceed with their work, that in about six weeks they completely filled the end-box. i then opened the way to the empty box at the other end of the pavilion: and a few days afterwards had the full box taken off by mr. nutt himself (who happened to call upon me, and who handsomely volunteered his services on the occasion), without any stifling of any sort--without the destruction, or the loss, of--scarcely a bee,--as nearly in the manner described in your last no. as circumstances would permit; for the queen-bee being in the box taken off made it necessary for mr. nutt to vary the operation a little;--not a person was stung, though ladies, very timid ladies, and children too, were among the admiring lookers on; only, in returning the queen-bee, found in the box, to the pavilion, i myself was stung, owing to my over-anxiety to see how she would be received by the bees in the pavilion. her majesty's presence in that box (the box taken off) at that time might probably have puzzled me; but to mr. nutt it presented no difficulty; and to witness his operation was to me a most instructive lesson, and would have delighted any friend of humanity. it was performed in the middle of a fine day. that box contained, as nearly as we could estimate, about lbs. of honey, incomparably purer and finer than any i ever saw, except from mr. nutt's boxes. the glass beforementioned contained lbs.--so that i have this year taken _forty-seven pounds_ of the very finest honey from one stock of bees;--i have all my bees alive--and they are at this time abundantly provided for the ensuing winter; nay, without impoverishing them, i believe, i might take or lbs. more; but i have already had enough; and, if my bees have more than enough for their winter's consumption, they will not waste it;--it will be found next year. "the preservation of the bees unhurt, uninjured, very many of them undisturbed at all,--the quantity of honey that may be had,--and the very superior quality of that honey, are advantages of mr. nutt's mode of bee-management, over the barbarous, stifling system, that cannot fail to recommend it to the adoption of every friend of humanity,--to every lover of the delicious sweet,--and to every apiarian who has nothing beyond self-interest in view. "one word more, and i have done. there are, i observe with pleasure, persons of considerable influence among your subscribers, and probably there may be persons of still greater influence among your readers. to such i would most respectfully suggest the propriety of doing something to reward mr. nutt for the services he has already rendered the honey-bee and the cause of humanity. i--an obscure, country clergyman, know not how to set about procuring it; but a _premium was never more richly deserved_. "though longer than i intended, when i sat down to write, i hope you will find no difficulty in giving the foregoing communication a place in your pages; and, in this hope, i beg to subscribe myself, your humble servant, thomas clark. "gedney-hill, near wisbech, october th, ." chapter v. on driving bees. as my reverend correspondent has introduced the subject of _driving_ bees from their full hive into an empty one, in order that they may be deprived of their honey and wax, and has animadverted upon that practice with some severity, i will take the opportunity of here stating my objections to it. mr. huish, in his treatise on bees, has twice described the manner in which "_driving a hive_" may be performed; but nowhere, that i can find, has he once recommended it. in a note (in page ) he says---that "by _driving a hive_ may be understood the act of obliging the bees to leave their own domicil, and take refuge in another. this is performed by placing the full hive under an empty one, (or he might have said, by placing an empty hive upon the full one inverted) and by gently tapping the lower hive the bees will ascend into the upper, and the lower one then remains vacant for experiments, or the purpose of deprivation." he afterwards (in page ) gives a more detailed account of the manner of performing this operation; and having done so, he presently observes that "by the driving of the bees a number is unavoidably killed." i do not find that mr. huish himself practises it further than for the purpose of making experiments; and that, having made those experiments, he returns the driven bees to their hives and to their treasures in them. in short, he describes it to his readers because they may wish to be acquainted with it, and not because he approves of it. i mention this because i consider mr. huish to be respectable authority on such a subject. now, were there nothing in a hive but bees and honey, driving them into an empty hive (were it as easy in practice as it seems to be upon paper, though i presume it is not) in order to rob them of their all, would be a most arbitrary and unjust method of treating them: but, besides bees and honey, there are other substances in a prosperous hive which ought not to be disturbed. there are the future inhabitants of the colony in every stage of existence, from the egg to the perfect bee, and these in a driven hive are all totally destroyed--eggs, larvæ, nymphs, in one word, _the brood_, in whatever state, is all destroyed, when the bees are driven from it and not suffered to return. and is it not an unnatural operation that thus destroys many thousands of lives in embryo, over and above the "_number unavoidably killed_" thereby? as painful must it be for the queen--the mother of the colony, and to all the other bees, to be _forcibly expelled_ from a hive and home of plenty and prosperity, as it is for an industrious man and his thriving family to be rudely ejected from a comfortable house and home, without the least notice of, or preparation for, so calamitous an event, and forced by lawless marauders to take shelter in an empty house, and left there destitute, to subsist as best they can, or to starve, as probably they may, their spirits being cast down by the violent deprivations and desperate robbery they have experienced, and it may be, the winds, and the weather, and the elements of heaven, are warring, as it were, against them at the same time. and, comparatively speaking, is it not so with _driven_ bees? they are turned topsy-turvy, and in that strange, unnatural position their fears are operated upon, or excited, by unusual, and to them, no doubt, terrible sounds made by even "gently tapping" their inverted-hive--their house turned upside down. though no advocate for suffocating bees, but the contrary--a decided opponent to it, i agree in opinion with my correspondent that suffocation at once is preferable to the very reprehensible practice of "driving a hive," inasmuch as an instantaneous death is preferable to a lingering and unnatural one by starvation, which, whatever may befal the driven bees, is the hard, untimely fate of the brood and young larvæ of a hive when the queen and commoners are driven from them into a new and empty domicil. they leave, because they are forced to leave behind them, and to perish, thousands of the young brood in a state of helplessness. their mother and their nurses are driven into banishment and pauperism, while her offspring are doomed to perish for the want of their aid and support. if driving be practised early in the season, that is in june or july, all the brood then in the driven hive must inevitably perish; if later, it is hardly to be expected that the surviving bees will or can prosper. can the bee-master for a moment think that when bees are so driven from their old hive, they will work in their new one, as if they had swarmed voluntarily and then been put into it: it is some considerable time before bees thus treated will work vigorously; and during that time of lingering and irresolution the honey-season fast declines,--the bees' difficulties multiply,--and they become paupers at a time they should be rich. nine times out of ten the hive so treated perishes by famine, and like the young brood, dies the worst of deaths,--the whole hive becomes a melancholy wreck, and is absolutely sacrificed to the mistaken notions of the speculating, or experiment-making proprietor. it is a practice of which _i disapprove altogether_: and i am surprised that any one could so far misunderstand the principles and nature of my practice as to recommend the driving of bees out of a full hive into an empty one as an admirable addition to my bee-hive--that is--to my bee-boxes. i have the satisfaction, however, to state that in the management of bees in my boxes _no driving is necessary, nor even possible_: by them _driving_ and _suffocation_ are both superseded, and rendered as useless to operators as they have long been destructive to bees,--and, i cannot but say--disgraceful to apiarians. what i have already said (in page ) i will here repeat with as much emphasis as i am able, because that passage comprehends the very essence of my directions relative to the management of bees in the middle-box,--and because those directions are utterly incompatible with _driving_. "i say, then, disturb not this hive--this pavilion of nature: weaken not its population; rut support its influence, and extend to it those accommodations which no practice, except my own, has yet put into operation, or made any adequate provision for. "this humane practice partakes not of the _driving_, nor of the _fumigating_, nor of the _robbing_ system. it is a _liberal principle_ of bee-cultivation, founded on _humanity_. and it is by such practice that we must succeed, if we hope to be benefited in the culture of honey-bees." chapter vi. inverted-hive. many useful discoveries have been made by accident;--and to some of the greatest and grandest of those discoveries even philosophers and men of science have been led by accidents apparently the most trifling and insignificant. to the playful tricks of some little children that astonishing and most scientific instrument--the telescope, it is said, owes its origin; and it is said also that that great and good man--sir isaac newton was led to investigate the laws of gravitation by accidentally observing an apple topple to the ground from the twig that had borne it. one of the sweetest of our poets, however, informs us--that all nature is but art, unknown to thee, all chance, direction, which thou canst not see. if, therefore, a beautifully delicate honey-comb suspended from the stool of a hive first led me to discover the utility of ventilation in a colony of bees, though there may be nothing very surprising, there is, i trust,--nay, i am convinced, and therefore i assert--there is something very useful in it: and if an accident of another description induced me to endeavour to turn it to advantage, there is nothing to be greatly wondered at. so, however, it happened; and here follows the account of it. on rising early one morning in july , and walking into my apiary, as my custom then was, and still is, i discovered that some malicious wretch had been there before me, and had overturned a fine colony of bees. the reader may judge how much my indignation was aroused by that dastardly act of outrage against my unoffending bees. my feelings of vexation soon, however, subsided into those of pity for my poor bees; and fortunately for them, no less than for me, their overturned domicil, which consisted of a hive eked or enlarged by a square box upon which i had placed it some weeks previously, was so shaded from or towards the east by a thick fence, that the rays of the sun had not reached it;--this compound-hive, and the countless thousands that were clustering around it, were prostrate in the shade. i viewed my distressed bees for a considerable time, and studied and planned what i might best do to relieve them, and, if possibly i could, rescue them from the deplorable situation into which they had been thrown. at length i determined to reverse the whole, which i effected by first carefully drawing the box as closely as i was able to the edge of the hive, and then placing the hive upon its crown, so that, in fact, the whole domicil was inverted. i shaded, protected, shored-up, and supported the bees, their exposed works, and their hive, in the best way i could, and afterwards reluctantly left them for the day, being under the necessity of going from home a distance of almost twenty miles, viz. to wisbech. on my return in the evening i could discern evident proofs of the willingness of the bees to repair the sore injury they had sustained; and on the third day afterwards i was highly pleased to witness the progress their united efforts had made to rescue their dilapidated habitation from the ruin that had threatened it and them too, and which, i confess, i had anticipated. i was particularly attentive to their movements. i assisted them by every means i could devise. they gradually surmounted all the difficulties to which they had been exposed. in short, they prospered; and from that malicious trick of some miscreant or other i first caught the idea of an _inverted-hive_, which i have since studied and greatly improved. every bee-master will have had opportunities of observing--that this curious, i may say--intelligent, little insect--the bee, is ever alive to the most ready methods of extricating itself from difficulties, and of bettering the condition of the state, whenever accident or misfortune has placed it in jeopardy: and, i will add--that the timely assistance of the bee-master will frequently save a stock from that ruin, or at least from that trouble and inconvenience, which apparently trivial circumstances, such for instance as uncleanliness, excessive heat in summer, intense severity of winter, too contracted an entrance at one season, a too extended and open one at another, or wet lodged on and retained by the floor-board, may, and very often do occasion. the subjoined cut is a representation of an inverted-hive fixed in its frame, trellised, roofed, completely fitted up, and just as it appears when placed in an apiary and stocked with bees. [illustration] explanation of an inverted-hive. a. is a stout octagon-box, in which is to be placed an _inverted cottage-hive_ containing the bees. its diameter within the wood, i mean its _clear diameter_, is seventeen inches, and its depth, or rather its height, is fifteen or sixteen inches, or just sufficient to reach to, and be level with, the edge of the inverted cottage-hive, when placed within it: in fact, the octagon-box (a.) is a strong case or cover for the inverted-hive; and, if made an inch or two deeper than the hive to be placed in it, it is an easy matter to pack the bottom, so that the edge of the hive and the top-edge of the octagon-box (a.) may be exactly on a level. fitted and fastened to this is a top or floor, made of three-fourths-inch deal, which top should sit closely upon the edge of the hive all round. the centre of this top is cut out circularly to within an inch and a half of the inner circumference or edge of the hive upon and over which it is placed. upon this floor is a box, made of inch or inch-and-quarter deal, seventeen inches square within, and four inches deep. this i call the ventilation-box, because through two of its opposite sides are introduced horizontally two cylinder ventilating-tubes, made of tin, thickly perforated, and in all respects similar to those described in page . the top of this box is the floor upon which nine glasses are placed for the reception of honey, namely--a large bell-glass in the centre, and eight smaller ones around it. by a _large_ bell-glass i mean--one capable of containing twelve or fourteen pounds of honey, and by _smaller_ ones--such as will hold about four pounds. the bees of an inverted-hive in a good situation will work well in glasses of these sizes, and soon fill some or all of them: but, if in an unfavourable situation, lesser glasses, down to one-half the abovementioned sizes, will be more suitable. situation, season, and strength of the stock,--strength, i mean, as respects the number of bees, must, after all, guide the apiarian in this matter. the floor abovementioned should be made of three-fourths-inch deal. of course proper apertures must be cut through this floor under each of the glasses to admit the bees into them from the box beneath. around and over the glasses is placed another neat box or case, made like the ventilation-box, upon which it rests or stands. the lid of this box is made to open and shut. it is represented in the foregoing cut as opened at b. an inch or two, and may be so retained at pleasure by a proper weight attached to a cord passed over a pulley fixed in the inside of the roof (c.) and fastened to the edge of the lid above b. the depth of the box or cover for the glasses must of course be regulated according to their different sizes. the alighting-board is on the front-side, directly opposite to the latticed doors, and on a level with the upper-side of the first floor; so that the entrance for the bees must be cut through the lower edge of the ventilation-box; and is made there most conveniently for them to pass either into the inverted pavilion below, or into the glasses above such entrance, as their inclinations may direct. the octagon-cover placed upon the pavilion-hive, as represented in the view of the closed boxes (in page ) if _inverted_, would be a tolerably good model of part a. of the inverted-hive. i advise that every part be well-made--the floors and the boxes particularly so; and that the whole exterior be well painted too, previously to being exposed to the sun and to the weather. this advice has reference to all my boxes and hives, collateral as well as inverted. the stocking of this hive may be effected in the following manner. having made choice of a good, healthy, well-stocked, cottage-hive, you may, at any time between the beginning of march and the end of october, _carefully invert and place it in the octagon below the ventilation-box_, that is, in the apartment (a.) then fasten the floor with four short screws to the top of the octagon, taking especial care that this floor sits upon the edge of the inverted-hive all round. it will be necessary to keep the bees from annoying you whilst adjusting this floor and the other parts of the hive, by putting a sheet of tin over the open circular space in the floor; by which tin every bee may be kept in the hive below. when the boxes, ventilators, glasses, and all things, are duly adjusted, the dividing-tin may be withdrawn; and the operation of stocking will be then completed. another method of accomplishing the same object, i. e. of stocking an inverted-hive, is this: take the floor that is to rest upon, and be fastened to, the top of the octagon a. and that is to rest also upon the hive when inverted, and with a sheet of tin cover and securely close the circular space made by cutting out its centre: then invert it, that is--let the tinned side be undermost, and place upon this floor, thus prepared, the hive you intend to be inverted. return it to, and suffer it to occupy, its usual place in your apiary; and _there_ for two or three weeks let it work in which time the bees will have fastened the hive to their new board with propolis. then, early in the morning, or late in the evening, when all the bees are in the hive, make up the entrance, and, having two doors made in opposite panels or sides of the octagon (a.) ten inches by six, or sufficiently commodious for the admission of your hands, _steadily invert_ your hive and prepared board upon which it has been standing, and, without sundering from the hive the board that will now be at its top, _carefully_ place them in the octagon; which, with the help of an assistant, and by the facility afforded by the two little doors in the panels of the octagon for staying and properly supporting and adjusting the hive and its attached floor, may be performed without the escape of a single bee. as soon as this, which is properly the inversion of the hive, is completed, proceed with the ventilation-box, glasses, &c. as before directed; and, lastly, be careful to liberate the bees by withdrawing the tin that has kept them prisoners since the entrance was closed. in inverting a hive by this method an expert apiarian need not confine the bees five minutes. the bees will commence their labour by filling the square box between the pavilion and the glasses; they will then extend their beautiful combs into the glasses above. the appearance of their most curious works in this stage of their labour is highly interesting--nay, gratifying, to the apiarian observer; and, moreover, proves the extraordinary influence and utility of ventilation in the domicil, or, rather let me say, in the store-house apartment of bees; for in the pavilion, or breeding and nursing apartment, it is seldom wanted. the method of taking off the glasses, whether large ones or small ones, when stored with honey, is in every respect the same as that of which a particular account has been already given, (in pages and ): to that account, therefore, i beg to refer the reader, instead of here repeating it. chapter vii. observatory-hive. having now given such a description and explanation of my _collateral box-hives_, and of my _inverted-hive_, as will, by referring to the plates or cuts that accompany them, make both of those hives, and every thing pertaining to them, to be clearly understood; i proceed to explain, in the next place, my observatory-hive. with the help of the subjoined representative figures or cuts, i hope to succeed in my endeavour to make the reader thoroughly acquainted with every part of it, novel, though it be, and, as far as i know, unlike any hive hitherto invented. at first sight it may probably appear to be a piece of complicate machinery, but upon examination it will be found to be otherwise--i may say--simple and easy. a little curiosity and a little patient attention are all the requisites that i entreat my apiarian friends to bring with them to the studying of this _grand hive_. i call it _grand_, not because it is my own invention, but because it is admirably adapted for advancing, and perhaps for perfecting, our knowledge of the habits and economy of honey-bees. with the variation of one short word, the following passage from evans' delightful poem on bees is so applicable to my observatory-hive that i am tempted to adopt it as a motto. by this bless'd hive our ravish'd eyes behold the singing masons build their roofs of gold; and mingling multitudes perplex the view, yet all in order apt their tasks pursue; still happier they, whose favour'd ken hath seen pace slow and silent round, the state's fair queen. [illustration] the observatory-hive, as here exhibited in fig. , consists of two apartments--an upper one and a lower one. the upper one, (marked a. b. c. d. e. e.) is properly the observatory-hive, and may be called the summer-pavilion; the lower one, (marked g.) may be termed the winter-pavilion. of this winter-pavilion but little need be said, except that it is an octagonal box, in size, in substance, and in every respect, similar to the octagon-part of the _inverted-hive_ described in the last chapter; save only that its top must not be cut away, as is there directed to be done. at present let us suppose this top to be a perfect plane--an entire surface, without any aperture of any sort to form a passage for the bees from and through it down into the pavilion below; farther let us suppose an alighting-board of the usual size to be fixed in front, and on a level with this floor or top; then the quære will be--how, from the same front-entrance, the bees are to have a passage both into the observatory-hive above, and into the winter-pavilion below? the difficulty is--to get a convenient passage into the summer-pavilion, because the whole of that pavilion is made to turn round on the shoulder of an upright shaft, through which shaft the passage for the bees must of necessity be made, and which does not admit of a bore of above an inch in diameter. as, however, this narrow, perpendicular passage is of no great length, (it need not be more than three inches) many thousands of bees will, in the course of a few minutes, if necessary, make their egress and regress through it without incommoding one another. that this rather intricate part--the construction of this passage-work--may be fully comprehended, i will endeavour to illustrate it by references to a well-known article, now standing on the table, on which i am writing. it is a telescopic candlestick, the pedestal of which covers a square space upon my table, each side of which superficial square is three inches. now suppose this candlestick was screwed or glued to the centre of the plain, tabular top of the octagon (g.) having one of its sides parallel to that side of the floor to which the alighting-board is attached. next, suppose _that_ side of the candlestick to be cut away so as to form an entrance into the interior of the pedestal, two inches in front and half an inch in height; and let there be a covered-way of this height, from the opened side of the pedestal to the front-entrance of the hive: then, if the front-entrance be six inches wide, the bees on coming in will enter this covered-way, which from six inches narrows to three at the part where they enter the pedestal, and begin to ascend the perpendicular passage which leads through it and through the upright shaft of the candlestick into the--at present--_supposed_ apartment above. the top-part of a telescopic candlestick may be turned round at pleasure; consequently, if the pedestal be fixed and made immoveable, the top, and whatever may be upon that top and fastened to it, may be moved round notwithstanding: this is what we particularly want in the construction of an observatory-hive, and must, therefore, be particularly attended to. a piece of clean, close-grained wood--beech, elder, mahogany, or any other firm wood--made much in the shape of our telescopic candlestick, but of not more than two inches and a half in height, with a bore through it of an inch in diameter, and turned, that is, wrought in a lathe, so that an inch of the top-part may enter into, and neatly fit, the cap fixed round the inch bore at the centre of the bottom-frame of the upper pavilion (fig ), and which cap is represented by the moveable top of the candlestick, is, as well as i can describe it, the pedestal to support the observatory-hive,--is, with the cap just mentioned, the compound, or double-hinge upon which that hive is turned round,--and is also the bee-way into that hive. the way into the winter-pavilion, or octagon (g.) is made by cutting a circular hole through the very centre of the plane top, an inch in diameter, directly under the upward passage; so that the bees, whether their way be into the summer-pavilion above, or into the winter-pavilion below, lies through the pedestal, and the only difference is, that one passage leads upwards and the other downwards. the covered-way which has been so often mentioned, may easily be made by taking out of the under-side of the bottom-board of the paneled and roofed box, made to secure the observatory-hive, and which is placed upon the top of the winter-pavilion, just as much as will allow a sufficient space for that way. having completed the passages, my next business is--to describe the novel apartment into which the passage through the pedestal leads--that is, the real observatory-hive. figure shows the upper glass-frame of this hive with two small circular openings through the top of each arm, over which openings are placed small glasses, (at e. e.) in both figures, for receptacles for honey, and are intended to answer the same purpose as those do which are placed upon the inverted-hive. a line drawn from one extremity of any one of these arms or wings, to the extremity of the arm or wing directly opposite to it, is twenty-three inches; and the distance between the dotted lines, which are intended to mark the glass-way, or, in joiners' phrase, the _rebate_ to receive the edges of the glass, is exactly one inch and three-fourths. the lower glass-frame, which (in fig. ) is placed upon f. the shaft of the pedestal already described, is the exact counterpart of the upper frame, with the exception of its not having any perforations for honey-glasses: the only perforation in this frame is that at its centre; which must be made to correspond with that of the shaft, and be a continuation of the bee-passage into the hive. these two frames are connected and made one by four upright pieces, or ends, (marked a. b. c. d. in fig. ,) these upright, end-pieces must be rebated, or channeled, to receive the ends of the glass-plates. eight squares of glass, each ten inches and a half by ten inches, fastened with putty into this frame-work,--that is, two squares into each wing, will complete the glass-hive; which, when placed upon the top of the pedestal, and made steady by an axis fixed at the central point of the upper frame, and turning in a socket under the ball, constitutes _an observatory-hive_. confined as is the space between the glass-plates in each wing, they being but an inch and three-fourths apart, there is, nevertheless, room enough for the construction of one comb; and space for more than one comb would spoil it as an observatory-hive: and, though each wing may appear to be but small, there are upwards of cubic inches of clear space in the hive. it is so constructed that plenty of light and the utmost transparency are afforded for observing and minutely examining the bees and the works of the bees in all their stages. indeed the grand object of this contrivance is--to expose to view the labours of the bees in the inside of their hive; and as the machine may be moved round at pleasure, not a bee can enter it, without being observed, nor can a single cell be constructed in secret. i will only add--that the appearance of the bees in this hive is beautiful, and excites admiration and surprise,--nay, is capable of enlivening the drooping spirits of the most desponding apiarian; for who can view the queen of the hive constantly laying her eggs, and, by so doing, constantly propagating her species, and her thousands of loyal subjects, whose indefatigable labour in all its parts is so conspicuous, without experiencing sensations of the purest pleasure,--nay, more of gratitude to god for his goodness to man! it has been suggested to me by some ingenious friends--that a couple of magnifying glasses set in the doors, and some mechanical contrivance to open a part of the roof by simply pulling a cord, and to throw a proper light upon the four wings of the hive, would be a great improvement; because, by these means, or by some such means as these, the opening and shutting of the doors would be rendered unnecessary,--and, because the bees and their curious works would be more interesting by being viewed through magnifying glasses,--and because the exterior appearance of the whole concern would be more handsome. without the slightest hesitation i admit--that, to those persons to whom expense is no object, the mode of examining the observatory-hive would be improved by some such arrangements as those just mentioned; but _the hive itself would not be improved in the least_,--it would remain just as it was before these costly additions, whether ornamental, or useful, or both, were made to its covering only--_not to the hive_. the following cut will, in some degree, represent and tacitly explain an observatory-hive, fitted up in this way. [illustration] the mode of stocking an observatory-hive. this operation may be performed in various ways, and almost at any time during the summer months, by an experienced apiarian. i will content myself with describing _how_ it may be done most easily, if not most scientifically, by any person possessed of courage enough to operate at all among bees. it is as follows: when your bees swarm from a cottage-hive, take it (the swarm) into a common hive in the usual way place it in a cool, shaded situation, and let it remain there until the evening; and even then attempt no further operation, unless the bees be all settled and quite still. when they are all within their hive, peaceable, and retired, as it were, for the night, you may suddenly strike them from their hive upon a clean, white sheet, spread over a table prepared and ready for the purpose, and within the space occupied, or rather--enclosed, by four bricks placed edgewise. upon these bricks place your glass-hive as expeditiously as possible with its entrance just over the bees. then envelope your hive with a cloth so as to darken its interior, and, lastly, throw the corners of the sheet over the whole. this done, the bees will presently ascend into the wings of the hive. when they are all safely lodged in it, you may carefully remove the sheet and the other coverings; and, having securely made up the entrance into the winter-pavilion, then place the stocked hive upon its pedestal, and the bees will be ready to commence their labour the next day. at the latter end of august invert the parent-hive from which the swarm issued, and place it in the octagon-box (g.) below the summer-pavilion. take out the plug that is between the two hives, that is--open the passage into the winter-hive, and you will have accomplished the union of the two families: they will join or unite, and thenceforward continue to labour as one family. by this movement you give to your bees a winter-residence, secure from all enemies, which are numerous at this season. and so well-stocked will the winter-hive be, that an early swarm from it, for the observatory-hive, the following season may reasonably be expected. the honey may be taken from the e. e. glasses, placed upon the arms of the summer-pavilion so easily, by turning round the loose boards under the glasses, that further explanation is unnecessary. the machine itself will point out to the perfect stranger the proper method of doing it. chapter viii. fumigation. fumigation is a rather portentous word; but, as soon as i shall have explained for what purposes, and in what manner, i occasionally make use of it, it will be totally divested of all deadly signification. in my practice it is not a bee-destroyer, but a bee-preserver;--when resorted to by me it is never carried, nor intended to be carried, to suffocation: but, in the operation of uniting weak swarms or poor stocks with more wealthy and prosperous ones--which i consider to be a meritorious and most humane practice,--when it is necessary to examine the state and condition of even a populous colony, should unfavourable symptoms as to its healthiness or its prosperity manifest themselves,--when it is known, or but suspected, that there are wax-moths, mice, spiders, or other bee-enemies lodged in a hive, which the bees of themselves cannot dislodge nor get rid of; and which, if not got rid of by man's assistance, would soon destroy almost any colony,--when bees and their works (for i never transfer the former without transferring an ample sufficiency of the latter at the same time) are to be taken out of a decayed straw-hive, in order to be put into a more substantial one, or into collateral-boxes, which i hold to be the best of all hives,--and on innumerable other occasions, it is absolutely necessary _to subdue bees_ so far as to render them incapable of using that formidable, venomous, little weapon, with which providence has armed them, and which generally dreaded little weapon they can use so dexterously, before we can operate upon them for their own good. by means of a very simple apparatus, which may be called _a fumigator_, and which is a contrivance as novel and as useful in the management of bees, as any of my hives or other inventions, _bees may be totally subdued without being injured in the slightest degree, and dealt with as if they had neither stings nor wings_. i beg, however, to re-state distinctly--that, in taking off a box or a glass of honey, _no fumigation whatever is necessary_, or ever practised by me. it is only in cases such as those just enumerated that i have recourse to it; but in no case for the destruction of bees. fumigation, therefore, in my practice, is not suffocation. the following figure is a representation of a fumigator, which a brief explanation will render intelligible. [illustration] this useful article consists of a square top-board upon which is placed a straw-hive (e.) so as to show an open, circular space under the hive and through the square board into the bag below. i need hardly observe--that the straw-hive is no part of the fumigator, but is here represented as standing upon it in order to exemplify its use. the top-board is of inch-deal, and is nineteen or twenty inches square. a round piece is cut out of its centre of not more than thirteen inches in diameter--that being something near to, or perhaps rather more than, the inside diameter of a common hive--so that a hive will stand upon the wooden circumference of the part left, without there being any ledge inside, that is--any part so enclosed by the hive as to catch and detain the falling bees. from the upper-edge of this circle is suspended a bag, a yard in length, made of glazed calico, the bottom-part of which draws round the rim of a shallow, funnel-shaped, tin bee-receiver, which bee-receiver is about ten inches across at the top, and its lower part, or neck (d. or f.) is three inches and a half in length, and its throat (if i may so term it) is nearly three inches in width. to fit this neck, which is thickly perforated for the purpose of admitting fresh air, when fresh air may be required, is a close lid, just like that of a common, tin canister, to hold up the fumigated bees, and also to stop the ventilation when not wanted. c. is the fumigating-lamp with a perforated top through which the fume ascends, and is made conical, so that a fumigated bee in its fall cannot rest upon it and be thereby scorched or injured, as would inevitably be the case were this top flat. the tie (b.) closes the bag and keeps every bee above until the lamp and every thing below be adjusted, and it is _then_ to be untied. the fumigator is here represented as standing upon three legs made fast to the top-board by small bolts, as at a.; but it is quite as convenient in practice, and more portable, if, instead of these legs, it be made like a common scale with a cord from each corner, which may be gathered into a small iron-hook, and thereby suspended from the branch of a tree, or from any other convenient place, when used. the lower part of the bag is represented as being transparent, but that is done purposely to show how the lamp is placed inside when prepared for operation. by persons inexperienced in such matters it may be thought to be an extraordinary feat to unite the bees of one hive with those of another---to bind, as it were, the legs and wings, and pro tempore, to render useless the sting of every individual bee, until such union be effected. nothing, however, is more easy; nor is any part of apiarian practice attended with more pleasing consequences to the operator, or with more important and beneficial ones to the bees themselves. when in a state of temporary intoxication from the fume made to ascend through the perforated tin (c.) into their hive, these beautiful insects are perfectly manageable,--perfectly harmless. this intoxicating fume is caused by introducing into the fumigating-lamp a piece of ignited vegetable substance, called puck, puckball, or frog-cheese, or, most commonly, _fuzzball_. it is a species of fungus, or mushroom, and is plentiful enough in the autumn in rank pastures and in rich edishes. shepherds, milk-maids, or country-school boys are well acquainted with them,--know very well where to find them,--and for a mere trifle will easily pick up as many of them as will supply the demands of twenty apiarians. they are frequently as large as a man's head, or larger. in i had an unripe, white puckball, which weighed ten pounds. when ripe they are internally of a brown colour, and turning spongy and powdery become exceedingly light, and are then properly _fuzzballs_. for the substance of the following directions respecting the preparation of fuzzballs for bee-fumigation, and for its application to that occasionally necessary purpose, i have no hesitation in acknowledging myself to be indebted to thorley's treatise on bees--no mean authority on such a subject. when you have procured one of these pucks, put it into a large piece of stout paper,--press it down therein to two-thirds, or, if you can, to one-half, of its original size, and then tie it up closely,--and, lastly, put it into an oven sometime after the household bread has been drawn, that is, when the oven is nearly cool, and let it remain there all night, or, until it will hold fire and smother away like touch-wood, i. e. burn without kindling into flame. in this state it is fit for the fumigating-lamp, and may be used in the manner following, when the union of two stocks is the apiarian's object. take a piece of this prepared fungus, as large as a hen's egg, (it is better to have too much of it than too little to begin with) ignite one end of it with a candle, and then put it into the fumigating-lamp,--next fix the lamp in its socket over the bee-receiver, and place the whole inside the bag, as shown in the plate, and untie b--the fastening round the middle. in a very short space of time the bees in the hive placed upon the top-board (which is necessarily the first thing to be attended to in every operation of this kind) will be totally under your control. the operator should be particularly careful to close every vacancy, however small, that there may happen to be between the top-board and the edge of the hive, by tying a cloth round it--the hive--as soon as ever it is placed upon the board. this precaution will prevent the escape of any of the fume, and will also prevent the bees from annoying the operator during the time he is making the arrangements necessary previously to every fumigating process. in the course of a minute or very little more you will hear the bees dropping like hail into their receiver, at the bottom of the fumigating apparatus. when the major part of them are down, and you hear but few fall, gently beat the top of the hive with your hands, in order to get as many down as you can. then, having loosened the cloth, lift the hive off and set it upon a table, or upon a broad board, prepared for the purpose, and knocking the hive against it several times, many more bees will fall down, and perhaps the queen amongst the rest; for, as she generally lodges near the crown of the hive, or is driven thither by the fume, and surrounded and protected there by the other bees to the very last, and as long ever they have the power loyally to cling round her, she often falls one of the last. if the queen is not among the bees on the table, search for her among the main body in the bee-receiver; first, however, putting them upon the table, if you discover her not before lying among the uppermost bees therein. during this search for the queen, or with as little delay as possible, you, or some one for you, should be proceeding in a similar manner with the bees in the other hive, with which those already fumigated are to be united. as soon as the bees of the hive last fumigated are all composed and quiet, and you have found and secured one of the queens, you may put the bees of both hives together into an empty one, for the purpose of mingling them thoroughly together, and of sprinkling them at the same time with a little ale and sugar; this done, put them and _one only_ of the two queens among the combs of the hive you intend them to inhabit, and gently shake them down into it. when you have thus got all the bees of your two hives into one, cover it with a cloth and closely bind the corners of that cloth about it, and let them stand during that night and the next day, shut or closed up in this manner, so that a bee may not get out; but not so close as to smother them for want of air. in the evening of the following day, having previously removed the hive, containing your united-stock, to its proper stand, viz. that which it had occupied before the operation, loose the corners of the cloth and remove it from the mouth of the hive, and the bees will, with a great noise, immediately sally forth; but being too late to take wing, they will presently go in again; and remain satisfied in and with their new abode--new at least, to one-half of them, and new to the other half also when transferred into a fresh hive, or into boxes. but in taking away the cloth discretion and caution must be used, because the bees will for some time resent the affront put upon them by such to them, no doubt, offensive treatment. the best time of the year for unions of weak stocks with strong ones is in autumn, after the young brood are all out--in the latter part of august, or any time during september: but for removals of stocks from straw-hives into boxes, the best time is early in the spring before the eggs of the queen have changed and quickened into larvæ,--i will say--in the month of march; and if the weather is cold, it is advisable to perform the operation in a room where the temperature is about degrees. for if bees are displaced, that is--taken from their hive, in a cold atmosphere, it is but rarely that they recover from the effects of the fume so as to marshal themselves into working order in a box or new hive. but this they can do, and will do most effectually, under this agreeable temperature. as twelve hours are sufficient for the bees to regain their former independency in their new domicil, you may place them at the end of that period on their summer stool, and they will work, as soon as the weather will permit them, as if they had never been removed from their former hive, nor in any way disturbed. the great number of operations of this kind, which i have performed before hundreds of admiring and gratified spectators, chiefly of the higher ranks of society, renders it almost unnecessary for me to observe--that once being present at and witnessing it, will convey a more perfect idea of the whole performance than any written description of it can give. if, however, any gentleman, or other apiarian friend, who has not yet seen the performance of this operation, should be desirous of witnessing it, the author will freely undertake that, or any other bee-service in his power, by which he can oblige, assist, or instruct him. the same degree of precaution is not necessary on the removing of the bees of a cottage-hive on my principle; it is only requisite in the particular case of joining or uniting two or more hives together, that such nice management need be observed. and certainly the more expeditiously the whole is performed, the more pleasing will be the result of the operation, and the more certain of success. i will conclude this subject with an anecdote:--in the year , i was engaged by the honourable lady gifford, of roehampton, to unite the bees of two hives; and as the operation was novel to the spectators, who on that occasion consisted principally of the branches of that worthy family,--when i had drawn the bees from the cottage-hive and they were all spread on a white cloth, and every eye was anxiously intent upon discovering the queen-bee, there was some trouble in finding that particular bee; even i myself--an old practitioner--had overlooked her; and having occasion to leave the table and my fumigated bees surrounded by my young lord and lady gifford, and by the rest of her ladyship's family, her infant son, in the arms of his nurse, eagerly called out--"mamma, mamma, what is that?" hearing the child's animated expression, i returned to the table, and instantly beheld and caught the queen of the bees,--and her actually pointed out by an infant not three years of age. is there any excuse then for not knowing the queen-bee? and, as a true description of this bee and of the office she fulfils in the hive, will be given in the course of this work, accompanied with a plate of her and also of the other bees, i trust my bee-friends will not hereafter allow a child of only three years of age (although that child was the son of a late attorney-general,) to excel them in this particular point of apiarian knowledge, which is not only highly interesting, but very useful to the operator, when uniting stocks, or transferring bees from one domicil to another. never shall i forget the look of satisfaction that beamed on the countenance of the affectionate mother. to see each of her eight amiable children around the table with her ladyship, minutely searching every little cluster of bees, in order to give the first information of the queen, was a lovely sight; but to hear her infant son proclaim, as it were, the queen of the bees, by pointing his little, delicate finger to the object of his curiosity, and exclaim--"mamma, mamma, what is that?" was most gratifying even to me. well might the little naturalist inquire--"what is that?" when he was in the presence of royalty, and pointing to one of the most extraordinary monarchs in the world, while i myself--an old practitioner, had not previously observed her. be it so, i acknowledge my oversight in this instance, and feel it incumbent on me to give the merit of the discovery to him, to whom on that occasion it was so justly due. chapter ix. objections against piling boxes. having gone through the explanation of my different hives, and of all my bee-machinery, i will, previously to entering upon other matters, here state my objections to the piling of bee-boxes one upon another, which is sometimes, and not improperly, called--_storifying_. it is also termed super-hiving, nadir-hiving, or centre-hiving, according to the place occupied by the added box: if an empty box be placed upon a stocked one, it is _super-hiving_;--if put _under_ such box, it is _nadir-hiving_;--and if introduced _between_ two boxes, it is _centre-hiving_. but with whatever term dignified--not to say--mystified, it amounts to, and in effect is--_storifying_. from an old book in my possession i find--that in a patent was granted to john gedde, to secure to him for a term of fourteen years the advantages of his invention of boxes for storifying; so that it is at least of a hundred and sixty years' standing. after gedde it was successively adopted and encouraged by rusden, warder, and thorley, and has been the fashionable or fancy practice down to the present day; for it is a mode of managing bees that has been recommended by some modern authors,--principally, if i mistake not, by dr. bevan; and it is practised by some bee-masters, who, i am told, consider it to be the most humane mode, and the only humane mode of managing honey-bees. i have no wish to depreciate the inventions and labours of others, nor to offend any man, and particularly that man who has exerted himself so much to better the condition of the honey-bee. if he has been mistaken in the means to be employed to gain so desirable an end, and in my humble opinion he certainly has been mistaken, every praise is due to him for his good intentions. my first objection to the piling system is--because it occasions a great deal of extra trouble, labour, and inconvenience to the bees, and consequently prevents their collecting so great a quantity of honey and wax as they will do where they are not subjected to these drawbacks. and where, i would fain know, is the humanity in increasing and obstructing the labours of these indefatigable, little insects? is it not inhumanity to force them to deposit their treasures in a garret, two or three stories high, when a far more convenient store-room may be provided for them on the first floor? let not, then, the piling advocate of the present day any longer recommend this faulty practice, nor erroneously contend that the elevating of boxes one upon another, is the best and only way of ensuring an abundance of honey and wax. but fairly to get at the merits--not to say--demerits of this practice, i will examine it a little in detail. first, then, the piling practitioner puts a swarm of bees into a box, which i will call box a. this box, if prosperous, of course soon becomes a pavilion of nature,--that is, it soon contains quantities of brood-comb, young brood, larvæ, and embryo bees in various stages of existence. it is allowed to stand alone until it be filled, or nearly filled, with the bees' works. it requires no great skill to know that the contents of box a. at this period are as just described. when nearly full it is placed upon another box (b.) to prevent what is called the maiden-swarm. this box, like box a. is quickly filled with combs: the queen too follows her labourers and progressively lays her eggs even to the lowest edges of the combs. of course box b, like box a. soon contains quantities of brood. the second box (b.) gets full just as the first did, and as a cottage-hive does--not with pure honey, but with brood, pollen or farina, and other substances, as well as with honey; in short, there is no provision for, nor means of, dividing the works of the working bees from the works of the queen-bee; consequently they become, as _of necessity_ they must become--one promiscuous mass. the brood continues to increase and occupies that part of the box which should be of pure honey and wax. this goes on until more room is wanted; and _then_ it is that the two full boxes (a. and b.) are exalted and placed upon the third and last box (c.) this, however, does not mend the matter; but, as will be seen presently, it does occasion a great deal of additional labour and inconvenience to the bees. in the meantime they carry on their works of nature and of art--they construct new combs and store some of the cells with honey, and the queen lays her eggs in others, just as in the other boxes. the fact is--the three boxes soon become as one: they soon become and continue to be of one temperature,--the same compound of the old hive,--the brood-cells are intermixed with those containing honey,--wreaths of pollen are: in every pile,--and animated nature is everywhere peeping from the waxen cells, in which nothing but pure honey should have been deposited. but this is not all, nor the worst part; though bad enough, if _purity of honey_ be any consideration. it is a fact known by me and by every one at all experienced in the management of an apiary, that no sooner are the combs in box cl got into a state of forwardness--it would be saying rather too much to say--completed, than numbers of working bees are, as it were, struck off their work there, and set about removing all superfluities and nuisances from the combs lately filled with young brood in the uppermost box a. every cell in those combs that has been the nest and nursery of a young bee they cleanse thoroughly and repair, where repairs are needed, preparatory to its being made a receptacle for honey, or for the other treasures brought from the field. at this time, that is--as soon as the combs are free from the first brood, the uppermost box is nearly empty, instead of being full: it contains _empty combs and bees, but little or no honey_. here then the bees are subjected to that extra labour and inconvenience which form my first objection to the piling-plan. from the entrance into box c. through box b. and up into box a. the way, to a loaded bee, is neither short nor pleasant; it is a labyrinth beset with difficulties and obstructions, in surmounting which much of that time is occupied which would otherwise be more profitably, and we may suppose--far more agreeably employed, in passing from flower to flower, and in culling their various sweets. any person, it may be presumed, would rather set down a heavy load on the ground-floor than have to tug it up two or three long flights of stairs, and through intricate, winding passages, and be jostled and impeded and pushed about, and perhaps backward every now and then, by countless crowds of busy men, unceasingly hurrying up and down and passing and re-passing the burdened man in every direction. and is it not comparatively the same with bees going through boxes c. and b. up into box a.? i maintain that it is so,--and that bees in piled-boxes lose much time in performing the unnecessary, climbing labour, imposed upon them by their unskilful masters. the natural consequence of this--i repeat--_unnecessary_ waste of their time, must not be placed to the account, or laid to the instinct of the bees; for of all creatures in the world, bees perhaps work with the most extraordinary celerity. the beautiful piles of honey, and _when unobstructed_, the regular movements of these wonderful insects, are admirably scientific and correct. the consequence, namely, a deficiency in the quantity of honey and wax, is chargeable solely to the account of the unskilful manager. at length the time arrives when the three piled-boxes are, or are supposed to be, well stored,--and when a part of the bees' treasure is to be taken as a remuneration for the _care_ and trouble of the proprietor. let him then put on his grotesque bee-dress, and booted up to the middle and gloved to the very elbows, let him proceed to take the uppermost box. he divides it from that on which it stands, that is--from box b. by a slide or a divider of some sort prepared for such an operation, or in any way he pleases, for that i leave to him. well, he succeeds in getting off his prize; not, however, without the destruction of a considerable number of bees: for _to presume_ that he is acquainted with my easy mode of taking away a box, would be to presume too much; i therefore allow him a bee-dress at once, and have accoutered him in the best way i can for his arduous undertaking. the box, then, is off. he turns it up and examines it, and to his great disappointment, he finds that the combs are discoloured, that each pile of the expected treasure contains parts of the young larvæ, and that there is much pollen commingled with the other substances in the box; in short, he finds that the whole is dirty and filthy in appearance; and that he has destroyed a part of the most valuable brood for another year. and, if instead of box a. he take box b. he will fare little, if any better; nay, he will in all probability destroy a greater quantity of brood: and in box c. he cannot expect to find more than half-filled cells, or empty combs. such are the fruits and profits of the piling system of bee-management. there are bee-masters resident within twenty miles of the good town of spalding, and in many other places that might be mentioned, who know that the foregoing account is true, _lamentably true_: but, until such practitioners are sensible of the faultiness of their system of bee-management, it would be folly in me to appeal more directly to any of them for a confirmation of what _i know_ to be the truth. how, i would ask, can the bees' sweet treasures be divided from their other work, if there be no means of varying and regulating the temperature in their hive? without the aid of ventilation it is, in my opinion, impossible; but with it, it is perfectly easy, perfectly safe, and not at all distressing nor even unpleasant to the bees. before i take my leave of the piling or storifying practitioner, whom i consider, as perhaps he may consider me, to be very, very imperfect in the management of bees, i feel it to be my duty to my readers, and of course to the piling bee-master, if he should vouchsafe to me a reading, to record a few other facts that bear strongly against the piling practice--facts derived from long and attentive observation of the nature and habits of honey-bees. twelve years' steady practice and constant attention to the movements of these ingenious insects are the foundations i have to build upon. besides i have proofs, well-authenticated, indisputable proofs, of the abundant produce of honey having been taken from collateral-boxes, and that of very superior quality too; which honey i take from the bees as being a superabundant store, and not as a part, the taking away of which has any tendency to weaken, or in any way to injure, the prosperity of the colony from which it is taken. but what do we behold when a box is taken from a storied pile?--what that in the least deserves to be termed humanity? do not a thousand murders stare us in the face? why should the operator be veiled and muffled up and made sting-proof, if no conflict was expected--if no deeds of violence were anticipated? but violence is anticipated, and practised too, to such an extent that it is no uncommon occurrence for the bees that escape destruction to desert the other boxes altogether. this ends one part of the business. and these objections against the practice of storifying boxes will, i trust, induce the reflecting, ingenuous reader to turn his attention to the importance of ventilation in collateral-boxes. by regulating the interior temperature of the hive, suitable and generative heat is confined to the pavilion, that is--to the mother-hive, which heat causes the queen to propagate her young in the pavilion--this being the middle-box, and near the entrance, a great advantage is thereby afforded to all the bees passing in and out, that fully demonstrates the necessity of their labours being assisted in the breeding-season, _and not obstructed_. it is the heat which causes the working-bees to deposit their pollen in the immediate vicinity of the seat of nature. this pollen, which is called by some writers bee-bread, is gathered and deposited for the special purpose of supporting the young larvæ, while helpless insects, or babies, as it were, in the hive. combined with heat, it is this material which discolours the much admired works of the bees; it is this which also makes the wax and honey yellow: besides where this pollen is deposited by the bees, there, or in that part of the hive, will the queen lay her eggs,--and there of course propagate her species. and as animal nature advances to perfection, so rises the interior temperature of the hive, until an almost suffocating heat obliges the bees to leave their home. this heat extends itself to the most remote parts of their domicil; and were it not for the influence of ventilation in the end-boxes, a discolouration of their beautiful works would also be extended through the hive, and the queen would lay her eggs promiscuously as she does in the cottage-hive. but this mischief is corrected by ventilation: can then any reasonable man deny its powerful and useful effects in the management of bees? the queen-bee is but seldom seen by the most acute observer; she loves to propagate her young in secrecy, at the regular temperature of the hive at her own birth. if she can possibly avoid it, she will not lay her eggs where man can overlook and examine her movements; consequently the ventilation in the side-boxes prevents her extending her works of nature beyond the limits of her native hive. as soon as she feels a cooling change of temperature, she immediately withdraws to her native clime, and leaves her working subjects to store the beautifully white combs with the purest crystal sweet. bat, were the queen permitted, as she is in the piling system, as well as in the cottage-hive, to follow her subjects through the whole hive, with one and the same temperature throughout, she would most certainly propagate her young just as she does in the piled-boxes. in that case there would be no advantage derivable from the purity of the honey. again, on my plan, the middle-box is so situated that the queen in it is placed conveniently to superintend her labourers; her eye can behold them in the throngest of their labour, being so near the well fortified entrance of her pavilion. in such a favourable situation, she can view the movements of her subjects, and not a moment need be lost, because all their streets and passages are short. the direct ascent to the top of one of my boxes is not quite eleven inches, and with a middle-sized bell-glass superadded, it does not exceed eighteen inches; so that in one day, when the honey-dew is plentiful, ten thousand bees will gather more treasure than three times that number on the piling system, in which the bees are compelled to mount up to the babylonian height of thorley's fourth box. these (partly repetitions of what has been stated before, i am aware,) are conveniences which collateral-boxes possess, and which _do not belong to piled-boxes_. in piled-boxes bees are subjected to unnecessary labour, which is so far a waste of time. from piled-boxes not nearly the quantity of honey and wax is procured, that may be procured from collateral-boxes,--nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other. in managing piled-boxes many bees are destroyed. these are my objections to that system of bee-management; and i put it to every person who has practised storifying to say whether they are not well-founded. [illustration: l. bennett and co. typ. , guilford place, spa-fields, london. the apiary at the most noble the marquis of blandford's, delabere park, pangbourn, (near reading,) berkshire. ] chapter x. apiary at delabere park. having stated (in page ) that "i have well-authenticated, indisputable proofs of the abundant produce of honey having been taken from collateral-boxes, and that of very superior quality too," i could, in support of this statement refer the reader to a great number of my apiarian friends, a bare catalogue of whose names would fill several pages of this book. but as the best proofs of the merits, advantages, and practicability of anew system, are in its established success, i will select one instance, and have great pleasure in referring to that of the apiary established on my principles, at the seat of my noble patron--the marquess of blandford, at delabere park, near reading. situated in a part of the country most abundantly favoured by nature,--effete with every variety of bee-herbage, and with every local advantage combined in its favour, the noble marquess has prosecuted his apiarian pursuits with a spirit of liberality and enterprize redounding to his credit, and well meriting the success which has equalled my own as it has his most sanguine expectations. i do not consider that i can introduce this better to the notice of my readers, than by transcribing the account of a visit, that was paid to it by my intelligent friend mr. booth, the lecturer on chemistry, and which appeared in the _stamford mercury_ of july th, . it is as follows:-- "to the editor of the mercury. "sir, "from the interest you appear to take in whatever relates to the extension of mr. nutt's invaluable system of bee-management, and the prompt attention you have given to former communications on the subject, i am induced to detail the successful results of that system in the hands of the marquess of blandford, who has gone most extensively into the subject, and with an ardour and enthusiasm second only to that of the intelligent inventor. as i had the permission of the noble marquess to make my observations, so i am enabled to make reference to his lordship for the accuracy of my statements, and i am only fulfilling' the wishes of the noble lord, in making these details as extensively public as possible, for the information of those who are interested in this most important, though long neglected branch of rural economy. "his lordship's park is most pleasantly situated near the beautiful and romantic village of pangbourn, in berkshire, and the choice of situation for the apiary is most excellent. it is at the top of a tower[e] forty-six feet high, situated in the midst of a wood, and commanding a most extensive view of the surrounding country, including hampshire, berkshire, wiltshire, and oxfordshire, the face of nature being clad in an almost endless variety of fertility, and old father thames gently meandering through the valley, formed by the distant hills which bound the scene, affording but few prospective traces of the immense physical developments of his powers, which render him, truly, the monarch of rivers. at the top of this tower his lordship possesses four colonies in collateral-hives, and one inverted-hive, all of which have been started since april . in the collateral-hives the labours of the bees have been highly successful. from one colony has already been taken a box containing thirty pounds of honey; whilst another box and three small glasses, which cannot together contain less than forty pounds, are quite ready for taking, and which will afford the sum of seventy pounds, and this without infringing on the quantity necessary for the winter support of the bees. the thermometer in the collateral-boxes did not exceed degrees, whilst in the air it was at . a most remarkable contrast was afforded by the superior quality of the honey in the end-box and that of the 'pavilion of nature:' the superiority of the former was most evident. mr. smith, the keeper, who quite follows in the steps of mr. nutt, informed me that the average quantity of honey produced from a cottage-hive, upon the old principles, does not exceed from thirty to forty pounds; whilst, but in one case, did he ever obtain from a hive, enlarged by eking, the amount of fifty pounds. it is extremely satisfactory and fortunate, that, for the sake of reference, mr. nutt's system has fallen into such good hands, as both his lordship and the keeper appear as devoted to the subject, as they have been happy in their results. for young beginners the results reflect great credit. [footnote e: vide, plate at the head of this chapter.] "i am not able to speak much regarding the progress of the inverted-hives, of which his lordship possesses two; the one being at the top of the tower and the other situate on the lawn, at the back of the house; the former containing twenty-three glasses and the latter thirty-three. the latter is really a magnificent construction--an ornamental appendage such as the gardens of few noblemen can boast. the bees had, in each, filled all the intermediate parts betwixt the hive and the glasses, and were just then commencing their labours in the latter. next summer his lordship will, i anticipate, reap a glorious harvest both from these, and his collateral-hives, which are getting into prime condition for the winter. "i have troubled you with these details because they relate to facts, and a publication of such facts is all that is required to introduce this admirable system of bee-management into universal practice. to what extension it may be brought, it is impossible to state, but these results most strongly impress upon others of the nobility to 'go and do likewise.' the mantle of the warrior has indeed fallen upon the philanthropist in the person of the heir to the title and fortunes of a marlborough; and let the example but be extended, and the practice inculcated amongst our rural population, and, whilst it will greatly conduce to their advantage, we need no longer look to france or italy for a supply of treasures, which our own country and peasantry can so efficiently produce. nothing could possibly more advance these objects, than the formation of an apiarian society, which should offer premiums and prizes to the most successful competitors; and i do hope that for the sake of humanity as well as philanthropy, and when i see the long and noble list of names which dignify mr. nutt's patronage, i shall not be deceived in my anticipations of the speedy formation of a society, established for such laudable purposes. yours, &c. abraham booth, lecturer on chemistry. "reading, july d, ." to the above very able and explicit description, and which is to me the more interesting because not written by a _practical_ apiarian, i have nothing to add, but that it has met the cordial approbation of his lordship, whose still more recent and continuous success has confirmed him in the practicability and value of my system. the sketch which precedes this account was taken for the purpose by his amiable countess, whose kind solicitude for the welfare of the industrious and valuable little insects, to which so much of my attention has been devoted, and approbation of my exertions, have not been amongst the least valued of my rewards and consolations. chapter xi. honey-bees. that branch of natural history which treats of insects is called entomology. and linnæus, the celebrated naturalist and botanist, and the father of the classification of animated and vegetable nature, has divided insects into seven orders; the fifth of which is termed hymenoptera, and includes all those insects that have four membranous, gauze-like wings, and that are furnished with a sting, or with a process resembling one. to this class the honey-bee belongs. it has, however, been so repeatedly described by naturalists and by apiarian authors, that it would be difficult to say any thing respecting it as an insect merely that has not been said before. it is, moreover, so universally known, that it may seem to be a superfluous undertaking to attempt to describe it at all. as, however, my little work might be deemed to be imperfect without some account of it, i will present to my readers the substance of what appears to me to be a condensed, well-written article on the bee. it is from watkins' cyclopædia. there are, he says, and i believe it, fifty-five species of bees. the general characteristics of the bee are these:--its mouth has two jaws and a proboscis enfolded in a double sheath; its wings are four, the lower or under pair of which is smaller than the upper pair; in the anus of the female and working bees is a concealed sting. of the fifty-five species the honey-bee--classically, or at any rate entomologically--apis mellifica, is the most interesting and important, and that with which i am directly concerned. of this bee there are three kinds--the queen, the drone, and the working bee; it is no more than justice to the draughtsman and to the engraver to say, the following are beautiful representations, except the head of the working bee, which is too round. [illustration] fig. . represents a drone. -- . ---------- a working bee. -- . ---------- a queen bee. the _drones_ are larger than the others; their heads are round, eyes foil, and their tongues short; they are also much darker and differ in the form of the belly; they have no sting, and they make a greater noise in flying than the common bees. generally speaking, they are found in hives from the beginning of may to the middle or latter end of july: sometimes they may be seen earlier, especially in good stocks; and sometimes their destruction does not take place till the middle of august, or even later. they neither collect honey nor wax. it has been supposed that their office is to impregnate the eggs of the queen _after_ they are deposited in the cells; but according to mr. bonner this _supposition_ is a mistake. in this i agree with him, and beg to remark--that in no case is a supposition a proof. bonner says that the queen lays eggs which produce young bees without any communication with the drones. he supports this position by the statement of several very exact experiments. in this opinion he is supported by the respectable evidence of schirach. on the mysterious subject of the queen's impregnation i am inclined to coincide in opinion with huber, whose multiplied observations, and various and curious experiments, do render it highly probable that the queen is impregnated by the drone, not whilst in the hive, but whilst flying in the air: but of this debatable subject more by and by. the queen-bee is easily distinguished from other bees by the form, size, and colour of her body. she is larger, longer at least, and her wings are shorter in proportion to her size than those of other bees. the wings of drones and of common working bees cover their bodies, but those of the queen scarcely reach beyond the middle. her hinder part tapers more than the corresponding part of other bees, and is admirably adapted for the purpose of being introduced into the cells to deposit her eggs, which she does without being incommoded by her wings, as she no doubt would be, were they long in proportion to the length of her body. considering then the office she has to perform, the shortness of her wings and the length and tapering of her body are alike conveniences to her; her belly and legs are yellower, and her upper parts darker than those of other bees. though furnished with a sting, she very rarely uses it, and will bear being handled without being provoked. a young queen is smaller than a full grown one. when three or four days old she is quick in her motions; but when impregnated she becomes heavy. the common or working bees have the faculty or instinctive power of raising a queen-bee, when they are in want of one, from an egg in a common cell. to do this, they choose a common cell in which is an egg, and inject a thick, white, liquid matter from their proboscis, they then build on the edges of that particular cell and enlarge it; on the fifth day the royal maggot appears in the form of a semicircle, in which form it swims in the midst of the matter in the cell; and on the seventh day it is sealed up. during which period the embryo queen undergoes various metamorphoses. on the fourteenth or fifteenth day afterwards it comes forth a perfect queen-bee. schirach has discovered a method of multiplying queen-bees to almost any extent, and consequently of making artificial stocks. this can only be successfully accomplished when there are in a hive eggs, nymphs, and little maggots two or three days out of the cell, that is, when there is in a hive young brood in these three different stages of existence. when a queen dies and the bees are left without the means of raising another, that is--when there are no eggs nor young brood of a proper age in the hive, the bees cease working, consume the honey, fly about at random, and if not supplied with another queen, soon dwindle away; but if supplied with a new queen, they revive, and exercise their labour with new and increased activity. the queen is, as it were, the very soul of the hive. it has been computed that the ovary of the queen contains above eggs at once, and that in the space of two months she may produce or , bees. i am inclined to think that this computation is too-limited: from what i have witnessed in my observatory-hive this summer ( ), i am led to conclude that a fertile queen is capable of laying far more than the beforementioned number of eggs in the space of two months. the _working bees_ are considerably smaller than either the drones or the queen. they, like the others, have four wings, which enable them to fly with heavy loads. they have six legs, of which the two foremost are the shortest, and with these they discharge themselves of their loads. the two last or hindmost are the largest, and on the outside of the middle joint of these is a cavity in which the bees collect the materials for wax, which materials they carry home to their hives; this hollow is peculiar to the working bee. each foot terminates in two hooks. the honey-bladder is of the size of a small pea, and very transparent. the sting is horny and hollow, through which the poison is ejected. the wound inflicted by it is mortal to many insects; and instances are not wanting of horses and cows having been stung to death by bees. when the sting is left in the wound, and being barbed it commonly is left there, the bee that loses it dies in consequence. with regard to the age of bees, the drones have a short life, being destroyed annually by the working bees; these--the workers--are supposed by some to live but one year, but others are of opinion that they live several years: those of them that escape a premature death will live, if i mistake not, three or four years, or even longer. i once clipped one of the wings of a queen so that i could identify her, in case i should ever meet with her again: i then returned her to her hive, and had the good fortune to see her several times afterwards during three successive years. of course she lived more than three years. what became of her at last i do not know; nor whether she may not still survive i do not know. if, however, working bees be as long-lived as queen-bees, and i think it will be difficult to assign a good reason why they should not, they may live to be three or four years of age, and perhaps more than that. the ample provision they make for life seems to me to be a _natural_ indication that they expect at least to live to have occasion for it. sometimes fierce, destructive battles take place between the bees of different hives in an apiary, and when the queen of one hive is killed, the war ceases, and the surviving bees of the two hives unite and become one peaceable stock. some apiarians have obtained an extraordinary command over bees, particularly mr. wildman, who could entice a whole swarm to settle just where he pleased--on his chin, on his head, on his hand, or on any particular branch of a tree; but these feats, so surprising to the beholders, he effected, as any other dexterous person may, by getting possession of the queen-bee, and placing her where he intended the bees should settle; for it is a well-ascertained fact, that such is the attachment of bees to their queen, that they will congregate around her, and, as far as they can, protect her in whatever situation they find her. were the attachment and _allegiance_ of all subjects to their legitimate sovereigns thus true and powerful, it would, as sterne says, be something! in working the bees are said by some, whose sayings are perhaps more fanciful than correct, in the following instance at least;--it has, however, been _said_--that in working the bees form themselves into four companies, one of which roves the fields in search of materials for the hive, another is employed in laying out the bottoms and partitions of the cells, the third in smoothing the inside from the corners and angles, and the fourth in bringing food for the rest. according to this account some are labourers, others are builders, others finishers, and others purveyors. as there is no difference in the formation of the workers, i see no reason for assigning them any particular task or sort of work, nor do i think the allotment of labour just mentioned rests upon any other foundation than that of vague conjecture. their diligence, however, and activity, are so great, that in a favourable day they will make cells which lie on each other, sufficient to contain some thousands of bees. to keep their habitations--their hives, close and tight, they make use of a resinous gum, which the ancients called, and which is still called--_propolis_. this substance is at first soft and pliable, but becomes firmer every day; when it has acquired its proper consistency, it is harder than wax and is an excellent cement. they guard against the entrance of ants and other inimical insects into their hive, by gluing or filling up with this propolis the smallest inlets; and with it they fasten the edge of their hive to its floor in a very secure manner. some bees stand as sentinels, and mount guard, as it were, to prevent the intrusion of strangers and enemies. but if a snail, or other reptile, or any large insect, forces its way into the hive, they first kill it, and then coat it over with propolis, to prevent being annoyed by the noisome smell, or by the maggots which might proceed from its putrefaction, if left to putrefy. bees can perceive the approach of bad weather; for when black clouds are in the sky indicating rain, they immediately hurry home with the greatest speed; and when to the eye of man there is no visible token of a sudden shower or other immediate change from fine weather to foul, bees are aware of it, and by their sudden, hurried return to their hives, are the first to prognosticate a change as near; nor, often as i have observed them, have i ever found them wrong in this respect. the manner in which bees rest when they settle, after having swarmed, and frequently in the hive also, is by collecting themselves into a cluster and hanging to each other by the hooks of their feet. when the weather has been warm i have frequently seen them, presently after being admitted into an end-box, hang in catkins or ropes: this they no doubt do to cool themselves the more. to view the bees suspended from one another in these single ropes is a natural curiosity well worth attention. the flight of bees when swarming is singularly rapid and most extraordinary: during some minutes after having risen into the air, they dart across each other in every conceivable direction, wheel round and shoot through the merry crowd again, again wheel round and again dart through; and notwithstanding the very limited space within which they confine their gambols on these occasions, they never seem to come in contact or to clash with each other; though animated and excited to a degree of apparently frantic ovation, i never have observed one bee fall foul of another, and this it is that strikes me as being wonderful. the balls attached to the legs of bees returning to the hives, consist of a powder gathered from the stamina of flowers, not yet brought to the state of wax. the bee, when it enters the cup of the flower, rolls itself till its whole body is covered with the yellow farina that is therein. it then brushes off this powdery farina with its hind legs, and kneads it into two balls or small pellets, loaded with which it returns to the hive. bees powdered all over with farina may frequently be seen entering their hive: the bees thus covered carry their loads upon their whole bodies, without the labour of packing them upon their thighs. probably when farina is collected in the immediate vicinity of their hives, bees may have the wisdom (i know not what else it can be properly called) to save themselves the labour of brushing and making it into pellets. some authors hold that this substance is eaten by degrees, and being digested in the body of the bee, that it becomes wax,--or that by some peculiar process it certainly is converted into wax,--and that when there is a superfluous quantity of this undigested, or unmanufactured matter, it is laid up in store, and is called _bee-bread_. for my part i am of opinion that farina is stored up purely as bee-bread and food for the young brood, and that _it enters not into the composition of wax_. the material of which wax is formed i take to be quite distinct from farina--a material of a different nature. the following account of a working bee appeared in the farmers' journal some time ago, i subjoin it, because, in some respects, it is more particular than that just given; but in one thing it is deficient--it makes no mention of the eyes--the two luminaries or lights of the body. the eyes of bees are of an oblong figure, black like jet, transparent and immoveable. bee, says the farmers' journal, a small and well-known insect, famous for its industry. this useful and laborious insect is divided by two ligaments into three parts or portions,--the head, the breast, and the belly. the head is armed with two jaws and a trunk, the former of which play like two jaws, opening and shutting to the right and left; the trunk is long and tapering, and at the same time extremely pliant and flexible, being destined by nature for the insect to probe to the bottom of the flowers, through all the impediments of their chives and foliage, and drain them of their treasured sweets: but were this trunk to be always extended, it would prove incommodious, and be liable to be injured by a thousand accidents; it is therefore of such a structure, that after the performance of its necessary functions, it may be contracted, or rather folded up; and besides this, it is fortified against all injuries by four strong scales, two of which closely sheath it, and the two others, whose cavities and dimensions are larger, encompass the whole. from the middle-part or breast of the bee grow the legs, which are six in number; and at the extremity of the paws are two little hooks, discernible by the microscope, which appear like sickles, with their points opposite to each other. the wings are four, two greater and two smaller, which not only serve to transport them through the air, but, by the noise they make, to give notice of their departure and arrival, and to animate them mutually to their labours. the hairs, with which the whole body is covered, are of singular use in retaining the small dust that falls from the chives of the flowers. the belly of the bee consists of six rings, which slide over one another, and may therefore be lengthened or contracted at pleasure; and the inside of this part of the body contains the intestines,--the bag of honey,--the bag of poison,--and the sting. the office of the intestines is the same as in other animals. the bag of honey is transparent as crystal, containing the sweet juices extracted from the flowers, which the bee discharges into the cells of the magazine for the support of the community in w inter. the bag of poison hangs at the root of the sting, through the cavity of which, as through a pipe, the bee ejects some drops of this venomous liquor into the wound made by the sting, and so renders the pain more excessive. the mechanism of the sting is admirable, being composed of two darts, inclosed within a sheath that tapers into a fine point, near which is an opening to let out the poison; the two darts are ejected through another aperture, which being armed with several sharp beards, like those of fish-hooks, are not easily drawn back again by the bee; and indeed she never disengages them if the wounded party happens to start and put her in confusion; but if, when stung, one can have patience to continue calm and unmoved, the stinging bee clinches those lateral points round the shaft of the dart, by which means she recovers her weapon, and gives less pain to the person stung. for the sting of a bee. the poisonous liquor which the stinging bee infuses into the wound causes a fermentation, attended with a swelling, which continues sometimes several days; but that may be prevented by immediately pulling out the sting, and enlarging the puncture, to let the venomous matter have room to escape. many nostrums have been recommended as cures--_infallible cures_, of course--for the sting of a bee, a few of which i will just mention; premising, however, that i myself never make use of any of them; for, if by chance a bee happens to sting me, which is very rarely indeed the case, though i never so much as cover my face, nor even put on a pair of gloves, when operating among thousands and tens of thousands of bees, i extract the sting instanter, and never afterwards experience the least pain, nor suffer the slightest inconvenience. but, if the sting be suffered to remain in the flesh, during a few seconds only, it is not very easy to stop the inflammation and to allay the pain. an onion cut horizontally into thin slices, and pressed closely to the wounded part, and renewed at short intervals, has been accounted a good application. if the part stung be first well-rubbed with one of those slices, that would perhaps have a soothing effect. the juice of the plantain is also said to be a specific; olive oil is another; so is common salt; so is laudanum; so is spirits of hartshorn; so is a solution of sal ammoniac; and so is chalk or whitening. the doctor (and who so likely to prescribe properly for the case as the doctor?) says[f] "common whitening proves an effectual remedy against the effects of the sting of a bee or wasp. the whitening is to be moistened with cold water, and immediately applied. it may be washed off in a few minutes, when neither pain nor swelling will ensue." [footnote f: see "the doctor," page .] in "the apiarian's guide, by j. h. payne," published since the first edition of this work, i find the following novel mode of treatment recommended as "almost a perfect cure," and which is said to be "as immediate as it is effectual." "the method i (j. h. payne, esq.) have of late adopted, by which the pain is instantly removed, and both the swelling and inflammation prevented, is to pull out the sting as soon as possible, and take a piece of iron and heat it in the fire, or for want of that, take a live coal, (if of wood the better, because it lasts longer) and hold it as near to the place as i can possibly endure it, for five minutes; if from this application a sensation of heart (quere heat) should be occasioned, a little oil of turpentine or goulard cerate must be applied. "i have found the quicker the application, the more effectual the cure."[g] [footnote g: see the apiarian's guide, pp. , .] pressure with the hollowed end of a small key, or with a pencil-case, is practised by some unfortunates, and is said to check the circulation of the poison. this last mode of treatment--i. e. pressure with a small key, or pencil-case--the smaller the better--is the simplest, and, if _immediately_ adopted, is i believe the very best: but its efficacy depends upon the instant application of the key or pencil-case to the part stung, by which the poisonous matter is not only prevented from being absorbed into the system, but the puncture is laid open, and the virus thereby expressed and entirely got rid of more readily than by any other means. accidents may sometimes happen, and the most cautious and humane apiarian may occasionally receive a sting; but gentle treatment does not irritate bees; and when not irritated they have no disposition to use their stings. chapter xii. impregnation of the queen-bee. notwithstanding the most persevering attention of huber and of other ingenious apiarians, and notwithstanding the experiments and expedients had recourse to, to discover the secret, it is still doubtful--it is still undiscovered, in what precise way the queen-bee becomes impregnated. no one has ever yet witnessed the fact of her copulation with a drone, either in the hive or elsewhere,--in all probability no one ever will be witness to it; consequently the contradictory conclusions apiarians have come to on this subject are unsatisfactory, because unsupported by sufficient and convincing proofs. huber, after having made a variety of observations and tried numberless experiments to get at the fact, gives it as his opinion--that the impregnation of the queen is accomplished by her intercourse with the drone during a flight in the open atmosphere; but modestly states that he never witnessed the act of copulation. on this last point i entirely coincide with him, and firmly believe that no man ever yet has been present to confirm the supposed fact; neither can any person deny the possibility--not to say--the probability of such an union. on the other hand, mr. huish is an advocate for the drones in another way, stating them to be the male bees, and that they fecundate--_not the queen_, but all the eggs of the queen, produced by her, the year in which the drones are brought into existence. but mr. huish has nowhere stated, in his much admired treatise on bees, what fecundates those eggs of the queen which are produced by her in the absence of the drones. it is well-known that those eggs do well and come to perfection, long after the drones have ceased to exist in the hive. _eggs are laid and matured into bees when there is not one drone in the hive._ this, therefore, is an argument in favour of mr. huber's opinion--namely--that the queen once impregnated remains so during her life,--and that, as the queen lives some years, the drones are called into being to fecundate the young queens, brought into existence for purposes that will be noticed in the next chapter. neither should we overlook the singular services of the short-lived drones in other circumstances of the colony; for most essential is their presence in the hive during the months of may, june, and july. do we not in those months behold the extraordinary rapidity with which the working bees leave their hive in search of materials for their various works? so indefatigable are these admired insects, after enriching their commonwealth, that in the time of honey-dews, scarcely a mechanical labourer is left in the hive. now, were it not for the drones--those large bodied bees--what would become of the young larvæ then in existence? it would undoubtedly perish. no sooner, however, is this busy season at an end, than the total destruction of the drones takes place; but not until the animal heat which the drones impart to the hive has accelerated the production of the young bees, and added thousands of them to the mother hive. it is not possible that the drones can influence the impregnation of the queen's eggs, particularly those eggs which are produced after the total destruction of the drones, which generally takes place in august, and sometimes in the latter end of july. these later eggs are hatched, and brought to a state of perfection by the crowded population of the hive at that period: for a sufficient number of common bees, that is--a well-populated hive, will always bring to perfection the queen's eggs that have been deposited in the cells, after the total destruction of the drones. this seems to prove, that there is some probable truth in huber's opinion respecting the agency of the drones in the procreation of bees, by their sexual union with the queen. though i was once inclined to differ in opinion with huber on this subject, and even went so far as to venture to say with huish, and in huish's own words--that the queen knows not coition, and that she is both virgin and mother,[h] from what i have seen in my observatory-hive this summer ( ) i am led to doubt the accuracy of that remark, and am disposed to lean to huber's doctrine, and to think, that there _may be_ more truth in his experiments than has hitherto been awarded to them: in short, i see no objection to huber's theory, although there is no direct proof of the copulation of the queens with the drones. all apiarians allow that there are male and female in a hive or stock of bees;--all admit--indeed, it is impossible to deny---that bees _do increase and multiply_ at a prodigious rate, and so fulfil the divine injunction; the only question to be solved is this--_how_ is the queen-bee impregnated? this secret in nature--if those matters, or natural operations which we cannot clearly explain, which, though in themselves sensible and gross, may, nevertheless, be too subtile, too refined, for our obtuse understandings to comprehend, and for our dull faculties to investigate,--if these may be called secrets in nature, there is a secret of this description respecting the sexual union of queen and drone bees, or, at any rate, respecting the manner of the impregnation of the queen-bee. i condemn no man who differs from me on this nice subject, as i have no direct proof, either that huber is right, or that huish is wrong, in their surmises relative to this disputable matter. individually they are men deserving the highest respect; their labours and perseverance to throw light upon this mystic branch of apiarian science deserve the utmost praise; as also do the labours of the learned and ingenious dr. bevan, whose treatise on bees i have read with much pleasure; and have occasionally referred to, and shall again make use of it, in this my humble attempt. we have all exerted our best abilities to become the favourites of our patrons and friends. how much each of us deserves the honours conferred on us, is best known to those who have been most benefited by our unceasing endeavours to improve and extend apiarian science. my great object is--not to dispute with the naturalist, the philosopher, or with the apiarian, _how_ the queen-bee becomes impregnated: because, be that as it may, it is, no doubt, consistent with the law of nature,--it is, no doubt, a part of that all-prevailing law; and though hitherto undiscovered,--hitherto "one of nature's gambols with the human mind," i do cherish strong hopes that the observatory-hive i have constructed, will on some auspicious, future day, disclose such facts as will set the matter at rest for ever: my great object at present is--to endeavour to improve the culture of honey-bees, and to lay before my readers _practical_ instructions for the more humane, and more profitable management of those interesting, little insects. [footnote h: see huish on bees, page .] chapter xiii. supernumerary queens. in the last chapter we were at sea without a compass by which to steer our course aright,--with two pilots on board, 'tis true; one of them a foreigner, _experienced_ beyond most other men, though aged, and infirm, and defective in his eyesight, but willing, nevertheless, nay--anxious to conduct us to our wished-for haven; the other, though not inexperienced, less practised, it is thought, in voyages of discovery, and more venturesome than his senior in the office, contending that the respectable, old gentleman had put us on a wrong tack,--that we were in a wrong latitude,--that our reckoning was incorrect, and even making merry with the old man's infirmities. perplexed, and doubting in whom it is most reasonable and safest to confide, we seize the helm ourselves and make to the nearest shore, and luckily land on terra firma--terra cognita, and are now approaching a _field_ with every corner of which we are thoroughly acquainted. but metaphor apart, lest we should not properly sustain it. there is but one reigning queen in a colony of bees at one time: but previously to swarming, royal-cells are constructed, and provision made, for ensuring a successor to the queen that leads the swarm and emigrates, when the too-crowded population, and over-heated temperature of the hive, render such emigration necessary. that it is the old queen that leaves the hive with a swarm i am well convinced, notwithstanding what some apiarians assert to the contrary. to satisfy myself on this point, i have sometimes in the evening of the day on which a hive has swarmed, at other times on the second, and at others on the third day after that event, put the parent-stock under, or rather, i may say--_over_ fumigation, dissected and examined the combs and queen-cells minutely, and the bees also, and whenever i did find a queen, she was invariably a young one; but, instead of a queen, i have more frequently found a royal-cell just ready to give birth, as it were, to a successor to that that had left the hive; and in general there are several of these royal-cells containing embryo queens, in different states of forwardness: so that it seems, bees have an instinctive foresight which leads them to provide against casualties, for they are generally provided with the means of bringing forth _supernumerary queens_, that in case the first that comes forth should prove steril, should be defective, or in any way unfortunate, or unfitted to assume the sovereignty of the hive, there may be others ready to burst into being, and remedy the misfortune that would ensue, were there but one chance of a successor, and were that one chance to prove abortive. but no sooner is a young queen enthroned, as it were, and established in the government of the hive than the supernumerary ones, in whatever stage of existence, are all discarded, and cast out of the colony, mr. porter, of cowbit, has this year ( ) picked up eight of those discarded, virgin queens, together with the old queen, which last was sorely mutilated, _but not killed_--she alone was cast out alive, the others had been killed: these nine supernumerary queens were all cast out of one fine colony of bees in the course of two successive days. that colony is a remarkably prosperous one, _and has not swarmed_. i myself have observed no fewer than twenty-four supernumerary, virgin queens that were cast out of one of my stocks; and that stock is flourishing, and _has not swarmed:_ and my respected friend, mr. salmon, of stokeferry, informs me that he once collected upwards of thirty of these young queens; whether his stock swarmed or not i am unable to state positively, but presume it did not; for, generally speaking, when supernumerary, virgin queens are cast out of a colony, it may be considered as an indication that that colony is not only prosperous, but that swarming is not contemplated--in fact, is abandoned for that season. the question then is--how are bees to be managed, in order that they may be induced to rid themselves of these supernumeraries? the relation of the following practical lesson will both answer the question, and exemplify and confirm the foregoing remarks. it has already been related (in pages - ) that in i forced a colony of bees to swarm,--that i returned that swarm to its parent-stock, and managed so as to prevent its swarming in future,--and that two royal nymphs were cast out on that occasion. to prove whether i could not accomplish the same object, and prevent swarming altogether, i had recourse to the following experiment. on the th of june, , at one o'clock p.m. the thermometer, in one of my colonies of bees, suddenly rose to . the progressive rise and constantly high temperature in that colony, during the evening and night, together with the extraordinary weight of the hive, induced me to suspect that swarming, if not prevented, would shortly take place. not, however, perceiving any of the symptoms that usually precede the immediate act of swarming, i suffered matters to go on until the th of july, on which day the thermometer stood at . the drones came out and sung their merry tune; and during the whole night the temperature of the colony continued to increase. on the next day unequivocal symptoms of swarming presented themselves. these urged me to push my experiment to the highest pitch of proof; i therefore went on narrowly watching and ventilating this stock, until the th of july, when, in spite of my endeavours to keep down the temperature by _merely ventilating_ the thermometer was standing at , consequently i concluded that it was high time to lay this prosperous colony under contribution; and in the evening of that day, i took from it a beautifully finished glass of honey, as pure as the crystal stream; its weight was sixteen pounds. i continued ventilating the side-boxes, and placed an empty bell-glass upon the middle one, from which i had just before taken the full one, i then withdrew the dividing-slide, and the bees immediately entered the glass, and began their works in it, and in four days filled it with comb, and partly filled the cells with honey. on the sixth day after those operations had been performed, a continuance of the former temperature demonstrated to me the necessity of taking away a side-box. i did so, and found its weight to be no less than sixty-five pounds. on removing the box of honey, i replaced it with an empty one; and on drawing up the tin-slide, in order to admit the bees into the empty box, to my great gratification i found the thermometer standing at in that box, and in the space of five minutes the other collateral-box was under the same agreeable temperature. by this continued ventilation, within the short space of twenty-four hours afterwards, i ascertained the following important fact,--viz.--that no sooner did the queen-bee feel the agreeable change that had taken place in the interior of her domicil, than the royal nymph was dislodged from its cell, and by the bees brought out of the pavilion, and laid lifeless on the front-board. this fact taught me by experiment, that the reigning queen would very soon, from real necessity, have been compelled to leave the now discarded nymph to take possession of the hive. the queen, owing to the excessive and daily increasing heat of the hive, would have left her wealthy colony--would have been compelled to leave it--had not the ventilation, and the enlargement of her domicil, prevented the painful necessity of her so doing. this, i think, proves the truth of the observation--that it is the old queen which leaves, when bees are compelled to swarm; but, if not, the following experimental operations have demonstrated the fact. i have united many swarms, and every sovereign bee i have been under the necessity of making a captive, has invariably been an old one. on the th of june, , i took up a parent-stock, four days after it had thrown off a swarm, and there found only the royal nymph within its cradle--_there was no queen left in that stock, save the one in embryo_--the old queen had gone with the swarm. this lesson caused me to carry my experiments farther. having taken up the parent-stock, as just stated, i united all the working bees of that stock to those of the swarm already mentioned, and i also put the young larvæ found in the parent-stock, to the now united-stock; i then placed the intended royal species--the nymph already mentioned--with the remainder of the young brood, in one of the collateral-boxes, and immediately let the odour of the stock through the communicating slide. to my great satisfaction i discovered the willingness of the old bees to bring to perfection the young they had been compelled to leave in their former domicil. the royal nymph, however, was an exception; she alone was instantly dragged from her cell, and cast out of the hive. this confirmed the proof of the important fact gained the preceding year,--namely--that ventilation and the means of dividing the treasures of the bees, by taking off a glass or a box of honey,--or, if necessary, by taking off both a glass and a box, set aside the necessity for swarming. on all occasions, under this practice, a proper temperature may be supported in a colony; and in all critical points, by a just observation of the state of the thermometer, bees may be relieved and assisted, and all the mischiefs attending the old mode of management may be guarded against and prevented. for when adequately relieved and properly assisted, they proceed to rid the colony of all embryo queens, which would only become so many supernumeraries in a hive where the reigning queen is fertile, and the necessity for emigration is superseded. but, unless bees could be made to understand that accommodation will be extended to them at the proper time, they, guided by _their_ sense of their situation--not by ours--naturally and wisely provide _their own means_ of relieving themselves; and in so doing frequently bring forth what afterwards become supernumerary queens, which are invariably destroyed and cast out of the colony, as soon as the bees are sensible that they have no occasion for them. and, whenever a royal nymph or a virgin queen is thus cast out, swarming need not be apprehended. chapter xiv. bee-feeding. neglected generally, as is the management of bees by their cottage possessors, there is no part of it less attended to, nor more slovenly performed, when performed at all, than that of feeding. the cottager commonly takes up, as he terms it, his best hives for the sake of the treasures they contain, or are supposed to contain. this is destroying bees because they are rich! he also takes up the lightest and poorest--of course the late swarms--and those that are the least likely to live through the winter; because if he get from one of these but two or three pounds of honey, though he seldom gets so much, and a few ounces of wax, he thinks that that is all clear gain: and, if he get neither honey nor wax, he, at any rate, gets rid of the _expense_ and _trouble_ of feeding _his good-for-nothing swarms_, which, in his opinion, however fed, would never come to any good. a pennyworth of brimstone will do the job at once, and is more easily paid for than a pound of sugar, and after that another, and perhaps another. such is the reasoning, and calculation, and cruel practice of the generality of cottage bee-keepers! such is the destruction annually dealt out to hundreds of poor swarms, and thousands and millions of _poor_ bees!! i do from my heart pity and deplore the untimely fate of these suffocated, innocent, valuable insects. to destroy bees because they are rich is a _barbarous_ practice, and ought by all means to be discountenanced and discontinued;--to destroy bees because they are poor and may need support, is cruel---is inhuman--is shocking, however little may be thought of it by those who still adhere to this practice. even with the common straw-hives, this terrible havoc among poor stocks and late swarms might be prevented, if they, who happen to have them, would so far improve themselves in the practical management of an apiary, as to be able to fumigate, and to take such bees out of the hives containing them, and to join them to their richer stock-hives, in the latter end of august, or any time in september. this is by far the best plan that can be adopted with poor hives; and there really is no difficulty in the operation. this strengthens the population of rich stocks, and causes them to swarm early in the ensuing spring, _it preserves the bees_, which is of itself, independently of the advantages accruing from it afterwards, a consideration that never should be lost sight of,--it leaves the contents of the fumigated hive, as absolutely in the possession of the bee-owner, as if the bees had been suffocated and destroyed,--and in most cases it entirely does away with the necessity of feeding. i confess i should rejoice greatly, and flatter myself that every friend of humanity would rejoice with me, to see this mode of disposing of weak hives universally adopted; because, it may be presumed, that the next step in the way of improvement would be to take away the superabundant treasure of the bees and _still preserve them_. notwithstanding, under certain circumstances it will always be necessary, and judicious in bee-masters, to have recourse to _feeding_. if, for instance, after an early swarm is put into a hive, or into a box, two or three or more cold, ungenial days should follow, and more particularly if those days should happen to be rainy also, by feeding such a swarm you will assist your impoverished labourers, not only with _necessary food_, but with materials and treasure, which, unfortunately for them, they cannot at such an unfavourable juncture get abroad to collect elsewhere. different apiarians have adopted and recommended different ways of feeding bees, none of which, in my opinion, possess any great merit; in order, therefore, to improve this part of bee-management, my endeavours have been directed to the contrivance and construction of a feeding department; which is attached to my collateral-hives in so convenient a manner, that i can feed my bees, at any time when feeding is required--in spring, in autumn, or in winter, without disturbing the position of the hive, and without changing its interior temperature; which temperature cannot be kept equable and comfortable, where a hive is frequently lifted up from its stand, and its interior is suddenly exposed to the action of perhaps an extremely cold atmosphere. besides, a hive cannot be lifted up without breaking the propolis by which it has been cemented all round and made fast to its stool. in sharp, cold weather, disruption of the hive from its stool is a serious mischief done to the bees; because, however carefully it maybe set down again, there will have been made many vents and crevices between the edge of the hive and the stool, which will occasion various currents of air, cold, frosty, or other--proper or improper--to be continually passing through the lower part of the hive. and should bees be tempted by food, or urged by hunger, to descend into these currents in sharp, frosty weather, but few of them will get away alive; the keen air acting upon them whilst feeding, paralyzes and kills them. i am an advocate for keeping bees cool in winter--yes, _cool and still also:_ let them not be disturbed nor disunited,--let them not be forced nor tempted to (if i may so say) uncluster themselves. i have no objection to a current of air passing through the lower part of a hive in winter, _provided the bees be not disturbed--be not exposed singly to its nipping influence;_ but i strongly object to the feeding of bees in such currents, because, in that case, feeding is prejudicial to them. the cottager seldom protects his hives in winter with any other covering than that which a pot, called a pancheon, whelmed over each hive, forms; capped with this unsightly piece of earthenware, his hives are exposed to all weathers; consequently the less he disturbs them the better. he therefore should give his weak stocks _a copious feeding_, in september at the latest,--not molest them during the severity of winter,--but in the spring, as soon as the bees begin to make their appearance at the mouth of his hives, introduce his wooden trough furnished with a _little_ bee-sirup, and then close up the entrance,--withdraw the trough in the morning, and return it replenished every evening, as long as feeding is necessary. tearing off a hive at christmas, and scattering a few ounces of brown sugar upon the stand, and then setting down the hive again, deserves not the name of feeding; though it is all the bounty that is bestowed on some stocks; and is even more than others are treated with. it need not then be wondered at that so many stocks of bees perish in the winter, and in the spring of every year. _by judicious feeding, at proper seasons, almost any stock of bees may be preserved: by injudicious feeding_, at an improper season, even good stocks--stocks that would survive, if not fed at all, nor molested, during the depth and severity of winter, may be seriously injured--may be totally destroyed. the peasant bee-keeper, however, does not often subject himself to the charge _complimental_ of being accessary to the death of his bees _through mistaken kindness_. the sum and substance of my directions, as respects bee-feeding, are these:-- . in spring feed _sparingly_. . in autumn feed _plentifully_. . in winter _do not feed at all_. . feed swarms, if unseasonable weather immediately follow the act of swarming. . preserve the bees of weak stocks, and prevent a great deal of the necessity for feeding, by adding them to those that are rich and able to support them. this last is the best and cheapest, nay--it is even a _profitable_ method of feeding bees. early swarming, where swarming is necessary as in the straw-hive colonies, is of great advantage to the watchful apiarian, but not to the inattentive and slothful manager. i have seen in a cottager's garden a swarm of bees on the th of may, which was considerably weaker in the month of august, than was a swarm on the th of july, and that solely on account of not being fed and properly attended to. if early swarms are judiciously fed, and supported by a natural heat within, they will be greatly benefitted thereby, and eventually prosper. but, notwithstanding what has been already said, the cottager may probably ask--"how can i feed my bees without lifting up their hive?" i again and again request him to examine my collateral box-hive; and he will perceive that he may easily feed the bees in his cottage-hive in the same easy manner, if he have but ingenuity enough to attach a proper feeder to the stool or floor of his hive. mr. huish advises apiarians to make choice of a fine and warm day in which to feed bees, he says, the danger to be apprehended from the change of the temperature in the hive will thereby be obviated. this, i grant, is rational and humane, and in some degree a confirmation of my already expressed opinion, respecting the mischiefs resulting from the inconsiderate practice of exposing the interior of a hive to sudden and extreme alternations of temperature. but it matters not what sort of weather it may be, if my mode of feeding be adopted. i feed my bees in their native temperature, without disturbing them or exposing their food to the temptation of robbers, which feeding in the ordinary way so frequently encourages, during the spring and autumnal seasons; and it is at these times that bees stand in most need of assistance. in the year , i purchased a cottage-hive of a neighbour, it was a large hive, and well-stocked with bees, but extremely light; i was fearful for the safety of its inmates, and, therefore, placed it over one of my feeders; in order to give them support by feeding, i placed the sirup intended for their food beneath the hive; but to my great surprise the bees refused to take the proffered bounty. i persevered in my endeavours to induce them to feed for four days, but they would not touch the well-intended boon: i therefore resolved to ascertain the cause of their refusal, and on turning up the hive i discovered that thousands of the bees were in a dying state, i had the curiosity to take the whole of them out singly. after several hours' particular attention and patient search, i found the queen was dead. i then united the weak, enfeebled bees to a rich stock, and they nearly all recovered their strength. their numbers greatly assisted in the labour of the hive to which they were joined. certain it is, that if any accident befal their queen in winter, it is total _ruin_ to that stock of bees: where such a death is discovered, feeding will avail nothing, the bees dwindle away and perish. mr. huish says--and he is perfectly correct in saying--that there are some persons who defer the feeding of their bees until the moment they suppose that they may be in actual want. this is a most reprehensible plan; for should feeding be too long delayed, the bees will become so weak and debilitated, that they will be unable to convey the food into their cells: the food ought to be administered to poor stocks, three weeks or a month before they may be supposed to be in actual want; it will then be conveyed with the greatest despatch into the cells, and the hive will be saved from a death of famine. he then goes on to observe--that some apiarians conceive that the feeding of bees in the spring renders them lazy and inactive. on what this opinion is grounded he is at a loss to conjecture, as must be every practical apiarian; for it is in direct contradiction, not only to mr. huish's experience, but also to that of many other apiarians. a little food granted to a populous, and even well-provisioned box or hive in the spring, is attended with very beneficial consequences. it diffuses animation and vigour throughout the whole community;--it accelerates the breeding of the queen--and consequently conduces to the production of early swarms, where room is not previously given in order to prevent swarming altogether. bee-food. artificial food proper for bees may be made by mixing _coarse_, raw sugar, and good, sound ale, in the following proportions:-- to a quart of ale add a pound and a half of sugar, gently boil them, in a sweet, well-tinned saucepan, over a fire clear from smoke, for five or six minutes, or until the sugar be dissolved and thoroughly incorporated with the ale; and, during the process of boiling, skim off the dross that rises to the surface. some persons boil these ingredients much longer, and until they become, when cool, a thick, clammy sirup; this not only diminishes the quantity of the mixture, but renders it rather disadvantageous, to weak bees in particular, by clogging and plaguing them, if, as they are almost sure to do, they get their legs or wings daubed with it. i prefer sirup in a more liquid state. for spring feeding, i advise--that not more than a pound of sugar be put to a quart of ale, or sweet wort, if it can be obtained, and that a small quantity of common salt be added. by a _small quantity_ i mean--a drachm or two at the most to a quart of the sirup. salt, it has been said, is conducive to the health of bees, and the most efficacious remedy for the dysentery, which sometimes affects bees in the spring; therefore, it may not be amiss to put a little salt into their food, by way of preventive, rather than to have recourse to it afterwards as a remedy. speaking of the substances which are proper for the feeding of bees, mr. huish says[i]--"he is perfectly convinced that honey alone is very injurious to bees, as it in general gives them the dysentery." whether by this _extraordinary passage_ mr. huish has, or has not, subjected himself to the lash of his own ridicule, it would be hypercritical and unbecoming in me to determine. as an apiarian i respect him; in no other character am i acquainted with him. his work on the management of bees i have read, and have derived information and occasionally assistance from some of its pages. there are in it, nevertheless, several untenable positions, of which i consider the above-quoted passage to be one: and, if what he has remarked somewhat sarcastically, in a note at the foot of page , be read in conjunction with this passage, it will be for the candid reader, apiarian, or other, to decide whether mr. huish in propriâ personâ does not, oddly enough, exemplify his own remark. it is there said--that "there is no wonder in nature which an apiarian has not seen." professedly an apiarian himself, he must have seen some, at least, of _the wonders in nature_, otherwise he never could have been "_perfectly convinced_"--that honey--"_honey alone_"--the very substance which bees, guided by the instinct of their nature, collect with so much industry, and store up with so much care, for their subsistence, should be "very injurious to them, and in general give them the dysentery." from this it seems that the substance, which is the natural food for one stock of bees, is physic for another, if not poison!! i cannot but express my astonishment that a gentleman, so acute and experienced as mr. huish undoubtedly is, should have asserted in the most unqualified manner--that "honey alone is very injurious to bees." were this the fact, rich stocks, and all stocks that subsist upon "honey alone" during winter, would "in general" be affected with dysentery in the spring, which certainly is not the case. "in general" rich stocks are healthy and strong in the spring. poverty is the predisposing cause of dysentery among bees: a regular supply of their natural--their peculiar food, does not induce dysentery or disease of any sort. had mr. huish analyzed the honey given to bees as food, and which induced dysentery, he would, i suspect, have discovered that it was not "honey alone," but--_medicated honey_--_honey and brimstone_, or honey strongly tinctured either with brimstone or tobacco. that honey, tinctured with the pernicious qualities of those substances, should have a laxative effect upon impoverished, debilitated bees, is no more than might be expected: but then it is not the honey that has the "injurious" effect, but the essence of the brimstone or of the tobacco that is administered along with it. what effect honey, that has not been stoved and saturated with brimstone or with tobacco, may have upon _weak_ bees, when given to them for _spring food_, i pretend not to determine, because i have never tried the experiment. but i do say that before the arrival of spring, honey, that has been drained or expressed from the comb, undergoes fermentation, and that fermentation may, for aught i know, impart to it physical properties, which in its pure, liquid, unchanged state, in the warm hive, it does not possess. i am not chemist enough to venture to assert that it is so, but i think it highly probable that fermentation may alter the properties of honey, and perhaps may render it unwholesome to bees. but fresh, unfermented honey, even that in the blackest and oldest combs--the very refuse, and all such as the cottage-housewife makes into common mead, if spread upon large dishes and placed in an apiary, will be banqueted upon by the bees in the most eager manner, and is apparently much enjoyed by them. they soon carry into their hives what they do not consume on the spot, and suffer no inconvenience whatever from the treat. i have feasted my bees in this way scores of times, and esteem it the very best mode of autumnal feeding, and the most profitable way of disposing of broken combs and refuse honey. "honey alone" is the natural food of bees, and if given to them pure and untainted, in its primitive, limpid state, so far from being injurious, it is highly beneficial to them; of this i have not the shadow of a doubt. for autumnal feeding, i prefer honey to all other substances, and recommend it as the most proper food that can be given to them. [footnote i: huish on bees, page .] chapter xv. catalogue of bee-flowers, &c. from the account of the mode of supplying bees with artificial food, to the enumeration of such trees, plants, and flowers as are most frequented by bees, for the purpose of culling from them the various substances, which their necessities, their nature, or their instinct (which is a part of their nature) urge them to seek for, the transition is so easy and natural--is so akin to the subject of bee-feeding, as to be rather a continuation thereof than a transition to a fresh one; i therefore proceed to give a catalogue of those trees and plants which afford pabulum for bees. it is furnished principally from my own ocular observation, and is partly collected from the observation of others, whose curiosity has led them to pay attention to the subject, and to make remarks upon it. * * * * * alder-tree celery almond-tree cherry-tree althea frutex chesnut-tree alyssum chickweed amaranthus clover apple-tree cole or coleseed apricot-tree coltsfoot arbutus (alpine) coriander ash-tree crocus asparagus crowfoot aspin crown-imperial cucumber balm currants bean cypress-tree beech-tree betony daffodil blackberry dandelion black-currant-tree dogberry-tree borage box-tree elder-tree bramble elm-tree broom endive bugloss (viper's) buckwheat fennel burnet furze cabbage goldenrod cauliflower gooseberry-tree gourd * * * * * hawthorn mallow (marsh) hazel-tree marigold (french) heath marigold (single) holly maple-tree holly-hock (trumpet) marjoram (sweet) honey-suckle melilot honey-wort (cerinthe) melon-tree hyacinth mezereon hysop mignionette mustard ivy nasturtium jonquil nectarine-tree nettle (white) kidney-bean oak-tree laurel onion laurustinus orange-tree lavender ozier leek lemon-tree parsley lily (water) parsnip lily (white) pea lime-tree peach-tree liquidamber pear-tree liriodendrum, or peppermint tulip-tree plane-tree lucerne plum-tree poplar-tree poppy primrose privet * * * * * radish tacamahac ragweed tansy (wild) rasberry tare rosemary (wild) teasel roses (single) thistle (common) rudbechiæ thistle (sow) thyme (lemon) saffron thyme (wild) sage trefoil saintfoin turnip st. john's wort savory (winter) vetch snowdrop snowberry-tree violet (single) stock (single) strawberry wallflower (single) sunflower willow-herb sycamore-tree willow-tree woad yellow weasel-snout * * * * * of these some are valuable for the supply of pabulum they afford bees early in spring; as _the white alyssum, broom, crocus, furze, hazel, laurustinus, mezereon, ozier, plane-tree, poplar-tree, snowdrop, sycamore-tree, the willow-tree, &c._ others again are valuable on account of the lateness of the season that bees derive assistance from them; as _the golden-rod, heath, ivy, laurustinus, mignionette, ragweed, &c._ some abound with honey; as _borage, buckwheat, burnet, coleseed, currant and gooseberry-trees, heath, leek, mignionette, mustard, onion, thyme, the blossoms of apple, apricot, cherry, nectarine, pear, and plum-trees, and the leaves of those trees remarkable for what is called honey-dew, as the aspin, blackberry, laurel, laurustinus, lime, maple, oak, plane, poplar, and sycamore-tree._ among those that are rich in pollen, may be classed--_the arbutus, ash, blackberry, box, chesnut, cypress, elder, laurel, marsh-mallow, turnip, &c._ the cultivation of some of the most valuable of these is too-limited to be particularly advantageous to bees, as _alyssum, borage, burnet, golden-rod, laurustinus, mezereon, mignionette, &c._ the most extensive and lasting bee-pasturage in this country is _clover, heath_, and in my own immediate neighbourhood _mustard_. in short, every one of the flowers, &c. mentioned in the foregoing catalogue, and others innumerable, are in their turns resorted to by bees, and of course are more or less advantageous to them. chapter xvi. honey-comb. to excite our admiration of the industry and ingenuity of bees, we need only take into our hands a piece of _honey-comb_, and examine it attentively. its neatness, its beauty, its construction, the similarity and exact proportion of its double web of cells, for a honey-comb is, in fact, a web of cell-work on both sides, are most admirable, and calculated to lead the contemplative mind from nature's work up to nature's god. when a swarm of bees is put into a hive, or into a box, they immediately set about constructing combs in it, and proceed in their building work with a rapidity that is truly astonishing. the cells that are opposite to each other are advanced alike: the work on one side is just as forward and in the same state as that on the other side. in the cells first finished the queen begins to deposit her eggs. in an incredibly short space of time, an immense number of cells is completed, and the bees store pollen, farina, or bee-bread, (which are so many names for the same substance) in some of those not already occupied by eggs, and in others honey soon becomes visible: all is activity, industry, and apparently happiness. but, to come to particulars:-- as dr. bevan, in the course of his _masterly_ chapter "on the architecture of bees," has given an engraved representation of a piece of honey-comb,--and as mr. huish also has given a somewhat similar representation, but better than dr. bevan's, inasmuch as it is more varied, and shows the royal-cells in their different stages to more advantage, and the drone-cells likewise;--i cannot, perhaps, do the _honey-comb_ so much justice in any way, as by presenting to my reader a copy of mr. huish's piece of comb, which has been _greatly improved_ by the skilful hand of my engraver, and by giving along with it dr. bevan's able description. though after all, a piece of _real comb_, to look at and examine, is more beautiful and far better than any engraving possibly can be, however cleverly it may be executed: and therefore, notwithstanding the plate, i would recommend it to my reader to procure a piece of real honey-comb, and with it in his hand read the following account, which is chiefly from dr. bevan's pen. [illustration] royal-cells in different states of forwardness, common-cells, and drone-cells, are intended to be severally represented in this plate. the ranges forming the upper half, and marked--a. are intended to represent common brood-cells and honey-cells--most of them in an empty state. the lower ranges, marked--b. are drone-cells, and are represented as closed up, and as they appear when full of brood. drone-cells, when filled with brood and sealed up, present a fuller and more convex surface than the cells containing common brood--these, that is--the cells containing the brood that becomes working bees, are sometimes flat and even, and sometimes rather concave. the four large cells, attached perpendicularly to the edge of the comb, and marked--c. d. e. f. are royal-cells in different states of forwardness; that marked--c. is similar in size and shape to an acorn-cup, and is supposed to be quite empty; that marked--d. is in a more advanced state, and is supposed to contain a royal embryo, in its _larva_ state: the royal-cell, marked--e. is considerably lengthened, narrowed, and nearly closed, because the larva it is supposed to contain is about to be transformed into a royal nymph, in which stage of its existence, as it does not require the assistance of nurses or common bees, it is closed up entirely, as in the royal-cell, marked--f. in this closed cell it progresses from nymph to bee, and in due time--that is, in about sixteen days from its being deposited as an egg, it emerges a virgin queen. when the temperature of a hive, or pavilion of nature, is at a proper height--namely, between and degrees, sixteen days is the period nature requires for the production of a queen-bee,--twenty-one for the perfection of a working bee,--and twenty-six for a drone bee. but, as dr. bevan very justly remarks, "the development of each species proceeds more slowly when the colonies are weak, or the air cool,--and that when the weather is very cold it is entirely suspended." but to return from this short, though it is hoped, not uninteresting digression, into which the explanation of the queen-cells has led us. "the combs of the bee-hive comprise a congeries of hexagonal cells, formed by the bees, as receptacles for honey or for embryo bees. a honey-comb is allowed to be one of the most striking achievements of insect industry, and an admirable specimen of insect architecture. it has attracted the admiration of the contemplative philosopher in all ages, and awakened speculation, not only in the naturalist, but also in the mathematician: so regular, so perfect, is the structure of the cells, that it satisfies every condition of a refined problem in geometry. still a review of their proceedings will lead to the conclusion, as huber has observed, that, "the geometrical relations, which apparently embellish the productions of bees, are rather the necessary result of their mode of proceeding, than the principle by which their labour is guided." "we must therefore conclude, that bees, although they act geometrically, understand neither the rules nor the principles of the arts which they practise so skilfully, and that the geometry is not in the bee, but in the great geometrician who made the bee, and made all things in number, weight, and measure. "before the time of huber, no naturalist had seen the commencement of the comb, nor traced the several steps of its progress. after many attempts, he at length succeeded in attaining the desired object; by preventing the bees from forming their usual impenetrable curtain by suspending themselves from the top of the hive; in short, he obliged them to build upwards, and was thereby enabled, by means of a glass window, to watch every variation and progressive step in the construction of a comb. "_each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells, backed against each other: these cells_, looking at them as a whole, may be said to _have one common base_, though no one cell is opposed directly to another. this base or partition, between the double row of cells, is so disposed as to form a pyramidal cavity at the bottom of each, as will be explained presently. _the mouths of the cells_, thus ranged on each side of a comb, _open into two parallel streets_ (there being a continued series of combs in every well filled hive). these streets are sufficiently contracted, to avoid waste of room, and to preserve a proper warmth, yet _wide enough to allow the passage of two bees abreast_. apertures through different parts of the combs are reserved to form near roads, for crossing from street to street, whereby much time is saved to the bees. these in firm phalanx ply their twinkling feet, stretch out the ductile mass, and form the street, with many a cross-way path and postern gate, that shorten to their range the spreading state. evans. "_bees_, as has been already observed, _build their cells of an hexangular form, having six equal sides_, with the exception of the first or uppermost row, the shape of which is an irregular pentagon, the roof of the hive forming one of the members of the pentagon. "there are only three possible figures of the cells," says dr. reid, "which can make them all equal and similar, without any useless interstices. these are--the equilateral triangle, the square and the regular hexagon. it is well-known to mathematicians, that there is not a fourth way possible, in which a plane may be cut into little spaces, that shall be equal, similar, and regular, without having any interstices." of these three geometrical figures, the hexagon most completely unites the prime requisites for insect architecture. the truth of this proposition was perceived by pappus, an eminent greek philosopher and mathematician, who lived at alexandria, in the reign of theodosius the great, and its adoption by bees, in the construction of honey-comb, was noticed by that ancient geometrician. these requisites are:-- "first, oeconomy of materials. there are no useless partitions in a honey-comb, each of the six lateral panels of one cell forms also one of the panels of an adjoining cell; and of the three rhombs which form the pyramidal base of a cell, each contributes one third towards the formation of the bases of three opposing cells, the bottom or centre of every cell resting against the point of union of the panels that are at the back of it. "secondly, oeconomy of room; no interstices being left between adjoining cells. "thirdly, the greatest possible capacity or internal space, consistent with the two former desiderata. "fourthly, oeconomy of materials and economy of room produce economy of labour. and in addition to these advantages, the cells are constructed in the strongest manner possible, considering the quantity of materials employed. both the sides and bases are so exquisitely thin, that three or four placed on each other are not thicker than a leaf of common writing paper; each cell, separately weak, is strengthened by its coincidence with other cells, and _the entrance is fortified with an additional ledge or border of wax_, to prevent its bursting from the struggles of the bee-nymph, or from the ingress and _egress_ of the labourers. this entrance border is _at least three times as thick as the sides of the cell_, and thicker at the angles than elsewhere, which prevents the mouth of the cell from being regularly hexagonal, though the interior is perfectly so. on books deep poring, ye pale sons of toil, who waste in studious trance the midnight oil, say, can you emulate with all your rules, drawn, or from grecian or from gothic schools, this artless frame? instinct her simple guide, a heaven-taught insect baffles all your pride. not all your marshall'd orbs that ride so high, proclaim more loud a present deity, than the nice symmetry of these small cells, where on each angle genuine science dwells, and joys to mark, through wide creation's reign, how close the lessening links of her continued chain. evans. "having just adverted to the ingenuity of bees in thickening, and thereby strengthening the mouths of the cells, it may here be observed--that _additional strength is also derived from the bees covering the whole surface of the combs, but more particularly the edge of the cells, with a peculiar kind of varnish_, which they collect for the purpose. at first the combs are delicately white, semi-transparent, and exceedingly fragile, smooth but unpolished: in a short time their surfaces become stronger, and assume more or less of a yellow tint. the deepening of the colour of honey-combs has been supposed, by some, to be the effect of age; and in part it may be: but it is principally owing to the coat of varnish, with which the bees cover them. this varnish strongly resembles propolis, appearing to differ from it only in containing the colouring material which imparts to wax its yellow hue. the source of this colouring matter has not been discovered: it is insoluble in alcohol, but the manufacture of white-wax shows that it is destructible by light. but to return to the construction of the cell-work. "_the pyramidal basis of a cell is formed by the junction of three rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped portions of wax:_ the apex of the pyramid being situated where the three obtuse angles of the lozenges meet. to the exterior edges and angles are attached the six panels or sides of each cell. the apex of each pyramidal bottom, on one side of a comb, forms the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite side, the three lozenges respectively concurring in the formation of the bases of the same cells. this will, i hope, explain what is meant by "each cell separately weak, being strengthened by coincidence with others." the bottom of each cell rests upon three partitions of opposite cells, from which it receives a great accession of strength. "as it is desirable that the reader should thoroughly comprehend this subject, i will re-state it in other words. the partition which separates the two opposing rows of cells, and which occupies, of course, the middle distance between their two surfaces, is not a plane but a collection of rhombs, there being three at the bottom of each cell: the three together form in shape, a flattened pyramid, the basis of which is turned towards the mouth of the cell; each cell is in form, therefore, a hexagonal prism, terminated by a flattened trihedral pyramid, the three sides of which pyramid are rhombs, that meet at the apex by their obtuse angles. "the union of the lozenges in one point, in addition to the support which it is the means of affording to the three partitions between opposing cells, is also admirably adapted to receive the little egg and to concentrate the heat necessary for its incubation. "each obtuse angle of the lozenges or rhombs forms an angle of about degrees, and each acute one, an angle of about degrees. mr. maraldi found by mensuration that the angles of these rhombs, which compose the base of a cell, amounted to degrees and seconds, and degrees and seconds: and the famous mathematician koenig, pupil of the celebrated bernoulli, having been employed for that purpose by m. reaumur, has clearly shown, by the method of infinitesimals, that the quantity of these angles, using the least possible wax, in the cell of the same capacity, should contain degrees and seconds, and degrees and seconds. this was confirmed by the celebrated mr. mac laurin, who very justly observes, that bees do truly construct their cells of the best figure, and with the utmost mathematical exactness. "the construction of several combs is generally going on at the same time. no sooner is the foundation of one laid, with a few rows of cells attached to it, than a second and a third are founded on each side, parallel to the first, and so on, (if the season give encouragement to the operations of the bees,) till the hive is filled with their works; the first constructed comb or combs being always in the most advanced state, and therefore the first to be completed. "_the design of every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments are laid by one single bee._ this founder-bee forms a block, out of a rough mass of wax, drawn partly from its own resources, but principally from those of other bees, which furnish materials, in quick succession, from the receptacles under their bellies, taking out the plates of wax with their hind feet, and carrying them to their mouths with their fore feet, where the wax is moistened and masticated, till it becomes soft and ductile. thus filter'd through yon flutterer's folded mail, clings the cool'd wax, and hardens to a scale; swift, at the well-known call, the ready train (for not a buz boon nature breathes in vain) spring to each falling flake, and bear along their glossy burdens to the builder throng. evans. "the architect-in-chief, who lays, as it were, the first stone of this and each successive edifice, determines the relative position of the combs, and their distances from each other: these foundations serve as guides for the ulterior labours of the wax-working bees, and of those which sculpture the cells, giving them the advantage of the margin and angles already formed. "the expedients resorted to by that ingenious naturalist, huber, unfolded the whole process. he saw each bee extract with its hind feet one of the plates of wax from under the scales where they were lodged, and carrying it to the mouth in a vertical position, turn it round, so that every part of its border was made to pass in succession, under the cutting edge of the jaws; it was thus soon divided into very small fragments; and a frothy liquor was poured upon it from the tongue, so as to form a perfectly plastic mass. this liquor gave the wax a whiteness and opacity which it did not possess originally, and at the same time renders it tenacious and ductile. the issuing of this masticated mass from the mouth was, no doubt, what misled reaumur, and caused him to regard wax as nothing more than digested pollen. "the mass of wax, prepared by the assistants, is applied by the architect-bee to the roof or bottom of the hive, as the case may be; and thus a block is raised of a semi-lenticular shape, thick at top and tapering towards the edges. when of a sufficient size, a cell is sculptured on one side of it, by the wax-working bees, who relieve one another in succession, sometimes to the number of twenty, before the cell is completely fashioned. at the back and on each side of this first cell, two others are sketched out and excavated. by this proceeding the foundations of two cells are laid, the line betwixt them corresponding with the centre of the opposite cell. as the combs extend, the first excavations are rendered deeper and broader; and when a pyramidal base is finished, the bees build up walls from its edges, so as to complete what may be called the prismatic part of the cell. every succeeding row of cells is formed by precisely similar steps, until there is a sufficient scope for the simultaneous employment of many workers. these, with sharp sickle, or with sharper tooth, pare each excrescence and each angle smooth, till now, in finish'd pride, two radiant rows of snow-white cells, one mutual base disclose. six shining panels gird each polish'd round, the door's fine rim, with waxen fillet hound, while walls so thin, with sister-walls comhin'd, weak in themselves, a sure dependence find. evans. "the pyramidal bases and lateral plates are successively formed, with surprising rapidity; the latter are lengthened as the comb proceeds, for the original semi-lenticular form is preserved till towards the last, when, if the hive or box be filled, the sides of all the cells receive such additions as give them equal depth. "_the cells intended for the drones_ are considerably larger, and more substantial, than those for the working bees, and, being later formed, usually appear near the bottom of the combs. last of all, are built the _royal-cells_, the cradles of the infant queens: of these there are usually three or four, and sometimes ten or twelve, in a hive, attached commonly to the central part, but not unfrequently to the edge or side of the comb. mr. hunter says that he has seen as many as thirteen royal-cells in a hive, and that they have very little wax in their composition, not one third, the rest he conceives to be farina. such is the genuine loyalty of bees, that the wax which they employ with so much geometric economy, in the construction of hexagonal cells, is profusely expended on the mansion of the royal bee-nymph, one of these exceeding in weight a hundred of the former. they are not interwoven with them, but suspended perpendicularly, their sides being nearly parallel to the mouths of the common-cells, several of which are sacrificed to support them. no more with wary thriftiness imprest, they grace with lavish pomp their royal guest, nor heed the wasted wax, nor rifled cell, to bid, with fretted round, th' imperial palace swell. evans. "the form of these royal-cells is an oblong spheroid, tapering gradually downwards, and having the exterior full of holes, somewhat resembling the _rustic_ work of stone buildings. the mouth of the cell, which is always at its bottom, remains open till the maggot is ready for transformation, and is then closed as the others are. "immediately on the emergence of a ripened queen, the lodge which she inhabited is destroyed, and its place is supplied by a range of common cells. the site of this range may always be traced, by that part of the comb being thicker than the rest, and forming a kind of knot; sometimes the upper portion of the cell itself remains, like an inverted acorn-cup, suspended by its short peduncle. yet no fond dupes to slavish zeal resign'd, they link with industry the loyal mind, flown is each vagrant chief. they raze the dome, that bent oppressive o'er the fretted comb, and on its knotted base fresh garners raise, where toil secure her well earn'd treasure lays. evans. "in this mutilated state only, and not in the breeding-season, could mr. hunter have seen this cradle of royalty; for he describes it as the half of an oval, too wide and shallow to receive its supposed tenant. "i have spoken of the perfect regularity in the cell-work of a honey-comb;--particular circumstances, however, induce a departure from this exactness: for instance, where bees have commenced a comb with small cell-work, and afterwards wish to attach to it a set of large cells, as in the case of drone-cells being required to be appended to workers'-cells. these deviations from the usual regularity renew our admiration of bee-ingenuity, though reaumur and bonnet have regarded them as examples of imperfection. they effect their object by interposing three or four series of, what may be called, _cells of transition_, the bottom or bases of which are composed of two rhombs and two hexagons, instead of three rhombs; the rhombs and hexagons gradually varying in form and relative proportion, till the requisite size, namely, that of the cells which they are approaching, has been attained. "the same gradation is observed when returning to smaller cells. every apparent irregularity is therefore determined by a sufficient motive, and forms no impeachment of the sagacity of the bee. "the common breeding-cells of drones or workers are occasionally (after being cleaned) made the depositories of honey; but the cells are never made so clean, as to preserve the honey undeteriorated. the finest honey is stored in new cells, constructed for the purpose of receiving it, their configuration resembling precisely the common breeding-cells: these _honey-cells vary in size_, being made more or less capacious, _according to the productiveness of the sources from which the bees are collecting, and according to the season of the year:_ the cells formed in july and august vary in their dimensions from those that are formed earlier; being intended for honey only, they are larger and deeper, the texture of their walls is thinner, and they have more dip or inclination; this dip diminishes the risk of the honey's running out, which, from the heat of the weather, and the consequent thinness of the honey, at this season of the year, it might otherwise be liable to do. _when the cells_, intended for holding the winter's provision, _are filled, they are always closed with waxen lids_, and never re-opened till the whole of the honey in the unfilled cells has been expended. the waxen lids are thus formed;--the first bees construct a ring of wax within the verge of the cell, to which other rings are successively added, till the aperture of the cell is finally closed with a lid composed of concentric circles. "the brood-cells, when their tenants have attained a certain age, are also covered with waxen lids, like the honey-cells; the lids differ a little, the latter being somewhat concave, the former convex. _the depth of the brood-cells_ of drones and working bees is about half an inch; _their diameter_ is more exact, that of the drone-cells being three lines[j] and one third, that of the workers two lines and three fifths. these, says reaumur, are the invariable dimensions of all the cells, that ever were, or ever will be made. [footnote j: a line is the twelfth part of an inch.] "from this uniform, unvarying diameter of the brood-cells, when completed, their use has been suggested, as an universal standard of measure, which would be understood, in all countries, to the end of time." while heav'n-born instinct bound their measured view, from age to age, from zembla to peru, their snow-white cells, the order'd artists frame, in size, in form, in symmetry, the same. evans. bees' wax. bees' wax, in its strictest sense, _is a secretion from the body of the honey-bee_, and is that peculiar substance or material with which bees principally construct their combs;--i say--_principally_, because the foundation of every comb is _propolis:_ it is by this tenacious substance (propolis) that combs are securely attached to, and suspended from, the roof of a hive or a box,--and it is by this that they are firmly glued to the sides, wherever they are made to touch them. bees' wax, however, in the common acceptation of the term, is that well-known, valuable article, obtained from honey-comb by the following process:-- having _drained_ all the honey from the combs, put them into a clean pot, together with as much rain-water as will make them float; then simmer over a clear fire until the combs be completely dissolved; and the wax and the dross mixed with it will swim at the top of the water. pour the whole into a strong and tolerably fine canvas bag, made wide at the top and tapering downwards to a point, in the form of a jelly bag. hold this over a tub or large vessel in which is a quantity of cold water. the boiling water will, of course, soon drain through, and leave in the bag the greater part of the liquefied wax commingled with dross. have ready then a piece of smooth board of such a length that, when one end of it is placed in the tub of cold water, the other end may be conveniently rested against, and securely stayed by your breast. upon this inclined plane lay your dripping, reeking strainer, and keep it from slipping into the cold water by bringing its upper part over the top of the board so as to be held firmly between it and your breast. if the strainer be made with a broad hem round its top, a piece of strong tape or cord passed through such hem will draw it close, and should be long enough to form a stirrup for the foot, by which an additional power will be gained of keeping the scalding-hot strainer in its proper place on the board: then by compressing the bag, or rather its contents, with any convenient roller, the wax will ooze through and run down the board into the cold water, on the surface of which it will set in thin flakes. when this part of the operation is finished, collect the wax, put it into a clean saucepan, in which is a little water to keep the wax from being burnt to the bottom; melt it _carefully_ (for, should it be neglected and suffered to boil over, serious mischief might ensue, liquid wax being of a very inflammable nature) therefore melt it _carefully over a slow fire_, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top; then pour it into such moulds or shapes as your fancy may direct, having first well rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, when cold and solid, out of them without breaking either the moulds or the wax: place them, covered over with cloths or with pieces of board, where the wax will cool slowly; because the more slowly it cools the more solid it will be and free from flaws and cracks. you will thus have your wax in cakes, which may be rendered still more pure by a second melting and moulding. if run into very thin cakes, and afterwards exposed to the influence of the sun and the air, frequently turned, and occasionally wetted, it will lose its yellowness, and become beautifully white. this last process is called _bleaching_; and, though more simple and practicable than that pursued in establishments where large quantities of wax are bleached--where bleaching wax is of itself a regular business--it may probably be sufficient to answer all the purposes for which _white-wax_ is wanted in private families. i have by me wax of my own bleaching that is equal in whiteness and delicacy to any i have ever met with. good wax is a heavy, solid substance, of a deep yellow colour, has an agreeable, balsamic odour, and possesses several medicinal and other valuable qualities. combs that have never been filled, and those that have been filled with honey only, afford the best wax. of the former kind but very little need ever be taken from bees in collateral-boxes; and when any such combs are taken, they may be far more advantageously disposed of than by being melted down for the wax they contain. instead of crushing and melting all the combs of three or four hives together, as is mostly done by cottage bee-keepers, the fine, clean parts should be separated from those that are discoloured, less pure, and inferior, by reason of their age,--of having been brood combs,--or of containing pollen, and should be melted first. by this very easy mode of manipulation, the quantity of wax would not be lessened, and the superior quality of the fine would command a price that would be an ample remuneration for the additional trouble attending the management of it in this way. should the preceding directions be thought to be tediously or unnecessarily minute, my apology for making them so is--an anxious wish on my part to render every thing relating to bees clearly understood--understood so as to be set about and properly managed by persons who never before bestowed one thought upon the subject. chapter xvi i. winter situation for bees. there is no part of bee-management more utterly disregarded by cottage-hive bee-keepers than that which relates to a proper situation for store-hives during winter. from whatever cause this inattention may proceed,--whether from custom, ignorance, or prejudice, it is much to be regretted; because nothing is so essentially conducive to the future prosperity, and often to the very preservation, of a colony, as due attention to its winter situation. left, as stock-hives commonly are, in their summer aspect, and to stand upon the very spot they have occupied ever since the day of their existence as stocks,--with their entrances wide open, just as they were in summer,--exposed alike to every change of weather and to every attack of prowling enemies; or, if covered at all, it is mostly with a rude coat of straw, or reed, or such material as affords to mice, vermine, and various sorts of bee-enemies, shelter and concealment, and, in fact, encouragement to attack and destroy the hives. thus, neglected and unheeded, it is no wonder that so many stocks of bees perish in the winter and spring of every year; the wonder rather is that any should escape. some apiarian authors are opposed to the confinement of bees in their hives, except when snow is on the ground: _then_, and _then only_, they recommend the confinement of bees as necessary for their safety. now, i would respectfully ask--if, in the north of england and in scotland, snow does not lie on the ground for weeks, and in some years for months together? and i would ask further--if bees can bear this confinement with snow on the ground, why they cannot bear it when there is no snow? they argue, however, in the face of this admission, that confinement is injurious to bees, and that a flight in the open air on a fine day, if there should happen to be a fine day, in the depth of winter, is beneficial to bees, otherwise, they say, the bees would not take it. a mild, open winter, every body knows, renders unconfined bees poor--and when kept in a state of perpetual agitation and alarm by the restless enemies that surround them and nestle in their straw covering, and tempted by the faint, wintery sun-beams that gleam upon their floor-board through the unclosed entrance of their hives, they will, no doubt, sometimes sally forth. but what is the consequence? hundreds and thousands of them become paralyzed[k] and never return; and those that do get home again have occasion for food: of course, the oftener these winter flights take place, the more the population of the hives they issue from is diminished, and the more pauperized that diminished population becomes in consequence of such flights: whereas, if bees were confined, kept in darkness, or, at any rate, out of the influence of the sun, kept dry, cool, still, and undisturbed, no such disastrous consequences would ensue. [footnote k: in the th page of his "apiarian's guide," j. h. payne, esq. says--"a bee becomes torpid at a temperature of thirty-two degrees"--payne is an experienced apiarian. what credit then is due to the anonymous critic, who in one of the weekly periodicals[l] has told us that "bees in a glass hive, exposed in the open air, when its temperature was twenty degrees below freezing, instead of being in a state of of torpor, continued very lively?!!"--before yielding implicit credence to this statement, it would be exceedingly satisfactory to be informed _how long_ the bees so exposed continued very lively.] [footnote l: _mechanics' magazine_, no. , p. .] the following detail will show my readers the results of some experiments, relative to the aspect and situation of bee-hives during winter; and whilst in some degree they corroborate the foregoing observations, they may perhaps induce those, who are anxious for the prosperity of their bees, to submit to be taught a useful lesson respecting the winter management of them. in i had six cottage-hives, which had prospered well with me during the summer of that year. in the autumn of the same year i resolved to weigh those six hives, and to place three of them on the north side of my house, and to let the other three remain in their summer situation. the separate weights of my hives, in november of the year , were as under, viz. no. . lbs. no. . lbs. . -- . -- . -- . -- --- --- --- --- the first three of these nos. viz. , , and , weighing together lbs. remained during the winter in their summer situation: nos. , , and , weighing together lbs. were removed to a cold dry place, on the north side of my house. on the th of march, , i again weighed those six hives, and found their respective weights to be as follows, viz. no. . lbs. no. . lbs. . -- . -- . -- . -- -- -- -- -- so that the three hives, remaining in their summer quarters during the winter, had decreased in weight just lbs. being on an average lbs. each; while the three which had wintered on the north side of my house had decreased only lbs. being on an average only lbs. each. this gives an average difference of lbs. a hive, between a proper and an improper winter situation and aspect for bees. it is lamentable to think how many people lose their bees, either from ignorance, prejudice, or want of attention to this particular point--_a proper winter situation_. i need scarcely relate to my readers, that the bees which were placed fronting, or open to the north, were the first that swarmed the next spring. they swarmed in the month of may; while those hives that had remained fronting, or open to the south, did not swarm until july; and one hive (no. .) never swarmed at all during the season. at the latter end of october, , i again weighed my hives, and found them to be as under:-- no. . lbs. swarm from ditto lbs. . -- . -- swarm from ditto -- -- -- -- -- no. . lbs. swarm from ditto lbs. . -- swarm from ditto -- . -- swarm from ditto -- --- -- --- -- hence it appears that the three hives (nos. , , and ) that had never been removed from their summer stands, were lbs. lighter than when i first weighed them, that is, on an average, lbs. a hive; and even with the weight of their two swarms added to them, there was a falling off in the year of lbs. or, on an average, of lbs, a hive: whilst nos. , , and , had gained lbs. or, on an average, nearly lbs. each; and with the weight of their swarms added to them, they had gained lbs. or, on an average, nearly lbs. a hive in the year. i could carry this subject much further in my explanations, as i did in my experiments, but it requires no facts in addition to those just stated to explain the difference of aspect in the winter-season to bees. every cottager must know that the richer his bees are in spring, the sooner they will swarm. then, to make them rich, he must not neglect to place his hives out of the influence of the sun during winter,--_in a dry, cold, and quiet situation_. he will find by this practice, that not more than five or six pounds of honey will be consumed by a good stock; but if he suffer his bees to remain fronting the south, they will in a mild winter, if they survive it at all, become paupers before spring. now what is proper during the winter for stocks in common hives, is equally proper for stocks in collateral-boxes, of which the middle-box is the winter-pavilion or stock-hive. long before winter all the bees of the most populous stock will draw into the middle-box and cluster round their queen; and when that is the case, the dividing-tins should be put down, in order that all the bees may be securely kept in the pavilion; and previously to removing them from their summer situation, the entrance should be carefully closed with a piece of wire-cloth, or perforated tin; which, whilst it admits fresh air into the box, will keep the bees within and all their enemies without. it is hardly possible for the smallest enemy to make its way into a box thus secured. a perforated tin may also be put over the way down into the drawer. towards spring this last may be withdrawn, and the bees, when they begin to revive, will soon rid themselves of those that may have died in the winter, by carrying them down into the drawer. having made every necessary preparation, remove your stocks to such a situation as that herein before recommended, and there in quietude let them pass the dreary months of winter. i do not advise that they be taken too early to, nor that they remain too long in, their hibernacula: generally speaking, they may be removed towards the latter end of november, and again in the third or fourth week of february; but the bees themselves, if duly observed, will be the best directors. this is _my_ practice, and it is also the practice of my apiarian friend at gedney-hill, than whose, no stocks in this neighbourhood are more healthy or much more prosperous. chapter xviii. apiarian societies. the encouragement of any internal branch of industry, which will supersede the necessity for the employment of british capital in speculative adventures where no equivalent is returned, is in the mind of every patriot a subject worthy of consideration. and that the prosecution and encouragement of my system of bee-management, undertaken by those who are qualified by their means, abilities, and powers of patronage, to set the example, and thereby influence others, will effect this to a considerable extent, as far as the production of honey and wax is concerned, will, i think, be sufficiently obvious to those who have witnessed, or who hereafter may witness, the successful results--the almost incredible quantity of these productions from my apiary alone; or, leaving my apiary entirely out of the account, i will venture modestly to assert, _that from any one set of collateral-boxes, well-stocked and well-managed, the quantity and quality of honey that may be annually taken, without either destroying or impoverishing the bees, must be seen to be believed; and being seen, will not be disputed_. the exact amount annually paid to other countries for these two commodities--honey and wax--i have not the means of ascertaining with accuracy, but it is probable that it exceeds £ , .--a sum lost to this country, because, not only have we in the vegetable world a profusion of these productions, that "waste their sweetness on the desert air," but we have, or might have, if we would but encourage them, the labourers necessary to collect them, and this too without the deterioration of any other department of rural economy. were bee-colonies multiplied to any thing like the number that the bee-pasturage of this country would support; were there, for instance, but one set of well-stocked collateral-boxes on every square mile of england, wales, and scotland,--or, to compute moderately, on every square mile of every rural district of great britain, that is fertile in bee-pasturage,--and were the price of the finest box-honey reduced to a shilling a pound, the annual _surplus_ produce of these colonies would realize a sum far exceeding £ , . which would be put into the pockets of, generally speaking, an industrious and deserving part of the community--the rural population, and a profitable remuneration given to them for their indulgence and perseverance in a most rational pursuit, requiring but trifling, and this only incidental attention. i know of no time more proper for throwing out these hints than the present, when the subject of _rural allotments_ excites, and that justly, almost universal attention amongst those desirous of securing an industrious, prosperous, and virtuous peasantry. i do not presume to imagine that, antiquated as are the practices hitherto so generally adopted, and so pertinaciously adhered to in bee-management in this country, and characterized as are these practices by so many superstitious and irrational usages--i do not presume to imagine that my system will, at once, up-root prejudices, dispel superstitions, and be immediately and heartily adopted by the cottager. the generality of apiarians have yet to be taught that _bee-management is a system;_--that it is something more than merely stocking a hive or box with a swarm of bees, and then leaving it to chance alone to prosper or to perish; and, if to prosper, it is only until the time for its final doom--the reckless destruction of every bee--arrives. they have yet to learn that the whole, or at least, the greater part of the contingencies, to which bee-colonies are subject, may be averted; that the casualties of bees are analogous to those of other descriptions of stock; and that, if they would ensure success, or expect to derive profit from them, it must be by attention to their domicils, to their protection from the variations of climate and atmosphere, and from external enemies,--in short, by proper management. if in many instances, the success of my hives has been so unqualified and extensive, it has been because the necessity for careful management has been impressed and adhered to, and because bees, in whose welfare their owners had been previously uninterested, have been looked upon with some degree of attention, and their labours facilitated and requited by timely administering to their wants and comforts. in the same way, i believe, that by attention to the observations contained in these pages, the cottagers' labours may be more amply repaid, and that more honey may be obtained, even by their rough practices; whilst this will be preparing them for the adoption of my improved plans and gradually pave the way for its general introduction. for this i more particularly refer to the preceding chapter, and to that on bee-feeding, i. e. chapters xiv. and xvii. it has often been suggested to me, to point out _how_ the culture of honey-bees might be more generally extended in this country, and rendered more advantageous to the cottager than it has been hitherto. as regards the extension of bee-cultivation, i would observe, that if those gentlemen, especially those gentlemen resident in the country, who possess affluence, influence, and leisure, would undertake to promote it--would set the example and keep bees, their example alone would go far to induce the cottager to keep them; and that, as other countries boast, and that so usefully, their apiarian societies, the formation of such a society, or societies, could not fail to be attended with beneficial effects. some feeble attempts, it is true, to establish such a society have been made, but have proved abortive, whilst premiums on the subject have been offered by other societies,[m] injudiciously, as they have tended to perpetuate mistaken views, and to retard the progress of more correct ones. i am not insensible of the extreme benefit which has resulted to the different branches of industry, and to agriculture and horticulture in particular, by well-regulated scales of premiums, emulating to superiority and necessarily promoting a beneficial stimulus in the different branches with which they are connected. and, in my opinion, nothing would more easily tend to the inculcation of sounder views of practice, than, if gentlemen, pursuing my principles, would interest themselves in connecting with the objects of such associations more generally, graduated scales of prizes, regulated by the quantity of honey obtained from stocks, the prosperity of the hives afterwards, and the state of the apiary generally, &c. were they also to countenance the plan of placing colonies under the care of labouring cottagers, giving them premiums as an inducement to careful management, they could not fail of conferring a benefit, by initiating them into the plans of the system, as well as by more advantageously dividing the pasture of the district among the different hives, and thereby rendering the labour of their collecting the stores considerably less to the bees. this would, undoubtedly, effect much, but i know of no means so decidedly calculated to foster and encourage the culture of honey-bees among all classes, and more particularly among the population of rural districts, as apiarian societies, formed for the express purpose of extending and improving the cultivation and management of honey-bees. [footnote m: a premium was last year ( ) awarded by the cambridgeshire horticultural society, to a mr. widnal, for his exhibition of a glass of honey. but whether the encouragement of bee-culture be an object of that very respectable society,--or whether the reward given to mr. widnal on that occasion was a sort of bye-premium, bestowed for the gratification of seeing a curiosity, it did not appear.] chapter xix. miscellaneous directions. in undertaking this work, as i originally did, at the pressing solicitations of several of those noblemen and gentlemen, whose names graced the list of the subscribers for the first edition, i had two main objects in view; of which a full and particular explanation of the mode of managing honey-bees, in my boxes and upon my principles, was one,--and the other, which i do ardently hope will result from the adoption and encouragement of my long-tried plan, is--the prospective improvement, not only of the culture and condition of those ingenious, admired, and most interesting little creatures, but also of honey and wax--the two valuable articles which bees, and bees alone, afford us. to prepare the way for the accomplishment of the latter of these objects, i have exerted my best endeavours--i have spared neither pains nor expense, to give minute, and, i trust, intelligible descriptions of all my boxes and hives, of my bee-machinery, and of every thing thereto pertaining; which descriptions have been accompanied with such practical directions and relations of experiments, as will, _if duly attended to_, enable my bee-friends to put their apiaries upon my _humane and profitable system of management_. therefore i do not think it is incumbent upon me to proceed farther at present. i might easily double the size of my book, by entering into and giving lengthy details of several matters relative to bees, which are not here so much as hinted at; such, for instance, as the distance that they sometimes fly from their hives in quest of honey, and the experiments that have been made to determine that distance;--the nature of honey-dew, and how it is occasioned,--why it abounds on some trees and plants, whilst others are entirely destitute of it,--whether it be a natural exudation of the plants that afford it,--or whether it be produced by the leaf-lice, called aphides;--why, if the impregnation of a virgin-queen be retarded beyond a certain number of days after her coming into existence, all the eggs she lays during her whole life, should invariably produce _drones;_--the language of bees, for bees, it has been held, have their peculiar language, though i profess not to understand it, nor even to have studied it, my business being with their _habits;_--the various diseases or maladies with which skilful men assure us they are occasionally affected;--their senses, their anatomy, and their instinct;--their affinity to the wasp;--exotic bees from those of lapland to those of china; and from those of siberia to those of the cape of good hope;--the stingless bees of south america, mentioned by dr. hancock, that from the luxuriant ever-blooming, tropical plants and flowers, produce black wax;[n] what aristotle hath remarked on one subject,--what pliny hath said on another,--what classic virgil hath so delightfully sung of the nature, economy, and management of bees in italy,--what gelieu in modest prose hath said of bees in switzerland,--huber and reaumur in france, and a host of writers in germany, and in our own native england; what opposite opinions have been entertained respecting honey; whether plants and flowers secrete pure honey, or whether the saccharine matter culled from them undergoes any percolating, rectifying, chemical process in the stomach of the bee.--i might observe, that the illustrious hunter was of opinion that it undergoes no change; although the no less illustrious naturalist reaumur, and the entomologists kirby and spence, imagine that some change does take place before the honey is stored in the cells,--that, as the nectarious exudation of plants is not of the same consistence as honey from the hives, it is reasonable to suppose that it undergoes some change _in transitu_ whilst in the body of the bee; that, as far as my experience has enabled me to make observations on this subject, i am disposed to lean to the opinion of reaumur, kirby, and spence, and to ascribe the difference between honey in the nectarium of a flower or on the leaf of a tree, and honey in the cells of a comb, to the absorption of the volatile parts of the saccharine of the plants and flowers whilst in the honey-bag; which absorption is aided and accelerated by the natural heat of the bee, and by which process honey is rendered of uniform consistence, in the graphic language of my chemical friend--mr. booth--i might exclaim, "how necessarily do the least valued products in the economy of nature, eliminated in the most miniature laboratory of her operations, confirm us in the belief of the existence, wisdom, and power of nature's god--the great chemist--who has not only imbued matter to act upon its fellow matter in the infinity of space, to produce an infinite diversity of changes in the material world; but, within the small compass of a bee, has provided apparatus for certain changes to take place, which are more elaborate, important, and complicated, than are produced in the largest apparatus of the manufacturer! in this little insect are performed all those chemical processes of life, by which nature is kept in the equanimity and beauty of existence--here composition and decomposition, solution and precipitation, sublimation, volatilization, distillation, and absorption, through the agency of heat and attraction, take place on the minutest matters, secreted by the plants and collected by the bees; and in the hive, by the concentration of their individual efforts, is elaborated that immense quantity of those important products, which constitute such useful commodities in the arts and economy of life." [footnote n: see page , antea.] the discussion of some of these topics, and dissertations on others, might be made amusing, perhaps interesting, and would, at all events, swell the size of my book; but whether i should thereby enhance its intrinsic merits (if intrinsic merit it possess) is more than i dare venture to affirm. in short, these topics come not within my plan,--they are foreign to it, and i gladly leave them to be treated of by others, whose learning is mare able to cope with them, and whose taste may direct them to such subjects. _i have withheld nothing that i deem to be essentially necessary to the thorough understanding of my mode of bee-management;_ consequently, i anticipate that my two main objects will eventually be attained--that bee-culture will become a pleasing and a profitable study--a source of instructive amusement and of profit too,--and that our country will, at no great distance of time, be everywhere studded and ornamented with neat, well-ordered apiaries. i will, therefore, now close my present labours with a few miscellaneous directions, chiefly recapitulatory, which, on account of their importance, every apiarian should constantly bear in mind. have your bee-boxes _well-made_, and _of good substantial materials_. strength and durability are of greater consequence than neatness, though that need not be neglected--neatness and strength are not incompatible--they may be combined. paint your boxes annually, when they are in their winter situation. make a clear ground or floor-way from the pavilion into each of the end-boxes, by cutting away about two inches from the lower edge of each of the corresponding ends, to the depth of half an inch; and make this way or passage as near the front-entrance as it conveniently may be. this convenience has been suggested to me _since_ the directions for making collateral-boxes were printed, and i therefore mention it here as an improvement, because such a way on the floor, and _without any climbing_, will afford an additional accommodation to bees on many occasions. boxes will not work bees, neither will bees work boxes to advantage, unless due attention be paid to them--i. e. both to boxes and to bees. situation is of prime importance: for summer it should be clear and open in front of your boxes, and sheltered at their back by a north-wall or by a thick hedge. in summer let their aspect be south-east:--early in spring, and again in autumn, due south is the best point to be in front: therefore, as spring advances turn the front of your boxes eastward, and as summer declines move them back again to their spring aspect; or, in other words, when there is not more than twelve hours' sun, let the front of your boxes be due south; and during the time that the sun is more than twelve hours above the horizon, let it be south-east. always have the cheerful rays of the morning sun fall upon your boxes: but contrive to throw a shade upon their front for a few hours in the middle of the day, when the weather is very hot. such a shade will be grateful to your bees. elevate your boxes twenty inches or two feet above the ground: and always keep the grass or ground, under and near them, neat and clean, and entirely free from all nuisances. a constant supply of water in the immediate vicinity of your apiary is highly desirable; if therefore you have not a natural supply of that element, _so necessary for bees_, contrive to let them have it by artificial means--by placing it in or near your apiary, in large, shallow dishes, or in wooden troughs, partially covering the surface with reed or moss, and be careful to replenish them, so that your bees may always find it there. suffer not ants to burrow near your bees. ants are enemies to bees, and will annoy them, if they get among them. spiders also are bee-destroyers; therefore, brush away their entangling webs, whenever and wherever you find them about your boxes. fowls should not be permitted in an apiary. early in spring let the entrance be not more than an inch, and increase it gradually to its full extent, as you find occasion: contract it again towards the fall of the year; and, if the moths be troublesome in summer evenings, nearly close it every evening; but take care to open it again either early next morning, or as soon as the evening flight of the moths is over. this attention is more particularly due to weak stocks, and affords them great protection against the attacks of moths, which are among the boldest, the most persevering, and, when once they have got into a hive, most destructive enemies to bees. destroy wasps and wasps' nests wherever you find them in the vicinity of your apiary. the destruction of queen-wasps in spring is the most effectual method of diminishing the number of these formidable bee-enemies; because the destruction of a queen-wasp in spring is tantamount to the destruction of a whole nest afterwards. light in the domicil of bees, if not actually prejudicial to them, is, at any rate, displeasing to them; therefore, be careful never to expose your bees unnecessarily to its glare: never leave the window-doors open, nor suffer careless visitors to do so. my ingenious friend, the rev. t. clark, of gedney-hill, suggests the propriety of recommending that the window-doors be _self-shutting doors_. this, he says, may be done by fixing upon each door a light, easy spring, similar to those made use of to shut doors in good houses; or by a cord attached to each door, and passed through an eye, and over a small pulley fixed to the side of each box; from the end of which cord a weight of two or three ounces must be suspended. this weight, acting upon the cord, will draw the little doors to the windows, that is, it will shut them. the cords, eyes, and pulleys, he further says, may be so arranged, that one small weight will keep all the hive doors, in a set of collateral-boxes, closed and safe, and may be made to hang under the floor. i have no hesitation in recommending his suggestion as ingenious, practicable, and useful. the best security, however, after all, is that afforded by lock and key, the key being in the constant possession of the owner. ventilate your collateral-boxes and bell-glasses, when the interior temperature is at, or above, degrees. never irritate your bees, nor offer any sort of violence or opposition to them; and should an angry bee or two at any time attack you, walk quietly away, and leave them to settle into peace again. on no account drive your bees; it is a ruinous practice. with boxes, however, i trust, it is impracticable, and totally superseded. never disturb, nor in any way interfere with, the middle-box. _on no account destroy any of your bees:_ independently of its cruelty, it is an impolitic practice: it is like cutting down a tree to get at its fruit, which may easily be gathered by less laborious and indestructive means. encourage your bees,--accommodate them,--support them,--and _by all means preserve them_; and, when seasons are favourable, they will _richly_ reward you for your attention to them. always keep a cottage-hive, or single box or two, in your apiary, for the purpose of having swarms from them, with which to stock empty boxes, or to strengthen such stocks as may stand in need of additional numbers; and proceed with such supplementary swarms as directed in pages - . never impoverish your bees by taking from them more honey than they have to spare. always suffer them to be in possession of a plentiful store. over-deprivation distresses them, and is no gain to the proprietor. among other reasons this is one for my repeated directions--not to touch the middle-box. honey of the very finest quality may commonly be obtained from collateral-boxes, as early in the season as the months of may and june, without injuring the parent-stock in the slightest degree. the enlargement of their domicil by returning an empty glass, or an empty box, to the place from which a full one has been taken, is at this busy period of their labour an accommodation to bees, and is one great means of preventing the necessity for their swarming, as it enables them to continue their work at the time that there is the greatest abundance of treasure for them in the fields, and when bees in cottage-hives cannot profit by it, owing to their want, not of inclination to gather it, but of room in their hive to store it; they therefore swarm once, twice, perhaps three times. what then can be afterwards expected from such exhausted stocks but weakness and poverty? the more numerous the working bees are in any colony, the more honey they will collect, _provided they have room wherein to store it_. accommodate them, then, with convenient store-room, and the more workers you have in your boxes the better. up to the middle of august you may, with safety, that is, without injury to the bees, take off glasses and boxes, as they become ready. _after that time_ it is advisable to have, and to leave, in every colony, honey sufficient for the subsistence of the bees until next spring; and should you take off a full box, later in the season than the middle of august, instead of emptying it of all its treasure, be content with a part of it,--take a part, and _return a part--share it with your bees, and let their share be a liberal one_. as has been already enjoined--_on no account impoverish them by over-deprivation_, at that precarious season especially. they possibly may collect much honey after that time; if so, share with them again; if not, have them rich from your first bounty. when a box, well-stored with honey, is taken off, it is not an easy matter to extract the first comb or two, without breaking them and spoiling their beauty, besides shedding more or less of the honey; therefore, be prepared with proper knives. any common knife that has a blade long enough, may serve to sever the combs from the sides of a box: but, to cut them from the top, it is advisable to have an instrument, which may be called a bee-knife, of the following construction:--a two-edged, lancet-shaped blade, two inches long and three-eighths of an inch broad, having the hole, through which the rivet would pass to fix it in a haft, drilled large enough to admit the end of a steel rod, upon which it is to be well brazed or riveted: the other end of this rod may be finished with a neat handle, leaving its clear length between the contrate blade and the handle eleven inches--that being rather more than the depth of my bee-boxes. a knife of this description may easily be passed between the combs, and is very convenient for cutting them from the top of a box. whenever you have occasion to perform any operation among your bees, be provided with every requisite material, implement, &c. have not any thing to seek for, much less to get made, at the moment it is wanted: _that moment may perhaps be a critical one_. in september unite the bees of poor stocks to rich ones; and now, or in march, transfer stocks from straw-hives into boxes. previously to withdrawing the tin-divider, for the purpose of opening the communication into an end-box, take off the end-box and dress its inside with a little liquid honey; this will bring the bees into it, when, but for the honey, they would perhaps refuse to enter it; and at that time close the ventilation. it is wrong to ventilate empty boxes, because it drives the bees into the pavilion: and it is a fact, that they will swarm from the pavilion, rather than take possession of an empty end-box, if its temperature be, and be kept, disagreeably cold, by having the ventilation open at the very time it should be carefully closed. this will both explain and remedy the difficulty, that some apiarians complain of having experienced, in getting their bees to take possession of an empty box; it will also account for swarms sometimes leaving the pavilion when there is no want of room: the fact is--that the temperature of _that room_ is not agreeable to them: but it is owing to the mismanagement of the apiator that it is otherwise than agreeable. whenever a box is taken off, be careful to open the perforations in the cylinder-ventilator, many of which will be found sealed up with propolis. these perforations may be cleared at any time, by introducing a piece of wire with a sharpened point, turned so as to pick out the propolis; but they are most effectually opened when a box is off. towards the latter end of november, or earlier, if the weather be inclement and severe, remove your bee-boxes to their winter situation: this should be _dry, quiet, cool_, and _dark_, and place your boxes in it so that they may front towards the north or north-east. guard and close the entrance with a piece of fine wire-cloth, of lariviere's patent tin, or of perforated zinc, (which is the best, on account of its not corroding) made fast to the box, either of which will confine the bees within their domicil, admit plenty of fresh air, and keep out inimical intruders. thus prepared for winter, having every tin and block in its proper place, _disturb your bees as little as possible_, and, come winter as it may, they will pass it in that state of semi-insensibility, or torpor, which nature, or with reverence let me rather say--nature's god has appointed for them. towards the end of february, or as soon as vegetation begins to make its appearance, take your boxes from their winter to their summer stands, and commence another course of attentions, observations, and humane management, similar to that herein directed and explained. and, though cases may arise, and difficulties occur in the course of your practice, for the remedying of which no specific directions are, or can be, here given, your own experience and progressive improvement in the pleasing science of bee-management, will lead you to adopt the proper mode of treating the former, and the proper means for surmounting the latter. the end. h. and j. leach, printers, wisbech. * * * * * transcriber note minor typographical errors have been corrected. hyphenation standardized to most utilized form herein. page images produced and generously made available by the core historical literature in agriculture collection of cornell university (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through the core historical literature in agriculture collection of cornell university. see http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno= a description of the bar-and-frame-hive, invented by w. augustus munn, esq. with an abstract of wildman's complete guide for the management of bees throughout the year. ipsa autem, seu corticibus tibi suta cavatis, seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta, angustos habeant aditus; nam frigore mella cogit hiems, eademque calor liquefacta remittit. virgil, _g. lib._ iv. london: john van voorst, paternoster row. m.dccc.xliv. london printed by s. & j. bentley, wilson, and fley, bangor house, shoe lane. preface having been frequently requested to explain the use of the _bar-and-frame-hive_, in the management of bees, i have been induced to print the following pamphlet, to point out the advantages this new hive possesses over the common ones. i have added extracts from various authorities to show the importance of transporting bees for a change of pasturage, and thus prolonging the honey harvest. regarding the natural history of the bee, i have merely stated a few of the leading facts connected with that interesting subject, drawn from wildman's book on bee-management. _london, april, ._ [illustration: plate i. _fig. ._] explanation of the plate. plate i, figure . a b c d e f and e f, the oblong box as shown in fig. , plate i. a b c d, the top lid of the oblong box; g h, the half of it made to fall back, and supported at an angle by the hinges, _h h_; _l_, the upper part of the lock of the box; _i k_, the two gable ends of the roof; _i_, the perforated zinc shown as secured in a triangular frame; and _k_, the outside appearance of the ventilator. q q, the two quadrants, supporting the table, i j, which is formed by the side of the box, a c e e, being let down; _a a a_, &c., fifteen holes made to receive the back bolt, _m_, of the observation-frame, z; _b b_, two bolts to fasten into the holes, _c_ and _d_, when the table i j, is closed, _f_, being the other part of the lock. t, one of the handles of the box (the other not seen). u, one of the blocks (the other not shown) to keep the bottom of the box from the ground, when the four legs l l l l, are unscrewed from the four corners of the box. x x b d, the front of the box; _e_, the alighting board, four inches wide, extending the whole length from f to f; x _ _, shows a small ledge to keep the wet from entering the bee-box, and x i, one of the slides _s_, drawn out, and extending beyond the end of the box; the other half slide, _s_, on the _left_ hand side, not drawn out in the sketch, the part under x , shows the opening for the ingress and egress of the bees. r, one of the two pieces of red cedar at the inside of the box, fixed at the ends, e f. e f. the q q, quadrants being made to work between the red cedar and the outer case or box; _v v_, the fillet fixed in the length of the box, on a level with the tops of red cedar; _c d_, the holes for the bolts _b b_, in the table i j. w w, pieces of perforated zinc laid upon the tops of the bee-frames resting on the fillets, _v v_. , , , , , , six of the grooves, half an inch deep, - / long, and - / of an inch broad, formed on the floor-board: the holes shown in the floor-board above the figures being made for the reception of the two pins, _a b_, in the observation-frame. no. , shows the "division-frame" run into the eighth groove of the floor-board, and no. and , the bee-frames run into their respective grooves, and the - / of an inch openings in the back closed by the slips of tin, _q q q q_, &c. y y, the bar of mahogany with corresponding grooves, x x x x, &c. to those on the floor-board, at , , , , and , and - / holes for the top bolt, _r_, of the observation-frame, z, to fix into. _t, t, t_, the screw nuts at the backs of the bee-frames, &c., for the screw at the end of the spindle, s, to work into, and thus hold and draw out of the grooves the bee-frames; _w_, the bee-frame containing comb and bees, drawn partly into the observation-frame, z. a description of the bar-and-frame-hive. the bar-and-frame-hive. by first giving a general description of the "bar-and-frame-hive," the details of its construction can be better explained afterwards. an oblong box is formed of well seasoned wood of an inch in thickness, about thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and twelve inches broad; but the size may be varied to suit the convenience or taste of different apiarians. instead of the lid of the box being flat, it is made in the shape of the roof of a cottage, and with projecting eaves to throw off the wet more effectually. one of the long sides of the box is constructed to open with hinges, and to hang on a level with the _bottom_ of the box, and is held up by means of two quadrants. as many grooves, half of an inch broad, half an inch deep, and about - / inches long, are formed, - / of an inch apart, in the inside of the bottom of the box as its length will admit. in the other side, a long half inch slip is cut for the egress and ingress of the bees, having a piece of wood about an inch thick, and four inches wide, fastened on the outside, just under the opening, to form the alighting board for them. at the top, of the side of the box which is made to let down, a four inch piece of mahogany the length of the inside of the box is secured in, having corresponding grooves formed, half an inch broad, - / of an inch deep, and half an inch apart, to those made in the bottom of the box, leaving just _twelve_ inches between the bottom grooves and the upper bar grooves. when the four legs are screwed into the four corners of the box, the small "bee-house" is ready for the reception of the "bee-frames" and the bees. the "bee-frames" are made of half inch mahogany, being twelve inches high, nine inches long, and not more than half of an inch broad, so that these frames will fit into the box, sliding into fifteen grooves formed on the bottom, and kept securely in their places by the upper grooves in the mahogany bar. when the fifteen, or whatever number of the bee-frames intended to be used, have been run into the grooves, sheets of perforated zinc are placed on the tops of them; the - / of an inch openings at the backs of the frames being closed with slips of tin. one of the bee-frames is made solid, with sheets of zinc being fixed in it; this frame can then be used as a divider between any number of the bee-frames, and thus form the box into two compartments, either to augment or diminish the space in the box according to the size of the swarm, or the increasing wants of the bees for more room. the bees are then introduced into the hive (having first closed the backs of the bee-frames with the slips of tin, and fastened the side lid of the box against them, and also removed one of the sheets of perforated zinc from the tops of the bee-frames) by dislodging the bees from the straw-hive in which they had been previously collected, or shaken from the boughs of the tree, where they may have settled, so as to fall upon the tops of the frames within the box; when the bees have all congregated within the bee-frames by crawling through the open spaces at the top, the perforated sheet of zinc is placed over them; the bees can then only escape through the long slip or entrance which was made for them in the front of the box. the top lid can be closed and locked, when the bees will be secure from the gaze of the inquisitive, or the bad intentions of thieves. before i proceed to give any directions for the construction of the "bar-and-frame-hive" i am _anxious_ to _warn_ all amateur carpenters, and those who delight to superintend the labours of a "cheap working country carpenter," against the fatal error of using unseasoned wood; for, unless the "bottom board" and the "bee-frames" are made of mahogany, or some well-seasoned, hard, or close-grained wood, the advantages of the bar and frame-hive will be quite destroyed, as the great object is to have the bee-frames to slide in and out of the grooves with the _greatest facility_. throughout the whole of the making of the hive or box, no glue should be used, unless further secured with small screws or nails.[ ] [footnote : mr. john milton of no. , great marylebone-street, has some well constructed bar and frame bee-hives of various prices.] the oblong box, a b c d, e f and e f (plate i, fig. ), is to be made of well-seasoned poplar, fir, or deal, of an inch in thickness; the inside dimensions are inches and / of an inch long from a to c, - / inches broad from a to b, and sixteen inches deep from a to e. the top lid a b c d is formed in the shape of a common roof, and made to project an inch, before, behind, and at the two gable ends, like the eaves of a cottage to throw off the wet. the half of this roof g h, is made to open and fall back with hinges _h h_. the two gable ends of the roof have holes cut in them, _i, k_, to admit the circulation of air; and secured with perforated zinc withinside to prevent the intrusion of wasps, or any other enemies to bees; the gable marked _i_, shows the perforated zinc framed into the gable, and _k_ the outside appearance of the ventilator. the side of the box marked a c e e, is made to let down and form a table i j, hung on hinges p p, and supported by the quadrants q q, one inch _below the level of the bottom board_. two handles are fixed in the ends of the box, one shown in the sketch at t. two blocks of wood are screwed on the bottom of the box (one shown at u) to keep it off the ground, &c., when the four legs, l l l l, at the four corners of the box are unscrewed for the convenience of packing, &c. in the opposite side or front of the box at x x, is fixed a piece of board _e_, four inches broad, and an inch thick, extending the whole length from f f; this is secured at an angle with the bottom of the box, so as to form a slightly inclined plain _e_, for the alighting board, which would be always dry for the bees to land upon. a half inch opening is made from f to f, just above the alighting board, for the ingress and egress of the bees. slides are made _s s_, to regulate the extent of the openings, or to entirely close the entrance to the box; these slides can be drawn out when it is necessary to clean the bottom board, &c. within-side the box, two pieces of red cedar of half an inch in thickness, - / inches long, - / inches broad, are nailed on to each end at e f, and e f (one of the pieces of red cedar shown at r). the quadrants, q q, being made to work between them and the outer case. a fillet, _v v_, is fastened on a level with the tops of the two pieces of red cedar, to form a ledge of about a / of an inch all round, to support the sheets of perforated zinc, as shown at w w. sixteen pieces of mahogany, - / of an inch broad, and half an inch deep, are to be screwed to the mahogany floor board, commencing against the piece of red cedar, r, and leaving a space between each piece, half of an inch, and finishing against the other piece of red cedar with the last; there will then be formed fifteen grooves, half of an inch in width, half an inch in depth, and - / inches long on the floor-board as shown at , , , , , . a bar of mahogany, y y, about two inches square, having grooves, x x x x, &c., corresponding to those on the floor-board, , , , , , , &c., is let in, and fastened between a and c, having a clear space of twelve inches between the floor-board, and this top bar; the object of these grooves being to receive, and keep steadily in their places, the fifteen bee-frames, when introduced into them. [illustration: _fig. i._] the "bee-frames" are made of mahogany, nine inches long, twelve inches high, and half an inch broad. each frame is _dove-tailed_ to make it strong at the angles, and to keep it true; the upper part is formed of one inch mahogany, and _bevelled_ off (as the carpenters call it) to the eighth of an inch, in the centre, as shown at _a_, fig. : on the two sides of this triangular bar, _b b_, pieces of glass, extending the length of the bar, are fixed with red lead. the two sides of the frame, _d, d_, are to increase in size, from half an inch at the top, to - / inches at the bottom. the bottom piece, _c_, is half an inch in depth. the back of each frame has a piece of tin, about the thickness of a card, fixed on it, of the exact size, viz. twelve inches long, and half an inch broad, _e, e_. in the centre of the back of each frame, _f_, a screw-nut is let in, which is made to fit a screw at the end of a long spindle, s, plate i, fig. . this spindle with a handle, z, will screw equally well into the screw-nuts of the fifteen bee-frames and division-frame. the use of this spindle being, to draw in and out of the grooves the fifteen bee-frames when required. when the bee-frames have been put into the grooves in the box, slips of tin about thirteen inches long, and and a half broad, are slipped into their backs (being run in between the backs of the bee-frames, and the pieces of thin tin fixed upon them), to close the - / of an inch openings. and three or four sheets of perforated zinc are laid upon the tops of the bee-frames, resting on the fillets. thus, then, when a swarm of bees has been introduced into this box, the bees have to build their combs within the fifteen bee-frames, or whatever number may have been run into the grooves for that purpose. the bees cannot escape from above the frames, as the sheets of perforated zinc prevent them, nor from the - / of an inch openings at the backs of the frames, as they have been closed with the slips of tin; the only open part being the long narrow slip, just above the alighting board, which was originally left for their ingress and egress. the division-frame is made of half inch mahogany, twelve inches high, - / long, and half of an inch broad. so that it will run into any of the grooves formed for the bee-frames; but made to fit close to the box at the end, by means of a slip of wood, c c, fig. , to prevent the bees crawling between the frame and the outer-box, as they can do round the bee-frames. [illustration: _fig. ii._] the division-frame itself is closed by having two sheets of zinc run into it as shown in fig. , the one marked _b b b b_, and partly drawn out, being of solid sheet zinc; and _a a_, the other in the frame, of perforated zinc; _d_, being the screw-nut (like those in the bee-frames) by means of which it can be drawn out into the observation-frame, &c. thus, wherever this division-frame is run into the bee-box, (except of course at no. , and no. grooves) it cuts off all communication with the bee-frames on the right or left of it; and two colonies of bees may be kept in the same box, and still have distinct frames to work upon, and separate entrances, &c. if then bees have been put into one of the bar-and-frame-hives, and sufficient time has been given them to build their combs within "the bee-frames," the frames with their contents can be drawn out into the "observation-frame," (which will be more fully described) whenever it is wished to examine the bees, &c., as the - / of an inch spaces between the grooves will allow of a sufficient distance to be preserved, between the lateral surfaces of the perpendicular combs formed in the "bee-frames," and thus permit them to slide by each other with facility. [illustration: _fig. iii._] the "observation-frame," fig. , is a mahogany frame, fourteen inches high, eleven inches long, and about four inches wide, having a single groove half an inch deep, and half an inch broad, running within its whole length of eleven inches. the two largest sides have panes of glass fixed in them with small brads. the top, bottom, and one end (this end forming the back) of this frame, are made of solid wood; the back having a small hole, _f_, / of an inch in diameter in the middle, to allow the spindle before mentioned to pass through it. the end which forms the front of the frame is open, so that any one of the bee-frames can be run into the observation-frame, but may be closed by a piece of tin (_d_) being slipt into the small grooves at _c c_. the observation-frame has two pins, _a, b_, to fit into the / holes made along the bottom board of the bee-box, shown by the figures, , , , &c., see plate i, fig. , and also two small bolts _r_ and _m_; _r_, the upper one to fix into the holes above x x x, &c., in the mahogany bar; (but this bolt is only used during the operation of drawing out the bee-frames into the observation frame); and the other bolt _m_ at the back of the frame, to fasten into the / holes, _a, a, a_, &c., made in the lid, i j. when the two pins and the bolts of the observation-frame have been adjusted and fixed, the groove in it will be in a straight line with one of the grooves formed in the bottom board of the box, consequently a bee-frame can be made to slide, by means of the long spindle, in and out of the box, into the observation-frame. the use of this "observation frame" must now be explained more fully: the top lid of the bee box, plate i, fig. . g. h. being thrown up, will screen the "operator" from the bees, which are flying in and out in the front of the hive or box. the back lid, i. j., is let down, and supported by the quadrants q. q., and forms a table, the box having been raised from the ground by the four legs, l l l l. the observation frame is placed opposite to whichever bee-frame is to be examined; the two pins, _a, b_, fig. , running into the holes , , , , , &c., made in the bottom board. the small bolts, plate i, secured at the top, as at _r_, and the back _m_: the long spindle, s, is run through the / hole in the back of the observation frame, as at z, and the end of the spindle screwed into the screw socket _t_, at the back of the bee-frame _w_; the two pieces of tin on the right and left of the bee-frame are pulled out (of course the observation frame being empty, and having the piece of tin from its front taken out), the operator holding by the handle, _z_, of the spindle, gradually draws out the bee-frame into the observation frame, and after examining the bees and comb, gently returns the bee-frame into its groove in the floor-board: the two slips of tin are then replaced in the backs of the bee-frames: the spindle is unscrewed and withdrawn, the bolts are unfastened, the observation frame being kept firmly in its place, held by the left hand of the operator, whilst with the right he runs in the long slip of tin, _d_, fig. , into the front of the observation frame, to keep the bees (escaped from the returned bee-frame), until the observation frame is again fixed opposite to another bee-frame, when the tin is withdrawn and the bolts fastened as before. it has been shown that by these means, each bee-frame, and the bees and comb contained in it, can be easily drawn out and examined, without interfering with any other part of the hive, or occasioning the loss of a single bee. the whole of the interior of the hive is thus open to inspection at any moment, and a choice can be made of the combs containing the most honey, or the bee owner enabled to trace the devastation of the honey moth, and ascertain the presence of any other enemy, and this without the assistance of smoke, which must be injurious both to the bees and their brood. when the bee-frame is returned and secured, the observation-frame is removed; then the lid, i j, being shut up and bolted, and the upper lid, g h, closed, the box may be locked up. when the bees have been shut in with the slide in the front, the hive or box is ready to be transported anywhere, to procure new pasturage for them, which, as every experienced bee-keeper knows, is of the greatest benefit to prolong their honey-harvest. perfect protection from wet and the vicissitudes of temperature, is partly ensured by the external bee-box being made of well-seasoned wood; poplar is recommended as of a looser grain than fir, deal, &c., and consequently, not so great a conductor of heat; but the objection to wooden bee-hives or boxes, for being more easily affected by the variations of the temperature, is removed by the construction of the "bar frame-hive;" for the bee-frames form, as it were, a smaller box within the oblong box, and are not in immediate contact with the external air, but have a half inch space nearly all round them, which will to a certain extent maintain an equable temperature for the bees, both in summer and winter. any moisture condensed from the heated air generated by the bees, is carried off through the perforated sheets of zinc above the frames, and cool store-room for the honey is also thus secured. a feeding trough is made on the principle of a bird-glass: with a tin feeder and a small bottle for the liquid food to be put into. [illustration: _fig. iv._] the tin feeder is six inches by - / long, and one inch deep, and just fits on to the top of the bee-frames, where the perforated sheets of zinc are laid; within this feeder a half inch opening is cut at the bottom, fig , _a_, and an inclined plane _b_, reaching half way up the depth of the trough; and a sheet of perforated tin, _c_ (placed horizontally from point _b_,) through which the bees suck the food, which is kept at the same level by atmospheric pressure; for as the food is drawn down below the mouth of the bottle, _d_, air forces itself into the bottle, and the same quantity of food trickles down into the feeder, a piece of glass, _e_, exactly the same size as the feeder, is placed over it, through which the bees may be seen whilst feeding, and the feeding trough will be nearly of the same temperature as the interior of the box or hive, and prevent the bees being chilled, as they would be in winter, if compelled to descend for their food; and besides, the bees are less likely to be attacked by wasps or strange bees when fed from above, as the intruders would have to ascend through the mass of bees in the box, which would be attended with danger to them. the bees can be fed when necessary by one of the sheets of perforated zinc being drawn on one side, and the feeding trough, with the bottle of food in it, being placed over the opening; when the bees will ascend through the half inch space at _a_, and feed themselves with the liquid, or carry it away and store it up for future use. hives and bee-boxes. having given a description of the bar-frame-hive, it will be as well to enter into the comparative advantages of using wooden boxes and straw hives. some apiarians confine themselves to the use of straw hives, others to wooden boxes, and a third party use both; but as far as the bees are concerned it matters little what kind of hive is given them, for if the season be favourable, and the bee-pasturage rich with flowers, they collect and store up the honey in their combs in any receptacle of any shape or size, provided it affords them shelter from the weather. hives made of straw are generally preferred for an out-of-door apiary, as being less liable to be over-heated by the rays of the sun, and in the winter they exclude the cold better than hives made of other materials, while the moisture arising from the bees is more quickly absorbed within the hive, and does not run down the sides as it generally does in wooden hives or boxes; at the same time they are always to be obtained from their cheapness, and from their simplicity easily understood and made use of; wooden boxes can only be used with advantage in a bee-house, they stand firmer on the bottom boards, or one upon another, they admit of having glass windows, through which to observe the operations of the bees, and they are not so liable to harbour moths, spiders, and other insects, as the straw hives. the objects to be attained in the construction and management of an apiary, are, to secure the prosperity and multiplication of the colonies of bees, to increase the amount of their productive labour, and to obtain their products with facility, and with the least possible detriment to the stock. it is to the interest of the owner, therefore, that he provide for the bees shelter against moisture, and the extremes of heat and cold--especially, sudden vicissitudes of temperature, protection from their numerous enemies, every facility for constructing their combs and for rearing their brood, and that the hive should be so constructed as to allow of every part of the combs to be inspected at any moment, and capable of removal when requisite: and while attention is paid to economy, it should be made of materials that will secure its durability. these observations apply equally to the straw hives, boxes, or whatever the bees may be lodged in or hived. some cultivators of bees have been chiefly anxious to promote their multiplication, and to prevent the escape of the swarms in their natural way, by forming artificial swarms, by separating a populous hive previous to its swarming, into two parts, and allowing to each greater room for the construction of their works. others, and the most numerous class, have contemplated only the abundance of the products which they yield, and the facility of extracting them from the hive, without showing any particular solicitude as to the preservation of the bees themselves. another class of apiarians have, on the other hand, had it more particularly in view, to facilitate the prosecution of researches in the natural history and economy of bees. then, again, amongst apiarians a diversity of opinion exists regarding the system to be adopted in the management of the hives, whether the bees are to be kept in single hives, caps or bell-glasses, and extra boxes, which may be added at the top, which is called the _storifying_ system; or inserting additional room at the bottom, called _nadering_; or whether adding boxes at the sides, called the _collateral_ system, should be followed out; and a plan of ventilating the boxes has been added to the last system, but experience has proved that it is utterly useless, as in spite of ventilating tubes and thermometers, the bees have swarmed, and the queen-bee has deposited her eggs in the collateral boxes and destroyed the purity of the honey. no successful plan has been yet devised to ventilate the combs where the bees cluster; for the bees prevent the circulation of the cold air amongst the combs by immediately forming themselves in thick rows at the bottom of the combs; and instead of ranging the fields to gather honey or pollen, have to collect together and idle away their time to retain the necessary heat for the formation of the combs, or to rear their brood. as a single hive, huber's leaf-hive is certainly the best; but it requires great attention, and none but experienced apiarists can use it for the purpose of trying experiments; but in the hands of experienced apiarists it is invaluable. all other single hives are objectionable, as neither the proceedings of the bees can be observed, nor the honey taken out, without either destroying the bees, or driving them out with smoke by which much of the brood is killed; or if rainy weather occur at the time the bees are preparing to throw off a swarm, and the hive be filled to its utmost limits with comb, all the bees must remain idle till the return of fine weather for want of room. to meet this objection, some apiarians have straw-hives with flat wooden tops made, or use boxes, and have holes cut in them at the top, so that small glasses may be added, when the bees require room. but this does not prevent swarming, and besides, the flatness of the roof is prejudicial, as it allows the moisture which exhales from the bees to collect in the roof, and to fall in drops at different parts, to the great injury of the subjacent contents of the hive, and, like the common straw hive or square box, the bees cannot be examined, except partially through the windows made in the sides. to remedy this evil, the further plan of _storifying_ hives or boxes, was introduced, and by this method swarming may to an extent be prevented, and the wax and honey can be taken without destroying the bees; and with the same view was introduced the _collateral_ system, which is adding room at the sides (of course preserving a free communication between the boxes and hives). but there are objections to the _collateral_ system, as it is now a very well established fact, that partitions of any kind are detrimental to the prosperity of the bees; and the same applies, though perhaps in an inferior degree, to the _storied_ system, or hives and boxes divided into stories one above another; besides that which holds good equally to all hives or boxes, that it is not possible to proportion the hives in all cases to the magnitude of the swarms, or the energy with which they labour. in single hives the honey becomes bad and discoloured from being put into the old breeding cells. in double storied, or collateral hives, the bees are divided, and live in different families; while their own preservation, and that of the brood, requires them to live in the strictest union; the heat also necessary for the secretion of wax is lessened by the division of the bees into different groups. and, besides, all these different hives or boxes should have some sort of protection from the weather, either in the way of eaves or covers, or be placed in a shed or bee-house. they require also centre boards and division tins, &c. to separate one hive or box from another, floor boards for them to stand upon, as well as stands or stools to raise them from the ground, &c., for a description of which, and a full history of all hives and boxes, i refer the reader to dr. bevan's "honey-bee." in mentioning the defects of these different boxes and hives, i do not mean to condemn them as useless, for they will all answer to a certain extent the purposes for which they were intended, rewarding the attentive bee-keeper, according to the seasons, and enabling the bees to send forth many swarms, and collecting and storing up their treasures of honey; but my object has been to point out briefly to those anxious for the better, more extended, and economical mode of bee-management, the difficulties to be provided against, and to recommend to their consideration the advantages offered in the bar frame-hive. but, however, i should not be doing justice to mr. r. golding, if i did not particularly mention his "improved grecian hive" by the use of which combs may be removed from the interior of the hive and inspected at pleasure: this improvement he has effected by carefully investigating the laws of the insects for whose use the hives were intended, and by a particular arrangement of the bars, (every alternate one being furnished with guide combs,) the bees have been induced, in a manner at once simple and beautiful, to construct a uniform range of combs. when the hive is filled with honey, two or three, or more of the bars may be, at any time, removed, or exchanged for unoccupied bars, without much disturbing the brood combs, all annoyance from the bees being prevented by a whiff or two of tobacco smoke being blown into the hive at the time of the removal of the bars. with the protection of a bee-house these hives can be applied to many of the systems of bee-management, and prove equally profitable, and more manageable than some of the newly-invented hives. the apiary. next of importance to the kind of hive and the system to be followed, is the proper situation of an apiary. this subject engaged the attention of bee-keepers in ancient as much as in modern times; but the directions given by columella and virgil are as good now as when they were written; and as is observed by the writer in no. cxli. of the quarterly review, in the amusing article on "bee-books,"--"it would amply repay (and this is saying a great deal,) the most forgetful country gentleman to rub up his schoolboy latin, for the sole pleasure he would derive from the perusal of the fourth georgic." the aspect has been regarded as of the first importance; but there are points of greater consequence, namely the vicinity of good bee pasturage, the shelter of the hives from the winds by trees or houses, and their distance from ponds or rivers, as the high winds might dash the bees into the water. various aspects have been recommended, but the south, with a point to the east or west, according to its situation as respects the shelter it may receive from walls or trees, &c. is the best: care, however, must be taken that neither walls, trees, nor anything else impede the going forth of the bees to their pasturage. "i have ever found it best," says wildman, "to place the mouth of the hives to the west in spring, care being taken that they have the afternoon sun; the morning sun is extremely dangerous during the colder months, when its glare often tempts these industrious insects out to their ruin; whereas the mouth of the hive being then in the shade, the bees remain at home; and as clouds generally obscure the afternoon's sun at that season, the bees escape the temptation of going out. when food is to be obtained, the warmth of the air continues round the hive in the afternoon, which enables the bees to pursue their labours without danger. a valley is a better situation for an apiary than a hill, being more convenient to the bees returning home with their loads; and, besides, bees are not so apt to fly away when swarming as when on a hill: but when swarms take a distant flight, they generally fly against the wind, so that the stragglers of the swarms may better hear the direction of the course taken by their fellow emigrants. i recommend a hard gravel terrace for the hives to be placed upon, as being drier both in summer and winter for the bee-master to walk upon, when inspecting his bees, and also as less likely to afford shelter for ants or other enemies to bees; and, besides, it is better for the bees, which when much fatigued by their journeys, or benumbed by the cold, are apt to fall around the hives, and would recover more quickly from the warmth of the dry ground than if they had alighted on damp grass. the hives should not be placed where water from the eaves of houses, from hedges, or trees, drop upon them; but they should be near the mansion house for the convenience of watching the bees, &c. a small stream of water running near the hives is thought to be of advantage, especially in dry seasons, with gently declining banks, in order that the bees may have safe access to it. heaths, or places abounding in wild flowers, constitute the best neighbourhood for an apiary, and in default of this pasturage, there should be gardens where flowers are cultivated, and fields in which buck-wheat, clover, or sainfoin, is sown. but cultivating small gardens of flowers for bees is useless, except a few early flowers near the hives for the bees to collect some pollen for the brood, such as the common kinds of crocus, white alyssum, single blue hepaticas, helleborus niger, and tussilago petasites, all of which flower early; but should any of the tribe of the willows grow near, there will be no necessity for cultivating the flowers above-mentioned, as they yield an abundant harvest of farina, or pollen. a rich corn country is well known to be a barren desert to the bees during a greater portion of the year. hence the judicious practice of shifting the bees from place to place according to the circumstances of the season, and the custom of other nations in this particular well deserves our imitation. few places are so happily situated as to afford bees proper pasturage both in the beginning of the season and also the autumn; it was the advice of celsus that, after the vernal pastures are consumed, they should be transported to places abounding with autumnal flowers; as was practised by conveying the bees from achaia to attica, from euboea and the cyclad islands to syrus, and also in sicily, where they were brought to hybla from other parts of the island. pliny states that the custom of removing bees from place to place for fresh pasturage was frequent in the roman territories, and such is still the practice of the italians who live near the banks of the po, (the river which pliny particularly instances,) mentioned by alexander de montfort, who says that the italians treat their bees in nearly the same manner as the egyptians did and still do; that they load boats with hives and convey them to the neighbourhood of the mountains of piedmont; that in proportion as the bees gather in their harvest, the boats, by growing heavier, sink deeper into the water; and that the watermen determine from this, when their hives are loaded sufficiently, and it is time to carry them back to their places from which they came. the same author relates that the people of the country of juliers used the same practice; for that, at a certain season of the year, they carried their bees to the foot of mountains that were covered with wild thyme. m. maillet, who was the french consul in egypt in , says in his curious description of egypt; "that in spite of the ignorance and rusticity which have got possession of that country, there yet remain in it several traces of the industry and skill of the ancient egyptians." one of their most admirable contrivances is, the sending their bees annually into different districts to collect food, at a time when they could not find any at home. about the end october, all such inhabitants of lower egypt, as have hives of bees, embark them on the nile, and convey them up that river quite into upper egypt; observing to time it so that they arrive there just when the inundation is withdrawn, the lands have been sown, and the flowers begin to bud. the hives thus sent are marked and numbered by their respective owners, and placed pyramidically in boats prepared for the purpose. after they have remained some time at their furthest station, and are supposed to have gathered all the pollen and honey they could find in the fields within two or three leagues around, their conductors convey them in the same boats, two or three leagues lower down, and there leave the laborious insects so long a time as is necessary for them to collect all the riches of this spot. thus the nearer they come to the place of their more permanent abode, they find the plants which afford them food, forward in proportion. in fine, about the beginning of february, after having travelled through the whole length of egypt, and gathered all the rich produce of the delightful banks of the nile, they arrive at the mouth of that river, towards the ocean; from whence they had set out: care is taken to keep an exact register of every district from whence the hives were sent in the beginning of the season, of their numbers, of the names of the persons who sent them, and likewise of the mark or number of the boat in which they were placed. niebuhr saw upon the nile, between cairo and damietta, a convoy of four thousand hives, in their transit from upper egypt to the delta. savary, in his letters on egypt, also gives an account of the manner of transporting the hives down the nile. in france floating bee-houses are common. goldsmith describes from his own observation, a kind of floating apiary in some parts of france and piedmont. "they have on board of one barge," he says, "three score or a hundred bee-hives, well defended from the inclemency of an accidental storm, and with these the owners float quietly down the stream: one bee-hive yields the proprietor a considerable income. why," he adds, "a method similar to this has never been adopted in england where we have more gentle rivers, and more flowery banks, than in any part of the world, i know not; certainly it might be turned to advantage." they have also a method of transporting their hives by land in carts in germany; and particularly in hanover travelling caravans of bees may be seen during the season. i have thus briefly quoted from famous authorities, to impress upon those who keep apiaries the importance of transporting their bees from pasture to pasture. the advantage to weak swarms is very great, "but whilst so little of the true principles of bee management is understood, as that the destruction of the bees has been considered absolutely essential, in order to the attainment of their stores, it is no wonder that so little attention should have been paid to their cultivation in this country, and that it should not have proved a more productive department of rural economy." "bees, like everything else worth possessing, require care and attention; but persons generally think it is quite sufficient to procure a hive and a swarm, and set it down in the middle of a garden, and that streams of honey and money will forthwith flow; and, perhaps, commence calculating, from the perusal of the statements of the profits made by thorley from a single hive, which he estimates to be _l._ _s._ from hives kept during fourteen years! deducting ten shillings and sixpence, the cost of the first hive!" the bar and frame-hives are so constructed that they can be moved from place to place with the greatest ease, and, perhaps, this may be an inducement for bee-masters to try the recommendations of transporting bees, and thus avoid one expense of feeding them during the winter. connected with the foregoing subject of transporting bees from place to place, is the question of the distance to which bees extend their flight in search of food, &c.; and the comparative excellence of the position of an apiary depends in some measure on the greater or less distance the bees will have to fly to their pasturage. dr. chambers, and dr. hunter were of opinion, that the bee cannot extend its flight beyond a mile, which idea they adopted on the authority of schirach; but then it must be recollected that the german mile of schirach is equal to about - / english miles. it was the opinion of huber, that the radii of the circle of the flight of the bee extended nearly to four english miles. and huish says "the travelling apiaries of germany, particularly those of hanover, are regulated by the prevailing opinion, that the bee can, and does, extend its flight to four and even five miles; and acting upon that supposition, when the bee-masters move their apiaries, they always travel about two _stunden_, that is, about eight miles, as they then calculate that the bees are beyond the former range of their pasture by four miles." and adds, "a travelling apiary of or hives will exhaust the food within the area of a circle of four miles in about a fortnight or three weeks." "but certainly there is no reason to fear that any part of this country will be overstocked with bees, for where one hive is now kept, fifty might be kept without running any risk of overstocking the country; for the average number of hives in the various apiaries does not exceed five." "it has been calculated" says another authority, "that the pastures of scotland could maintain as many bees as would produce , , pints of honey, and , , lbs. of wax; and were these quantities tripled for england and ireland, the produce of the british empire would be , , pints of honey, and , , lbs. of wax per annum, worth about five shillings per pint for the honey, and one shilling and sixpence per lb. for the wax, making an annual produce in money of about , , _l._ but in consequence of the present neglect of this branch of rural economy, we pay annually nearly , _l._ for honey alone. the imports and exports of wax bleached and unbleached were as follows: returned imported. exported. for home the rate consumption. of duty . . . . . . cwt. cwt. cwt. £ s. d. unbleached , , , , , bleached produce of duty. unbleached £ , bleached the price of wax varies (duty included) from _l._ to _l._ a cwt. in , , cwt. of wax were imported, of which , cwt. of it came from western africa; , , from tripoli, barbary, &c.; and cwt. from the united states. in , imports were , cwt., in , , cwt. of wax; in , cwt. of honey; and in , , cwt. valued at , _l._ brought principally from the west indies, germany, and portugal. the above statement proves the demand there is in this country for honey and wax. it is mentioned in wildman's pamphlet that, when corsica was subject to the romans, a tribute was imposed upon it of no less than two hundred thousand pounds of wax yearly; but this is no proof of the excellence of their honey, which, according to ovid, was of very ill account, and seems to be the reason why the tributary tax was exacted in wax, in preference to honey. the honey collected by the bees at all times retains qualities derived from the kind of plant from whence it has been procured, as is manifest not only by the peculiar odour of the honey, such as that collected from leek blossoms and all the onion tribe, but by the effects produced by the use of honey obtained from certain plants, chiefly from the subtribe rhodoraceæ, such as the kalmia, azalea, rhododendron, &c., which yield a honey frequently poisonous and intoxicating, as has been proved by the fatal effects on persons in america. it is recorded by xenophon in his anabasis that, during the retreat of the ten thousand, the soldiers sucked some honey-combs in a place near trebizonde, and in consequence became intoxicated, and did not recover their strength for three or four days; and these effects are supposed to have been produced from the honey having been extracted by the bees from the rhododendron ponticum or azalea pontica of linnæus. although many of these plants have been introduced into this country, yet, probably from their small proportion to the whole of the flowers in bloom, the honey collected by the bees has not been found to be injured or to have produced any evil consequences. the goodness and flavour of honey depend on the fragrance of the plants from which the bees collect it, and hence it is that the honey of different places is held in different degrees of estimation. the honey gathered from the genus erica (termed _heather honey_) and most labiate plants, is wholesome. that which is made early in the year is preferred to what is collected in the latter end of the season. whilst on the subject of honey, i will add the directions given by wildman, how to separate the honey from the wax: "take," he says, "the combs which have been extracted from the different hives or boxes into a close room, rather warm than otherwise, that the honey may drain more freely, and keep the doors and windows shut, to prevent the bees from entering, or else they will be very troublesome, and will attack and carry away the greater part of the honey from the combs. "lay aside such combs as have young bees or brood in them, as they would give your honey a bad flavour and render it unwholesome, and the bee-brood must also be separated and melted with the brood-combs. when you have thus separated the combs, let such as are very fine be nicely drained by themselves, without the least pressing whatever, having been carefully cleaned of every sort of filth, or insects, and dividing each comb in such a manner that the cells may be open at both ends, and placing them upon a sieve or coarse cloth, that the honey may drain off quite pure and undefiled. the remainder of the combs from which the honey has been thus drained, together with those which contained the bee-bread and brood, must be put into a coarse cloth or bag, and squeezed or pressed to get all the honey out. this will make it inferior in quality, and unfit for many uses, therefore it should be put into pots or bottles by itself, to feed bees with, for which purpose it will be better than pure honey, on account of the bee-bread that will be mixed with it, which is necessary for their subsistence. "in order to obtain the wax in a pure state, what remains of the combs after separating the honey, together with the empty combs which had been laid aside, should be put into a copper with clean water; made to boil gently over a slow fire, keeping it constantly stirring. when it is melted, run it through a coarse cloth or bag made for the purpose, and put it into a press to separate the wax from the dross. let the wax run from the press into a vessel placed under it, into which put some water to prevent the wax adhering to the sides. "if this process of boiling and pressing is repeated twice or even three times, the wax will be much purer and consequently of greater value. set it in a place where it may cool by degrees, in pans of the size you would choose your cakes to be, with some water in them, to prevent the wax sticking to the sides whilst hot. honey should be kept only in stone jars, called bristol ware, and in a cool and dry situation, but not corked up until a week or two after it has transuded through the sieve, &c., but should be carefully covered with perforated sheets of zinc to keep out insects and flies, &c. after which period the jars may be secured and put into the store-rooms. "the only protection necessary for gentlemen,--for ladies, i presume, would never venture to undertake the dangerous task of extracting the honey combs from hives or boxes,--will be a pair of buckskin gloves, with a pair of worsted gloves over them extending to the elbows; so that the bees should not be able to creep between the gloves and the sleeves; for the face a piece of wire pattern gauze net, made in the shape of a bag, to draw with a string round the hat above the brim, which will keep it from the face, and the other open end being secured under the neck handkerchief, and with the assistance of a puff or two of smoke into any hive intended to be operated upon, the bee-master may fearlessly turn up the hive, and cut out combs or dislodge bees from their habitations, &c. with impunity." the enemies to bees, &c. the proprietor having provided shelter for his bees, and as great a plenty of pasture as he possibly can, should next be careful to guard them from the numerous enemies which prey upon them, and destroy their honey-combs. bees themselves, in the autumn and spring, are very often great enemies to one another, and rob each other's hives, especially in dry seasons, when the honey gathering is almost over; and the bees from over-stocked hives, not having honey sufficient for their winter's store, will through necessity attack the old hives or stocks, which are thinned by over swarming, carry away all their honey, and often destroy their queens. in order to prevent this havoc, contract the entrance or entrances of the hive attempted to be robbed, so that a few bees only can enter at a time, by which means the old stocks will be better able to defend themselves. if, notwithstanding this narrowness of the passage, robbers attack a hive, the entrance should be instantly closed and kept so till the thieves are gone, and it will be advisable in the evening to examine the state of the hive, especially as to weight, and if the queen be safe, remove it to another place, at least a mile from the old locality. the person who is thus employed, at a time when the bees are full of resentment, should be well defended from their stings. but, should he be so unfortunate as to get stung for his interference, the first thing is to extract the sting. to alleviate the irritation, cooling lotions should be applied, but the pain of a sting is relieved by applying spirits of hartshorn, or liquor potassæ, to the spot where the sting entered. one would imagine the moth to be an enemy of no consequence, but the wax-moth (_tinea mellonella_) is a most formidable enemy. she lays her eggs under the very skirts of the hive, or in the rubbish on the floor, or even in the combs of the bees; these eggs when hatched produce a small whitish worm or larva, and it is in this stage that it commits its ravages, extending its galleries through every quarter of the combs, detaching them from the tops and sides of the hives, and causing them to fall together. the way to destroy them is frequently to lift up the hive in the morning, and kill all you can see. the most effectual way is to drive the bees into a new hive, but this can be only done in the height of the honey season; or the affected combs may be cut out, and the bees restored to their old habitation. mice are likewise very destructive to bees; sometimes they enter at the door, but most commonly near the top of the hive; this they do generally during winter, when the bees are in a torpid state; when this is suspected, set a few traps about the hives. the common bat will also sometimes take possession of a hive, and commit very great havoc amongst the bees. wasps and hornets must be destroyed, if possible, either by gunpowder, or by the more primitive mode of placing limed twigs before the holes, when you have discovered their nests. the spring is the time to kill the female wasps and hornets, for then, by the death of one female, a whole nest is destroyed. or place bottles half full of sugar and beer where the wasps frequent; they will go in to drink, and drown themselves in the liquor, not being able to get out of the bottle again. spiders must be killed, and their nets or webs broken down, otherwise they will catch and destroy many bees. swallows, frogs, ants, earwigs, snails, woodlice, poultry, and small birds of almost all kinds, are reckoned amongst their foes. and, therefore, there should be no lack of vigilance on the part of the owner of bees, to keep the bee-house as clean as possible from all vermin. the signs of dysentery having commenced in any colony of bees may be known by the floor-boards and combs being covered with stains, by the dark coloured evacuations, producing an offensive smell, and frequent deaths amongst the bees. "bees," says gelieu, "have no real disease; they are always in good health as long as they are at liberty, are kept warm, and provided with plenty of food. all their pretended diseases are the result of cold, hunger, or the infection produced by a too close and long confinement during winter, and by exposure to damp, &c." they appear however sometimes to be seized, in the spring, with dysentery; this is occasioned by their feeding too greedily, it is supposed, on honey dew, without the mixture of pollen and other wholesome nutriment. the only remedy that has been found for this disease, is to give the bees plenty of honey, such honey as that extracted from the refuse combs in the autumn, that had abundance of bee-bread pressed amongst it,--the more the better,--mixing with it a table-spoonful of salt, and giving the bees their full liberty, and a clean hive. many things are necessary for the preservation of bees, but more especially in this country, where the bees have only one season in five, on an average of years, really good for their honey harvest; wherefore the owner should take care to provide the light stocks with a sufficient quantity of food, which they have not been able to secure by their own industry, either through the badness of the bee-pasturage, the inclemency of the seasons, the weakness of the colony, or the spoil made by their enemies; and sometimes by the ill-judged management of their owners, in robbing the bees beyond the bounds of reason. by this last unjust way of proceeding, these poor industrious little insects are absolutely starved, and their greedy masters deservedly experience the old proverb; that "too much covetousness breaks the bag." it is impossible to ascertain what quantity of honey will serve a hive of bees the whole winter, because the number in the hive may be more or less, and in some years, the spring is more forward than in others; but lbs. is said to be the quantity required in a common cottage-hive. during frost, the bees consume very little food indeed; and still less during severe cold weather. mr. white (with many other apiarians) is of opinion, that a greater degree of cold than is commonly imagined to be proper for bees is favourable to them in winter, for the bees during that period, are in so lethargic a state, that little food supports them. the best method to feed the weak stocks, if in one of mr. r. golding's improved grecian hives, is to place some combs (drone combs reserved for that purpose) filled on one side with honey, over the centre-board, and covering it over with a common hive. the advantage of feeding bees from above is great; they are less likely to be attacked by the bees from other hives, and they do not become benumbed by the cold, as the same temperature is maintained above as in the rest of the hive. but in all cases, bees should be fed in autumn, and before they are in absolute want of food, otherwise they will be so poor and weak that they will not be able to ascend or descend to feed themselves. when that happens, it is almost too late to save them; however, you may try and feed them, by first tying a piece of gauze over the bottom of the hive, turning it up to receive the heat of the sun or fire, and, if the bees revive at all, place a pewter dish with some liquid honey in it, on the floor-board, and the hive over it, when the bees will draw up the honey through the gauze or net without smearing themselves, the the pewter dish having been filled with hot water to keep the honey liquid, and to diffuse a genial warmth throughout the hive, and thus secure them for a time from the cold, which would chill and even kill the bees in the winter, when they came down to the bottom of the hive to feed on the proffered bounty. in prosperous hives or colonies, as soon as the severity of the winter's frost is past, the queen-bee begins to lay her eggs in the various cells in the combs, and proceeds in proportion to the mildness of the season to deposit a succession. the number of young bees that may by this means rise in a hive, may endanger the lives of all the bees by famine, for the increased multitude consume a great deal of honey, an accident likely to happen if the mild weather of january or february should be succeeded by cold, rainy, or even dry weather; for it is found that the flowers do not secrete the sweet juices, which constitute honey, so freely during the prevalence of dry easterly winds; and thus present a barren field for the out-of-door labours of the bees. on this account, the proprietor should examine the hives frequently at this season, that, if necessary, he may give them a proper supply, in which he should be bountiful rather than otherwise, because the bees are faithful stewards, and will return with interest what is thus in their great need bestowed upon them. the time of the bees' swarming is generally in the months of may and june, and sometimes july, but the latter is too late, as there are then fewer bees than in the earlier swarms, and they seldom live through the winter without much care and feeding. the later swarms should be hived in rather smaller hives than the first, that, by clustering together, they may the better nourish and keep themselves warm. the hours of their swarming are for the most part about twelve o'clock at noon, never before eight, and seldom after four in the afternoon. the symptom of swarming, is generally the unusual number of bees seen hanging at the mouth of the hive, and if a piping noise, or a shrill note, which is made by the queen is heard, it is a sure index the bees will swarm, if the weather be warm and dry. if the bees work a comb under the floor-board, as is sometimes the case, it is a sign they will not swarm; a more certain sign is when they throw out the young dead queens with the drone brood. when they retain the drones in the hives after august, it is a bad omen, as they are then reserved for the sake of the young queens, which they are expecting to raise; and the season being too far advanced, and their failing in the attempt, and being without a queen, the colony will most certainly dwindle away, before the next season. always choose a hive proportionable to the size of your swarm, and prepare to hive them as soon as possible, lest they should rise again. it is not unusual to ring a bell or tinkle a brass pan, &c., at the time the bees swarm; it is also a common method to dress the hives with honey, balm, &c. i mention these things, because they are customs of long standing: the tinkling of bells is of little use, as the bees will generally settle near the hive; and as to dressing the hives, i by no means recommend it, as the bees like a clean new hive much better, for it does not give them so much trouble to clean, &c. if the swarm should rise in the full heat of the day, and the sun shine hot upon them, they will not continue long in their first situation; for when they find they have all got their company together, they will soon uncluster, rise again, fly to some particular spot which has been fixed upon for that purpose by detached parties of bees, who return and acquaint the swarm; therefore i would advise to hive them as soon as possible, and remove them in the evening to the place where they are to remain. the supposed relative value of early and late swarms is thus mentioned in an old english proverb:-- a swarm in may, is worth a load of hay. a swarm in june, is worth a silver spoon; a swarm in july, is not worth a fly. swarming and hiving the bees. every good swarm should weigh about lbs., and according to the account given in key's treatise, would contain , bees. the manner of hiving them must be regulated chiefly by the places upon which they alight. if they settle on a dead hedge, or upon the ground, set a hive over them, putting props under it if necessary, and, with a large spoon or brush of wet weeds, stir them softly underneath, and they will go in. if they should happen to settle upon a small bough, you may cut it off, and laying it quietly on a cloth, place a hive over them; or if you cannot conveniently separate the bough from the body of the tree, you may shake or sweep them off into the hive. if the sun shines hot upon it, shade it with a few boughs, &c., but let it remain near the place where the bees settled until the evening, at which time move it to the bee-house, or the place where it is to stand during the season, as just directed. if the bees have hung a considerable time to the place where they first settled, you will, perhaps, find it difficult entirely to dislodge them, as they will neglect their labour and fly about the spot for many days afterwards. the best method to prevent this is, by rubbing the branches with rue, or any kind of herb disagreeable to the bees; but be careful not to hurt any of the bees. swarms seldom return home again, when they are well settled, and if you find them inclined to do so, depend upon it, some accident has happened to their queen, which you will easily ascertain by their making a murmuring noise, and running in a distracted manner over and about the sides of the hive. when you observe this, immediately seek about for her, beginning with the stock-hive from whence the swarm rose, and pursue the track they took at setting out; you will seldom miss finding her, for she is never alone, but generally encompassed with a cluster of bees, who would sooner perish than leave her in danger. when you have found her, take her up gently, and put her to the swarm, and you will soon find the cause of their dissatisfaction removed by the arrival of the queen. the greatest care must be taken to have your hive clean and sweet, free from loose straws or other obstacles, which will create great trouble and loss of time to the bees, if left to them to remove. if bees have flowers suitable to their tastes, and no great distance to travel to them, they will fill their hives both with honey and wax, in about a month or five weeks, and, if the season has proved fair and pleasant, in less time; but the bee-keeper must expect four out of every five seasons to be unpropitious to his little charge, and, therefore, he must be on the watch to assist them with food in the time of need. scarcely has the swarm arrived at its new habitation, when the working bees labour with the utmost diligence, to procure food and build their combs. their principal aim is not only to have cells in which they may deposit the honey and pollen, but a stronger motive seems to animate them; they seem to know that their queen is about to deposit her eggs; and their industry is such, that in four and twenty hours they will have made combs, twelve inches long, and three or four inches wide. they build more combs during the first fortnight, than they do during all the rest of the year. other bees are at the same time busy in stopping all the holes and crevices they happen to find in their new hive, in order to guard against the entrance of insects which covet their honey, their wax, or themselves; and also to exclude the cold air; for it is indispensably necessary that they be lodged warm and secure from damp, &c. a second swarm scarcely is, and much less are the third ones called _casts_ worth keeping single, because, being few in number, they cannot allow so large a proportion of working bees to go abroad in search of provisions, as more numerous swarms can, after retaining a proper number for the various works to be done within the hive. bees sometimes swarm so often that the mother-hive is too much weakened or reduced in population. in this case they should be restored; and this should also be done when a swarm produces a swarm the first summer, as is sometimes the case in early seasons. the best way, indeed, is to prevent such swarming, by giving the bees more room; though this, again, will not answer where there is a prolific young queen in the hive; as she well knows that her life is the forfeit of her remaining at home. before the union of one or two casts or late swarms is made, it is better to kill one of the queens, if possible, to prevent the queens destroying one another. if an old hive is full of bees, and yet shows no disposition to swarm, puff in a little smoke at the entrance of the hive, then turn the hive up, and give it some slight strokes on the sides so as to alarm the bees. they will immediately run to the extremities of the combs, and if you then attentively examine them, you will, in all probability, perceive the queen-bee the foremost amongst them. seize her between your fore finger and thumb, and confine her in your hand till most part of the bees take wing; let her then go, the bees will soon join her, and settle on some branch of a tree. put them into an empty hive. restore the old hive in its place, that the bees which have been out in the fields may enter it on their return, and having allowed them to remain there an hour or two, place it upon another stand near or next to its own. the hive having what may now be called a swarm in it, is then placed on the stand of the old stock; and if the bees in both hives work regularly, carrying in loads of pollen on their thighs, all is well. bees are not apt to sting when they swarm naturally, therefore, it is not necessary then to take extraordinary precaution against them; but when any of these violent and artificial modes are attempted, i should advise the operator to be well guarded at all points. wildman weighed bees and found it required , bees to make a pound of sixteen ounces, but the different circumstances in bees may occasion a considerable difference in their weight. when the bees swarm, they come out loaded with wax secreted in their wax pockets and honey in their honey bags, and would weigh heavier than bees taken for that purpose by chance; and, therefore, the number of the bees is not to be thus computed, from the weight of the swarm; for one fourth of the number at least should be deducted, in lieu of the wax and honey they have brought off with them. there is also another allowance to be made, namely, that when alive, they do not probably weigh so heavy as when dead. the person who intends to erect an apiary, should purchase a proper number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. the hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. the purchaser should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. the combs of that season are white, those of a darkish yellow are of the previous year; and, where the combs are black, the hives should be rejected, because old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. if the number of hives wanted were not purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring. at this season, bees which are in good condition, will get into the fields early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad weather; for when they do, this indicates that they are in great want of provisions. they are alert on the least disturbance; and by the loudness of their humming, you can judge of their strength. they preserve their hives free from filth, and are ready to defend it against every enemy that approaches. but the better plan is at once to commence with new hives, and purchase the first and strong swarms to put into them, and introduce them into the bee-house. there are various substances found in a hive, such as the _wax_, with which the combs are built, the _honey_, the _farina_ or _pollen_, with which the bee-brood is fed, and _propolis_. _honey_, is a fluid or semi-fluid substance, the materials of which are collected by the bees, from the nectaries at the base of the corollæ of flowers, where this vegetable production is secreted. it cannot be said to be a purely vegetable production when found in the combs, for after being collected by the insect by means of its proboscis, it is transmitted into what is called the honey bag, where it is elaborated, and, hurrying homewards with its precious load, the bee regurgitates it into the cell of the honey comb. it takes a great many drops to fill a cell, as the honey bag when full does not exceed the size of a small pea. when the cell is full, it is sealed up with a mixture of of wax and pollen, and reserved for future use in winter and spring. _wax_. there are several varieties of this substance, but bees-wax is a secretion of that insect from its ventral scales. with this substance the comb is constructed; it takes the bees, according to huber's account, twenty-four hours to secrete the six laminæ of wax in the wax pockets, which may be seen to exude between the segments of the under side of the abdomen of the bee. for the purpose of the formation of wax, the bees have to cluster and form themselves into festoons from the top of the hive, and after the elapse of the necessary period, the wax scales are formed, with which the bees commence immediately to build their combs, and the various cells for the reception of the brood or food, according to the season of the year. _propolis_, is a tenacious, semi-transparent substance, having a balsamic odour; which the bees gather from the buds of certain trees in the spring, such as the horse-chestnut, the willow, the poplar, and the birch. this tenacious substance is employed by the bees to attach more firmly the combs to the top or foundation, and also the edges of the combs to the sides of the hive or box, to stop the crevices, and fasten the hives or boxes to the floor-boards, and in forming barriers against the intrusion of enemies. _farina_, or _pollen_, is the dust or minute globules contained in the anthers of flowers, and is the fertilizing property of flowers, which the bees thus assist to carry, whilst travelling from flower to flower, without which the flowers would not fructify. the bees have been found to continue collecting pollen from the same species of flowers, and prevent the multiplication of hybrid plants. they collect and carry this substance on the outer surface of the tibia, or the middle joint of the hinder leg; this part of the leg is broad, and on one side it is concave, and furnished with a row of strong hairs on its margins, forming as it were a natural basket, well adapted for the purpose. this substance mixed with honey, forms the food of the larvæ or young brood, after undergoing, perhaps, a peculiar elaboration by the working or nurse bees. having thus mentioned the different substances found in a hive, it only remains to add a short history of the inmates of the hive. every swarm of bees comprises three distinct kinds of the same species, namely, the _female_ or _queen_, the _neuter_ or _worker-bee_, and the _male_ or _drone_. as there is only one _queen-bee_ in each swarm or colony, she is seldom to be seen amidst the thousands of other bees; but she is easily distinguished from the rest by her slower movements, her greater length and larger size; and the general appearance of her body, being of a more dark orange colour, and her hinder legs having neither brushes nor pollen baskets upon them, although longer than those of the worker-bee; her wings also appear stronger, and she possesses a more curved sting, which she seldom uses, except when asserting her rights to the sovereignty of the hive. without a _queen-bee_ no swarm can thrive, for she is not only the ruler, but chiefly the mother of the community in which she dwells, and wherever she goes, the greatest attention is paid her. in the hive, the utmost solicitude is evinced to satisfy her in every wish; wherever she moves the bees anxiously clear away before her, and turn their heads towards their sovereign, and with much affection touch her with their antennæ, and supply her, as often as she needs, with honey or other delicacy which their own exertions, or those of their fellow labourers, have gathered for her use. the queen-bee is said to live four or five years, and is generally succeeded on her throne by one of her own descendants duly brought up for the purpose; but in the event of her untimely decease, the workers have the power of raising a sovereign from amongst themselves, and fitting her for the station she is intended to occupy; this they do by selecting one of the larvæ of the worker-bee of a certain age, and, enlarging the cell which it is to occupy, supplying it with a nourishment different from that which they give to the worker and drone-brood. a _queen-bee_ takes seventeen days to arrive at maturity, that is to say, from the egg-state to the fully developed queen, but this period will vary as a sudden change of temperature will prolong the interval; and this also applies to the perfect _queen_ herself, who will not deposit her eggs in the cells, when any severe weather happens at the period she may be expected to produce the eggs. the fecundity of the queen-bee is very great, for it is estimated that during breeding time, unless prevented by the cold weather, she lays at the rate of from one hundred to two hundred eggs a day, causing an increase of not less than eighty thousand worker-bees, and drones included, in a season when circumstances are favourable. the cells formed for the royal brood are very different from those of the males or the workers, and are generally suspended from the sides or edges of the combs; in shape they are very much like a pear, the thickest end joining the comb, and the small end having the mouth or entrance to the cell, and hanging downwards, and being almost as large as a lady's thimble. the _drones_ or _males_ in a hive are computed at from six hundred to two thousand, but the numbers are remarkably irregular, and the proportion is not regulated by the number of bees contained in a hive; for a small swarm or colony will contain as many, or more sometimes, than a large one. the drone may be easily distinguished from the _queen_ or _workers_, from its greater breadth, having large eyes which meet at the top of the head, and no sting, and from its making a loud humming whilst flying. it takes twenty-four days from the time of the laying of the drone _egg_ to its coming forth a perfect insect. drones are generally hatched about the end of april or the beginning of may; they venture out of the hive only in warm weather, and then only in the middle of the day, and they are generally expelled by the bees from the hives about july or august, after the impregnation of the young queens has taken place. when the destruction of the drones takes place earlier, it may be considered a certain indication that no swarming will take place during that season; but the retention of the drones after august, is a very bad sign, as the swarm must certainly perish in the winter, unless their vacant throne is supplied with a prolific queen. the _neuter_ or _worker-bee_, is the least of the three, and of a dark brown colour; the abdomen is conical, and composed of six distinct segments, and armed with a straight sting; it possesses a long flexible trunk, known by the name of a proboscis, and has on its two hinder legs a hollow or basket, to receive the propolis and farina which it collects as before described. the number of workers in a well-stocked hive is about fifteen thousand or twenty thousand. upon them devolves the whole care and labour of the colony, to collect pollen, propolis, and honey; to build the combs and to attend upon the brood or young bees. the _worker-bee_ is short-lived, seldom surviving more than a year, but this is more from the toil they have to endure, though it be a labour of love, and the many risks they run upon each occasion of going out in search of food, &c., from the weather, or their numerous winged enemies. "sunt quibus ad portas cecidit custodia sorti: inque vicem speculantur aquas et nubila coeli, aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto ignavum fucos pecus à præsepibus arcent. fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella." london: printed by s. & j. bentley, wilson, and fley, bangor house, shoe lane. * * * * * transcribers notes: a page of errata appearing here has been applied to the text and removed. inconsistency in the hyphenation of phrases has been retained.