21322	----	[Illustration: Betsy Held the Skipper by His Coat-tails. _Frontispiece_ (_Page_ 113)] _TUCK-ME-IN TALES_ (Trademark Registered) THE TALE OF BETSY BUTTERFLY BY ARTHUR SCOTT BAILEY [Illustration] NEW YORK GROSSET & DUNLAP PUBLISHERS Made in the United States of America Copyright, 1918, by GROSSET & DUNLAP CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. BEAUTY AND THE BLOSSOMS 1 II. JOHNNIE GREEN'S NET 6 III. A MISHAP 11 IV. BUSYBODIES 17 V. NO JOKER 22 VI. MRS. LADYBUG'S ADVICE 27 VII. BUTTERFLY BILL 32 VIII. DO YOU LIKE BUTTER? 37 IX. UNEXPECTED NEWS 42 X. THE NIGHT WATCH 47 XI. A SLY ONE 52 XII. A TERRIBLE BLUNDER 57 XIII. THE FRIENDLY STRANGER 63 XIV. A DEEP PLOT 68 XV. JOSEPH BUMBLE'S COMPLAINT 73 XVI. NOTHING BUT A FRAUD 78 XVII. DUSTY'S DIFFICULTY 83 XVIII. SOLOMON OWL'S IDEA 88 XIX. A BIT OF LUCK 93 XX. SOMETHING SEEMS WRONG 98 XXI. A STRANGE CHANGE 103 XXII. THE SKIPPER 110 THE TALE OF BETSY BUTTERFLY I BEAUTY AND THE BLOSSOMS EVERY one of the field people in Pleasant Valley, and the forest folk as well, was different from his neighbors. For instance, there was Jasper Jay. He was the noisiest chap for miles around. And there was Peter Mink. Without doubt he was the rudest and most rascally fellow in the whole district. Then there was Freddie Firefly, who was the brightest youngster on the farm--at least after dark, when his light flashed across the meadow. So it went. One person was wiser than any of his neighbors; another was stupider; and somebody else was always hungrier. But there was one who was the loveliest. Not only was she beautiful to look upon. She was graceful in flight as well. When one saw her flittering among the flowers it was hard to say which was the daintier--the blossoms or Betsy Butterfly. For that was her name. Whoever gave it to her might have chosen a prettier one. Betsy herself always said that she would have preferred Violet. In the first place, it was the name of a flower. And in the second, her red-and-brown mottled wings had violet tips. However, a person as charming as Betsy Butterfly did not need worry about her name. Had she been named after a dozen flowers she could have been no more attractive. People often said that everybody was happier and better just for having Betsy Butterfly in the neighborhood. And some claimed that even the weather couldn't help being fine when Betsy went abroad. "Why, the sun just has to smile on her!" they would exclaim. But they were really wrong about that. The truth of the matter was that Betsy Butterfly couldn't abide bad weather--not even a cloudy sky. She said she didn't enjoy flying except in the sunshine. So no one ever saw her except on pleasant days. To be sure, a few of the field people turned up their noses at Betsy. They were the jealous ones. And they generally pretended that they did not consider Betsy beautiful at all. "She has too much color," Mehitable Moth remarked one day to Mrs. Ladybug. "Between you and me, I've an idea that it isn't natural. I think she paints her wings!" "I don't doubt it," said Mrs. Ladybug. "I should think she'd be ashamed of herself." And little Mrs. Ladybug pursed up her lips and looked very severe. And then she declared that she didn't see how people could say Betsy was even good-looking, if they had ever noticed her tongue. "Honestly, her tongue's as long as she is!" Mrs. Ladybug gossiped. "But she knows enough to carry it curled up like a watch-spring, so it isn't generally seen.... You just gaze at her closely, some day when she's sipping nectar from a flower, and you'll see that I know what I'm talking about." Now, some of those spiteful remarks may have reached Betsy Butterfly's ears. But she never paid the slightest attention to them. When she met Mehitable Moth or Mrs. Ladybug she always said, "How do you do?" and "Isn't this a _lovely_ day?" in the sweetest tone you could imagine. And of course there was nothing a body could do except to agree with Betsy Butterfly. For it was bound to be a beautiful, bright day, or she wouldn't have been out. So even those that didn't like Betsy had to give up trying to quarrel with her. II JOHNNIE GREEN'S NET JOHNNIE GREEN was never quite happy unless he was collecting something. One year he went about with a hammer, chipping a piece off almost every rock in Pleasant Valley. And of course he gathered birds' eggs. After he tired of that he began collecting postage stamps. Next he turned his attention to tobacco tags, even hailing travellers who passed the house, to ask them whether they hadn't a "hard one," meaning by that a tag that was hard to get. When he felt quite sure that he had a sample of every kind of tobacco tag in the whole world, Johnnie Green had to think of something else to collect. And since it was summer, and a good time to find them, he decided to start a collection of butterflies. News spreads fast among the field people; and almost as soon as Johnnie Green had made up his mind about his new collection, the whole Butterfly family knew of it. Old Mr. Crow was the one that first learned of Johnnie's plan. And he was not pleased, either. "Butterflies!" he scoffed. "I should think Johnnie Green might better spend his time doing something worth while. Butterflies, indeed! Now, if he would only collect Crows there'd be some sense in that!" But that was before old Mr. Crow and his neighbors understood exactly what a collection was. And the Butterflies felt quite proud because Johnnie Green was going to busy himself with them. Later, when the field people discovered that collecting Butterflies meant catching them and sticking pins through their heads, the Butterfly family became greatly excited and worried. And as for old Mr. Crow, he was very glad that Johnnie had not decided to collect him and his relations. Well, if you had been in Pleasant Valley that summer, on almost any fine day you might have seen Johnnie Green running about the fields or the flower garden with a butterfly net in his hand. He had made the net from a barrel hoop and a piece of mosquito netting, to which he nailed an old broomstick for a handle. And for the first few days when he started making his new collection he didn't visit the swimming hole once. When his father asked him to do a little work for him--such as feeding the chickens, or leading the old horse Ebenezer to water--Johnnie Green was not so pleasant as he might have been. He complained that he was too busy to bother with the farm chores just then. But Farmer Green told him to run along and do his work. "You'll have plenty of time to play," said Johnnie's father. The Butterfly family was sorry that Farmer Green didn't keep his boy at work from dawn till dark. They didn't like to have to watch out for fear that horrid net might swoop down upon them and catch them. They wanted to have a good time among the flowers without being in constant terror of capture at the hands of Johnnie Green. But, strange to say, Betsy Butterfly was not in the least uneasy. She was so gentle herself that she couldn't believe anybody would harm her. Little did Betsy realize that she was really in great danger. Her fatal beauty was sure to catch Johnnie Green's eye. And though Betsy Butterfly did not know it, only an accident could prevent her being added to Johnnie Green's collection. III A MISHAP EXCEPT for the work that his father made him do now and then, there was only one thing that bothered Johnnie Green in making his collection of butterflies. The weather was not so good as it might have been. He soon found that there was no use hunting for butterflies except in the sunshine. So when a three days' rain came, Johnnie began to wish he had started a different sort of collection. But the weather cleared at last. And the sun came out so bright that Johnnie fairly pulled old Ebenezer away from the watering-trough and hustled him back to his stall; for he was in a hurry to get to the flower garden with his butterfly net. As for the chickens, they had very little food that day. Once in the garden, Johnnie Green found more butterflies than he had ever noticed before. But as soon as he began chasing them, they flew away to the meadow. That is, all but Betsy Butterfly. She said she was sure Johnnie Green wouldn't annoy her. And that was where she was wrong. The moment he caught sight of her, with her mottled red-and-brown wings with the violet tips, Johnnie cried: "There's a beauty!" But Betsy Butterfly was so used to such remarks that she paid little heed to him. Even when he crept nearer and nearer to her, with old dog Spot at his heels, she did not take fright. With her tongue deep in a fragrant blossom she was enjoying its delicious sweetness when Johnnie Green, bearing his net aloft, sprang at her. When Johnnie jumped, Betsy Butterfly started up in alarm. She had really waited until it was too late. And if something unexpected hadn't happened to Johnnie Green, Betsy would surely have had a place in his collection. But luckily for her, Johnnie met with a fall. He may have tripped on a vine. Or his foot may have slipped on the wet ground. Anyhow, he fell sprawling among the flowers, dropping his precious net as he stretched out his hands to save himself. Johnnie's fall gave Betsy Butterfly her only chance. Coiling her long tongue out of her way, she quickly made her escape. So Johnnie Green lost her. But she was not all that he lost. A strange accident happened just as he fell, for old dog Spot leaped forward at the same time. And, much to his surprise, Spot found his head inside the butterfly net. The long broomstick handle thumped him sharply on his back. And the silly fellow took fright at once. With yelps of terror he scurried out of the flower garden. And Johnnie picked himself up just in time to see Spot tearing across the meadow toward the woods. "Spot! Spot! Come back!" Johnnie Green shouted. But old Spot paid no attention to his young master. Perhaps he was too scared to hear him. Spot wanted to get rid of that net that covered his head. And he knew of no better place to go than the woods where he hoped to be able to free himself from his odd muzzle by rubbing against a tree or nosing among some bushes. Johnnie ran a little way after him. But when he saw Spot duck into the woods he turned back sadly towards the house. For all he knew, old Spot might run a mile further before he stopped. Johnnie would have to make a new net if he wanted to catch any more butterflies for his collection. And the trouble was, he had no more mosquito netting. A good many of the field people saw old Spot as he dashed off with the butterfly net over his head. And they enjoyed a hearty laugh at the strange sight. As for Betsy Butterfly, she had learned to watch out for Johnnie Green. And she knew that another time he would have to be twice as spry as he had shown himself, if he expected to capture her. Old Spot didn't come home till afternoon. When he appeared at last he looked very sheepish. He hoped no one had noticed his fright. And he wouldn't go near the flower garden again for a whole week. IV BUSYBODIES LITTLE Mrs. Ladybug said that she wished Betsy Butterfly no ill luck. But she thought that perhaps it would have been a good thing for her if Johnnie Green had caught her and put her in his collection. On hearing that strange remark Mehitable Moth turned quite pale. She never wanted Johnnie Green's name mentioned by anyone, because she lived in constant terror for fear he might mistake her for one of the Butterfly family and capture her. "What _do_ you mean?" she asked Mrs. Ladybug, while fat Jennie Junebug waddled nearer them, in order to hear everything they said. Though Jennie was sleepy, having stayed out very late the night before, the promise of a bit of gossip made her brighten up at once. "I mean--" said Mrs. Ladybug--"I mean that Johnnie Green would certainly have brushed Betsy Butterfly before adding her to his collection." And then, seeing a blank look on the faces of her hearers, she cried. "Don't tell me you haven't noticed how untidy Betsy Butterfly is! Can it be possible that the airs she gives herself, and her fine manners, have deceived you?" "What is it?" asked Mehitable Moth breathlessly. And as for Jennie Junebug, her breath was coming so fast that she couldn't say a word. "I'll tell you exactly what I mean," Mrs. Ladybug continued. "I stopped and spoke to Betsy Butterfly this very morning. And I stepped up close to her, because I wanted to see if she really does paint her wings, as my friend Miss Moth, here, suspects," Mrs. Ladybug explained to Jennie Junebug. "And what do you think? I saw that Betsy Butterfly was _completely covered with dust_, from head to foot!" Mehitable Moth looked rather uncomfortable. She was somewhat dusty herself. And she thought that Mrs. Ladybug might be giving her a sly dig. "Perhaps Betsy had been on a journey," she ventured. "Ah! But there is no dust to-day, on account of the rain we had last night," Mrs. Ladybug replied. "I'm convinced that the dust I saw on Betsy Butterfly was _weeks old_." "The idea!" Jennie Junebug exclaimed. "I should think she'd be ashamed of herself. Did you tell her how untidy she looked?" Mrs. Ladybug shook her head. "No!" she answered. "But I've been thinking the matter over. And I believe it's my duty to speak to her about it. I don't see what she's thinking of, to go about looking like that!" Miss Moth looked more uneasy than ever, especially when Mrs. Ladybug said: "Wouldn't you like to come with me while I look for Betsy?" "I must go home now, thank you!" said Mehitable. And she hurried away without another word. But Jennie Junebug spoke up at once and said she would be delighted to accompany Mrs. Ladybug. "Really," Jennie confided to her companion, "it's a good thing to have backs as hard and slippery as yours and mine. For the dust can't stick to us as it does to some." "There's no excuse for not keeping oneself neat," Mrs. Ladybug said severely. "And I shall give Betsy Butterfly a piece of my mind." V NO JOKER MUCH to Mrs. Ladybug's surprise, she did not find Betsy Butterfly in the flower garden. "It's too bad she's not here," Mrs. Ladybug remarked to her friend Jennie Junebug, who accompanied her. "We'll have to look in the meadow. And it may take a long time to find Betsy there." Jennie Junebug yawned right in Mrs. Ladybug's face. "Then I can't come with you," she said. "I'm getting terribly sleepy again. And since I expect to be up all night, I'm going to take a nap." Mrs. Ladybug looked at Jennie with great disapproval as that fat young person crept under a leaf and went to sleep. "Things have come to a pretty pass when ladies stay out all night!" she muttered. "It was not that way when I was a girl. But times have changed for the worse." The longer Mrs. Ladybug stared at her sleeping friend, the more she thought that she ought to wake her up. "If I rouse her she'll be so drowsy to-night that she'll simply have to go to bed," Mrs. Ladybug thought. So she poked Jennie Junebug several times. But Jennie Junebug only stirred slightly and murmured something in her sleep. And seeing that it was useless to try to awaken her Mrs. Ladybug set out for the meadow alone. The sun hung low in the west when Mrs. Ladybug found Betsy Butterfly among a clump of milk-weed blossoms. But Mrs. Ladybug did not care what time it was. She was satisfied when she saw that Betsy was just as dusty as ever. For, to tell the truth, little Mrs. Ladybug was so jealous of the beautiful Betsy that she _wanted_ to say something disagreeable to her. "Hasn't this been a lovely day?" Betsy Butterfly cried happily, as soon as she noticed Mrs. Ladybug. "I've enjoyed every moment of it. Ever since I saw you in the flower garden this morning I've been here in the meadow, flitting from one blossom to another." "You might better have spent a little of your time in a different way," Mrs. Ladybug remarked with a frown. Betsy Butterfly looked up in surprise, withdrawing her long tongue from the blossom in which she had just buried it. "_Ugh!_" A shudder shook prim Mrs. Ladybug. "Please coil your tongue!" she begged. "I can't bear the sight of it. But I must say that I ought not to expect good manners in a person who goes about looking as untidy as you do." Betsy Butterfly laughed gaily. "I didn't know you were such a joker!" she exclaimed. "Oh, I'm not joking," Mrs. Ladybug said. "I mean every word I say." "Then I wouldn't talk so much, if I were you," Betsy Butterfly advised her with a merry twinkle in her eye. And before Mrs. Ladybug could say another word Betsy Butterfly flew away and left her spluttering and choking. "She insulted me!" Mrs. Ladybug screamed, as soon as she was able to speak. "She insulted me. And then she hurried off because she didn't dare stay!" But Mrs. Ladybug was mistaken about one thing. Betsy Butterfly knew that she had just time to reach home before sunset. So that was why she left so suddenly. For she never was willing to travel when the sun was not shining. "I'll see Betsy in the morning," Mrs. Ladybug promised herself savagely. "I'll make it my business to follow her everywhere she goes, until I've given her a good talking to." VI MRS. LADYBUG'S ADVICE LITTLE did Betsy Butterfly guess what Mrs. Ladybug intended to say to her. And if she had known what it was she would have been merely amused. For Betsy was entirely too sweet-tempered to take offense at anybody's fault-finding--least of all that of Mrs. Ladybug, who was really a good-hearted soul, when she wasn't jealous. And when Betsy went to the flower garden early the next morning she felt kindly towards the whole world, not even excepting Johnnie Green, though he had tried to capture her. Well, Mrs. Ladybug was waiting for Betsy Butterfly among the flowers. She had been in such haste to reach the garden early that she had not stopped to have her breakfast. And like many people who have not drunk their morning cup of coffee, she was in a very peevish mood. "Now, Miss Pert, I want you to listen to me!" That was Mrs. Ladybug's greeting to Betsy Butterfly on one of the most delightful days of the whole summer. "It's my unpleasant duty--" said Mrs. Ladybug, who by that time was enjoying herself thoroughly--"it's my unpleasant duty to tell you that people are talking about you. They say that you're going about _covered with dust_! And as a friend, I advise you to give yourself a thorough brushing each morning, and as often thereafter as may be necessary." Betsy Butterfly had listened in amazement to Mrs. Ladybug's words. And she had hard work not to laugh, too, because she thought Mrs. Ladybug's advice decidedly funny. "Thank you very much!" Betsy said most politely. "I'll remember what you've told me." Somehow Mrs. Ladybug thought that Betsy meant she would follow her advice. And she looked quite pleased. "I shall expect a great improvement in your appearance the next time I see you," she announced. And with the manner of a person who has just done somebody a good turn she hurried away to get the breakfast that was waiting for her, somewhere. Then Betsy Butterfly enjoyed a good laugh. "How ridiculous!" she said to herself. "But I won't tell Mrs. Ladybug of her mistake, because she might feel upset if I did." And you can see, just by that, how kind-hearted Betsy was. She did not even tell her own family about the joke, for fear of hurting Mrs. Ladybug's feelings. But jealous little Mrs. Ladybug had no such misgivings. _She_ went out of her way to explain to people that if they noticed a change in Betsy Butterfly's appearance, they might thank _her_ for it.... "I told Betsy that she ought to brush the dust off herself," she informed her friends. Naturally she was displeased when she met Betsy that very afternoon and saw that the dust still lay thick on her wings. "I believe you actually want to be untidy!" Mrs. Ladybug cried. "And if you aren't going to brush that dust off, I shall do it myself!" And grasping a small Indian paint-brush, the weight of which she could scarcely stagger under, Mrs. Ladybug advanced upon Betsy Butterfly with a determined look in her eye. "Oh, don't do that!" cried Betsy. "It's my painful duty to give you a thorough dusting," Mrs. Ladybug declared. VII BUTTERFLY BILL NOW, a crowd had gathered quickly around Betsy Butterfly and Mrs. Ladybug; for the field people are quick to notice anything unusual. And a sprightly young cousin of Betsy's known as Butterfly Bill said to Mrs. Ladybug, with a wink at everybody else: "I suppose you'll dust the rest of us, too?" "Only those that need it!" replied Mrs. Ladybug. "Then you'll have your hands full," Butterfly Bill told her. "Maybe you haven't noticed that every member of the Butterfly family in Pleasant Valley is covered with dust just as Betsy is." Mrs. Ladybug looked surprised. "Is that so?" she said faintly. "It certainly is!" Bill cried. "Maybe you never knew that the dust is what gives us our--_ahem_--our beautiful colors," he added proudly. "And I warn you that if you so much as touch my lovely cousin with that brush you'll have every one of us fellows in your hair." Of course poor Mrs. Ladybug was quite bald. But she knew what Butterfly Bill meant. And she was so upset that she promptly let the paint-brush fall to the ground. Then Betsy's cousin nodded approvingly. "Now you'd better hurry home," he told Mrs. Ladybug. "There's a rumor around the meadow that your house is on fire. And they say your children are in great danger." Little Mrs. Ladybug at once fell to weeping. "It's that horrid Freddie Firefly!" she shrieked. "I've told him to keep away from my home. I've told him that he would set it to blazing with that light of his. But he's forever sneaking around my house as soon as my back is turned." "There, there! Don't be frightened!" Betsy Butterfly said to her soothingly. "It's only a rumor, you know." "That's so," Mrs. Ladybug admitted, drying her eyes. "I hear it almost every day, too. But I never can get used to it.... I suppose this is only a false alarm, after all." "I wouldn't be so sure about that," Butterfly Bill said wickedly, with a shake of his head. "And if I were you I'd look after my own family a little more carefully, instead of troubling myself with other people's affairs." Several of Bill's friends applauded his speech. But Betsy Butterfly whispered to him to hush. "Don't you see that Mrs. Ladybug is not quite herself?" she asked him. But Butterfly Bill was not a person to be easily silenced like that. "She's a meddling busybody!" he declared. "And it's my opinion that she ought to be put where she'll have to mind her own business." "Who--me?" called a wheezing voice right in his ear. Turning, Butterfly Bill saw that it was Jennie Junebug who had spoken to him. She had noticed the crowd from a distance. And she had just arrived, quite out of breath. Before Betsy Butterfly's cousin Bill could answer, Jennie Junebug actually threatened him. "If you were talking about me I shall have to knock you down," she declared. He had heard that Jennie delighted in flying _bang_ into anybody. But he did not know that she indulged in that unladylike trick _only after dark_. "Of course I didn't mean you!" he said hastily. "And I hope you didn't mean my friend Mrs. Ladybug, either," Jennie Junebug added. "For if you did----" But Butterfly Bill waited to hear no more. Thoroughly frightened, he sought safety in flight. And as he flew away Mrs. Ladybug couldn't help noticing the dust on his wings. "They're certainly a peculiar lot--that Butterfly family!" she muttered. VIII DO YOU LIKE BUTTER? AFTER Mrs. Ladybug failed in her attempt to brush the dust off Betsy Butterfly she grew more jealous of Betsy than ever. It was really a shame that Mrs. Ladybug should feel like that. Usually she was quite harmless, even if she was a busybody and a gossip. But she simply couldn't forgive Betsy Butterfly for being so beautiful. And now Mrs. Ladybug began to neglect her children more than ever, in order to spy upon Betsy in the hope of discovering some new fault in her. Betsy Butterfly soon noticed that wherever she went she was sure to see Mrs. Ladybug, who had a way of bobbing up in a most startling fashion. But Betsy was always quite polite to the jealous little creature. And she never failed to inquire for her health and that of her children as well, even if she met Mrs. Ladybug a dozen times a day. For some reason Mrs. Ladybug seemed quite touchy, where her family was concerned. "You don't need to ask about my children," she told Betsy at last in a somewhat sharp tone. "They are in the best of health. And I'll let you know in case they fall ill.... It's strange," she continued, "how everybody in this neighborhood is always prying into my household affairs." Betsy Butterfly smiled to herself. She did not care to quarrel with Mrs. Ladybug--nor with anyone else, for that matter. So she abruptly changed the subject. "Do you like butter?" she asked. "Why, no!" said Mrs. Ladybug. "I don't care anything about it. At least, I never ate any." "Then I don't see how you know whether you like it or not," Betsy observed, "unless you've looked into a buttercup to find out." Mrs. Ladybug was interested, in spite of herself. "Can a person tell by doing that?" she wanted to know. "It's a sure way," said Betsy Butterfly. "I was just looking into this buttercup that I'm sitting on when you flew up and spoke to me." "Do _you_ like butter?" Mrs. Ladybug inquired. "I'm afraid not," Betsy told her. "I'd like to try, myself," Mrs. Ladybug exclaimed eagerly. "But I don't know how." "It's simple enough," Betsy Butterfly replied. "You just look into a buttercup blossom. "And if it makes your face yellow, then you're fond of butter--whether you ever had any or not." So Mrs. Ladybug perched herself on a big blossom and peered earnestly into its cup. "Is my face yellow?" she asked Betsy. "I do believe it is!" Betsy Butterfly cried. And Mrs. Ladybug looked much pleased. "I've always known I had refined tastes," she remarked with a lofty air. "And now I'd like to sample a bit of butter; but I don't know where to find any." "Butter? They make it at the farmhouse," Betsy informed her. "Then perhaps Farmer Green's wife will let me have a little," Mrs. Ladybug said hopefully. "I'll go over to the farmhouse at once.... It's too bad you don't like butter, too," she added. But secretly she was delighted that Betsy Butterfly had looked into a buttercup in vain. IX UNEXPECTED NEWS LITTLE Mrs. Ladybug had a disappointment when she reached the farmhouse. She found, to her dismay, that she couldn't get inside it; for wire screens blocked her way through both doors and windows. And nobody paid the slightest attention to her when she stopped at the buttery window and asked if she couldn't please have a bit of butter. There was plenty of golden butter right there in plain sight, since it happened to be churning day. And Farmer Green's wife, with her sleeves rolled above her elbows, was working busily on the other side of the window screen. "I should think she might easily spare me a small sample!" Mrs. Ladybug cried at last. "I'm afraid Farmer Green's wife is stingy." Mrs. Ladybug hoped that Johnnie Green's mother would hear her remark. But she didn't. And in the end Mrs. Ladybug had to fly away with her longing for butter still unsatisfied. Meanwhile Betsy Butterfly had been amusing herself in the meadow to her heart's content. To tell the truth, it was rather a relief to be rid of Mrs. Ladybug's society for so long a time. And Betsy hoped that Mrs. Ladybug's errand to the farmhouse would keep that busybody engaged for the rest of the day. Now, after she left the farmhouse Mrs. Ladybug set out to find Betsy Butterfly again. But meeting Daddy Longlegs near the stone wall, she stopped to gossip with him, telling him how she had learned that she liked butter, and explaining that she had not yet tasted any. "So you looked into a buttercup to find out, eh?" said Daddy Longlegs. "I'll have to do that, myself. Maybe I've always liked butter, too, without knowing that I do." "You can't tell till you try," Mrs. Ladybug remarked. "But you mustn't be too sure. You may be disappointed. There's Betsy Butterfly! She doesn't care for butter at all." "Are you sure about that?" Daddy Longlegs inquired. "Really, I think you must be mistaken, for I saw her with her face just _buried_ in butter this very day." At first Mrs. Ladybug looked at him in amazement. And then she grew very angry. "Betsy Butterfly deceived me!" she cried in a shrill voice. "She was afraid that if I knew she ate butter she would have to share it with me.... I'd like to know where she gets her butter," Mrs. Ladybug mused. "She was standing on some of Farmer Green's, when I saw her," Daddy Longlegs explained. "Did she ask him for it?" Mrs. Ladybug demanded. "I don't believe she did," he admitted. "I think she just took it." A wicked gleam came into Mrs. Ladybug's eyes when she learned that. And she threw up her hands, exclaiming, "She steals! Betsy Butterfly steals butter! When the field people hear the news they won't think she's so fine." And then Mrs. Ladybug turned to Daddy Longlegs once more and demanded whether he knew of anything else that Betsy Butterfly was in the habit of taking from Farmer Green. "Eggs!" he replied promptly. "Eggs!" Mrs. Ladybug repeated after him. "Betsy Butterfly steals butter and eggs!" And before Daddy Longlegs could stop her she had hurried away to spread the news far and wide. X THE NIGHT WATCH LITTLE Mrs. Ladybug stopped everybody she met in the meadow and related how Betsy Butterfly was taking Farmer Green's butter--and his eggs, too--without asking his permission. "She's going to get some of us into trouble," Mrs. Ladybug informed her neighbors. "Just as likely as not Farmer Green and his wife will think others are stealing from them. Why, I went to the farmhouse to-day and asked for a bit of butter. And what do you think? Mrs. Green pretended not to hear me! I thought it was queer, at the time. But now I know that she's angry with me. She must have missed some of her butter; and she thinks I'm the guilty party." Mrs. Ladybug shook her finger at her neighbors. "We'll have to do something to put a stop to Betsy Butterfly's thieving," she declared. Jealous Mrs. Ladybug's story amazed all the field people. They could scarcely believe that anyone so beautiful and dainty as Betsy Butterfly would bemean herself by robbing Farmer Green--or anybody else. But Mrs. Ladybug said that Daddy Longlegs had _seen_ Betsy with her face buried in Farmer Green's butter. And no one could doubt the word of so respectable a person as Daddy Longlegs. "What steps do you think we ought to take to prevent Betsy from eating any more butter and eggs that don't belong to her?" asked the queen of the Bumblebee family. "I think we ought to set a careful watch on her," said Mrs. Ladybug. "I'm sure I don't see when she gets her stolen goods, because I've watched her very closely myself for some time. And I've seen her dine on nothing but flowers." "Perhaps she goes to the farmhouse at night," Jennie Junebug suggested. "That's a happy thought!" said Mrs. Ladybug approvingly. "We'll have to get Freddie Firefly to follow her about after dark." So Mrs. Ladybug and her neighbors made arrangements with Freddie Firefly to have Betsy Butterfly spied upon that very night. "I'll watch her till sunset," Mrs. Ladybug agreed. "And then _you_ must relieve me," she told Freddie. "Don't let her out of your sight until sunrise!" she warned him. Freddie Firefly promised that he would be faithful to his trust. And later that afternoon, when the sun began to drop behind the mountains, he relieved Mrs. Ladybug, who had been spying upon Betsy ever since their talk earlier in the day. "She's behaved herself fairly well so far," Mrs. Ladybug whispered to Freddie, as she prepared to fly home to her children. "But there's no knowing when she may start for the farmhouse. So you mustn't take your eyes off her all night long!" "You can trust me," Freddie assured her. And then Mrs. Ladybug said good evening. * * * * * Freddie Firefly always claimed that that was the longest night he ever spent. And he said that if he had realized that he would have to stay in one place from sunset to dawn he never would have agreed to watch Betsy Butterfly. For Betsy Butterfly went to sleep the moment the sun went down. Freddie had to remain for hours and hours where he could flash his light upon her. And all the while he knew that his whole family was having a delightful time dancing in the hollow over towards the swamp. It was especially hard for Freddie because he could see the gay lights of the Fireflies twinkling through the dark. But Betsy Butterfly knew nothing of his long vigil. She slept and slept the whole night long. And Freddie Firefly had to admit to himself, as he watched her, that she didn't _act_ like a robber in the least. XI A SLY ONE WHEN Freddie Firefly reported to Mrs. Ladybug and her neighbors that Betsy Butterfly had taken neither butter nor eggs from Farmer Green during the night the field people were much puzzled. "She's certainly a sly one!" Mrs. Ladybug exclaimed. "What do you think we ought to do now?" she asked Daddy Longlegs, who was supposed to be very old, and therefore very wise. "I think you ought to warn her," he replied, after some thought. "You ought to tell Betsy Butterfly that she must stop pilfering." "No doubt your advice is good," Mrs. Ladybug observed. "And I'll speak to Betsy this very morning.... You must come with me," she told Daddy. "I naturally want to have a witness." "Oh, I'll come!" he cried in his thin, quavering voice, though what she meant by a "witness" was more than he knew. So Mrs. Ladybug and Daddy Longlegs set forth to find Betsy Butterfly. And behind them followed a crowd of their neighbors. Even lazy Buster Bumblebee joined the procession. Though he was a drone, and never worked, he was always ready to exert himself for the sake of any new excitement. The strange company wandered back and forth across the meadow for some time without finding Betsy Butterfly. But at last Mrs. Ladybug spied her. And soon Betsy found herself surrounded by the mob. "Goodness!" she cried, looking about her in surprise. "How nice of you all to call on me! I'm _so_ glad to see you!" Betsy Butterfly was so cordial that Mrs. Ladybug couldn't help looking somewhat uncomfortable. She couldn't avoid a strange feeling of guilt. And yet she told herself that Betsy Butterfly was really the guilty one. "She's a bold piece!" Mrs. Ladybug exclaimed, under her breath. "Perhaps you won't be so happy to see us when you hear what we have to say to you," Mrs. Ladybug began. "There hasn't been an accident, I hope!" Betsy cried. "Your house hasn't burned?" "No!" replied Mrs. Ladybug. And again she said, "No!" in a very decided manner. "We've come to warn you that we've found out about your trickery," she announced. "We know that you like butter, and that you're in the habit of taking it from Farmer Green--yes! and eggs, too!" "Why, I don't know what you're talking about!" Betsy Butterfly faltered. She was really greatly surprised. "It won't help you to be untruthful," Mrs. Ladybug told her severely. "It's no wonder--" she added--"it's no wonder Mrs. Green wouldn't give me a bit of butter when I went to the farmhouse yesterday. She thought _I_ was the one that's been stealing it from her, right along." And then Mrs. Ladybug was amazed by what followed. For Betsy Butterfly actually smiled at her. "You're mistaken," she said. "I never eat butter. I don't like it. And as for eggs, how could I ever break through an egg-shell?" "I don't know anything about that," said Mrs. Ladybug. "And besides, I didn't come here to be questioned," she added tartly. "If you have any questions to ask, just ask 'em of _him_, for he's seen you with your face buried in butter!" And she pointed at Daddy Longlegs. And now it was _his_ turn to look uncomfortable. For he considered Betsy Butterfly to be very beautiful indeed. XII A TERRIBLE BLUNDER WHEN the beautiful Betsy Butterfly turned her gaze on him, Daddy Longlegs couldn't help wishing that he had worn his new coat that day. However, he straightened his necktie carefully and tried to look as well as he could. "So you've seen me eating butter, have you?" Betsy Butterfly asked him. "Not _eating_ it!" he corrected her. "I've seen you _standing_ on it. And your face was hidden in it, too." Mrs. Ladybug shot a triumphant glance at the crowd, of which she and Betsy Butterfly and Daddy Longlegs were the center. "What have you to say now, my fine lady?" she demanded of Betsy with a sneer. And still Betsy Butterfly was quite unruffled. "Where did you see me doing that?" she asked Daddy Longlegs pleasantly enough. "I object!" Mrs. Ladybug interrupted hastily. "You needn't answer her question," she advised Daddy Longlegs. "I know her tricks! She'll keep us talking here until we forget what our errand was!" But Daddy Longlegs paid no attention to Mrs. Ladybug's advice. "I saw you in this meadow," he explained. And Mrs. Ladybug began to look somewhat worried. "Come!" she cried. "Let's all go home now. We've warned her; and we'll leave her to think over what she's done.... I hope--" Mrs. Ladybug added, turning to Betsy Butterfly--"I hope you'll decide to turn over a new leaf." "Why, that's exactly what she did, that time when I saw her!" Daddy Longlegs shouted. "While I was watching her I saw her turn over a leaf. So what's the use of her turning over another." And now it was Mrs. Ladybug's turn to look amazed and bewildered. "I don't know what you're talking about," she snapped, glaring at Daddy Longlegs. "And I don't believe you know, yourself." "Oh! yes, I do!" he retorted shrilly. "Butter has no leaves," said Mrs. Ladybug with a knowing air. "I saw heaps and heaps of it in Farmer Green's buttery yesterday. And there wasn't a leaf on it." "How about eggs, then?" shouted somebody in the crowd. It was stupid Buster Bumblebee! And of course nobody paid any heed to his silly question. As he stared at Mrs. Ladybug dully Daddy Longlegs let his mouth fall wide open. "Why, what do you mean?" he demanded at last. "You and I aren't talking about the same sort of butter at all! You're describing the kind of butter that Mrs. Green makes at the farmhouse." "And what, pray tell, have you been talking about all this time?" Mrs. Ladybug gasped. "The butter-and-eggs in the meadow!" Daddy Longlegs informed her. "I suppose you know the plant, don't you?" "I've heard of it," Mrs. Ladybug replied. "But I doubt if there is such a thing." "And I say there is!" Buster Bumblebee clamored. "We Bumblebees are very fond of butter-and-eggs. And we're about the only field people that know how to open a blossom and reach its nectar." Little Mrs. Ladybug waited to hear no more. "You've made a terrible blunder!" she told Daddy Longlegs hurriedly. And before he could answer her she had hastened away. Like many another jealous body, Mrs. Ladybug had behaved very foolishly. And it was no wonder that she wanted to get away from the crowd. She didn't even beg Betsy Butterfly's pardon for calling her a thief. But all the rest of the field people realized at last that Betsy was no thief. The butter-and-eggs plant, they were well aware, was as free as the clover, or the milk-weed blossoms, or any other of the wild flowers. Everybody knew that Farmer Green laid no claim to them, though they did grow in his meadow. And when Betsy Butterfly thanked Daddy Longlegs for his explanation he wished more than ever that he had worn his new coat that day--and his new hat, too. XIII THE FRIENDLY STRANGER OF course, anyone so beautiful as Betsy Butterfly was bound to attract attention. Wherever she went people turned their heads--if they could--to look at her. And those whose heads were so fastened to their bodies that they simply couldn't crane their necks at anybody--even those unlucky creatures wheeled themselves about in order to gaze at Betsy. If they happened to be ladies they stared at her because they wanted to see what was the latest style in gowns, or maybe hats. And if they happened to be gentlemen they looked at her because they just couldn't help it. It was no wonder, then, that Betsy Butterfly had many admirers. In fact, she was so accustomed to their flittering after her that usually she paid little heed to them. But now and then one of them made himself so agreeable that Betsy favored him slightly more than the others. Such was a stranger dressed in yellowish brown whom she chanced to meet among the flowers one day. He was flying from flower to flower with a loud buzzing. And he reminded Betsy Butterfly of somebody, but she couldn't just think who it was. "Ah!" said the stranger, as soon as he caught Betsy's eye. "The blossoms are fine and fresh after last night's shower, aren't they?" Betsy had to admit that what the stranger said was true. And when he came right over to the flower where she was breakfasting and began buzzing around her, and eating pollen, Betsy Butterfly thought that for a stranger he seemed very friendly. She looked at him for a time, out of the corner of her eye, while she tried to recall whom the newcomer resembled. But he looked like no one she had even seen. And then all at once Betsy knew what was so familiar about him. It was his voice! "You remind me of a friend of mine," she remarked. "He lives in the meadow not far from here. It's your buzzing," she explained. "If I didn't see you I should think you were Buster Bumblebee." Betsy's remark seemed to please the stranger. And he smiled smugly while he buzzed louder than ever. "It's not surprising that I make you think of him," he observed. "Indeed it would be odd if I didn't, for I'm a sort of cousin of Buster's, so to speak. Perhaps you didn't know that my name is Bumble--Joseph Bumble." Naturally Betsy and Joseph became good friends on the spot. And after that people often saw them rambling together among the flowers. Now, Joseph Bumble proved to be a great talker. And since Betsy Butterfly was an excellent listener, they spent many agreeable hours together. At least, Joseph enjoyed every minute that he spent in Betsy Butterfly's company. And if at times she found his prattle a bit tiresome, she was too well-mannered to say so. If the truth were known, Joseph Bumble proved to be somewhat of a braggart. He was forever boasting of his connection with the Bumblebee family. And Betsy couldn't say anything to him without his remarking that his cousin Buster Bumblebee's mother, the well-known Queen, thought this or that. "And being of royal blood, the Queen ought to know what's what," he frequently said. "I suppose--" Betsy said to him at last--"I suppose you're of royal blood yourself, Mr. Bumble?" "Oh, very!" he replied with a smirk. "We're all of us very royal indeed." And Betsy Butterfly thought how pleasant it was to be friends with anyone who came from such a fine family as Joseph Bumble's. XIV A DEEP PLOT AS time passed, Betsy continued to see a great deal of Joseph Bumble. And she noticed one peculiar thing: Although he talked continually of his cousin Buster Bumblebee, the Queen's son, no one had ever seen the two together. "How does it happen," she asked Joseph at last, "that I never find you with your cousin? Aren't you friends?" "We're certainly not _enemies_," said Joseph Bumble, "though I must admit that we're not quite so intimate as we might be. You see, Buster and I have different tastes. And now that the red clover is in blossom he spends all his time in the clover field. But as you know, like you I am very fond of flowers. And I'd far rather be here in the meadow--or the flower garden--with you, than in the clover patch with Buster Bumblebee." Naturally such an answer was bound to please Betsy Butterfly. And after that she bothered her head no more about the friendship between the two cousins. Certainly Joseph Bumble's explanation sounded reasonable. And she had no cause to doubt his statement. Meanwhile there were others among Betsy Butterfly's admirers who became very peevish on observing how much time Betsy and the newcomer in the neighborhood, Joseph Bumble, were spending in each other's society. And they agreed among themselves that something ought to be done to put an end to the upstart Bumble's boasting. "Betsy Butterfly thinks the fellow is a cousin of Buster Bumblebee's," said Chirpy Cricket. "But I've noticed that he and Buster are never together. Let's ask Buster to come over to the meadow so that he may meet this cousin of his! And then perhaps we'll learn something more about Joseph Bumble than we know now." Everybody said that that was a good plan. And Betsy's admirers chose Daddy Longlegs to call on Buster Bumblebee and invite him to a party to be given in the meadow the following day. Daddy Longlegs agreed to do the errand, in spite of the fact that for him it was half a day's journey to the Bumblebee's home from the stone wall where he lived. But he thought that by hurrying he ought to be able to get back in time to put on his best coat and go to the party, though he might arrive somewhat late. "Don't forget to ask Betsy Butterfly to the party!" Daddy called, as he started off on his long trip. "Don't worry! I'll attend to that myself," Chirpy Cricket promised. "And don't forget to invite Joseph Bumble!" Daddy cautioned him. "Oh! we don't need to ask him," said Chirpy Cricket. "_He'll_ come without being invited, unless I'm greatly mistaken." * * * * * Luckily for Daddy Longlegs there was not a breath of wind either that day or the following one. So he made excellent time to the Bumblebee home, where he found Buster Bumblebee and gave him his invitation. Then Daddy turned around and started back towards his stone wall. Buster Bumblebee had promised to come to the party. And Daddy wanted to be present when the two cousins, Buster Bumblebee and Joseph Bumble, met--with Betsy Butterfly right there to watch them. XV JOSEPH BUMBLE'S COMPLAINT IT happened just as Chirpy Cricket had expected. Betsy Butterfly arrived at the party with her admirer, Joseph Bumble, buzzing close behind her. Although he had not been invited, he did not feel the least bit shy about coming. "Being of a royal family, I never wait to be asked to a place," he had explained loftily to Betsy. "And you'll see that everybody will be glad to see me at the party. People always consider it an honor to have me at their entertainments." Joseph's words proved partly true, anyhow. Anyone could see that Joseph Bumble was more than welcome. Chirpy Cricket and Daddy Longlegs--as well good many others--rushed up to him and told him how pleased they were to see him. And Joseph Bumble was having a very agreeable time talking in a loud voice about himself and his family when he suddenly stopped short. A look of displeasure crossed his face. And Daddy Longlegs asked him if he had eaten something that disagreed with him. "No!" replied Joseph Bumble. "I've been interrupted. And it's hardly the sort of treatment a person of royal blood--like myself--expects to receive at a party." "Who interrupted you?" Chirpy Cricket inquired. "I don't know," Joseph Bumble answered. "But someone was talking in a loud voice." "Are you sure it wasn't yourself that you heard?" Daddy Longlegs wanted to know. "Certainly not!" cried Joseph. "Don't be silly! Don't you suppose I know my own voice when I hear it?" "Perhaps it was your echo that you heard," Daddy ventured. At that Joseph Bumble rudely turned his back on him and began whispering to Chirpy Cricket. He was actually suggesting that Daddy Longlegs should be thrown out of the party! And then Mr. Bumble again paused abruptly and listened. "There!" he said to Chirpy Cricket. "Don't you hear that buzzing? That's the person that interrupted me. And I'd like to have him put out of the party too, along with this queer old chap who insulted me a moment ago." Chirpy Cricket looked around, until his eye rested on Buster Bumblebee, who had just arrived and who was at that moment talking with Betsy Butterfly. "There's the young man you hear!" Chirpy told Joseph Bumble. "Don't you know him?" "No!" replied Joseph, as his eyes followed Chirpy Cricket's. "And I don't want to know him, either. He looks to me to be a very ordinary person. And anybody can see that he's annoying Betsy Butterfly. I tell you, I want him chased away from here at once. For I'm of royal blood; and I'm not accustomed to go to parties with ragtags and bobtails. I'm a cousin of Buster Bumblebee, the Queen's son." Well, Chirpy Cricket tried hard not to laugh right in Joseph Bumble's face. "I'll see what I can do," Chirpy promised him. "And I will admit that _somebody_ ought to be barred out of this party." "Good!" exclaimed Joseph Bumble. "I'm glad to know that you're so sensible." Perhaps he would have spoken in a different fashion had he known exactly what Chirpy Cricket had in mind. But now he said nothing more, though he continued to stare angrily at Buster Bumblebee, who was glad to see Betsy Butterfly, and was telling her as much, too. XVI NOTHING BUT A FRAUD AT last Joseph Bumble's displeasure passed all control. He began to buzz as loud as he could, hoping to drown Buster Bumblebee's buzzing, so that Buster could no longer talk to Betsy Butterfly. Naturally, Buster soon had to raise his own voice, in order to make himself heard. And soon the two made such a roar that everybody else had to stop up his ears. Noticing a look of distress on Betsy Butterfly's face, Buster asked her what the trouble was. "You and your cousin Joseph are making a terrible racket," she told him. "My cousin Joseph!" cried Buster Bumblebee. "And who is he, I should like to know? Point him out to me, please! For I didn't know I had a cousin at this party." "There he is!" said Betsy Butterfly, nodding her head towards the glowering Joseph. "What! That unshaven stranger in the yellowish-brown suit?" cried Buster Bumblebee. "I assure you he's no relation of mine." "You must be mistaken," Betsy persisted. "He says he's your cousin, and of royal blood himself." "Nonsense!" cried Buster Bumblebee. "Just let me talk to him a moment, and I'll soon prove that your friend is nothing but a fraud." Accordingly Buster left her, and straightway perched himself upon a daisy directly in front of Joseph Bumble. "How-dy do!" said Buster. "I hear you've been talking about me." Now, Joseph Bumble's only thought was that the noisy chap in the yellow and black velvet must have overheard what he had said to Chirpy Cricket about throwing him out of the party. "I don't care to talk with you," Joseph announced in his grandest manner. "I'm from such a fine family that I have to be very particular about whom I'm seen with." "Is that so?" said Buster. "I suppose if Buster Bumblebee were at this party you'd be glad to talk with him?" "I should say I would!" was the other's answer. "He's my cousin." "What's your name, anyhow?" Buster Inquired. "Joseph Bumble!" "What's the rest of it?" Buster Bumblebee demanded, while the whole company surged around him, so that they might hear. "I refuse to answer!" said Joseph Bumble. And afterward Daddy Longlegs declared that at that moment he saw the fellow's knees trembling. "Come!" said Joseph Bumble, turning suddenly to Betsy Butterfly. "I see that we've accidentally fallen in with some rough people; and we'd better be moving on." But Betsy Butterfly didn't even look at Joseph. "What _is_ his full name?" she asked Buster. "He's a Bumble Flower-Beetle," Buster said. "And as for his being related to me, that's all humbug. This stranger is no kin either to the Bumblebee or any other Bee family. But his voice is so much like ours that he's taken part of our name, though our family has always claimed that he has no right to it." "Who are you?" Joseph Bumble demanded of Buster quite fiercely. He was determined to put his enemy to rout if he could. "I'm Buster Bumblebee!" was the reply. "Don't you know your cousin?" When he heard that, Joseph Bumble knew at once that the game was up. His trickery was discovered beyond a doubt. So with one last lingering look at the beautiful Betsy he took to his wings. And no one ever saw him in those parts again. As for Betsy Butterfly, she never could bear, after that, to hear the name of Joseph Bumble so much as mentioned. XVII DUSTY'S DIFFICULTY IT was to be expected that as time went on, Betsy Butterfly's fame would spread far and wide. And long before the summer was over, half the creatures that lived in Pleasant Valley knew her. They were the ones that went about by daylight and rested at night. As for the other half--the night-prowlers--many of them had heard about the beautiful Betsy, though of course they had never seen her. That is, none of them had set eyes on her except Freddie Firefly, who had flashed his light upon Betsy all one night, because Mrs. Ladybug had a strange notion that she was stealing butter from the farmhouse. In fact, after that happened, Freddie Firefly had gone about telling all his friends how beautiful Betsy Butterfly was, and saying what a pity it was that she didn't like moonlight as well as sunshine. He talked so much about her that at last a good many of the night-prowling people said that they wished they might see Betsy Butterfly just once, for they could scarcely believe that anybody could be as dainty and bewitching as Freddie Firefly would have them believe her. And there was one dashing young chap of the Moth family who became especially eager to make Betsy's acquaintance. Indeed, he began to complain that he was losing his appetite, through thinking about Betsy Butterfly. So he besought Freddie Firefly to help him out of his difficulty. Now, while he was talking with Freddie Firefly, this young Moth, who was known as Dusty, never once stopped eating. Freddie Firefly noticed how his fat sides stuck out. And he wondered what the fellow's appetite could have been like before he lost some of it. "You don't act like one in delicate health," Freddie Firefly observed, as he watched the greedy Dusty consume more food. "Oh, but I am!" Dusty Moth protested feebly. "I'm so weak now that I can hardly raise myself with my wings." Freddie was sure that Dusty's trouble was merely due to his being too fat. But he saw no reason for quarreling with him. "Can't you think of some plan by which I could meet Betsy Butterfly?" Dusty Moth persisted. "Perhaps if I could see her just once I'd be able to get my mind _off_ her--and _on_ my meals again." "I don't know how I can help you," Freddie Firefly confessed. "You see, Betsy goes home exactly at sunset. And at present she never seems to make her home in the same place for even two nights. So one can never be sure where she will be. "Of course, when the sun is shining you can always find her among the flowers. But that won't help you any, because you're such a sleepy-head in the daytime that you couldn't see anything even if it was stuck right into your eyes." "Can't you explain my sad case to Betsy Butterfly?" Dusty Moth asked hopefully. "I've heard that she's very kind-hearted. And if she knew how I'm suffering on her account I'm sure she'd be glad to meet me some pleasant, dark night." He begged so piteously that in the end Freddie Firefly agreed to do what he could. "But I warn you--" he said--"I warn you that I can't give you much hope." XVIII SOLOMON OWL'S IDEA FREDDIE FIREFLY actually did send a message to Betsy Butterfly, telling her that Dusty Moth wanted to see her, and saying that unless she would agree to meet him in the meadow some night soon, Dusty was afraid he would lose his appetite entirely. But Betsy thought the whole affair was only a joke. So she merely laughed--and sent Freddie no answer at all; for she hardly believed that she needed to explain to him that nothing could induce her to stir out after sunset. Freddie Firefly was much upset because he received no answer to his message. Perhaps he would not have cared so much had Dusty Moth not made his life miserable each night from dusk to dawn. But that persistent fellow kept asking Freddie every few minutes if he had "heard from her" yet. And naturally anyone would grow tired if he had to keep saying "No! no! no!" all night long. At the same time Dusty Moth kept insisting in a most annoying way that if he lost much more of his appetite he would be ill, and it would be Freddie Firefly's fault. So Freddie Firefly began to worry. He came finally to detest Dusty Moth. And Freddie's family noticed that he was growing quite thin, because Dusty Moth left him little time--between questions--in which to eat his meals comfortably. "I declare, I wish Betsy Butterfly would move away from Pleasant Valley!" Freddie Firefly exclaimed at last, quite out of patience with everybody and everything. "I'm in a pretty fix, I am! And since I don't know how to get rid of this annoying Dusty Moth, I'm going to ask Solomon Owl what I'd better do." That, at least, was a comforting thought. So the following morning, just before dawn, he made what might be termed a flying call on Solomon Owl who lived in the hemlock woods beyond the swamp. And luckily wise old Solomon thought of a good plan at once. As soon as he had heard Freddie Firefly's story he said to him: "If Betsy Butterfly refuses to meet your friend, why don't you ask her for her picture?" "That's a splendid idea!" Freddie cried. "How in the world did you ever happen to think of it, Mr. Owl?" Solomon Owl hooted at that question. "That's my secret," he said. "If I told all I know, everybody else would be just as wise as I am." And after giving another long string of hoots, which he followed with a burst of loud laughter, Solomon Owl popped into his house. Anyhow, Freddie Firefly couldn't complain, for he now had a remedy for his trouble. And he felt so carefree and happy again that on his way across the meadow he stopped to talk with Jimmy Rabbit, who was taking a stroll in the direction of Farmer Green's cabbage patch. Freddie Firefly quickly told Jimmy all about his affair with Dusty Moth. He even explained how he had gone to ask Solomon Owl's help, and related what that wise bird had advised. "There's only one thing that worries me now," said Freddie Firefly anxiously. "I'm wondering whether Betsy Butterfly has ever had a picture made of herself." XIX A BIT OF LUCK JIMMY RABBIT promptly set Freddie Firefly's fears at rest. "I happen to know," said he, "that Betsy Butterfly has a picture of herself." "Are you sure?" Freddie asked him eagerly. "I ought to be," replied Jimmy Rabbit, "because I painted it myself, the very next day after I finished a portrait of old Mr. Crow." "It ought to be a good one, if you made it," said Freddie. "But wasn't it some time ago that you were an artist?" "It was earlier in the summer," Jimmy Rabbit admitted. "Of course, Betsy Butterfly has changed somewhat since then. But this picture was a fine likeness of her at the time I painted it.... I suppose," he added, "I was the first one in the whole valley to perceive that she was going to be a beauty when she got her full growth." "Do you suppose she'll send me the picture, if I ask her, so I can show it to Dusty Moth?" Freddie asked. Jimmy Rabbit looked a bit doubtful. He pondered for a few moments. And then he said: "I'll tell you what I'll do! To-morrow morning I'll see Betsy and I've no doubt that she'll loan me the picture if I promise to return it to her." "That'll be great!" cried Freddie. "Meet me near the duck pond as soon as it's dark to-morrow night; and be sure to bring Betsy's picture with you!" Then Freddie Firefly hurried off to find Dusty Moth, who happened likewise to be looking for him, because he had a question to ask. They met shortly. And Dusty Moth immediately cried: "Have you heard from her?"--meaning Betsy Butterfly, of course. "Now, see here!" Freddie Firefly said. "It's plain enough that Betsy doesn't care to meet you. But I have a plan that ought to suit you well enough. If you could look at her picture once you'd be satisfied, wouldn't you?" "I would--" replied Dusty Moth--"if I got my appetite back afterward." "Well, will you promise to stop pestering me about Betsy Butterfly if I let you see this picture of her?" "Yes! yes!" Dusty promised impatiently. "Where is it? Quick! Let me see it!" "Oh! You'll have to wait till to-morrow night," Freddie explained. "I shall not be able to eat a single mouthful till then!" Dusty Moth groaned. "Well--you can suit yourself about that," Freddie told him impatiently. "And please don't speak to me again to-night! I've been troubled enough on your account without being bothered by you any more." "One moment!" cried Dusty, as Freddie Firefly started to leave him. "Well--what do you want now?" Freddie growled, flashing his light impatiently in Dusty Moth's eyes. "Are you sure she will let you take the picture?" Dusty asked him. "Yes! yes! Of course she will! Why shouldn't she, I should like to know? You certainly do ask the silliest questions!" And yet Freddie Firefly had put the same query himself, to Jimmy Rabbit, only a short time before. But now he was quite certain that his worries were almost at an end. "Betsy Butterfly has caused me a powerful lot of trouble!" Freddie grumbled, as he hurried over the hollow, to join in the dance of the Firefly family. XX SOMETHING SEEMS WRONG WHEN Jimmy Rabbit went to see Betsy Butterfly the next morning he found her quite willing to let him take her picture away with him. "But I must say--" Betsy remarked--"I must say that I don't understand why anybody should want to borrow this old portrait. Everyone tells me I have changed a great deal since you made it." "That's true," Jimmy Rabbit agreed. "But the person to whom I'm going to show it won't know the difference." "I don't believe he knows me, then," she remarked. "No! And probably he never will," said Jimmy Rabbit. "But don't you worry about that! From what I hear of him, he's a good deal of a bore." "Don't bother to bring back that picture!" she called to Jimmy Rabbit as he hopped away. "I'm afraid Betsy Butterfly is growing vain," he murmured to himself. "To be sure, she _has_ changed. But I shall always like this portrait of her, because I painted it myself." Later, when he was in Farmer Green's garden, he wrapped the picture carefully in a rhubarb leaf and hid it beneath a pile of brush. And he didn't come back for it until after dark, just as the moon peeped above the rim of the hills. At the duck pond Jimmy Rabbit found Freddie Firefly waiting for him, hopping up and down and flashing his light through the misty gloom. "Did you get it?" Freddie demanded. "It's safe in my pocket," Jimmy assured him. "Let me have it!" said Freddie. "Dusty Moth is waiting for me at the fence-corner, near the orchard. And I want to give him a good look at Betsy Butterfly's picture before the moon gets too high, for he can't see well if there's too much light." Jimmy Rabbit drew the picture carefully from his pocket. And Freddie Firefly took it and slung it across his back. He fairly staggered under the weight. "Aren't you going to look at Betsy's picture yourself?" Jimmy Rabbit asked him. "It's a good bit of work, if I do say so." "Oh! I don't care about seeing it. It's nothing to me, you know," said Freddie carelessly. "But I hope Dusty Moth will be satisfied with it." "Well, I won't go with you, to see if he is," Jimmy Rabbit told him. "I usually have a light lunch at this hour. So I'll meet you here at the duck pond after I come back from the cabbage patch." They parted then. And shortly afterward Freddie Firefly dropped down beside Dusty Moth, who made no attempt to conceal his pleasure. "At last!" he cried. "At last I am to behold the beautiful Betsy Butterfly's picture!... I do hope it's a good likeness!" he added as he began, with trembling hands, to unwrap the rhubarb covering from the portrait. "It certainly is," Freddie Firefly assured him. "It was made by a friend of mine, who once painted a famous picture of old Mr. Crow." While Freddie danced along the top of the fence, Dusty Moth carried the picture into the shade of an apple tree, out of the moonlight, so that he might see it more clearly. A few moments later Freddie Firefly was both surprised and alarmed to hear a cry of anguish from the direction of the apple tree. "What's the matter?" he called. "There's nothing wrong, I hope?" But Dusty Moth made no reply. XXI A STRANGE CHANGE RECEIVING no answer to his question, Freddie Firefly skipped down from the fence and sought the shade of the apple tree, where he found Dusty Moth staring fixedly at Betsy Butterfly's picture. Dusty's face wore a most curious look; he seemed at once angry, sorrowful and amazed. And not till Freddie Firefly asked again what _was_ the trouble did Dusty Moth say a word. Then he pointed scornfully toward the portrait that Jimmy Rabbit had made earlier in the summer. "So that's the charming Betsy Butterfly, eh?" he roared. "That's the beauty I've heard so much about! I can tell you right now that if I had any idea she looked like this I never would have lost my appetite over her!" "You astonish me!" Freddie Firefly exclaimed. "Have you forgotten how anxious you were to meet the lady?" "Meet her!" Dusty Moth howled. "I promise you I'd never go out of my way to meet anybody that looked as she does--though I might go a long distance to avoid her." Freddie Firefly glanced toward the picture. But it had fallen face downward upon the ground. And he did not take the trouble to raise it. "Well, you think Betsy Butterfly is beautiful, don't you?" he asked. "Indeed I don't! I think she's hideous," Dusty Moth shouted. "Never in all my life have I been so deceived in a person." "I don't understand how you can say that," Freddie Firefly told him. "But I suppose your idea of beauty may be different from mine--and from many other people's, too. Anyhow, I hope you'll get your appetite back again." "I don't know about that," said Dusty Moth. "Just now I don't feel as if I ever wanted to taste food again." A shudder passed over him. And he covered his eyes, as if to shut some terrible image from his memory. "I must leave you now," said Freddie Firefly. "And please don't forget what you promised me. You remember that you said that if I'd show you a picture of Betsy Butterfly you would stop pestering me about her." "Don't worry about that!" Dusty Moth assured him bitterly. "I shall never mention Betsy Butterfly's name again. I don't want to think of her. But I'm afraid I can never, never get her face out of my mind.... I know--" he added--"I know I shall see it in my dreams. And just think how terrible it will be to wake at midday, out of a sound sleep, with her dreadful face and form haunting me!" Freddie Firefly couldn't help feeling sorry for the poor chap. But he could think of nothing to do, except to show him Betsy's portrait once more. So he started to raise the picture from the ground, where it still lay face downward. And the moment Dusty Moth saw what he was about he gave a frightful scream--and flew off into the night. "He's a queer one!" Freddie Firefly mused. "Now, I've always thought Betsy was a fine-looking----" Just then his eyes fell upon the picture for the first time. And Freddie Firefly's mouth fell open in astonishment. So amazed was he by what he saw that he tumbled right over backwards. And then, scrambling to his feet, he wrapped the rhubarb leaf hastily around the picture and slung it across his back again. "Jimmy Rabbit has made a terrible mistake!" he groaned, as he started for the duck pond. * * * * * Back at the meeting place once more, Freddie Firefly rushed up to Jimmy Rabbit in great excitement. "Do you know what you did?" he cried. "You brought me the wrong picture. And Dusty Moth has gone shrieking off into the darkness, he was so disappointed. This is not Betsy Butterfly's picture! It's some dreadful-looking caterpillar. And when I glanced at it just now, over in the orchard, it sent a chill all through me." For the time being Jimmy Rabbit said nothing. At first he had seemed quite upset. But before Freddie had finished speaking he had begun to smile. And then he unwrapped the picture once more and leaned it against a stone, where the moon's rays fell squarely upon it. "You're mistaken," he informed Freddie then. "This _is_ a picture of Betsy Butterfly. I painted it myself; and I ought to know. As I explained last night, I made it earlier in the summer; and as I said, she has changed somewhat in the meantime. But it's a very good likeness of her as she was once." "You mean--" gasped Freddie Firefly--"you mean that Betsy Butterfly was once an ugly caterpillar?" "Why, certainly!" said Jimmy Rabbit. "And so was Dusty Moth, for that matter. Yes! he was a caterpillar himself, once--and a much uglier one than Betsy, if only he knew it. "In fact," said Jimmy, looking at the picture with his head on one side, "as caterpillars go, Betsy Butterfly was a great beauty, even at so early an age." XXII THE SKIPPER IN Farmer Green's meadow there lived a very nervous person called the Skipper. He was a distant cousin of Betsy Butterfly's. And since the two were almost exactly the same age, they quite naturally spent a good deal of time together. The Skipper was of a dark, somber brown shade. And it always seemed to the gaily colored Betsy that he tried to make up for his dull appearance by being extremely lively in his movements. He was forever skipping suddenly from one place to another--a trick which had caused people to call him by so odd a name. Much as she liked this queer cousin, Betsy often found his uncertain habit somewhat annoying. It was not very pleasant, when talking to him, to discover that he had unexpectedly left her when she supposed he was right beside her, or behind her. If she had anything important to tell him she frequently had to hurry after him. And the worst of it was, once she had overtaken him she never knew when he would dart away again. As the summer lengthened it seemed to Betsy Butterfly that the Skipper grew more flighty than ever. Once she had been able to say a few words to him before he went swooping off. But now--now she could not even tell him that it was a nice day without following her cousin at least half an hour in order to finish her remark. "You're becoming terribly fidgety," Betsy told him at last. "If you don't look out you'll have nervous prostration--or I shall, if you don't stop jumping about like a jack-in-the-box. I advise you," she said, "to see a doctor before you get any worse." Of course, it must not be supposed that Betsy Butterfly could say all that to her cousin without going to a good deal of trouble. As a matter of fact, she had to follow him about the fields for two whole days and travel several miles before she succeeded in finishing what she wanted to say to him. "Why, I feel fine!" the Skipper cried. "I don't need a doctor. I----" He started to skip away from the wild morning-glory blossom on which he had perched himself. But Betsy caught him just in time--and held him. "Now, you listen to me!" she commanded. "You're in a dangerous condition. Some day someone will come to you with an important message. And if you go sailing off the way you do, how's he ever going to tell the whole message until it's too late, perhaps?" "If it was good news it wouldn't hurt it to keep it a while," the Skipper asserted cheerfully. And he gave a quick spring, with the hope of escaping from Betsy's grasp. But she held him firmly by the coat-tails. "Suppose I wanted to warn you not to go near the flower garden, because Johnnie Green was waiting there for you with his net, to capture you and put you in his collection? You might be sorry, afterwards, if you didn't sit still and listen to me." "That's so!" said the Skipper. "I hadn't thought of that. I'd see a doctor at once; but I don't know any." "Go to Aunt Polly Woodchuck, under the hill," Betsy Butterfly advised him. "She's the best doctor for miles around." So they went, together, to call on Aunt Polly. The old lady looked at the Skipper and shook her head. "I can't help him," she said. Betsy asked anxiously, "Is his trouble catching?" "No, indeed!" said Aunt Polly. "He can't stay in one place long enough to give it to anybody." Well, after that Betsy saw very little of her cousin the Skipper. But she did not mind that, especially since she soon made the acquaintance of a very agreeable young gentleman, who dressed in the height of fashion. He wore a swallowtail coat every day. And the neighbors all said that his manners were delightful. _He_ never went skipping off while Betsy Butterfly was talking to him. THE END * * * * * [Illustration] The HONEY BUNCH BOOKS _by_ HELEN LOUISE THORNDYKE _For Little Girls From 4 to 8 Years Old_ "Honey Bunch" is a dainty, thoughtful little girl who keeps you wondering just what she is going to do next. Little girls everywhere will want to discover what interesting experiences she is having wherever she goes. _Delightfully Illustrated_ HONEY BUNCH: JUST A LITTLE GIRL HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST VISIT TO THE CITY HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST DAYS ON THE FARM HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST VISIT TO THE SEASHORE HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST LITTLE GARDEN HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST DAYS IN CAMP HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST AUTO TOUR HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST TRIP ON THE OCEAN HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST TRIP WEST HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST SUMMER ON AN ISLAND HONEY BUNCH: HER FIRST TRIP IN AN AIRPLANE GROSSET & DUNLAP -:- _Publishers_ -:- NEW YORK 
33852	----	COLEMAN'S BRITISH BUTTERFLIES. A cheap Edition of this Work, in boards, with plain Illustrations is also published, price 1s. * * * * * BRITISH BUTTERFLIES * * * * * FIGURES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF EVERY NATIVE SPECIES WITH AN ACCOUNT OF BUTTERFLY DEVELOPMENT, STRUCTURE, HABITS, LOCALITIES, MODE OF CAPTURE, AND PRESERVATION BY W. S. COLEMAN AUTHOR OF "OUR WOODLANDS, HEATHS, AND HEDGES" _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_ PRINTED IN COLOURS BY EDMUND EVANS LONDON GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL GLASGOW, MANCHESTER, AND NEW YORK * * * * * UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME, WITH COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS. * * * * * COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE. By the Rev. J. G. WOOD. COMMON OBJECTS OF THE COUNTRY. By the Rev. J. G. WOOD. OUR WOODLANDS, HEATHS, and HEDGES. By W. S. COLEMAN. BRITISH BIRDS, EGGS, AND NESTS. By the Rev. J. C. ATKINSON. COMMON BRITISH MOTHS. By the Rev. J. G. WOOD. COMMON BRITISH BEETLES. By the Rev. J. G. WOOD. * * * * * {v} PREFACE. A desire to extend the knowledge of, and by so doing to extend the love for, those sunny creatures called Butterflies, has prompted the author to undertake this little work, which, though making no pretence to a technically scientific character, will, it is hoped, be found sufficiently complete and accurate to supply all information needful to the young entomologist as to the names, appearance, habits, localities, &c. of _all our British Butterflies_, together with a general history of butterfly life--the mode of capture, preservation, and arrangement in cabinets--the apparatus required, &c. At the same time it is so inexpensive as to be accessible to every schoolboy. The subject is one which has formed the delight and study of the author from early boyhood, and butterfly-hunting still preserves its fascinations, redoubling the pleasure of the country ramble in summer. {vi} Should this volume be the means of inciting some to seek this source of healthful enjoyment, and to join in the peaceful study which may be so easily pursued by all dwellers in the country, it will have succeeded in its purpose. The whole of the illustrative portraits of the _butterflies_ have been drawn from nature by the author, and with one exception from specimens in his own collection. At least one figure of each species (of the natural size) is given; but in very many instances, where the sexes differ considerably from each other, both are figured, and the under sides are also frequently added. The greater number of the _caterpillars_ and _chrysalides_, however, being rarely met with, the figures on the first plate are nearly all borrowed from the splendid and accurate works of Continental authors--chiefly from Hübner and Duponchel. With great pleasure, the author here acknowledges his obligations, for many biographical facts relating to butterflies, to those highly useful periodicals, the _Zoologist_ and the _Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer_, the former devoted to general natural history, the latter especially to entomology, and whose pages register a {vii} mass of interesting and original communications from correspondents who, living in wide-spread localities, and possessing varied opportunities of observation, have gradually brought together, under able editorship, a store of facts that could never have come within the _personal_ experience of any one man, however industrious and observant. The capture during the past year of a new and interesting butterfly for the first time in this country, is recorded in this volume, in which the insect is also figured and described. BAYSWATER, _April 1860_. * * * * * {1} BRITISH BUTTERFLIES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. WHAT IS A BUTTERFLY--BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS--BUTTERFLY LIFE--THE EGG STAGE--SCULPTURED CRADLES--BUTTERFLY BOTANY--THE CATERPILLAR STAGE--FEEDING UP--COAT CHANGING--FORMS OF CATERPILLARS--THE CHRYSALIS--MEANING OF PUPA, CHRYSALIS, AND AURELIA--FORMS OF CHRYSALIDES--DIFFICULTIES OF TRANSFORMATION--INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. Occasionally a missive arrives from some benevolent friend, announcing the capture of a "splendid butterfly," which, imprisoned under a tumbler, awaits one's acceptance as an addition to the cabinet. However, on going to claim the proffered prize, the expected "_butterfly_" turns out to be some bright-coloured _moth_ (a Tiger moth being the favourite victim of the misnomer), and one's entomological propriety suffers a shock; not so much feeling the loss of the specimen, as concern for the benighted state of an otherwise intelligent friend's mind with regard to insect nomenclature. {2} It is clearly therefore _not_ so superfluous as it might at first otherwise seem, to commence the subject by defining even such a familiar object as a _butterfly_, and more especially distinguishing it with certainty from a _moth_, the only other creature with which it can well be confounded. The usual notion of a butterfly is of a gay fluttering thing, whose broad painted wings are covered with a mealy stuff that comes off with handling. This is all very well for a general idea, but the characters that form it are common to some other insects besides butterflies. Moths and hawk-moths have mealy wings, and are often gaily coloured too; whilst, on the other hand, some butterflies are as dusky and plain as possible. Thus the crimson-winged Tiger, and Cinnabar _moths_ get the name of _butterflies_, and the Meadow brown _butterfly_ is as sure to be called a _moth_. So, as neither colouring nor mealy wings furnish us with the required definition, we must find some concise combination of characters that _will_ answer the purpose. _Butterflies, then, are insects with mealy wings, and whose horns (called "antennæ") have a clubbed or thickened tip, giving them more or less resemblance to a drum-stick._ So the difference in the shape of the _antennæ_ is the _chief_ outward mark of distinction between butterflies and moths, the latter having _antennæ_ of various shapes, threadlike or featherlike, but _never clubbed at the tip_. Having thus settled how a butterfly is to be recognized at sight, let us see what butterfly _life_ is: how the creature lives, and has lived, in the stages preceding its present airy form. [Illustration: I.] {3} In like manner with other insects, all butterflies commence their existence enclosed in minute _eggs_; and these eggs, as if shadowing forth the beauty yet undeveloped whose germ they contain, are themselves such curiously beautiful objects, that they must not be passed over without admiring notice. It seems, indeed, as if nature determined that the ornamental character of the butterfly should commence with its earliest stage; form, and not colour, being employed in its decoration, sculpture being here made the forerunner of painting. Some of these forms are roughly shown on Plate II. (figs. 1-7), but highly magnified; for as these eggs are really very tiny structures, such as would fall easily through a pin-hole, the aid of a microscope is of course necessary to render visible the delicate sculpture that adorns their surface. The egg (fig. 1, Plate II.) of the common Garden white butterfly (_Pieris Brassicæ_) is among the most graceful and interesting of these forms, and also the most easily obtained. It reminds us of some antique vessel, ribbed and fluted with consummate elegance and regularity. Others--such as those of the Large Heath butterfly (fig. 3), and the Queen of Spain Fritillary (fig. 2), simulate curious wicker-work baskets. The Peacock butterfly has an egg like a polygonal jar (fig. 4), while that of its near ally, the large Tortoise-shell (fig. 5), is simply pear-shaped, with the surface unsculptured and smooth {4} (fig. 5). The eggs of the Meadow Brown (fig. 6), and the Wood Argus (fig. 7), are globular--the former with lines on its surface like the meridian lines on a geographical globe, and a pretty scalloping at the top that gives a flower-like appearance to that portion; the latter has the whole surface honey-combed with a network of hexagonal cells. Such are a few of the devices that ornament the earliest cradle of the butterfly; but probably those of every species would well repay their examination to any one who possesses a microscope. Prompted by a most remarkable instinct, and one that could not have originated in any experience of personal advantage, the female butterfly, when seeking a depository for her eggs, selects with unerring certainty the very plant which, of all others, is best fitted for the support of her offspring, who, when hatched, find themselves surrounded with an abundant store of their proper food. Many a young botanist would be puzzled at first sight to tell a sloe-bush from a buckthorn-bush. Not so, however, with our Brimstone butterfly: passing by all the juicy hedge-plants, which look quite as suitable, one would think, she, with botanical acumen, fixes upon the buckthorn; either the common one, or, if that is not at hand, upon another species of rhamnus--the berry-bearing alder--which, though a very different looking plant, is of the same genus, and shares the same properties. She evidently works out the natural system of botany, and might have been a pupil of Jussieu, had she not been tutored by a far higher AUTHORITY. [Illustration: II.] {5} This display of instinct would seem far less wonderful did the mother butterfly herself feed on the plant she commits her eggs to. In that case, her choice might have appeared as the result of personal experience of some peculiar benefit or pleasure derived from the plant, and then this sentiment might have become hereditary; just as, for example, the acquired taste for game is hereditary with sporting dogs. Whereas the fact is, that a butterfly only occasionally, and as a matter of accident rather than rule, derives her own nectareous food from the flowers of the plant, whose leaves nourish her caterpillar progeny. So that this, as well as numberless other phenomena of instinct, remains a mystery to be admired, but not explained by any ordinary rule of cause and effect. Having thus efficiently provided, as far as board and lodging are concerned, for the welfare of the future brood, the mother seems to consider them settled for life, takes no further care of them, nor even awaits the opening of the sculptured caskets that contain their tiny life-germs; but, trusting them to the sun's warmth for their hatching, and then to their own hungry little instincts to teach them good use of the food placed within their reach, she sees them no more. But though abandoning her offspring to fate in this manner, it must not be imagined that the butterfly mother takes her pattern of maternity from certain {6} human mothers, and in a round of "butterfly's balls," and such like dissipations, forgets the sacred claims of the nursery. No, she has far other and better excuses for absenting herself from her family; one of which is, that she usually dies before the latter are hatched; and if that is not enough, that the young can get on quite as well without her; for probably she could not teach them much about caterpillar economics, unless, indeed, she remembered her own infantile habits of lang syne, so totally different from those of her perfected butterfly life. The space of time passed in the egg state varies much according to the temperature--from a few days when laid in genial summer weather, to several months in the case of those laid in the autumn, and which remain quiescent during the winter, to hatch out in the spring. The eggs of butterflies, in common with those of insects in general, are capable of resisting not only vicissitudes, but extremes of temperature that would be surely destructive of life in most other forms. The severest cold of an English winter will not kill the tender butterfly eggs, whose small internal spark of vitality is enough to keep them from freezing under a much greater degree of cold than they are ever subjected to in a state of nature. For example, they have been placed in an artificial freezing mixture, which brought down the thermometer to 22° below zero--a deadly chill--and yet they survived with apparent {7} impunity, and afterwards lived to hatch duly. Then as to their heat-resisting powers, some tropical insects habitually lay their eggs in sandy, sun-scorched places, where the hand cannot endure to remain a few moments; the heat rising daily to somewhere about 190° of the thermometer--and we know what a roasting one gets at 90° or so. Yet they thrive through all this. For a short time previous to hatching, the form and colour of the caterpillar is faintly discoverable through the semi-transparent egg-shell. The juvenile CATERPILLAR, or LARVA, gnaws his way through the shell into the world, and makes his appearance in the shape of a slender worm, exceedingly minute of course, and bearing few of the distinctive marks of his species, either as to shape or colouring. On finding himself at liberty, in the midst of plentiful good cheer, he at once falls vigorously to work at the great business of his life--_eating_; often making his first meal--oddly enough--off the egg-shell, lately his cradle. This singular relish, or digestive pill, swallowed, he addresses himself to the food that is to form the staple fare during the whole of his caterpillar existence--viz. the leaves of his food-plant, which at the same time is his home-plant too. At this stage his growth is marvellously rapid, and few creatures can equal him in the capacity for doubling his weight--not even the starved lodging-house "slavey," when she gets to her new place, with _carte blanche_ allowance and the key of the pantry; for, in the course {8} of twenty-four hours, he will have consumed more than twice his own weight of food: and with such persevering avidity does he ply his pleasant task, that, as it is stated, a caterpillar in the course of one month has increased nearly ten thousand times his original weight on leaving the egg; and, to furnish this increase of substance, has consumed the prodigious quantity of forty thousand times his weight of food--truly, a ruinous rate of living, only that green leaves are so cheap. But the life of a caterpillar, after all, is not merely the smooth continual feast he would doubtless prefer it to be; it is interrupted, several times in its course, by the necessity nature has imposed upon him of now and then changing his coat--to him a very troublesome, if not a painful affair. For some time previous to this phenomenon, even eating is nearly or quite suspended,--the caterpillar becomes sluggish and shy, creeping away into some more secluded spot, and there remaining till his time of trouble is over. Various twitchings and contortions of the body now testify to the _mal-aise_ of the creature in his old coat, which, though formed of a material capable of a moderate amount of stretching, soon becomes outgrown, and most uncomfortably tight-fitting, with such a quick-growing person inside it: so off it must come, but it being unprovided with buttons, there's the rub. However, with a great deal of fidgeting and shoulder-shrugging, he manages to tear his coat down the back, and lastly, by patient efforts, shuffles off the old rag; {9} when, lo! underneath is a lustrous new garment, somewhat similar, but not exactly a copy of the last, for our beau has his peculiar dress for each epoch of his life,--the most splendid being often reserved for the last. This change of dress ("_moulting_," it is sometimes called) is repeated thrice at least in the creature's life, but more generally five or six times. Not only does the outer husk come off at these times, but, wonderful to relate! the lining membrane of all the digestive passages, and of the larger breathing tubes, is cast off and renewed also. After each moult, the caterpillar makes up for his loss of time by eating more voraciously even than before, in many instances breaking his fast by making a meal of his "old clo'"--an odd taste, first evinced, as we have seen, in earliest infancy, when he swallowed his cradle. On Plate I. are shown the chief varieties of form taken by the caterpillars of our British butterflies, and a glance at these will give, better than verbal descriptions, a general idea of their characteristics. Their most usual shape is elongated and almost cylindrical, or slightly tapering at one or both ends. Of these, some are smooth, or only studded with short down or hairs; such are the caterpillars of the Swallow-tail butterfly (fig. 1), of the Brimstone (fig. 2), Clouded Yellows, and Garden, and other white butterflies. Others, of the same _general_ form, are beset with long branched spines, making perfect _chevaux-de-frise_; such {10} are those of the Peacock, Red Admiral, Painted Lady, and the Silvery Fritillaries. The caterpillars of another large section have the body considerably thicker in the middle (rolling-pin shaped), and the tail part two-forked, or _bifurcate_. This form belongs to the numerous family that includes the Meadow-brown (fig. 3), the Ringlets, and many others. The _bizarre_ personage, at fig. 4, turns to the graceful White Admiral butterfly. The Purple Emperor begins his royal career in the curious form shown at fig. 5--a shape unique among British butterflies, as beseems that of their sovereign; and he carries a coronet on his brow already. All those beautiful little butterflies called the Hair-streaks (fig. 9), the Blues (fig. 10), and the Coppers, have very short and fat caterpillars, that remind one forcibly of wood-lice--a shape shared also by that small butterfly with a big name, the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (fig. 8), an insect very distinct from the Fritillaries above mentioned with thorny caterpillars. The _legs of a caterpillar are usually sixteen in number_, and composed of two distinct kinds, viz. of _six true legs_, answering to those of the perfect insect, and placed on the foremost segments of the body; and of _ten_ others, called "_prolegs_;" temporary legs, used principally for strengthening the creature's hold upon leaf or branch. Like the rest of its body, the caterpillar's head widely {11} differs in structure from that of the perfect insect, being furnished with a pair of jaws, horny and strong, befitting the heavy work they have to get through, and shaped like pincers, opening and shutting from side to side, instead of working up and down after the manner of the jaws in vertebrate animals. This arrangement offers great convenience to the creature, feeding, as it is wont to do, on the thin edge of a leaf. It is a curious sight to watch a caterpillar thus engaged. Adhering by his close-clinging prolegs, and guiding the edge of the leaf between his forelegs, he stretches out his head as far as he can reach, and commences a series of rapid bites, at each nibble bringing the head nearer the legs, till they almost meet; then stretching out again the same regular set of mouthfuls is abstracted, and so on, repeating the process till a large semi-circular indentation is formed, reaching perhaps to the midrib of the leaf; then shifting his position to a new vantage ground, the marauder recommences operations, another sweep is taken out, then another, and soon the leaf is left a mere skeleton. But a change, far more important than mere skin-shifting, follows close upon the animal's caterpillar-maturity, complete as soon as it ceases to grow. The form and habits of a worm are to be exchanged for the glories and pleasures of winged life; but this can only be done at the price of passing through an intermediate state; one neither of eating, nor of flying, but motionless, helpless and death-like. {12} This is called the CHRYSALIS _or_ PUPA _state_. _Pupa_ is a Latin word, signifying a creature swathed, or tied up; and is applied to this stage of all insects, because all, or some, of their parts are then bound up, as if swathed. The term _Chrysalis_ is applicable to butterflies only, and, strictly, only to a few of these--_Chrysalis_[1] being derived from the Greek [Greek: chrusos] (_chrysos_), _gold_--in allusion to the splendid gilding of the surface in certain species, such as the _Vanessas_, Fritillaries, and some others. In the older works on entomology we frequently meet with the term _Aurelia_ applied to this state, and having the same meaning as chrysalis, but derived from the Latin word _Aurum_, gold. Here the reader is again referred to Plate I. for a series of the principal forms assumed by the chrysalides of our native butterflies, and as these for the most part represent the next stage of the caterpillars previously figured, an opportunity is afforded of tracing the insect's form through its three great changes; the whole of the butterflies in their perfect state being given in their proper places in the body of the work. [Illustration: III.] {13} The complicated and curious processes by which various caterpillars assume the chrysalis form, and suspend themselves securely in their proper attitudes, have been most accurately and laboriously chronicled by the French naturalist, Réaumur; but his memoirs on the subject, which have been frequently quoted into the larger entomological works, are too long for insertion here in full, and any considerable abbreviation would fail to convey a clear idea of the process, on account of the intricacy of the operations described. So I can only here allude to the difficult problems that the creature has to solve, referring the reader to the above-mentioned works for a detailed description of the manner of doing so; or, better still, I would recommend the country resident to witness all this with his own eyes. By keeping a number of the caterpillars of our common butterflies, feeding them up, and attentively watching them when full-grown, he will now and then detect one in the transformation act, and have an opportunity of wondering at the curious manoeuvres of the animal, as it triumphs over seeming impossibilities. By reference to the figures of chrysalides on Plate I. it will be seen that there are two distinct modes of suspension employed among them; one, by the tail only, the head hanging down freely in the air:--in the other, the tail is attached to the supporting object; but the head, instead of swinging loosely, is kept in an upright position by being looped round the waist with a silken girdle. To appreciate the difficulty of gaining either of the above positions, we must bear in mind that, before doing so, the caterpillar has to throw off its own skin, carrying with it the whole of its legs, and the jaws {14} too--leaving itself a mere limbless, and apparently helpless mass--its only prehensile organs being a few minute, almost imperceptible hooks on the end of the tail; and the required position of attachment and security is accomplished by a series of movements so dexterous and sleight-of-hand like, as to cause infinite astonishment to the looker-on, and, as Réaumur justly observes, "It is impossible not to wonder, that an insect, which executes them but once in its life, should execute them so well. We must necessarily conclude that it has been instructed by a GREAT MASTER; for He who has rendered it necessary for the insect to undergo this change, has likewise given it all the requisite means for accomplishing it in safety." If we examine a chrysalis we are able to make out, through the thin envelope, all the external organs of the body stowed away in the most orderly and compact manner. The antennæ are very conspicuous, folded down alongside of the legs; and precisely in the centre will be seen the tongue, unrolled and forming a straight line between the legs. The unexpanded wings are visible on each side--very small, but with all their veinings distinctly seen; and the breathing holes, called spiracles, are placed in a row on each side of the body. The duration of the chrysalis stage, like that of the egg, is extremely variable, and dependent on difference of temperature. As an instance of this, one of our common butterflies has been known to pass only seven {15} or eight days in the chrysalis state; this would be in the heat of summer. Then, in the spring, the change occupies a fortnight; but when the caterpillar enters the chrysalis state in the autumn, the butterfly does not make its appearance till the following spring. Furthermore, it has been proved by experiment, that if the condition of perpetual winter be kept up by keeping the chrysalis in an icehouse, its development may be retarded for two or three years beyond its proper time; while, on the other hand, if in the middle of winter the chrysalis be removed to a hothouse, the enclosed butterfly, mistaking the vivifying warmth for returning summer, makes its _début_ in ten days or a fortnight. * * * * * {16} CHAPTER II. "COMING OUT"--ICHNEUMONS--THE BUTTERFLY PERFECTED--ITS WINGS--LEPIDOPTERA--MEANING OF THE WORD--MICROSCOPIC VIEW--NEW BEAUTIES--MAGNIFIED "DUST"--THE HEAD AND ITS ORGANS--THE TONGUE--THE EYES--THE ANTENNÆ--THEIR USES--INSECT CLAIRVOYANCE--AN UNKNOWN SENSE--FORMS OF ANTENNÆ--THE LEGS. We now arrive at the last stage, the consummation of all this strange series of transformations; for veritable transformations they are to all intents and purposes; though some learned naturalists have discovered--or imagined so--that the butterfly, in all its parts, really lies hid under the caterpillar's skin, and can be distinguished under microscopical dissection; and that, therefore, the so-called transformations are merely the throwing off of the various envelopes or husks, as they become in turn superfluous, as a mountebank strips off garment after garment, till lastly the sparkling harlequin is discovered to view; or, in more exact language, they consider these changes in the light rather of successive developments and emancipations of the various organs than as their actual transformations. Still, it seems to me, the difference is chiefly one of terms. The real wondrous fact remains undiminished and {17} unexplained; that a creeping wormlike creature, in process of time, is changed into a glorious winged being, differing from the former in form, habits, food, and every essential particular, as widely as any two creatures can well differ, as widely as a serpent from a bird, for instance. As the imprisoned butterfly approaches maturity, a change is observable in the exterior of the chrysalis, the skin becomes dry and brittle, usually darkens in colour, and if the enclosed butterfly be a strongly marked one, the pattern of its wings shows through, often quite distinctly. When the fulness of time arrives, the creature breaks through its thin casings, which divide in several places, and the freed insect crawls up into some convenient spot to dry itself, and allow the wings to expand. All the organs are at first moist and tender, but on exposure to the air soon acquire strength and firmness. At the moment of emergence, the wings are very miniature affairs, sometimes hardly one-twentieth of their full size when expanded; but so rapid is their increase in volume, that they may actually be seen to grow, as the fluids from the body are pumped into the nervures that support the wing-membrane, and keep it extended. In the more strongly marked, or richly coloured species, it is a wonderfully beautiful sight to watch this expansion of the wings, and to see the various features {18} of their painted devices growing under the eye and developing gradually into their true proportions. Generally within an hour the development is complete, and the wings, having gained their full expanse and consistency by drying in the sun, are ready for flight, and the glad creature wings his way to the fields of air, and enters on that life of sunshine and hilarity which is associated with the very name of "_Butterfly_." But not every chrysalis arrives at this happy consummation of its existence. Supposing that you have reared and watched a caterpillar to apparently healthy maturity, that it has duly become a chrysalis, and you are awaiting its appearance in butterfly splendour--peeping into your box some morning to see if the bright expected one is "out," be not surprised if in its stead you find the box tenanted by a swarm of little black flies--an impish-looking crew. Whence came all these? Why they and the empty chrysalis shell are all that remains of your cherished prize; so look no more for the fair sunny butterfly, devoured ere born by that ill-favoured troop of darklings who have just now issued from the lifeless shell. The truth is, that long since, perhaps in early larva-hood, the creature's fate was sealed; a deadly enemy to his race is ever on the alert, winging about in the shape of a small black fly, in search of an exposed and defenceless caterpillar. Having selected her victim, she pierces his body with a sharp cutting instrument she is armed with, and in the wound deposits an egg; the {19} caterpillar winces a little at this treatment, but seems to attach little importance to it. Meanwhile his enemy repeats her thrusts till some thirty or forty eggs, germs of the destroyers, are safely lodged in his body, and his doom is certain beyond hope. The eggs quickly hatch into grubs, who begin to gnaw away at the unhappy creature's flesh, thus reducing him gradually, but by a profound instinct keeping clear of all the vital organs, as if knowing full well that the creature must keep on feeding and digesting too, or their own supply would speedily fail; as usurers, while draining a client, keep up his credit with the world as long as they can. Weaker grows the caterpillar as the gnawing worms within grow stronger and nearer maturity. Sometimes he dies a caterpillar, sometimes he has strength left to take the chrysalis shape, but out of this he _never_ comes a butterfly--the consuming grubs now finish vitals and all, turn to pupæ in his empty skin, and come out soon, black flies like their parent. But, supposing that it has escaped this great danger, we now see the creature in its completest form, as the IMAGO, OR PERFECT BUTTERFLY. The first term, _Imago_, is a Latin one, merely signifying an image, or distinct unveiled form; as distinguished from the previous _larva_, or masked state, and the _pupa_, or swathed and enveloped state. The word _imago_ then, in works on entomology, always means the {20} perfect and last stage of insect life, and is applied to all insects with wings--for it must be borne in mind that no insect is ever winged till it reaches the last stage of its existence. If the progressive development of these lovely beings is so marvellous, no less so is their structure when perfected, and of this some general description must now be attempted. In contemplating a butterfly, one feels that the mind is first engaged by that ample spread, and exquisite painting of the wings that form the creature's glory; let therefore these remarkable organs have our first attention. Wherein do these wings chiefly differ from all other insect wings? Certainly in being covered thickly with a variously coloured powdery material, easily removed by handling. This apparent dust is composed, in reality, of a vast number of regularly and beautifully formed _scales_--feathers they are sometimes called, but they are more comparable to fish scales than to any other kind of natural covering. The general term _Lepidoptera_, applied to _all_ butterflies and moths, is derived from these _scaly-wings_; _Lepis_[2] being the Greek for a _scale_, and _ptera_ meaning _wings_ in the same language. The use of a tolerably powerful pocket lens will afford _some_ insight into the exquisite mode of painting {21} employed in these matchless pieces of decoration; but the possessor of a regular microscope may, by applying it to some of our commonest butterflies, open for himself a world of beauty, and feast his eyes on a combination of refined sculpture with splendour of colouring; now melting in softest harmony, then relieved by boldest contrast--a spectacle, the first sight of which seldom fails to call forth expressions of wonderment and warm delight; and, truly, little to be envied is the mind untouched by such utter beauty as here displayed. As an example of the method by which this admirable effect is produced, let us take a small portion of the wing of the Peacock, a very beautiful, though an abundant species, and one admirably adapted for microscopic examination, and to illustrate the subject, from the great variety of rich tints brought together in a small space, the part selected being the eye-like spot at the outer corner of each upper wing. Even to the naked eye this appears as a very splendidly coloured object, yet but little of its exquisite mechanism can be discovered by the unassisted organ. Something more is brought out by a moderately strong lens: we then see the colours disposed in rows, reminding us of the surface of Brussels carpet, or of certain kinds of tapestry work. Now let us place the wing on the stage of a good microscope, with the root of the wing pointing towards the light (that is the best position for it); we shall then first perceive that the whole surface is covered, or, so to {22} speak, tiled over with distinct, sharply cut _scales_, arranged as in fig. 16, Plate II., with the outer or free edges of one row overlapping the roots of the next. These roots being all planted towards the base of the wing, if we place that end next the light (as above directed), the free edges of the scales throw a strong shadow on the next row, which brings out the imbricated effect most strikingly. Beginning our observations at the outer edge of the wing, we first notice a delicate fringe of scales or plumes, more elongated and pointed than the surface scales, and of a quiet brown colour. This tint is continued inwards for a short space, gradually lightening, when (as we shift the field of view towards the centre of the wing) the colour of the scales suddenly changes to an intense black; then a little further, and the black ground is all spangled with glittering sapphires, then strewed deep with amethyst round a heap of whitest pearls. Golden topaz--(jewels only will furnish apt terms of comparison for these insect gems)--golden topaz ends the bright many-coloured crescent, and in the centre is enclosed a spot of profoundest black, gradating into a rich unnameable red, whose velvet depth and softness contrast deliciously with the adjacent flashing lustre; then comes another field of velvet black, then more gold, and so on till the gorgeous picture is complete. Subject a piece of finest human painting to the scrutiny of a strong magnifying glass, and where is the beauty thereof? Far from being magnified, it will have wholly vanished: its cleverest touches turned to coarse, repulsive daubs and stains. [Illustration: IV.] {23} Now, bring the microscope's most searching powers to bear upon the painting of an insect's wing, and we find only pictures within pictures as the powers increase; the very pigments used turn out to be jewels, not rough uncut stones, but cut and graven gems, bedded in softest velvet. If by gentle rubbing with the finger-tip the scales be removed from both sides of the wing (for each side is scale-covered, though generally with a very different pattern), there remains a transparent membrane like that of a bee's or fly's wing, tight stretched between stiff branching veins, but bearing no vestige of its late gay painting, thus showing that the whole of the colouring resides in the scales, the places occupied by the roots of the latter being marked by rows of dots. Hitherto we have been looking at these scales as the component parts of a picture, like the _tesseræ_ of mosaic work; but they are no less interesting as individual objects, when viewed microscopically. To do this, delicately rub off a little of the dust or scales with the finger; then take a slip of glass, and pressing the finger with the adhering dust upon it, the latter will come off and remain on the glass, which is then to be placed under the microscope. These scales may be treated either as opaque or transparent objects, and in both conditions display exceeding beauty, some of these single atoms showing, by aid of the microscope, as {24} much complexity of structure as the whole wing does to the unassisted vision. A few of the highly varied forms they present are shown on Plate II. Figs. 23 to 38 are selected from among the commoner forms, as seen by a comparatively low power. The small stalk-like appendage is the part by which the scale is affixed to the wing: it may be called the root. Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, show some very remarkable forms, which are, so far as has been ascertained, peculiar to butterflies of the _male_ sex, though the use or reason of this masculine badge, only visible to highly magnifying optics, is neither known nor probably to be known at present; but singularly beautiful and curious they are to look at. The little balls at the end of threads are the root portion, and fit into cup-like sockets, placed here and there among the ordinary scales. The surface of these scales is beautifully ribbed and cross-ribbed, and at the upper end is a plume-like tuft of delicate filaments. The curious scale aptly called, from its shape, the Battledore scale, and shown at fig. 22, also belongs to the male of various butterflies, especially those pretty little ones known as the "Blues." Its surface is most curiously ornamented with rows of bead-like prominences. Probably one would imagine that in such wee specks as are these scales, one single layer of substance would suffice for their whole thickness (if we can talk of _thick_ness, with objects almost immeasurable in their _thin_ness). But such is not the case, for when scales have {25} been injured by rubbing we now and then find a part with the sculptured surfaces torn off on each side, showing a plain central layer, so that at least three layers--two ornamented and one plain--go to form a filmy body, only a small fraction of the thickness of paper. But there are other portions of a butterfly to claim our interest besides its wondrous wings. On the creature's head are grouped together some most beautiful and important organs. The most peculiar of these is the long spiral "sucker," which extracts the honied food from the blossoms to which its wings so gracefully waft it. This organ is shown, slightly magnified, at fig. 8, Plate II., and a most delicate piece of animal mechanism it is. Any human workman would, to a certainty, be not only puzzled, but thoroughly beaten, in an attempt to construct a tube little thicker than a horse-hair, yet composed throughout its length of two distinct pieces, capable of being separated at pleasure, and then joined again so as to form an air-tight tube. This redoubtable problem, however, is solved in the construction of this curious little instrument that every butterfly carries. The junction of the two grooved surfaces that form the tube is effected by the same contrivance that reunites the web of a feather when it has been pulled apart. We all know how completely it is made whole again, and on examining by what means this result is brought about, we find that it is by the interlacing of a {26} number of small fibres or hairs, just as, on a larger scale, a pair of brushes adhere when pressed face to face; and so in the butterfly's sucker, the two edges that join to form the tube are closely set with minute bristles that, when brought together, interlock so closely as to make an air-tight surface. Fig. 9, Plate II., is a transverse section taken near the base of the sucker, the small opening at the top being the food passage, those at the side the air-tubes that supply air for respiration and perhaps assist in suction. The tube is probably made with separable parts in order that if its interior should become at any time clogged by grosser particles drawn up with the flower nectar, it may be opened and cleansed by the insect; otherwise, the tube once rendered impassable, the insect would speedily starve, as this narrow channel is the only inlet for the creature's nourishment--its only mouth, in fact, for no butterfly possesses jaws to bite with, or can take any but the liquid food pumped up by suction through this pipe. At the end of the proboscis--or, as it is called scientifically, the Haustellum[3]--there are visible in some butterflies a number of small projections, of the form shown at fig. 10, Plate II., which is a highly magnified figure of the end of the Red Admiral's proboscis. These appendages are generally supposed to be organs of taste, {27} and to aid in the discrimination of food when the pipe is unrolled and thrust down deep into the nectary of a flower. The _compound eye_ of a butterfly, wonderful as its structure is, does not greatly differ from that of many other insects, being like them composed of an immense number of little lenses set together to form a hemisphere large in comparison with the insect's head. A portion of one of these eyes forms a pretty and interesting object for the microscope, presenting a honey-comb appearance, the hexagonal lines that mark the division of the lenses being most beautifully geometrical and regular in their arrangement. More than seventeen hundred of these lenses have been counted in a single eye, and each of these is considered to possess the qualities of a complete and independent eye. If this be true, the butterfly may be said to be endowed with at least thirty-four thousand eyes! There exist also, as in other insects, _two simple_ eyes, placed on the top of the head, but so buried in down and scales as to be neither visible, nor useful for vision as far as we can perceive; probably the creature finds that his allowance of thirty-four thousand windows to his soul lets in as much light as he requires. Every one looking at a butterfly must have remarked its long horns, called _antennæ_,[4] which project from above the eyes, like jointed threads, thickening--in some {28} species gradually, in others suddenly--into a club or knob at the extremity; a peculiarity which, it will be remembered, was pointed out at the commencement, as a prominent mark of distinction between butterflies and moths. Very graceful appendages are these waving _antennæ_, and evidently of high importance to their owner; but still, their exact office or function is unknown, notwithstanding that many guesses and experiments have been made with a view of settling that question. Investigators have perhaps erred, by assuming at the outset that these antennæ _must_ be organs of some sense that we ourselves possess; whereas, I think that there is much evidence to show that insects are gifted with a certain subtle sense, for which we have no name, and of which we can have as little real idea, as we could have had of the faculty of sight, had all the world been born blind. For example; if you breed from the chrysalis a female Kentish Glory Moth, and then immediately take her--in a closed box, mind--out into her native woods, within a short space of time an actual crowd of male "Glories" come and fasten upon, or hover over, the prison-house of the coveted maiden. Without this magic attraction, you might walk in these same woods for a whole day and not see a single specimen, the Kentish Glory being generally reputed a very rare moth; while as many as some 120 males have been thus decoyed to their capture in a few hours, by the charms of a couple of lady "Glories," shut up in a box. [Illustration: V.] {29} Now, which of our five senses, I would ask--even if developed into extraordinary acuteness in the insect--would account for such an exhibition of clairvoyance as this? May not, then, this undiscovered sense, whatever may be its nature, reside in the antennæ? for it is a remarkable fact, that the very moths, such as the Eggers, the Emperor, the Kentish Glory, &c., which display the above-mentioned phenomenon most signally, have the _antennæ in the males_ amplified with numerous spreading branches, so as to present an unusually large sensitive surface. This seems to point to some connexion between those organs and the faculty of discovering the presence, and even the condition, of one of their own race, with more, perhaps, than a mile of distance, and the sides of a wooden box, intervening between themselves and their object. Whilst writing this, the current number of the "Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer" has arrived, and I there read that Dr. Clemmens, an American naturalist, has been lately experimenting on the antennæ of some large American moths, for the purpose of gaining some information as to their function. The article, though very interesting, is too long for quotation here; but it appears that with the moths in question, a deprivation of the whole, or even part of the antennæ, interferes with, or entirely annihilates the power {30} of flight, so that the creature when thus shorn, but not otherwise injured, if thrown into the air seems to have no idea of using his wings properly, but with a purposeless flutter tumbles headlong to the earth. Still this merely goes to prove that the antennæ are the instruments of some important sense, one of whose uses is to guide the creature's flight; but as many wingless insects have large antennæ, this evidently is not their only function. The antennæ are also often styled the "feelers;" but with our present incomplete knowledge of their nature, the former term is preferable, as it does not attempt to define their use as the word "feelers" does. Considerable variety of form exists in the clubbed tip of the antennæ in various butterflies, as will be seen by reference to Plate II., where three of the most distinct forms are shown considerably magnified. Fig. 12 is the upper part of the antenna of the High-brown Fritillary (_Argynnis Adippe_), the end suddenly swelling into a distinct knob. Fig. 13 is that of the Swallow-tail Butterfly (_Papilio Machaon_), the enlargement here being more gradual; and fig. 14 is that of the Large Skipper Butterfly (_Pamphila Sylvanus_), distinguished by the curved point that surmounts the club. These differences in the forms of the antennæ are found to be excellent aids in the classification of butterflies, and I shall therefore have occasion to refer to them more minutely in describing the insects in detail. The stems of these organs are found to be tubular, {31} and at the point of junction with the head the base is spread out (as shown at fig. 15), forming what engineers call a "flange," to afford sufficient support for the long column above. The _legs_ are the last portions of the butterfly framework that require especial notice, on account of a peculiar variation they are subject to in different family groups. It may be laid down as an axiom, that _all true insects have six legs_, in one shape or another; and butterflies, being insects, are obedient to the same universal rule, and duly grow their half-dozen legs; but in certain tribes the front pair, for no apparent reason, are so short and imperfect as to be totally useless for walking purposes, though they may possibly be used as hands for polishing up the proboscis, &c. So the butterfly in this case _appears_, to a hasty observer, to have only _four_ legs. This peculiarity is a constant feature in several natural groups of butterflies, and therefore, in conjunction with other marks, such as the veining of the wings and the shape of the antennæ, its presence or absence is a most useful mark of distinction, in classifying or searching out the name and systematic place of a butterfly. * * * * * {32} CHAPTER III. WHAT BUTTERFLIES NEVER DO--GROUNDLESS TERROR--A MISTAKE--USES OF BUTTERFLIES--MORAL OF BUTTERFLY LIFE--PSYCHE--THE BUTTERFLY AN EMBLEM OF THE SOUL--THE ARTIST AND THE BUTTERFLY. Among the _negative_ attributes of butterflies, I may state positively, that _no butterfly whatever can either sting or bite in the least degree_; and from their total harmlessness towards the person of man, conjoined with their outward attractiveness, they merit and enjoy an exemption from those feelings of dread and disgust that attach to many, or, I may say, to almost all other tribes of insects; even to their equally harmless near relatives the larger moths. At least, it has never been my misfortune to meet with a person weak-minded enough to be afraid of a butterfly, though I have seen some exhibit symptoms of the greatest terror at the proximity of a large Hawk-moth, and some of the thick-bodied common moths--"Match-owlets," the country folk call them. Once, also, I listened to the grave recital--by a classical scholar too--of a murderous onslaught made by a Privet Hawk-moth on the neck of a lady, and how it "_bit a piece clean out_." Of course I attempted to prove, by what seemed to me very fair logic, that the {33} moth, having neither teeth nor even any mouth capable of opening, but only a weak hollow tongue to suck honey through, was utterly incapable of biting or inflicting any wound whatever. But, as is usual in such cases, my entomological theory went for nothing in face of the gentleman's knock-down battery of _facts_--_ocular_ facts; he had _seen_ the _moth_, and he had _seen_ the _wound_: surely, there was proof enough for me, or any one else. So, I suppose, he steadfastly believes to this day, that the moth was a truculent, bloodthirsty monster; whilst I still presume to believe, that if any wound was caused at the moment in question, it was by the nails of the lady attacked, or her friends, in clutching frantically at the terrific intruder; who, poor fellow, might have been pardoned for mistaking the fair neck for one of his favourite flowers (a _lily_, perhaps), while the utmost harm he contemplated was to pilfer a sip of nectar from the lips he doubtless took for rosebuds. Utilitarians may, perhaps, inquire the _uses_ of butterflies--what they do, make, or can be sold for; and I must confess that my little favourites neither make anything to wear, like the silkworm, nor anything to eat, like the honey-bee, nor are their bodies saleable by the ton, like the cochineal insects, and that, commercially speaking, they are just worth nothing at all, excepting the few paltry pence or shillings that the dealer gets for their little dried bodies occasionally; so they are of no more use than poetry, painting, and music--than flowers, rainbows, and all such {34} unbusinesslike things. In fact, I have nothing to say in the butterfly's favour, except that it is a joy to the deep-minded and to the simple-hearted, to the sage, and, still better, to the child--that it gives an earnest of a better world, not vaguely and generally, as does every "thing of beauty," but with clearest aim and purpose, through one of the most strikingly perfect and beautiful analogies that we can find throughout that vast Creation, where-- "All animals are living hieroglyphs."[5] The butterfly, then, in its own progressive stages of caterpillar, chrysalis, and perfect insect, is an emblem of the human soul's progress through earthly life and death, to heavenly life. Even the ancient Greeks, with their imperfect lights, recognised this truth, when they gave the same name, Psyche ([Greek: Psuchê]), to the soul, or spirit of life, and to the butterfly, and sculptured over the effigy of one dead the figure of a butterfly, floating away, as it were, in his breath; while poets of all nations have since followed up the simile. And this analogy is not only a mere general resemblance, but holds good through its minute details to a marvellous extent; to trace which fully would require volumes, while in this place the slightest sketch only can be given. First, there is the grovelling caterpillar-state, {35} emblematical of our present imperfection, but yet the state of preparation and increase towards perfection, and that, too, which largely influences the future existence. Many troubles and changes are the lot of the caterpillar. Repeated skin-shiftings and ceaseless industry in his vocation are necessary, that within his set time he may attain full growth and vigour. Then comes a mighty change: the caterpillar is to exchange his worm-like form and nature for an existence unspeakably higher and better. But, as we have seen, to arrive at this glory there is only one condition, which is, that the creature must pass through another, and, as it might seem, a gloomy state--one anything but cheerful to contemplate; for it must cease to eat, to move, and--_to the eye_--_to live_. Yet, is it really dead now, or do we, who have watched the creature thus far, despair and call it lost? Do we not rather rejoice that it rests from its labours, and that the period of its glorification is at hand? In the silent chrysalis state then our _Psyche_ sleeps away awhile, unaffected by the vicissitudes around it; and, at last, when its appointed day arrives, bursts from its cerements, and rises in the air a winged and joyous being, to meet the sun which warmed it into new life. Now it is a _butterfly_,--bright emblem of pleasure unalloyed. This happy consummation, however, is only for the chrysalis which has not within it the devouring worm, the fruit of the ichneumon's egg, harboured during the {36} caterpillar state--and emblem, in the human soul, of some deadly sin yielded to during life, and which afterwards becomes the gnawing "worm that dieth not." For in this case, instead of the bright butterfly, there issues forth from the chrysalis-shell only a swarm of black, ill-favoured flies, like a troop of evil spirits coming from their feast on a fallen soul. If a caterpillar were gifted with a foreknowledge of his butterfly future, so far transcending his inglorious present, we could imagine that he would be only impatient to get through his caterpillar duties, and rejoice to enter the chrysalis state as soon as he was fitted for it. How short-sighted then would a caterpillar appear who should endeavour, while in that shape, to emulate the splendour of the butterfly by some wretched temporary substitute, adding a few more, or brighter stripes than nature had given it; or, again, if one whose great change was drawing near, should attempt to conceal its visible approach by painting over the fading hues of health, and plastering up the wrinkles of its outward covering, so soon to be thrown off altogether; instead of striving for inward strength and beauty, which would never decline, but be infinitely expanded in the butterfly--and regarding the earthly beauty's wane as the dawn of the celestial. [Illustration: VI.] {37} With these and similar reflections before us (which might be multiplied _ad infinitum_), we shall no longer look upon the caterpillar as a mere unsightly and troublesome reptile, the chrysalis as an unintelligible curiosity, and the butterfly as a pretty painted thing and nothing more; but regard them as _together_ forming one of those beautiful and striking illustrations with which the book of Nature has been so profusely enriched by its GREAT AUTHOR; not to be taken as _substitutes_ for His revealed Word, but as harmonious adjuncts, bringing its great truths more home to our understandings, just as the engravings in a book are not designed as substitutes for the text, but to elucidate and strengthen the ideas in the reader's mind. While the poet draws from the butterfly many a pleasant similitude, and the moralist many a solemn teaching, the artist (who should be poet and moralist too) dwells upon these beings with fondest delight, finding in them images of joy and life when seen at large in the landscape, and rich stores of colour-lessons when studied at home in the cabinet. The owners of many a name great in the arts have been enthusiastic collectors of butterflies. Our distinguished countryman, Thomas Stothard, was one of their devotees, and the following anecdote, extracted from his published life, shows how he was led to make them his special study:-- "He was beginning to paint the figure of a reclining sylph, when a difficulty arose in his own mind how best to represent such a being of fancy. A friend who was present said, 'Give the sylph a butterfly's wing, and then you have it.' 'That I will,' exclaimed Stothard; 'and to be correct I will paint the wing {38} from the butterfly itself.' He sallied forth, extended his walk to the fields, some miles distant, and caught one of those beautiful insects; it was of the species called the Peacock. Our artist brought it carefully home, and commenced sketching it, but not in the painting room; and leaving it on the table, a servant swept the pretty little creature away, before its portrait was finished. On learning his loss, away went Stothard once more to the fields to seek another butterfly. But at this time one of the tortoise-shell tribe crossed his path, and was secured. He was astonished at the combination of colour that presented itself to him in this small but exquisite work of the Creator, and from that moment determined to enter on a new and difficult field--the study of the insect department of Natural History. He became a hunter of butterflies. The more he caught, the greater beauty did he trace in their infinite variety, and he would often say that no one knew what he owed to these insects--they had taught him the finest combinations in that difficult branch of art--colouring." The above doubtless has its parallel in the experience of many artistic minds, whose very nature it is to appreciate to the full the perfections set forth in a butterfly, admiring-- "The velvet nap which on his wings doth lie, The silken down with which his back is dight, His broad outstretched horns, his airy thigh, His glorious colours and his glistening eye." SPENSER. * * * * * {39} CHAPTER IV. BUTTERFLIES IN THE CABINET--HOW TO CATCH THEM--APPARATUS--GOING OUT--WEATHER--LOCALITIES--LOCAL BUTTERFLIES--INCOGNITOS--FIELD WORK--FAVOURITE STATIONS--BEWARE OF THE BRAMBLE. The mention of butterflies "in the cabinet" leads at once to the question, how to get them there; or, in other words, HOW TO CATCH A BUTTERFLY. This is a question often less difficult to answer in words than in action, for many of our butterflies are gifted not only with strong prejudices against the inside of a net, but with very strong powers of escaping from that unpleasant situation. Still, by aid of proper apparatus, a sure eye and hand, and often, of a good pair of legs, there is no butterfly, however fleet and wary, that we may not feel ourselves a tolerable match for. Firstly, then, as to the out-door apparatus required. This is simple enough, a _net_ and _pocket-boxes_, with a few _pins_, being the only essentials.[6] {40} Variously constructed nets are used, according to fancy, but the choice may lie between two chief forms: the _Clap-net_ and the _Ring-net_. [Illustration] The former certainly gives more power in a fair chase, but the latter has the advantage of being the {41} lighter, more portable, and less conspicuous of the two. Both of these instruments are shown in the accompanying figures. The clap-net (fig. 1) usually has the sticks that compose the framework made each in three separate pieces, joined by ferrules--a couple of light fishing-rods will do excellently, a piece of bent cane being substituted for the top joint. The manner in which the gauze is extended between, and fitted on, these rods will be sufficiently obvious on looking at the cut, which represents the net half open. In taking an insect, one handle is held in each hand, the net opened wide, and thrown over, or made to intercept the insect, when, by suddenly closing the handles together, a closed bag is made, and the little prisoner is secured. [Illustration] The ring-net (fig. 2), which is the implement most generally in vogue, may be constructed in several ways. The cheapest, and at the same time a highly serviceable one, is made by getting from a tinman a tin "socket" of this form, the larger end fitting on to the end of a straight stick, and the two smaller tubes receiving the ends of a hoop of cane, which carries the net, it being passed through a loose hem round the top of the latter. The cane, taken out of the socket, can be rolled up closely with the net and carried in the pocket to the scene of action, while the handle may be a strong common walking-stick, a {42} most useful auxiliary in getting across country, and thus this net becomes really no incumbrance to the tourist, who may have other matters in hand besides butterfly hunting--perhaps sketching and botanizing--when the larger clap-net becomes quite embarrassing. Another form of this net has the ring made of _metal_, and _jointed_ in several places, so as to fold within a small pocketable compass, and arranged to screw into a brass socket on the top of the stick. This is a very commendable net--not so easily home-made as the last, certainly, but it can be readily procured complete from the London dealers (or "naturalists," as they style themselves). A net that has been a good deal used of late opens and shuts on the umbrella principle, and with the same celerity, forming a ring-net when open--when shut going into a case like that of an umbrella. Some entomologists, nervously sensitive to public opinion, are, however, somewhat shy of sporting these umbrella nets, for should rain perchance come down while he is on the road, the villagers may be astonished at the insane spectacle of a man scuttling along through the torrent and getting drenched through, while he carries a good-looking umbrella carefully under his arm for fear it should get wet; and if, on the other hand, the weather be fine, the carrying such a protective would seem an equally eccentric whim. But only the _very_ thin-skinned would be driven from the use of a good weapon by such a harmless contingency as I have here supposed. {43} Other necessary equipments for the fly-catcher are two or three _light wooden boxes_, as large as can conveniently be carried in the pockets, and having either the bottom, or, if deep enough, both bottom and top lined with a layer of _cork_, about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. A pin-cushion, well furnished with _entomological pins_, should also be carried, and will be found to be most accessible when suspended by a loop and button (or otherwise) inside the breast of the coat. The pins here mentioned, which are an important item among butterfly-collecting requisites, are of a peculiar manufacture--very small-headed, long and thin, but strong. Any good London dealer will supply them on application, or send them by post into the country. Armed with the above simple _paraphernalia_, viz. net to catch, boxes and pins to contain and detain, the insect hunter may sally forth on any fine summer's day, with a pretty sure prospect of sport, and the chance, at least, of a prize. Much depends, however, on the choice of a day, and the nature of the locality that is to form the hunting ground. As to weather, it must be remembered that winged insects have a great objection to face a north, or north-east wind, during the prevalence of which you will probably find hardly one stirring, however prolific the locality may at other times be. Butterflies, as a rule, do not appear to be at all {44} influenced by an eye for the picturesque and romantic in the choice of their favourite haunts. Often have I been disappointed in this way, finding a delicious spot, basking in sunshine, and bedight with all manner of flowers such as a butterfly loves, yet with scarcely a stray butterfly to enliven it; while, on the other hand, a piece of the most unpromising flat waste land will be all alive with insect beauty. Those, for example, who would see those splendid creatures, the Swallow-tail butterfly and the large Copper (if this exists with us at all now), must go to the dreary fen districts that form their almost exclusive haunts. It is, in fact, very hard to say what influences bring a swarm of butterflies together, to populate one particular spot, to the utter neglect of others close at hand, and, to all appearance, just as eligible. Some species are most remarkable for their excessive _localness_ (as it is called), or, limiting their range to an exceedingly small circumscribed space; so much so, that some rare species have been known to haunt just one corner of one particular field, year after year, while not a single specimen could be found in all the neighbouring fields, though precisely similar, to all appearance. This phenomenon is quite inexplicable with regard to insects endowed so pre-eminently with locomotive powers as butterflies are. The local nature of his game should, however, induce the collector to leave no nook or corner unexplored when he is "working" a district; as the passing over (or rather, neglecting to _pass over_) a single field may lose him the very species it would joy him most to find. [Illustration: VII.] {45} I would also advise the beginner--and, indeed, all but the very experienced hands--to catch, not necessarily for slaughter, but for inspection, every attainable individual whose species he cannot positively declare to when on the wing, lest he pass by some rarities unawares. Thus the valued Queen of Spain, and the much-disputed _Dia_ Fritillaries, the _Melitæas_, the Brown Hair-streak, and (on the mountains) the rare _Erebias_, perhaps some new to this country,--any of these might be mistaken by a novice for some of the commoner brown species. Among the "Whites," too, the Black-veined White, that great prize, the Bath White, and the white varieties of the Clouded Yellow and Clouded Sulphur, might share the same fate, or fortune rather, of being reckoned as "Cabbage Whites." Then, with the "Blues." Who is there that could at once distinguish with certainty the very rare Mazarine Blue (_P. Acis_) from the common Blues when on the wing? Perhaps it would turn out to be less rare than supposed, if all the Blues in a fresh locality were netted as they came near, and set at liberty after passing muster. Why, only last season a very curious Blue,[7] never before observed in this country, was captured near {46} Brighton by a collector, who, at the moment, thought it was only a Common Blue, so precisely similar did it look when flying. As to the manipulation of the net, it will be better to leave the young collector to find that out for himself, which, if he has the use of his hands, he will quickly do when he gets into the field. He will soon perceive that with most of the swifter butterflies, it is of no use to make a rush at them. A surprise answers better than a charge; for they easily take alarm at open violence, and then go off straight ahead at a pace that renders pursuit, over bad ground especially, most trying, if not hopeless work. So the "_suaviter in modo_" principle is best here as elsewhere:--gently follow up and watch your butterfly till he pauses over or settles upon a flower, or whatever it may be; then, with caution, you can generally come within striking distance without giving alarm, and one vigorous, well-aimed stroke usually settles the matter; if, after that, he is outside of your net instead of in, you will find it a difficult matter to get another chance, at least, with most of the larger and strong-flying kinds. But there is much diversity of disposition among these creatures, and some are unscared by repeated attacks. These points of character the collector will soon learn when he has been among these lively little people for a season. The different species have also their own favourite positions, on which they delight to perch. Thus the Clouded Yellow loves the low flowers of {47} the railway-bank and the down; often seen toying with a breeze-rocked flower as yellow-coated as himself, as though he had mistaken it, in its fluttering, for one of his mates. Then the Peacock and Red Admiral are attached to several plants of the composite order, such as the thistles, teazle, and above all (as far as I have observed), to that fine, stalwart plant that frequently abounds in thickets, &c., and known as Hemp Agrimony (_Eupatorium cannabinum_). I seldom, at the proper season, visit a clump of this growing in a sunny opening, without finding, besides a store of other insects, one or both of these grand butterflies enthroned on the ample purplish flower-heads, and _fanning_ their gorgeous wings, after the custom of their genus, then launching into the air, and, after a few circling evolutions in that element, returning to the self-same flower-heads, their chosen seats. Both of these flies are easily captured when in this position, as they allow a near approach, and can be without hindrance swept off by a rapid side-stroke of the net. The glorious Purple Emperor is celebrated for his predilection for a throne on the oak, though some other lofty trees, such as the ash, are occasionally honoured by the imperial presence; but his habits and _locale_ will be referred to more particularly hereafter. That lovely butterfly, the Silver-washed Fritillary, has a _penchant_ for settling on the bramble, which {48} justifies the preference by proving itself the insect's best friend; but withal a most provoking opponent to his would-be captor, who may get him safely within the net's mouth at the first stroke, when, ten to one, the trusty bramble-hooks clutch into the gauze, and effectually prevent the quick turn of the net that should close it, while the prisoner, seeing his chance, darts out with a sharp rustle that one's irritated feelings easily interpret into a derisive laugh. But experience will in time teach the fly-catcher the required adroitness to avoid this humiliating defeat. * * * * * {49} CHAPTER V. HOW TO KILL A BUTTERFLY--AN APOLOGY--A TEST FOR LUNACY--CHARGE OF CRUELTY AGAINST ENTOMOLOGISTS--THEIR JUSTIFICATION ATTEMPTED--PAINLESS DEATH--CHLOROFORM--SETTING BUTTERFLIES--CABINETS AND STORE BOXES--CLASSIFICATION--LATIN NAMES--SAVING TIME AND MONEY. Having complied with the old adage, "First catch your hare," the next point naturally is--how to cook it. So, having caught our butterfly, what are we to do with him?--a question that generally resolves itself firstly into HOW TO KILL A BUTTERFLY. This truculent sentence may, I fear, look like a blot on the page to some tender-hearted reader, and, in truth, this killing business is the one shadow on the otherwise sunshiny picture, which we would all gladly leave out, were it possible to preserve a butterfly's beauty alive; but this cannot be done, and yet we have made up our minds to possess that beauty--to collect butterflies, in short; there is but one way for it, and so a butterfly's pleasure must be shortened for a few {50} days, to add to our pleasure and instruction, perhaps for years after. In the time of the great Ray, in such mean repute was the science of entomology held, mainly, I believe, on account of the _small size_ of its objects, that an action at law was brought to set aside the will of an estimable woman, Lady Glanville, on the ground of _insanity_, the only symptom of which that they could bring forward in evidence was her _fondness for collecting insects_! But this was some two centuries ago, and matters have greatly mended for the entomologist since then. Now he may collect butterflies, or other flies, as he pleases, without bringing down a commission "_de lunatico_" on his _head_, but still the goodness of his _heart_ is sometimes called in question, and he has to encounter the equally obnoxious charge of _cruelty_ to the objects of his admiration--that, too, from intelligent and worthy friends, whose good opinion he would most unwillingly forfeit. He, therefore, is naturally most anxious that those friends should be led to share his own conviction, that the pursuit of entomology--the needful butterfly killing and all included--may be not only not cruel, but actually beneficent in theory and practice. So I will briefly try to act as apologist for the "brotherhood of the net," myself included. In the first place, I will state roundly my sincere belief that _insects cannot feel pain_. This is no special pleading, or "making the wish the father to the thought," {51} but a conviction founded on an ample mass of evidence, on my own observations and experiments, and strengthened by analogical reasoning. I wish I had space to lay this evidence in full before the reader; but this being here impracticable, I will not damage the argument by taking a few links out of a chain of facts which depend on their close connexion with each other for their strength and value. There is, however, one fact which may be taken by itself, and goes a long way in our favour, that I must mention here. Insects, when mutilated in a way that would cause excessive pain and speedy death to vertebrate animals, afterwards perform all the functions of life--eating, drinking, &c. with the same evident _gusto_ and power of enjoyment as before. Plenty of striking instances of this are on record, and, as an example, I have seen a wasp that had been snipped in two, afterwards regale himself with avidity upon some red syrup, which, as he imbibed, gathered into a large ruby bead just behind the wings (where the stomach should have been); but really the creature's pleasure seemed to be only augmented by the change in his anatomy, because he could drink ten times his ordinary fill of sweets, without, of course, getting any the fuller. I could almost fancy a scientific epicure envying the insect his ever fresh appetite and gastronomic capabilities. After all that can be said on this subject, there will still probably be misgivings in the mind of many, both {52} as to the question of insect feelings and also as to our right to shorten their existence, even by a painless death. As to the first point, we have now the means of giving any insect an utterly painless quietus, be it capable of feeling pain or no. In regard to the second, I think few will deny that man enjoys a vested right to make use of any of the inferior animals, even to the taking of their life, if the so doing ministers to his own well-being or pleasure, and practically every one assumes this right in one way or another. Game animals are shot down (and they assuredly _do_ feel pain), not as necessaries of life, but confessedly as luxuries. Fish are hooked, crabs, lobsters, shrimps perish by thousands, victims to our fancies. Unscrupulously we destroy every insect whose presence displeases us, harmless as they may be to our own persons. The _aphides_ on our flowers, the moths in our furs, the "beetles" in our kitchens--all die by thousands at our pleasure. Then, if all this be right, are we not also justified in appropriating a little butterfly life to ourselves, and does not the mental feast that their after-death beauty affords us at least furnish an equal excuse for their sacrifice with any that can be urged in favour of any animal slaughter, just to tickle the palate or minister to our grosser appetites? To this query there can be, I think, but one fair answer, so we may return with a better face to the question, "How to kill a butterfly." [Illustration: VIII.] {53} I have alluded above to a painless mode of doing so, doubtless applicable to all insects. I know it answers admirably with the large moths, so tenacious of life under other circumstances. This potent agent is _chloroform_, whose pain-quelling properties are so well known as regards the human constitution. There is a little apparatus[8] constructed for carrying this fluid safely to the field, and letting out a drop at a time into the box with the captured insect, taking care that the drop does not go on to the insect. Or a wide-mouthed bottle may be used, having at the bottom a pad of blotting-paper, or some absorbent substance, on which a few drops of chloroform may now and then be dropped. The insect being slipped into this, and the stopper or hand being placed over the bottle's mouth, insensibility (in the insect) follows immediately, and in a few minutes, at most, it is completely lifeless. But the usual and quickest mode of despatch is by _a quick nip between the finger and thumb applied just under the wings_, causing, for the most part, _instantaneous death_: and this can be done through the net, when the {54} inclosed butterfly shuts his wings, as he usually does when the net wraps round him. Now take one of your thin pins, and pass it through the thorax of the butterfly, while open or shut, and put it into the corked lining of your pocket-box. So secured, the butterfly will travel uninjured till you reach home; but a heap of dead butterflies in a box together will, in the course of a long walk, so jostle together, as to entirely destroy each other's beauty, rubbing off all their painted scales, when, of course, they are as butterflies no longer. When you get home, take out all the pins, excepting such as may be stuck _perpendicularly_ through the _middle of the thorax_, and as soon as possible proceed to "set" your captures. [Illustration] Preparatory to this, some articles called _setting-boards_ must be provided. A section of one of these is shown in the accompanying cut; but in reality they are made much longer, so as to accommodate a column of half-a-dozen butterflies or more: the breadth may vary, {55} according to the width of the butterflies that are to be set thereon. The bottom is usually a thin slip of deal, on which are glued two strips of cork, bevelled off towards the edges, with a slightly curved face. Sometimes, however, the whole board is made of soft pine, with a groove planed down the middle, and with care will answer pretty well; but the corked board is far preferable. The mode of "setting" the insect with card "braces" transfixed with pins, which retain the wings in their proper position, will be also readily seen by reference to the figure. A great point in "setting" is to take care that all the wings are symmetrically arranged, or diverging from the body at equal angles on each side. Let the _antennæ_ also be carefully preserved, as on their integrity much of the specimen's value depends. It will be needless to say that any handling of the _wings_ is to be avoided, as a touch will sometimes destroy their bloom. The setting-board, when filled, should be put away into a secure, dust-proof, and dry place; and in a few days, more or less, according to the dryness or otherwise of the atmosphere, the butterflies will have dried and set in their positions, and are then ready for transference to the store-box or cabinet. The choice of this receptacle is a serious question for the beginner, who is often in want of a guide to the judicious expenditure of his money, if money he means {56} to spend in this pursuit. To preserve insects, it is _not_ absolutely necessary to have either a cabinet or the regularly-made store-boxes; for, with a little contrivance, any close-shutting, shallow box may be extemporized into a store-box. The bottom may either be lined with sheet-cork (such as is used by shoemakers)--which, however, is a rather dear commodity--or common wine-corks may be sliced up, and cut into little square patches that may be attached in straight rows to the bottom of the box with strong gum or other cement. The first specimens, the nucleus of the future great collection, can be kept here well enough, till a real cabinet can be compassed. A cabinet, however, need not be bought all at once; it may be arranged to grow with the collection--and, it may be, with the collector too--by having one or two drawers made at a time; till, in course of time, a sufficient number is obtained, when the whole may be fitted into a case at a small additional expense, and then there is a first-rate cabinet complete; for, to make this plan really advantageous, the drawers should be well made and of good material. Of course, all the drawers must be made to the same "gauge," to insure perfect fitting when the cabinet is made up. These drawers may be made by any clever joiner, but as their construction is peculiar, and not easily described, it is necessary, either that the maker should be accustomed to this speciality, or that he be furnished with a pattern, either by buying a single drawer at a dealer's, {57} where that can be done, by borrowing one out of a friend's cabinet, or by making therefrom a good working drawing (in section, &c.). The glasses which cover in the drawers should always have separate frames for the more perfect exclusion of dust and mites. Well seasoned mahogany or deal may be the material for the drawers, but on no account let them be of cedar, a material often used by ignorant or unprincipled makers, to the great detriment of the collection, and mortification of the collector, as resinous matter after a short time exudes from the pores of this wood, dropping down on to the glasses below in a gummy shower, and the effluvium seems to condense upon the contained insects, whose wings are gradually discoloured and disfigured by greasy looking blotches. The drawers are lined at bottom with cork, covered with _pure white_ paper, which should be attached with _thin_ paste. The butterflies are then to be arranged in the drawers in perpendicular columns, and in accordance with some system of classification. If there be room it is well to have a considerable number of specimens of each species, especially when it is one liable to much variation. At least one of each sex should always be given, and also one of each sex showing the _under_ surface. When the chrysalis can be procured, that also should be pinned down with its fellow-butterfly, and a good coloured drawing of each caterpillar would be a valuable addition to the series. Between the columns, lines should be {58} ruled varying in distance according to the breadth of the butterflies, and small labels should be pinned down at the foot of each species giving its _specific_ name; the name of the genus being placed at the head of the _first_ species of the genus. The names of the families and sub-families under which the _genera_ are classed are also generally given in their respective places. I have in this little work followed the system of classification used in the _public_ collection of British butterflies at the British Museum, which seemed to me more intelligible and natural when applied to our very limited number of butterflies, than did the system of Doubleday adopted in the great world-wide collection which exists in the private entomological room of the British Museum. The following table gives the first-mentioned arrangement of all the British species under their respective genera, sub-families, and families. The most authentic of the _reputed_ species are also here inserted in their proper places. Fam. PAPILIONIDÆ. Sub-fam. PAPILIONIDI. PAPILIO Machaon. -- Podalirius. Sub-fam. PIERIDI. GONEPTERYX Rhamni. COLIAS Edusa. -- Hyale. APORIA Cratægi. PIERIS Brassicæ. -- Rapæ. -- Napi. -- Daplidice. EUCHLOE Cardamines. LEUCOPHASIA Sinapis. Fam. NYMPHALIDÆ. Sub-fam. SATYRIDI. ARGE Galathea. LASIOMMATA Egeria. -- Megæra. HIPPARCHIA Semele. -- Janira. -- Tithonus. -- Hyperanthus. {59} EREBIA Blandina. -- Ligea. -- Cassiope. CÆNONYMPHA Davus. -- Pamphilus. Sub-fam. NYMPHALIDI. LIMENITIS Sybilla. APATURA Iris. Sub-fam. VANESSIDI. CYNTHIA Cardui. VANESSA Atalanta. -- Io. -- Antiopa. -- Polychloros. -- Urticæ. GRAPTA C. Album. Sub-fam. ARGYNNIDI. ARGYNNIS Paphia. -- Aglaia. -- Adippe. -- Lathonia. -- Euphrosyne. -- Selene. -- Dia. MELITÆA Cinxia. -- Athalia. -- Artemis. Fam. ERYCINIDÆ. NEMEOBIUS Lucina. Fam. LYCÆNIDÆ. THECLA Betulæ. -- Pruni. -- W. Album. -- Quercus. -- Rubi. CHRYSOPHANUS Phlæas. -- Chryseis. -- Dispar. POLYOMMATUS Boeticus. -- Argiolus. -- Alsus. -- Acis. -- Arion. -- Corydon. -- Adonis. -- Alexis. -- Ægon. -- Agestis. -- Artaxerxes. Fam. HESPERIDÆ. PYRGUS Alveolus. NISIONADES Tages. STEROPES Paniscus. PAMPHILA Actæon. -- Linea. -- Sylvanus. -- Comma. It will be seen by the above list that seventy species are given as British. Of these, five species, viz. _Papilio Podalirius_, _Erebia Ligea_, _Argynnis Dia_, _Chrysophanus Chryseis_, and _Polyommatus Boeticus_, have been so rarely taken as to be refused a place among the _regular_ denizens of our island. So that we can only reckon up the small number of _sixty-five species of true British butterflies_. These it now remains to describe individually, but, prior to entering on that task, I would say a few words {60} on the acquirement of scientific nomenclature and systematic arrangement, a knowledge of which will facilitate even our recreations in natural history, while it is absolutely essential to carrying out the really scientific study of any department. It is true, that the painting of a butterfly and the fragrance of a flower can give deep pleasure to a mind quite unconscious of their Latin names, their genus, order, or anything of the kind; but the interest of natural objects is, I am sure, greatly augmented when we acquire some insight, however dimly, into the wonderful mechanism of creation's plan, its infinite gradation of forms, and their curious, subtle relationships, to which a _good_ system of classification serves, in some degree, as an index. I say, "_in some degree_," as a system framed in perfect accordance with that of nature is a discovery rather to be desired than hoped for, with the limited knowledge at present permitted to us. Though these Latin names are generally considered as unwelcome excrescences on the pages of _popular_ natural history works, I would yet advise the young entomologist to master them for once, and accustom himself well to their use. He will not find the task a very difficult one, if I may judge from the repeated instances in which I have heard the almost infantile progeny of my naturalist friends glibly mouthing these redoubtable words, and applying them with the most precise accuracy. Among collectors it is customary in familiar {61} conversation to use only the second, or _specific_ name of the insect's Latin title; thus, in speaking of the common Swallow-tailed Butterfly, they call it "_Machaon_" only, which at once distinguishes the one they mean from the other, or scarce Swallow-tailed Butterfly, which they would speak of as "_Podalirius_." The Pearl-bordered Likeness Fritillary may be called "_Athalia_," and so on. I think it will be allowed that these Latin names are not harder to learn, remember, or pronounce, than the long-winded English titles; and, when acquired, bring their possessor the advantage of being able to converse with precision on their subject with all naturalists, whether British or Continental; for these names of science are current in all European languages. Another piece of advice is: don't _waste time_ in trying to puzzle out the _meaning_, the why or the wherefore of butterflies' scientific names. Now and then, certainly, they have some allusion to the insect's appearance, or to the plant on which it feeds; thus, for instance, _Gonepteryx Rhamni_, the entomological name of the Brimstone Butterfly, means the "_Angle-winged_ (butterfly) _of the Buckthorn_," and this is very appropriate and descriptive; but in general there is no more connexion between the name and the character of a butterfly, than there is between a ship's name--the "_Furious_," the "_Coquette_," or the "_Pretty Jane_," as it may be--and the moral disposition or personal appearance of the vessel that bears it. Also, don't _waste money_ and encourage dishonesty, by {62} giving the absurdly large prices put upon _British_, or _pretended_ British specimens of butterflies, or other insects that are rare in this country though common on the Continent; when, for all purposes of science, or the pleasure derived from their beauty, _avowed_ Continental specimens, at one-twentieth of the price, will do just as well. In putting these into your cabinet, however, always attach to the pin underneath the insect a label, bearing some mark to denote the specimen's foreign origin. * * * * * {63} CHAPTER VI. THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES SEPARATELY DESCRIBED. THE SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLY. (_Papilio Machaon._) (Plate III. fig. 1.) There is no possibility of mistaking this noble insect for any other of our native species, after a glance at its portrait. Its superior size, conjoined with the possession of a pair of _long_ tails on the hind wings, would at once mark it distinctly, independently of the peculiar markings and colour. In the colouring of the wings, a broad simplicity prevails, the general ground-tint being a clear creamy yellow, with the bars and marginal bands of the deepest velvety black. The broad bands of black on the front wings are powdered towards the centre with _yellow_ scales, and those on the hind wings with _blue_ scales. The only other colour on this side is a spot of rust-red at the inner angle of the hind wings. The under side is very similar in colouring to the upper, but the black markings are less decided and sharp, and there are several additional rust-red spots on the hind wings. {64} The _caterpillar_, which is a very handsome creature, is found feeding on various umbelliferous plants; among which, its chief favourites in this country appear to be the Wild Carrot (_Daucus Carota_), the Marsh Milk-parsley (_Selinum palustre_), and Fennel (_Anethum Foeniculum_). In colour it is bright green, with velvet-black rings, which are spotted with red. A distinguishing mark of this caterpillar is a reddish-coloured forked appendage just behind its head, which, when the animal is alarmed, gives out a strong-scented fluid, supposed to be for the purpose of alarming some of its enemies. The _chrysalis_, again, is a very pretty object, especially when of its ordinary colour, which is a lively green, shaded in some parts into bright yellow; but there is a frequent variety marked only with various shades of brown and buff. Living specimens of both of these are before me at this moment, and when they assume the perfect state, I shall be curious to mark whether these differences are continued in the respective butterflies. These chrysalides are most interesting objects to keep during the winter months. As the spring advances, the colours of the butterfly begin to appear faintly through their thin green envelope, and the pattern of the upper wings, which only are visible, becomes at last distinctly perceptible, of course in miniature. When this is the case, we should begin to watch for the release of the beautiful prisoner. If you visit his cage the first thing every morning (for his exit most frequently takes place in the early part of {65} the day), you may be fortunate enough on one of these occasions, to find the creature either actually emerging, or just out of his case; cutting an odd figure, and evidently neither very proud of himself nor much at his ease, his wings being tiny things, hardly bigger than those of a humble-bee, and hanging limply from his comparatively ponderous and gigantic body; which they are nevertheless destined, ere many hours are over, to carry with most enviable celerity through the air. The rapid increase in size of these organs is a matter of marvel; you can literally see them grow, and within about an _hour_ they will have reached their full expanse. The creature attaches itself, back downwards, to the lid of its cage, or to the under side of any convenient _horizontal_ surface, that the wings, by their own weight, may aid in their dilatation, and that they may dry without creasing, as they will sometimes do, when the insect, being under a slippery bell-glass, for instance, is unable to reach the desirable point of suspension, which it always evinces extreme anxiety to do. By the time the sun is well out, our pet will have his wings thoroughly plumed for flight; and here a difficulty sometimes presents itself to the entomologist. What is to be done with our new-born Machaon? It is probably a splendid specimen for the cabinet, and the collector may long to grace his "series" with its virgin splendours. But then there will creep over him the unwelcome sensation, that it is a somewhat cowardly proceeding to foster a bright being into a life that might be all joyousness, {66} and then, taking advantage of his domesticated position, to cut short that life, almost ere commenced, and to forbid those wondrous wings to carry their possessor to even one short day's enjoyment of sunshine and nectar, and the doubtlessly exalted pleasure of mere airy motion itself. Fairly chasing down a butterfly is all well enough; but this is quite another thing. Every one must, however, choose for himself, as to taking the sentimental or the entomological view of the matter. Each probably finds its followers, and to the occasional prevalence of the more tender sentiment, are probably owing many of those stray Swallow-Tails that turn up here and there in unlikely places. The chrysalides, for rearing, may be obtained in the autumn or winter, either from entomologists resident in the localities of the butterfly, or more generally and certainly from the London or Cambridge dealers, who will send them into the country by post for a few pence each. The flight of this species is rapid and powerful, and it has a habit of soaring loftily. In this country its head quarters are in the fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, and Huntingdonshire. It has been found in some abundance near Cambridge, Norwich, Yaxley, Whittlesea Mere, Burwell, and Hornsey Fens; also singly in Lancashire, at Battersea, Pulborough in Sussex, near Ashford in Kent, at Balcombe, Isle of Wight, Hampshire, near Chatham, at Southend, Essex, and on the Cliffs of the South Coast. {67} From its local character, this is of course one of the species that the collector can hardly expect to meet with, except he live in one of the districts given above as its head quarters. In these, however, it is abundant enough, and the first sight of a number of these grand insects on the wing must be enough to gladden the eye of any naturalist. This butterfly comes out first in May, and is met with from that time till August. * * * * * THE BRIMSTONE BUTTERFLY. (_Gonepteryx Rhamni._) (Plate III. fig. 2.) Though one of the commonest of our native butterflies, this, like numberless other very common things, is also one of the loveliest, both in the graceful outline of its wings, and in the lively hue that overspreads their surface; charms the more to be appreciated, as this insect is one of the few that do not wait for the full bloom of summer ere they condescend to make their appearance, but in the earliest, chill months of spring, and even in the dead winter season, the country rambler is sometimes gladdened by its gay flight; and in fact there is not one winter month that is not occasionally enlivened by this flying flower, when a day of unwonted mildness and sunshine tempts it from its winter retreat. {68} Until very recently it had always been stated by entomologists, that the Brimstone Butterfly was "double-brooded" (a term meaning that it went through _two whole cycles of existence_, from the _egg_ to the _perfect insect_, in _one year_), one brood appearing in May, and the other in the autumn. But it is now established, on very satisfactory evidence, that _one brood only is produced, and that, the autumnal one_. A considerable number of these survive the winter in some place of concealment, and coming out again in the spring form the so-called spring brood. Many of these hybernators are found to be in very fair condition in the spring, but in general they lack the perfect freshness and bloom of those taken in autumn; the wings of those I have taken at this period are often semi-transparent, from having lost feather, and frequently are spotted and discoloured, as if by mildew; a sign probably of their owners having wintered in damp lodgings. Mr. Douglas states that they get very fat and full of honey before consigning themselves to their long winter's sleep; evidently an instinctive provision against the waste of substance that must of necessity accompany all, even the most sluggish vitality: in this respect following the same instinct that leads bears, and other hybernating animals, to fatten up to their utmost stretch before retiring for the season. [Illustration: IX.] {69} The _eggs_ should be sought for in the month of May, or a little earlier or later, on the buds and young shoots of the two species of Buckthorn (_Rhamnus Frangula_ and _R. Catharticus_). When examined with the microscope, these are found to be very pretty objects of conical form, with sculptured ribs on the sides. The _caterpillar_ that results from these, when it grows up, is of a fine green colour, shagreened over with black points, and shading off into a paler line along the side. Its shape is represented at Plate I. fig. 2. It is found on the _young_ buckthorn foliage that forms its food. The _chrysalis_ is of the remarkable shape shown on Plate I. fig. 13,--green, marked with yellow. It remains in this state for about twenty days, when the perfect butterfly appears. The general colour of the male Brimstone Butterfly is a clear, brilliant yellow, much like that of the Daffodil, its contemporary; and in the centre of each wing is a small spot of rich orange-colour. A very beautiful feature to be remarked in this butterfly is the silken mane, so to speak, composed of long hairs of silvery gloss and whiteness, which are arranged as if combed up from the sides of the thorax, so as to meet in a crested form over the top. The female chiefly differs from the male in the ground colour of the wings, which are of a pale and very peculiar greenish white tint, rather more deeply tinged with yellow at the extremities of the wings. As the male, from his colour, bears the name of "Brimstone," or "Sulphur," the complexion of his mate may be accurately compared to the tint of another {70} sulphureous preparation, called by druggists "milk of sulphur." The only noticeable variation this butterfly is subject to in this country is in the size of the orange wing-spots, which are sometimes greatly enlarged. In a well-marked variety, common in the south of Europe, Madeira, &c., this enlargement reaches a great development, nearly the whole of the _upper_ wings being suffused with a deep orange, though in all other respects the insect does not differ from our common form. This beautiful variety has been described as a different species under the name of _Gonepteryx Cleopatra_; but M. Boisduval has proved that they are identical, by rearing both the ordinary _Rhamni_ and the _Cleopatra_ from the same batch of eggs. The female _Cleopatra_ does not differ materially from _Rhamni_. I look on this variety as very interesting, as a probable instance of the direct effect of increased warmth of climate in intensifying colour.[9] Plentiful as this butterfly is in all the southern counties, and extending in more or less abundance as {71} far northwards as the lake district, it there becomes scarce; and I can find no instance of its having occurred in Scotland. Of course, its prevalence in any district is naturally regulated by the abundance of its food-plants, the buckthorns. Gardens, fields, and lanes are equally the resort of this favourite insect; and there the newly-hatched specimens are to be found on the wing from August to October. * * * * * THE CLOUDED YELLOW, OR CLOUDED SAFFRON. (_Colias Edusa._) (Plate III. fig. 3, Male; 3A, Female.) This richly-coloured and nimble-winged fly is ever the darling of the collector. None make a finer show in the cabinet, and few tempt pursuit more strongly than does this golden beauty when on the wing. For many years past, and up to quite a recent period, the appearance of this butterfly in any abundance was a phenomenon only occurring at uncertain periods, separated by intervals of several years. In one season, perhaps, hardly a solitary specimen would be seen, and in the very next, a swarm of them would spread over the southern counties, delighting the fly-catcher and puzzling the naturalist to find a sufficient reason for {72} this sudden burst of insect-life. Whether the eggs lay dormant for years, till hatched under peculiarly favourable conditions; or whether every now and then a few individuals were tempted to cross the Channel from the Continent by some attraction unknown to us, or were, _nolens_, _volens_, blown hither by the wind, and then deposited eggs which produced the next year's troop of butterflies; or, lastly, whether an agency was at work here, of whose nature we are entirely ignorant,--all these are questions that still remain to be answered. There is, I believe, no foundation for the opinion sometimes held by entomologists, that this species prevails at _regular_ periods, such as once in four, or once in seven years. In fact, for the last two or three years its permanent residence and appearance among us seems to be established, while, at the same time, its northward range has been greatly extended, a considerable number having been taken even _in Scotland_--its existence in that country having been previously quite unheard of. The environs of London, especially on the south side, have been abundantly visited by this charming insect; but its tastes have a decidedly maritime tendency, and we find it has a marked preference for the _South Coast_; abounding, again, more especially towards the eastern end. Its favourite resorts are clover and lucerne fields, though dry flowery meadows, open downs, and the sides of railway-banks are also the scenes of its lively flight--for _Edusa_ has indeed a lively flight, and his pursuer has need of the "seven-league boots," with the hand of {73} Mercury, to insure success in the fair open race, if that can be called a fair race at all, between a heavy biped, struggling and perspiring about a slippery hill-side, such as _Edusa_ loves,--and a winged spirit of air, to whom up-hill and down-hill seem all one. In truth, the best way to get _Edusa_ is to watch and mark him down on a flower, then creep cautiously up till within range, raise the net quietly, and _strike rapidly downwards_ over the insect, who usually darts _upward_ when struck at; and, in nine cases out of ten, _Edusa_ will be fluttering under the net. It is not the most heroic style of sport, this, but it fills the boxes admirably. The _caterpillar_ is of a deep green colour, having on each side a white line, marked with yellow and orange. It may be sought for in June and July, on various plants of the leguminous order, which form its food, such as None-such Trefoil (_Medicago lupulina_), Lucerne (_M. Sativa_), and Clover. The _chrysalis_ is in shape between that of the Brimstone, and Cabbage butterfly, green with a yellow stripe, and rust-coloured dots. The _butterfly_ seldom is seen on the wing till July, but August is its great season; and it lingers with us till late in autumn. I remember the pleasure with which, on a chill, stormy day in October, I watched the sports of a pair who were my sole companions while sketching, in a remote, rocky nook of the South Welsh coast. Very {74} battered and weather-worn were the pretty creatures, but still retaining much of the golden bloom of their summer dress. The Clouded Yellow has been found hybernating in the chink of an old wall at the end of February, but I am not aware of its coming out again in the spring, like the Brimstone. The ground tint of the wings is an exceedingly rich orange-yellow, or saffron colour, surrounded by a border of very dark brown, sometimes nearly black. This border is marked, in the male, with thin yellow _lines_, and in the female with _paler yellow spots_. There is a beautiful rose tint in the fringe of the wings and on their front edge. Underneath the wings are paler yellow, taking a citron hue in some parts, and marked with black and brown; in the centre of the under wings is a brown-circled silvery spot. There is a peculiar and constant _variety of the female_, in which all the yellow portion of the upper surface is replaced by a _greenish white_ tint; but in every other respect the insect agrees with the common form of _Edusa_. This interesting variety was formerly ranked as another species, under the name of _C. Helice_; but it is a curious fact that no corresponding variety of the male has ever been observed; and last year I captured a pair together--a white female and common orange male--who were on those terms of tender intimacy which are generally supposed to betoken identity of species. {75} Varieties of the female are also met with, of various intermediate shades of colour between the white and the ordinary orange. Yet is it not possible that all these varieties may be mules between _C. Edusa_ and _C. Hyale_ (the next species), the males of which are often seen pursuing the lady _Edusas_? but if so, as indeed it would be on any other hypothesis, it is hard to account for the unvarying character of the male. This butterfly is also called the Clouded Saffron. * * * * * THE CLOUDED SULPHUR, OR PALE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY. (_Colias Hyale._) (Plate III. fig. 4.) We may, in general, readily distinguish this elegant insect from the last species--the females of which it rather resembles in its markings--by the difference in the ground tint of the wings, which in this vary from primrose or sulphur yellow to a greenish white. There is, however, some risk of confounding this with the white variety of _Edusa_ (_Helice_), a mistake often committed by young entomologists; so it will be well to point out the most prominent distinction between the two; and this is easily done, by observing that in _Edusa_ the dark border of the upper wings is of nearly {76} equal breadth along the whole of the outer margin, and _at the lower corner is continued inwards for a short distance_; whilst in _Hyale_ this border _narrows rapidly, and disappears before reaching the lower corner of_ the wing. Also the dark border of the hind wings is much broader in _Edusa_ than in _Hyale_. Here we have distinctive marks, quite independent of the ground colour of the wings. The sexes of this butterfly are nearly alike in their markings, the chief difference being in the yellower ground tint of the males. The same localities--viz. the south and south-east coast, and the adjacent district--that are most prolific in its near relative, _Edusa_, likewise furnish this species in the greatest plenty; but this is by far the rarer species of the two, and, either by coincidence, or in obedience to some direct law, several successive periods of its abundance have been septennial, or have occurred once in seven years. Thus the years 1821, '28, '35, '42, '49, and '56 are noted in entomological records as having produced it in great numbers. On the coast of France, opposite to our own, it is one of the common butterflies, and it is not improbable that it frequently makes the passage of the Channel. The maritime habits of both this and _Edusa_ are well known, and I have frequently seen the latter flying out to seawards, and coquetting with the waves, till the eye could follow the golden speck no longer. Taking advantage then of a favouring wind, its naturally strong {77} and rapid flight would quickly take it across the few miles of sea that separate us from the Gallic shore. _Hyale_, whose flight is at least as strong as _Edusa's_, and whose salt-water tastes are similar, doubtless acts in the same manner. The northward range of this species is more limited than that of _Edusa_, but it has been taken singly near York, Manchester, and a few other northern localities. In the lucerne fields near Brighton, a dozen or more have been sometimes captured in one day. The _caterpillar_ is of a sea-green colour, with four yellow lines, two along the back and one on each side; and is to be found, in June and July, feeding on lucerne and other plants of the same natural order. The _chrysalis_ is very similar to that of _Edusa_, green, with a yellow stripe. In this country, the _butterfly_ first appears in August; but on the Continent it seems to be double-brooded, being found in May as well as in August. * * * * * THE BLACK-VEINED OR HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY. (_Aporia Cratægi._) (Plate IV. fig. 1.) When on the wing, this species might easily be mistaken by the inexperienced for the common Cabbage {78} White; and, by virtue of this _incognito_, does in all probability often escape from the terrors of the net, which would speedily entrap him, were his real character known to the young hunter; for this butterfly is one of those called, in entomological slang, "_a good thing_"--a term expressive neither of superior excellence nor beauty, but meaning that the insect can't be met with everywhere, or every day, and when seen is always to be caught. A closer view, however, shows it to be very distinct from all the other "Whites;" its _decided black veinings on a milk-white ground_, in conjunction with its large size, being sufficient for its immediate recognition. The outline of the wings, as well as the play of the veining lines on their surface, is extremely elegant. It will be observed, that instead of the feathered fringe that surrounds the wings of most butterflies, they are bordered in this species by a stout nervure, forming a sharp black outline, and giving a peculiarly chaste finish. The under side differs in no mentionable respect from the upper--a very rare circumstance in this tribe. From being very sparingly coated with scales, the wings are semi-transparent, differing much in this respect from those of the Garden White butterflies. The female generally has the veins of the fore wings of a browner tint than in the males. This butterfly is one of the very local species, though its food plants are everywhere to be found, in more or less abundance. {79} The following localities, among others, have been recorded as producing it:--Herne Bay, and other parts of the Isle of Thanet, plentifully; near Faversham, Kent; Horsham, Sussex; New Forest; Brington, in Huntingdonshire; near Cardiff, South Wales, plentiful. The caterpillars are gregarious, feeding under cover of a silken web. The hawthorn and the sloe are its chief food plants in this country, but it is here too rare an insect to do much damage. Not so, however, on the Continent, where it is extremely common, and is classed among noxious insects, committing great devastation among various fruit trees, especially the apple, pear, and cherry. But even in this country the insect is occasionally met with in great profusion, but only in isolated spots. Mr. Drane, writing from Cardiff to the _Zoologist_, says, "In the middle of April (1858) I found the _larvæ_ feeding by thousands upon insulated shrubs of _Prunus Spinosa_ (Common Sloe), eating out the centres of the unexpanded buds, or basking in the sun upon their winter webs." The body of the adult _caterpillar_ is thickly clothed with whitish hairs, is leaden grey on the side and underneath, black on the back, and marked with two longitudinal reddish stripes. Found from the middle of April to the end of May. The _chrysalis_, shown at fig. 14, Plate I., is greenish white, striped with yellow and spotted with black. The _butterfly_ appears in June. * * * * * {80} THE LARGE GARDEN WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Pieris Brassicæ._) (Plate IV. fig. 2.) Why this butterfly should so far outnumber every other native species (excepting, perhaps, the more rural Meadow Brown), is a question beyond our power to answer satisfactorily. Certainly, the food plants of the caterpillar--cabbages, cresses, and their tribe--are universally met with; but then we find there are other insects whose food plant is equally plentiful and widespread, and yet they are nevertheless very rare or local. This is pre-eminently the domestic butterfly, abounding in suburban gardens, and at times penetrating into the smoky heart of London, and then even the young "St. Giles's bird," whose eyes were never gladdened by green fields, gets up a butterfly hunt, and, cap (or rag) in hand, feels for the nonce all the enthusiasm of the chase in pursuit of the white-winged wanderer, who looks sadly lost and out of place in the flowerless, brick-and-mortar wilderness. This and the next species are the only British butterflies who can be charged with committing any appreciable amount of damage to human food and property. In the winged state, indeed, it is utterly harmless (like all other butterflies); but not so the hungry caterpillar progeny, as the gardener knows too well when he looks {81} at his choice cabbage rows all gnawed away into skeletons. In some seasons and places they multiply so inordinately and prodigiously as to deserve the title of a plague of caterpillars, and several remarkable instances of this phenomenon are on record. A note in the _Zoologist_, p. 4547, by the Rev. Arthur Hussey, gives us the following:--"For the last two summers many of the gardens of this village have been infested by caterpillars to such an extent that the cabbages have been utterly destroyed." When the time for changing to the chrysalis state arrived, the surrounding buildings presented a curious appearance, being marked with long lines of the creatures travelling up the walls in search of a suitable place of shelter for undergoing their transformation. A great number of the caterpillars took refuge in a malt-house, from which they could not escape as butterflies, the result being that for several weeks the maltster swept up daily many hundreds of the dead insects. In 1842, a vast flight of white butterflies came over from the Continent to the coast about Dover, and spreading inland from thence, did an immense amount of damage to the cabbage gardens; but so effectually did the ichneumon flies do their work, that an exceedingly small proportion of the caterpillars, resulting from this flock of immigrants, went into the chrysalis state, nearly all perishing just before the period of change. Those small, silky, oval objects, of yellowish colour, {82} frequently found in groups on walls and palings, are the _cocoons_ of these useful little flies, spun round about and over the remains of the dead caterpillar their victim. "These," as Mr. Westwood observes, "ignorant persons mistake for the eggs of the caterpillar, and destroy; thus foolishly killing their benefactors." Happily these devastating caterpillars have plenty of enemies to prevent their continued multiplication, and to reduce their number speedily when it exceeds certain limits. Besides the ichneumons, mentioned above, the feathered tribes do much towards keeping them down. Mr. Haworth, in his "_Lepidoptera Britannica_," says, with reference to this: "Small birds destroy incredible numbers of them as food, and should be encouraged. I once observed a titmouse (_Parus major_) take five or six large ones to its nest in a very few minutes. In enclosed gardens sea-gulls, with their wings cut, are of infinite service. I had one eight years, which was at last killed by accident, that lived entirely all the while upon the insects, slugs, and worms which he found in the garden." The pretty _egg_ of this butterfly is figured on Plate II. fig. 1: it may be found commonly enough, with a little searching, on cabbage-leaves, either at the end of May or beginning of August. The _caterpillar_, which, besides cabbages, consumes various other cruciferous plants,--also Tropæolums, or, as they are erroneously called, "Nasturtiums,"--is green, {83} shaded with yellow on each side, and covered with black points, on each of which is situated a hair. By way of compensation for the damage it inflicts, it has been suggested that a durable green dye might be extracted from the caterpillars of cabbage butterflies, since it is extremely difficult to eradicate the stain made by a crushed caterpillar on linen. If this strange and novel dye should ever take its place among the vagaries of fashion, the shopkeepers could find a familiar French name, as the word _chenille_, applied to another commodity, means simply "caterpillar," so "_chenille green_" would be the phrase for the colour afforded by smashed caterpillars. The _chrysalis_ (Plate I. fig. 15) may be found almost anywhere, laid up under ledges of garden walls, doorway, or any convenient projection, not too far from the creature's food. Wanting an individual just now, to sit for his portrait, I had only to step out of my door, and within a hundred yards espied a candidate for the distinction, ready to hand, under the coping-stone of a gate-post. A _female_ specimen of the butterfly is figured on Plate IV. fig. 2. The _male_ may be readily distinguished by the _absence of the black spots and dashes on the upper side of the front wings_. The winged insect may be seen throughout the warm season from April to August. * * * * * {84} THE SMALL GARDEN WHITE. (_Pieris Rapæ._) (Plate IV. fig. 3.) Outwardly resembling the last in almost every respect but that of its inferior size, this species shares the gardener's malediction with its larger, but perhaps less destructive, relative; for the caterpillar of _Rapæ_, though smaller, bores into the very heart of the cabbage, instead of being content with the less valuable outer leaves, as _Brassicæ_ is. From this pernicious habit the French call this grub the _ver du coeur_. The colour of this _caterpillar_ is pale green, with a yellow line along the back, and a dotted one of the same colour on each side. The _chrysalis_ is nearly like that of the last in shape, but of course smaller, and is of a more uniform brownish or yellowish tint. [Illustration: X.] {85} This butterfly occasionally multiplies immensely, and is given to migrating in vast armies to distant settlements, sometimes crossing the sea to effect this purpose. Here is an extract from a Kentish newspaper, describing an occurrence of this phenomenon:-- "One of the largest flights of butterflies ever seen in this country, crossed the Channel from France to England on Sunday last. Such was the density and extent of the cloud formed by the living mass, that it completely obscured the sun from the people on board our Continental steamers, on their passage, for many hundreds of yards, while the insects strewed the decks in all directions. The flight reached England about twelve o'clock at noon, and dispersed themselves inland and along shore, darkening the air as they went. During the sea-passage of the butterflies, the weather was calm and sunny, with scarce a puff of wind stirring; but an hour or so after they reached _terra firma_, it came on to blow great guns from the S. W., the direction whence the insects came." A contemporary account states that these were the small white butterflies (_Pieris Rapæ_). The smaller butterfly with more dusky markings, formerly known as _P. Metra_, has been recently proved to be merely a variety of _Rapæ_, a Mr. J. F. Dawson having reared a brood of caterpillars all _exactly similar_ in appearance, which eventually produced every variety of _P. Rapæ_ and _P. Metra_. Mr. Curtis, in his "Farm Insects," mentions the capture, near Oldham in Lancashire, of a male specimen, which had all the wings of a _bright yellow_ colour. Most juvenile butterfly hunters, unblest by scientific knowledge of insect life, imagine that this and the last owe their difference in size simply to their being old and young individuals of the same name; forgetting--or, rather, never having heard--that butterflies never grow in the slightest degree after once getting their winged form; only as caterpillars do they grow. {86} The male is distinguished from the female by having only _one round black spot_, or sometimes none, on each _upper_ wing, whilst the female is spotted as in the engraving. The under side of the hind wings is dull yellow, lightly powdered with black scales. The _butterfly_ is seen during nearly the whole of the summer, and is found almost everywhere. * * * * * THE GREEN-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY. (_Pieris Napi._) (Plate IV. fig. 4.) Is so called from the greenish tint that _often_ borders the veins or nervures on the _under_ side of the _hind_ wing; but the name is _not always_ an appropriate one, for a large proportion of the specimens met with have the veinings grey, and not at all green; but the fact is, that the ground colour varies greatly, from creamy white to full buff, or bright clear yellow; in the latter case it is, that the minute black scales which border the course of the nervures, covering over the yellow, produce a grey-green effect on the eye. The size also is very variable. I have a specimen that expands two inches and two lines across, from tip to tip, and have seen another not larger than a small Copper butterfly--little more than one inch from tip {87} to tip. The intensity of the dark markings, on both the upper and under sides, is also subject to much variation. But, under all these circumstances, the presence of dark cloudy veins on the under side--appearing, but less distinctly, on the upper side--will at once distinguish it from the last species, the only one with which it can possibly be confounded. The _male_ has only _one round spot_ on the _front_ wings; the _female_ being marked as in the plate. Both in woods and cultivated grounds we meet with this butterfly commonly enough, most abundantly in May and July, though it may be found from April to August. The _caterpillar_ feeds on the same tribe of plants as the two last, but is supposed to be especially attached to the Rape (_Brassica Napus_), whence its specific name. Its colour is green, with yellow spots round each spiracle, which is itself tinged with red. Two varieties of this were formerly ranked as distinct species, under the name of _P. Sabellicæ_ and _P. Napæ_. * * * * * {88} THE BATH WHITE. (_Pieris Daplidice._) (Plate IV. fig. 5, Female.) Of all the members of this white-winged genus that inhabit Britain, this is at the same time the most beautiful and the rarest. The capture of a Bath White is an entomological "event," and the day thereof is a red-letter day in the fortunate captor's life. On the opposite coast of France, however, and generally on the Continent, far from being a rarity, this is one of the commonest butterflies--a fact difficult for an English collector, removed by only a few miles of sea, to realise, or reconcile with the _extravagant_ value and importance attached to a true "British specimen." The remark made under the head of the Black-veined White, as to that eluding the net of the novice, by its resemblance to a common kind, will apply with still greater force to this one; for I suppose there are few even of the tolerably experienced "hands" who could tell this from the two last described insects, at a short distance. One curious circumstance bearing on this is, that a large per centage of the Bath White captures in this country have been made by juvenile beginners, who hunt and catch _everything_ they see, Common Whites and all. {89} This fact should encourage the collector, especially when at work on the south-east coast, to net all the middle-sized Whites that come within reasonable distance--of course letting them off again, if they are not of the right sort. The wing markings on both the upper and under sides are, though simple, extremely elegant and chaste. The _female_, which is the sex figured, has the upper wings beautifully spotted with black. The hind wings are bordered with a _row of black spots_, and clouded towards the centre with a faint tint of the same. The male is distinguished by the absence of the black spot nearest to the lower margin of the front wing, and of the black marginal spots and grey clouding of the hind wings. The markings of the under surface, however, show through their substance rather plainly. In both sexes, the ground colour of the wings is milk-white. But the chief decoration is reserved for the under surface, which is chequered, in a manner not easily described, with a soft but rich green tint upon white, relieved here and there by a few black touches. We are informed by Lewin, that it was named the Bath White from a piece of needlework executed at Bath, by a young lady, from a specimen of this insect, said to have been taken near that city. But the south-eastern corner of England, and more especially on the coast, seems to be the head-quarters of this valued fly,--lending probability to the supposition entertained {90} by many, that a large proportion of those taken here have migrated or been blown across the Channel; though I believe it sometimes breeds here, and that the caterpillars have, on one or two occasions, been found in this country. The butterfly has been taken several times at Dover, Margate, and other places on the Kentish coast; at Lewes; Whittlesea Mere, Cambridge; Worcester, and near Bristol. The _caterpillar_, which is to be found in June and September, is bluish with black spots, a pale yellow line on each side, and two of the same colour on the back. M. Le Plastrier reared a number of them, feeding them on the leaves of the Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_). It also feeds on Weld (_Reseda Luteola_). The _chrysalis_ very much resembles that of the Small Garden White, and is totally unlike that of the next, the Orange-Tip, with which it has been by some entomologist united into another genus (_Manicipium_). _Daplidice_ is a slow insect--slower than the Common Whites--and it is an easy matter to catch it, when recognized, which the peculiarly heavy flight might aid one in doing. May and August are the months in which to look after this gem of the _Pontia_ genus. * * * * * {91} THE ORANGE-TIP BUTTERFLY. (_Euchloë Cardamines._) (Plate V. fig. 1, Male; 1_a_, Female.) Few vernal ramblers in the country, whether entomological or no, can fail to have noticed, and been charmed by, this merry blossom-like insect, as it gaily flits along by hedge-row and wood-side, pausing anon to taste its own sweet flowers of May, and looking, even when on the wing, so unlike any other of our native butterflies. Truly it is an exquisite and loveable little creature, this Orange-Tip--sometimes styled the Wood Lady; but this latter title is somewhat awkward in its application, inasmuch as the "_lady_" insect is entirely without the characteristic _orange_ adornment, and would hardly be suspected as being the same species with her handsome lord. The _male Orange-Tip_ needs no description, for the purpose of recognition, beyond that conveyed by his name; but as the _female_ is less known, and has been on several occasions mistaken for the rare Bath White (_Daplidice_), it will be well to point out her chief distinguishing characters. The difference between the two insects certainly is obvious enough, when the two are _seen_ together, but their written descriptions read rather alike. {92} The female _Cardamines_ has the wings white _above_, with a greyish black tip, and a _small oval_, or _crescent-shaped black spot_ (much smaller than that of Daplidice) near the _centre_ of the front wings; _beneath_, a white ground, with green marblings, that are much more sharply defined than those in _Daplidice_. Near the centre of the front wing is a _clear black spot_, corresponding in position with that on the upper surface, _and not shaded off with green, as in Daplidice_. We speak of the _green_ marblings of this species--and, to the naked eye, they do appear to be of quite a bright green--but under a microscope or powerful lens that colour disappears, being resolved into a combination of bright yellow and pure black scales, which, with the dazzling snow-white ground scales that surround them, form a microscopic tableau of extraordinary beauty. This can, however, only be seen by daylight, for under artificial light the yellow, on which the whole effect depends, is entirely lost. The _caterpillar_ is slightly hairy, and green, with a white stripe on each side. It has been generally stated that the _Cardamine impatiens_ is the common food plant of this species, _apropos_ of which I will quote the following communication from Mr. Doubleday to the editor of the _Zoologist_:-- "In reply to your query about the food of the larva of _Cardamines_, I may say that I have found it upon several plants. I believe that _Cardamine pratensis_ (common cuckoo-flower) is the one on which the eggs {93} are most frequently deposited, but the greater part of the _larvæ_ must perish in this neighbourhood, because the fields are mowed before the larvæ are full-grown. I have very often seen the larvæ on the seed-pods of _Erysimum Alliaria_, and have several times found the _pupæ_ on the dead stems of this plant in winter; I think that it is the principal food of Cardamines at Epping; it also probably feeds on _E. barbarea_, and other similar plants. Some years ago we used to have a quantity of a large single rocket in the garden, and there was always a number of the larvæ of _Cardamines_ feeding on the seed-pods. _Cardamine impatiens_ is so local a plant _that it cannot be the common food of the larvæ of Cardamines_." The _chrysalis_ is of the very singular shape shown at fig. 17, Plate I., a shape quite unique among British butterflies, though that of the next slightly approaches it. It is to be looked for in autumn and winter on the dry, dead stems of the plants named in the foregoing paragraph. The perfect butterfly, which is very common throughout the country, is met with from the end of April to the end of May or beginning of June. * * * * * {94} THE WOOD-WHITE BUTTERFLY. (_Leucophasia Sinapis._) (Plate V. fig. 2.) A glance at the figure of this graceful little butterfly (on Plate V.) will suffice to distinguish it at once, and clearly, from all our other Whites. The most ordinary form of the insect is there represented, but there are specimens occasionally met with that have the blackish spot at the tip of the wings very much fainter; and sometimes, as in one that I possess, this spot is totally wanting. The shape of the wings in these is also different, being much rounder, and proportionately shorter, than in the ordinary shape. This difference in outline is, I believe, a sexual distinction, the more rounded form belonging to the female insect. The slender, fragile wings and the attenuated body of the Wood-white give it a look of almost ghostly lightness, and its manners befit its spectral aspect, for it seems to _haunt_ the still and lonely wood glades, flitting about slowly and restlessly, and being seldom seen to settle. From its weak flight, it is a very easy insect to capture. It appears to be addicted to early rising, _twenty-six_ specimens having been taken _one morning before breakfast_ by a gentleman at Grange, in North Lancashire. {95} The _caterpillar_ is green, striped on each side with yellow; it feeds on the Bird's-foot Trefoil, and other leguminous plants. The _chrysalis_ is shown on Plate I. fig. 18, and in shape somewhat approaches that of the Orange-tip. The _butterfly_ appears in May and August, and though by no means a common or generally distributed insect, is found--and sometimes abundantly--in many localities throughout the country, as far north as Carlisle; some of these are here given. Woods in neighbourhood of Brighton, Horsham (Sussex), Dorchester, New Forest, Exeter, Epping, West Wickham Wood, Monkswood, Huntingdonshire, Plymouth, Wavendon, Worcester, Kent and Surrey, Teignmouth, Gloucestershire, Carlisle, Lake District, Leicester, Manchester, North Lancashire. _Unknown in Scotland._ * * * * * THE MARBLED WHITE BUTTERFLY. (_Arge Galathea._) (Plate V. fig. 3.) This highly interesting and elegant insect would, by the uninitiated, probably be classed among the last group of Butterflies--the Whites--from the similarity in its colours; but from all those it may be readily distinguished by having _only four walking legs_ (instead of the _six_ which all our other white butterflies possess), {96} and also by the _eye-like_ spots most visible on the under side. The colouring may be described as consisting of nearly equal quantities of _black_ and _creamy-white_, or _pale yellow_, so arranged as to form a _marbled_ pattern of great richness. This description applies to the upper surface; on the under, the pale tint very much preponderates, many of the black masses of the upper side being here reduced to mere lines. Many an entomologist, whose hunting ground has been limited to a small district, has collected for years without once seeing this pretty creature on the wing; and then visiting another neighbourhood, perhaps not far distant, he will suddenly find it in profusion. I well remember the feelings of surprised delight with which, under these circumstances, I first made its acquaintance. The scene of the event was a grassy opening in a wooded hill-side in Kent, and here were literally hundreds visible at once, making the air all alive as they fluttered about in sportive groups: it was a sight not to be forgotten; while a hundred yards from this spot not a solitary one was to be seen, so closely limited is the local range of this species. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on grasses, like the rest of its tribe, is green, with yellowish stripes on each side, and has a reddish head and tail. The form is shown at fig. 3, Plate I.--a form common to all the tribe to which this species belongs. July and August are the months when we should {97} look for this charming butterfly, in wood clearings and meadows near woods. Some of the localities in which it has been observed are: Isle of Wight, Surrey Hills, Eastwell Park (Kent), Dover, Lewes, Brighton, Epping, Gloucestershire, Kingsbury, Darenth Wood, New Forest, Rockingham Park, Teignmouth, York, Barnwell Wold, South Wales. _Not known in Scotland._ * * * * * THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY. (_Lasiommata Egeria._) (Plate V. fig. 4.) Every one who has wandered through green woodland ridings, or coppiced paths, must be familiar with a lively, spotted brown insect that trips along just ahead of one, in a sociable way, for some distance, finding time to turn aside into the leafy recesses on either side without losing ground; then, having had enough of our company, mounting overhead, and retracing its course in the same playful way, and soon lost in the winding of the path. This is the Speckled Wood, or Wood Argus Butterfly, a very pretty insect on both sides, and receiving the latter name--Argus, "the many-eyed"--from the rows of rich black _eyes_ that grace its pinions. {98} Over nearly the whole of England it is to be met with commonly wherever there is wooded ground; but in several parts of Scotland it is quite unknown. The prevailing colour of the wings is deep brown, spotted with various shades of buff or lighter brown. The "eyes" are velvety black, with a pure white centre-spot. The _caterpillar_--a grass feeder--is dull green, with broad white side stripes. The _chrysalis_, which is of a beautiful grass-green colour, may be found in winter, under trees, attached to blades of grass. The _butterfly_ is out from April to August. * * * * * THE WALL BUTTERFLY. (_Lasiommata Megæra._) (Plate V. fig. 5.) The habits and movements of this pretty species much resemble those of the last; but the Wall Butterfly is a more sun-loving insect, and rather frequents road-sides and dry sunny banks. Still, there are many spots where one sees both the _Lasiommatas_ together. The colours on the upper side are a _rich tawny or fulvous ground_, with _dark-brown markings_, and pure {99} black eye-spots. The under side of the hind wings is pencilled with sober colours, but in a design of great beauty and delicacy; and especially to be admired are the double-ringed "eyes," a band of which runs parallel with the outer margin of the hind wings. The _caterpillar_ feeds on grasses; is green, with three pale lines down the back, and one more clearly marked on each side. The _butterfly_ appears in May, and again in August and September; and is everywhere common throughout the country. It is called the Wall Butterfly from its frequent habit of choosing a road-side _wall_ for a perch, whence, on the approach of man, it darts off; returning again, however, on the departure of the obnoxious person. * * * * * THE GRAYLING BUTTERFLY. (_Hipparchia Semele._) (Plate V. fig. 6, Female.) This fine insect is the largest _British_ species of the genus, and also of the family, some of the females measuring two inches and three-quarters from tip to tip across the expanded wings; and it also exhibits more vivacity of colouring than most of its brethren. Above, the wings are deep brown, marked with {100} broad patches of paler colour, sometimes making a bright contrast in the female, but much duller and more uniform in the male. The female also exceeds her lord considerably in stature, and, in fact, by her side he looks rather a mean and shabby fellow. The device on the under side of the hind wings, though composed of the plainest colours, is very ornamental; grey and brown are the prevailing hues, disposed in mottled bars and stripes, reminding one of agates, or some other ornamental stones. This butterfly is not everywhere to be found, but haunts rocky places and hill-sides, on a chalky or limestone soil. At St. Boniface's Down, in the Isle of Wight, I noticed it in such exceeding profusion last August, that I could quickly have caught thousands, had I been so disposed. Though a powerful-looking insect, its flight is by no means swift, and it suffers itself to be captured without difficulty. The _caterpillar_ is dull pinkish about the back, with three obscure grey-green stripes, a dark line on the sides, and greenish beneath. It feeds on grasses, and has been said to undergo its transformation to the chrysalis in the earth; but this point requires confirmation. The _butterfly_ is seen from the middle of July till the beginning of September. The following are localities for it:--Bembridge and Ventnor (Isle of Wight), Brighton, Lewes, New Forest, Exeter, Plymouth, Falmouth, Truro, Bristol, Dorsetshire, Salisbury Plain, Winchester, Worcester, Newmarket, Gamlingay, Isle of Arran, Arthur's Seat (Edinburgh), Durham, Darlington, Glasgow, Lake District. [Illustration: XI.] {101} THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY. (_Hipparchia Janira._) (Plate VI. fig. 1, Male; 1_a_, Female.) Perhaps of all our butterflies this is the least attractive, being too common to excite interest from its rarity or difficulty of attainment, as other dingy butterflies do, and too plain and homely to win regard, in spite of its commonness, as the beautiful "Small Tortoise-shell" and the Common Blues do. This is the sober brown insect that keeps up a constant fluttering, in sunshine and gloom, over the dry pasture land and barren hill-side; and perhaps it ought to find favour in our eyes, from this very fact of keeping up a cheerful spirit under circumstances the most unfavourable to butterfly enjoyment in general. The colouring of the _male_, on the upper side, may be described as a _sooty brown_, rather lighter about the eye-spot on the front wing. {102} The _female_ is a little smarter in her attire, having an orange-tawny patch on the front wing. Beneath, both sexes are nearly alike; the general colour of the front wing being fulvous, or orange-brown, with a cool-brown margin. The hind wings are marked with tints of a duller brown, varying much in distinctness in different specimens. The _caterpillar_ is green, with a white stripe on each side. Feeds on grasses. The _butterfly_ abounds almost everywhere, from June till the end of August. * * * * * THE LARGE HEATH BUTTERFLY. (_Hipparchia Tithonus._) (Plate VI. fig. 2, Male.) Though much less abundant than the last, this is another very common species, and met with throughout England and the _south_ of Scotland. The ground tint above is a _rich rust-colour_, or _orange-brown, bordered with dark-brown_; the base of the wings also slightly clouded with the same; and on each front wing, near the tip, there is a _black eye-spot_, with _two white_ dots. So far, both sexes are similar; but the _male_ has, in addition, a _bar of dark-brown across the centre of the rust-coloured space_, on the upper wing. This sex is that figured on the plate. {103} Underneath, there is a pretty arrangement of subdued colouring; that of the front wings nearly resembling the upper side; the lower wings clouded and spotted with russet-brown on a paler brown ground, the _dark rounded brown spots_ having _white_ centres; but there are _no black_ eye-spots on the hind wings. The _caterpillar_ is greenish-grey, with reddish head and two pale lines on each side and a dark one down the back. The _butterfly_, a feeble flier and easily captured, appears in July and August; its favourite resorts being heaths, dry fields, and lanes. It is sometimes called the _Small_ Meadow Brown, and the Gate-keeper. * * * * * THE RINGLET BUTTERFLY. (_Hipparchia Hyperanthus._) (Plate VI. fig. 3, Female.) This is one of those butterflies in which Nature, departing from her accustomed plan, has reserved the chief adornment of the wings for the _under_ surface, leaving the upper comparatively plain and unattractive. In both sexes the wings, above, are of a deep sepia brown, surrounded by a greyish white fringe, and bearing several black spots in paler rings, which rings are {104} much _less distinct_ in the _male_ than in the female, the sex figured in the plate. The under surface is of a soft russet ground, adorned with a wreath of the _ringlet_-spots from which the insect takes its common name. These are _black eye-spots_, white-centred and set in a clear ring of pale tawny colour. The most usual form and proportions of these spots are shown in the figure (with closed wings), but there are many varieties met with, the following being the most remarkable that have come under my notice. One, and not a very uncommon one, has _no light rings_ round the black spots on the under side. Another has the rings reduced to a range of mere light specks, the _black eye-spots being entirely absent_. Then again, another has the black _pupils_ exceedingly large and rich, forming a most elegant variety. The spots on the _upper_ side in the _male_ are sometimes quite imperceptible. The ground colour of the _upper_ side is occasionally of a pale drab or fawn colour. The _caterpillar_ of this species is very like that of the last in colouring, and feeds on the same grasses. The _butterfly_, which is out in June and July, is a common and widely distributed species, frequenting woods, shady corners of hedge-rows, &c. * * * * * {105} THE SCOTCH ARGUS BUTTERFLY. (_Erebia Blandina._) (Plate VI. fig. 4, Female.) The genus _Erebia_, to which this species belongs, is composed of a group of mountain butterflies, very numerous in the Alpine regions of the Continent, seventeen species being described as inhabiting the Alps; and, though only two have yet been discovered in this country (unless we admit _Ligea_, formerly taken in the Isle of Arran[10]), it is not at all improbable that others may be waiting for us in some of the mountain districts, if we will but look them up. Both tourists and, more especially, residents in those localities should be encouraged by the hope of adding a new species to our list to explore thoroughly the hill-sides and summits at various seasons of the year, as many of the species, besides being extremely local in their range, are only on the wing during a very short period of the year. The Scotch Argus is a pretty, though not brightly-coloured butterfly. The colour above is a deep rich brown, with a coppery or orange-red band on each wing, and each band has several (three or four usually) black eye-spots thereon. {106} On the under side, the front wings are nearly the same as on the upper side, showing the red patch and eyes plainly; but the hind wings are without the red patch, and are divided into broad bands of brownish tints, very variable, having sometimes a tendency to chocolate colour, sometimes to an olive or russet brown: but the stripe which is shown as lightest in the engraving of the under side is almost always greyer than the rest, having occasionally a purplish ash colour. On this band are some minute specks, occupying the places of the upper surface eyes. The number of eye-spots is very variable on both surfaces. The female, which is the sex figured, is both larger than the male and has the reddish band of a brighter colour. The _caterpillar_, whose food plant is unknown, is stated by Duncan to be "light green, with brown and white longitudinal stripes; head reddish." The _butterfly_ appears in August and September. A few years ago it was esteemed a rare insect, but it has since been found in plenty in some of the following localities, the list of which would doubtless be largely added to by further research in the northern hilly districts, its chosen haunts. Near Edinburgh; near Minto, in Roxburghshire; Isle of Arran; Bræmar; near Newcastle; Castle Eden Dene; Durham; Craven; Wharfedale. {107} At Grange, in North Lancashire, this "rarity" is a common garden butterfly, according to Mr. C. S. Gregson. * * * * * THE MOUNTAIN RINGLET BUTTERFLY. (_Erebia Cassiope._) (Plate VI. fig. 5.) A few years ago this little butterfly was esteemed one of the greatest of British rarities. The first well authenticated specimens were discovered and captured in Westmoreland by that distinguished artist, T. Stothard, R.A.; then for several years no more were taken, and the very existence of the butterfly in Britain was questioned. Since that time, however, its peculiar haunts among the mountains of Cumberland and Westmoreland have been rediscovered, and great numbers have been captured by various collectors. It is only found in very elevated situations, flying about the moist, springy spots that abound on these mountain sides, and in many spots the insect is very plentiful, within a limited range. Mr. Curtis says, "They only fly when the sun shines, and their flight is neither swift nor continued, for they frequently alight among the grass, and falling down to the roots, their sombre colour perfectly conceals them." The following notice of their locality, &c. from {108} personal observation, is quoted from a communication to the _Intelligencer_, by a well-known entomologist, Mr. R. S. Edleston, of Manchester. He says:-- "I and my friend, Mr. Hugh Harrison, in the middle of June made the ascent to Sty Head Tarn; for the first time in my experience, the weather was everything we could desire--calm and sunshine; this, combined with the dry season of last year and the long drought for months during this, enabled us to collect on ground in other years a dangerous morass. The result was, we captured _Cassiope_ in abundance, some of them in superb condition, just emerged from the chrysalis. A very short time on the wing suffices to injure them. They vary considerably in the development of the black spots on the fulvous patch, almost obsolete in some through all gradations to the fullest development; the patch varies in like manner, and also in form; lastly, they vary in size." The caterpillar is yet _unknown_. The _butterfly_ has the wings above of a dark brown colour. Each wing bears near its extremity a bar of deep but dull red, divided into sections where the brown veins cross. In each section is usually a black spot, but sometimes these are absent, and a few red spots take the place of the bar. The hind wings are smoothly rounded in their outline, and not toothed or scalloped as in the last species (_Blandina_). The _males_ generally appear towards the end of June, but a few sometimes earlier. The females, however, come later. {109} being found in July, and some even as late as August. The following localities for it are recorded:--Rannoch, Perthshire; Lake District; Sty Head Tarn; Langdale Pikes; Red Skrees Mountains, near Ambleside; Gable Hill. But other stations for it will probably be added to our list in time. * * * * * THE MARSH RINGLET, OR SMALL RINGLET BUTTERFLY. (_Coenonympha Davus._) (Plate VI. fig. 6.) This species, which is another North-country butterfly, varies so much in its colouring of sober drab or brown, with black eye-spots, that its varieties have been described as distinct species under the names of _C. Polydama_, _Typhon_, and _Iphis_, now, however, all placed together under the name of _Davus_. These variations appear to depend in great measure upon local differences of elevation, latitude, &c. From this excessive variability also it is very difficult to give a clear _general_ description of the markings, though the insect may be distinguished from other British species that approach it in appearance by the obscure yellowish-drab tint of the upper surface, marked with indistinct eye-spots, and more especially by having on the under surface of the hind wings an _irregular_ {110} _whitish_ band across the centre, and outside of this a row of about six clearly defined black eye-spots with white centres, situated each in a pale ochreous ring. The _butterfly_, which appears in June and July, is exclusively met with in the North (including North Wales), and inhabits the moors and marshy heaths, or "mosses," in a great many localities in Scotland and the northern counties. The following are among those recorded:-- SCOTLAND.--Shetland Isles; Isle of Arran; Pentland Hills; Ben Nevis; Ben Lomond, near Oban; Ben More. ENGLAND.--Lake District of Cumberland; Yorkshire; Beverley; Cottingham; Hatfield Chase; Thorne Moor; White Moss, Trafford Moss, Chat Moss, near Manchester; Chartly Park, near Uttoxeter; Delmere Forest, Cheshire; between Stockport and Ashton; near Cromer, in Norfolk; near Glandford Brigg, Lincolnshire. IRELAND.--Donegal mountains. NORTH WALES.--Between Bala and Ffestiniog. Ashdown Forest, in Sussex, has been given as a locality, on doubtful authority, certainly; but from what I have seen and know of that district and its productions, I think it is not at all impossible that _Davus_ may be really found there. We have there, at any rate, the heath-covered, yet swampy, moorlands that the insect loves, and also in plenty the plants one finds most abundant in the northern moorlands; such {111} as Vacciniums, Cotton-grasses, the three common Heaths, &c. &c. with great variety in the elevation, some of the ground lying very high. * * * * * THE SMALL HEATH BUTTERFLY. (_Coenonympha Pamphilus._) (Plate VI. fig. 7.) This is the pretty little tawny-coloured butterfly that mixes with the sportive group of "Blues," Meadow Browns, &c. on heaths, downs, and grassy fields. The general colour of the upper surface is a tawny yellow or buff, shaded with a darker tint of brown at the edges and at the bases of the hind wings. On the under side it may be distinguished from _C. Davus_ by the _absence of the clearly defined black eye-spots_ which the latter has. It is usually much inferior in size to the last. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on the common grasses, is of a bright apple-green colour, with three darker green stripes bordered with a whitish tint, the largest stripe being that on the back. The _butterfly_ abounds all over the country, from June till September. * * * * * {112} THE WHITE ADMIRAL. (_Limenitis Sybilla._) (Plate VII. fig. 1.) This elegant butterfly is one of those in which the choicest ornamentation is bestowed upon the _under_ surface, to the comparative neglect of the upper. Above, a dark sepia-brown tint, banded and spotted with white, is all that greets the eye; but beneath there is a piece of the most exquisitely harmonious colouring, though the hues that compose it are still of a subdued and secondary nature;--silvery blue, and golden brown blended with a cooler brown and black, are placed in vivacious contrast with bands and spots of pure silvery white. The _caterpillar_ (Plate I. fig. 4), which feeds on the Honeysuckle, is a pretty and singular looking creature; general colour bright green, with reddish branched spines, and white and brown side-stripes. The _chrysalis_ (Plate I. fig. 21) is also a very beautiful and curious object, very knobby and angular, of dark green general colour, and ornamented with _bright silver_ spots and stripes. The _butterfly_ is found from the end of June till the end of July; its favourite resorts being oak-woods in the southern counties. {113} Localities:--Colchester; Epping; Hartley Wood, near St. Osyth, Essex; near Rye, and in other parts of Sussex; at several places in Kent; near Winchester; and in Black Park, where Dr. Allchin informs me he took a large number in one day. The superlatively graceful motions of this butterfly on the wing, as it comes floating and sailing through the wood openings, have long been celebrated; and the story has been often quoted from Haworth, of the old fly-fancier, who, long after he had become too feeble and stiff-jointed to pursue or net a butterfly, used to go and sit on a stile which commanded a well-known resort of his favourite _Sybilla_, and there, for hours together, would he feast his eyes on the sight of her inimitably elegant evolutions. * * * * * THE PURPLE EMPEROR. (_Apatura Iris._) (Plate VII. fig. 2.) By universal suffrage, the place of highest rank among the butterflies of Britain has been accorded to this splendid insect, who merits his imperial title by reason of his robe of royal purple, the lofty throne he assumes, and the boldness and elevation of his flight. A glimpse of this august personage on the wing is enough to fire the collector with enthusiastic ambition {114} for his capture; sometimes a matter of the easiest accomplishment, sometimes just as hopelessly impossible, according to his majesty's humour of the moment. Cowardice is not one of his attributes, and if he has formed a preference for any especial spot, he will risk loss of liberty and life rather than forsake it. The old mode of capturing this prize was by a ring net fixed at the end of a pole some twenty or thirty feet long, and so sweeping him off as he sat on his leafy throne, or in one of his evolutions when he quitted his seat for a turn in the air. This method still is practised, and succeeds occasionally, but the weapon is an unwieldy one, both in use, and for carriage to the place of action; and science has now placed in our power another plan, by means of which I believe that by far the greater number of recent captures have been made. The plan alluded to, is to take advantage of the creature's royal taste for game--for in that light I take his predilection for decomposing animal matter, now a matter of notoriety; and so potent is the attraction of the _haut-goût_ for the royal palate, that if any animal, or part of one, not too recently slaughtered, be suspended near the known haunts of the insect, ten to one but its savour will bring him down to earth to taste the luxurious morsel, and so engrossed does he become when thus engaged, that he may be swept off by the net without difficulty. In the space of two or three days large numbers of Emperors have been caught by means {115} of this novel and singular trap, and the seemingly coarse and unbutterfly-like taste that leads them to it. The wings of the male only have that splendid glow of changing purple that gives him his name and honours, the empress having in its place a sober garb of brown; she, however, considerably exceeds her lord in dimensions and expanse of wing. From her stay-at-home habits, sitting all day in her oak-leaf bower, she is comparatively seldom seen or captured. I believe collectors generally take about ten males to one female. On the under side the colouring of both sexes is similar, and affords a striking contrast to the dark upper surface, having the white markings arranged as on the upper side, but rather broader; and, instead of the dark brown or purple, a lively pattern of orange-brown, greyish brown, and black. On the front wing is a purple-centred eye-spot, and a smaller one is seen near the lower angle of the hind wing. The firm, muscular appearance of the wings, gives promise of great strength in those organs, fully borne out in the powerful and bird-like flight of the creature, who has also a habit of soaring, about midday, to vast heights in the air, and there engaging in contests, sportive or pugnacious, with his brother, or rival, Emperors. In the _caterpillar_ state also the Purple Emperor is a remarkable creature, of the form shown in Plate I. fig. 5, bright green, striped with yellow on each side, and bearing on his head a pair of horns or tentacles. {116} Though the perfect insect is chiefly found on the oak, the caterpillar feeds generally on the broad-leaved Sallow, though it has been occasionally found on the Poplar. The _chrysalis_, which may be found on the same trees, suspended to the under side of a leaf, is shown at Fig. 22, Plate I. and is of a light green colour. The _butterfly_ appears in July, and is found in oak woods in many localities of the South. The following are a few of these:--Near Colchester, extremely abundant, Epping, Great and Little Stour Woods; Kettering, Barnwell Wold, Northamptonshire; Bourne, Lincoln; Leicester; Reading, Newbury, Berks; Herefordshire; Forest of Dean, Monmouthshire; Warwickshire; Suffolk; Monkswood, Hunts; Clapham Park Wood, Beds; Darenth Wood, Chatham, Tenterden; Ticehurst, Balcombe, Tilgate Forest, Arundel, near Brighton; Lyndhurst; Stowmarket; Isle of Wight. [Illustration: XII.] {117} THE PAINTED LADY. (_Cynthia Cardui._) (Plate VII. fig. 3.) We now come to a very natural group of butterflies, rich, and often gorgeous, in their colouring, and having, both in their perfect and preparatory states, many characteristics in common, in point of habits, as well as of appearance and construction. The caterpillars are all thorny, and the chrysalides are adorned with brilliant metallic (generally _golden_) spots, from which appearance was derived the name "_chrysalis_,"[11] since applied, but somewhat improperly, to the _pupæ_ of _all_ butterflies. This golden effect is produced by a brilliant white membrane underlying the transparent yellow outer skin of the chrysalis, and it may be imitated, as discovered by Lister many years ago, "by putting a small piece of black gall in a strong decoction of nettles; this produces a scum which, when left on cap-paper, will exquisitely gild it, without the application of the real metal." The present species is a highly elegant insect, well named the Painted Lady, and in France the "_Belle Dame_." The colouring of the upper surface is composed of black and very dark brown, with irregular markings of an orange red, tinged partially with a rosy hue. Near the tip of the front wings are several pure white spots. Beneath, the great beauty lies in the delicate pencilling of the hind wing with pearly greys and browns, and contrasted with this, the warm roseate blush and aurora tint on the upper wing. The _caterpillar_ is thorny and brown, with yellow stripes down the back and sides. It feeds on various {118} species of thistle, but sometimes also on the nettle and other plants. The _chrysalis_ is brown and grey, with silver spots. The butterfly first appears about the end of July, and is seen till the end of September, and occasionally in October. I took a beautiful fresh specimen in _October_, while strolling through a nursery garden at Wandsworth. Those seen in early spring are _hybernated_ specimens. The appearance of this butterfly in any given locality is a matter of great uncertainty, though it capriciously visits, and even abounds occasionally in almost every place. It is a bold insect, and, though agile in its movements, not difficult to catch, for, if disturbed or missed at the first stroke, it returns to the charge quite fearlessly. * * * * * THE RED ADMIRAL. (_Vanessa Atalanta._) (Plate VIII. fig. 1.) In grand simplicity and vividness of colour, the Red Admiral perhaps surpasses every other British butterfly, and reminds one forcibly of some of the gorgeous denizens of the tropics. Intense black and brilliant scarlet in bands and borders are the two chief elements {119} of this splendour, relieved delightfully by the cool white spots at the outer and upper corners, and by the choice little bits of blue at the inner and lower angles and near the margins. The painting of the under surface entirely beggars description. There is, in addition to the red band, a good deal of blue on the upper wing, and the lower wing is covered by an intricate embroidery of indescribable tints--all manner of browns, and greys, and blacks, with golden and other hues of metals, are here pencilled and blended with magic effect. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on the common nettle, is thorny, yellowish grey in colour, with light yellow lines on each side and black markings. The _chrysalis_ is brownish, with gold spots. The butterfly usually comes out in August, and may be met with till early in October. The hybernated specimens of this are more rarely seen than those of any of the other common _Vanessas_. Like others of its genus, the Red Admiral is familiar, and even saucy, in its manners, seeming to prefer the haunts of men to the solitudes that other insects love, flaunting boldly before our face in gardens and highways, where most we meet it. It is found commonly all over the country. * * * * * {120} THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY. (_Vanessa Io._) (Plate VIII. fig. 2.) The form and markings of this species, so distinct from every other of our butterflies, will be seen by reference to the plate; and as to its colouring, I will not do it the injustice to attempt a description of its rich perfection, more especially as almost every reader may hope to add the insect to his collection during his first year's hunting, and then he can study its beauties for himself. The under side, however, presents a remarkable contrast to the splendour of the reverse, being covered with shades and streaks of funereal blacks and browns. This affords a strange effect when the insect, sitting on a flower head, alternately opens and shuts the wings with a fanning motion, according to its custom. The _caterpillar_ (Plate I. fig. 6), which feeds gregariously upon the nettle, is black, dotted with white, and thorny. The _chrysalis_ is greenish, with gold spots. The _butterfly_, which is common in nearly every part of England, comes out in August and September, the individuals met with not unfrequently in the spring having hybernated. Mr. Doubleday writes thus to the _Zoologist_ regarding the winter retreats of butterflies of this genus:--"Last {121} winter some large stacks of beech faggots, which had been loosely stacked up in our forest (_Epping_) the preceding spring, with the dead leaves adhering to them, were taken down and carted away, and among these were many scores of _Io_, _Urticæ_, and _Polychloros_." In Scotland this is generally a very rare butterfly, but has latterly been abundant in Dumfriesshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. * * * * * THE CAMBERWELL BEAUTY. (_Vanessa Antiopa._) (Plate VIII. fig. 3.) Many years ago, when Camberwell was a real village, luxuriating in its willows, the entomologists of the day were delighted by the apparition, in that suburb, of this well-named "Beauty," whose name since then has always been associated with Camberwell--certainly not a promising place in the present day for a butterfly hunt, for, though it has its "beauties" still, they are not of the lepidopterous order, nor game for any net that the entomologist usually carries. Since then it has been found at intervals, and in very variable abundance, in a wide range of localities. The arrangement of colours in this butterfly is most remarkable and unusual, by reason of the sudden contrast between the pale whitish border and the velvet depth of the colours it encloses. {122} The inmost portion of all the wings is a deep rich chocolate brown, then comes a band of black, including a row of large blue spots, and succeeded by an outer border of pale yellow tint, partially dappled with black specks. The _caterpillar_ feeds on the _willow_ (which accounts for its former appearance in Camberwell). It is thorny, black, with white dots, and a row of large red spots down the back. The _chrysalis_ is very angular, and blackish with tawny spots. The butterfly comes out of the chrysalis late in the autumn, and is seen from August till October; but a great proportion of those observed in this country have survived the winter, and have been seen abroad again in the spring. It has been frequently seen feasting on over-ripe or rotten fruit, and at such times may be often surprised and captured with ease. No spot can be pointed out where one can _expect_ to meet with this fine insect; but it has appeared singly at intervals in the following localities among others:--Scotland, Ayrshire; Durham; Scarborough; York; Darlington; Sheffield; Manchester; Lake District; Appleby; Coventry; Peterborough; Oxford; Burton-on-Trent; Norfolk; Lincolnshire; Suffolk; Bristol; Ely; Shrewsbury; Plymouth; Teignmouth; Kent; Ashford; Bromley; Tenterden; Ramsgate; various places in neighbourhood of London; Epping; Hampshire; Isle of Wight; Lewes; Worthing. {123} On the Continent this is a common butterfly, in many places being the most abundant of all the _Vanessas_. * * * * * THE LARGE TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY. (_Vanessa Polychloros._) (Plate IX. fig. 1.) The beginner often has a slight difficulty in finding a good and permanent distinction between this species and the next (_V. Urticæ_). At the first blush, the superior size of this seems to be a sufficient mark, and then the orange of the wings has usually a much browner, or more tawny hue, than that of _Urticæ_; but as I have seen specimens of _Polychloros absolutely smaller_ than some very large _Urticæ's_, and as the colour of both occasionally varies, so that they approach each other in this respect also, it is evident we must look for some better mark of distinction; and here _is_ one. In _Polychloros_, _all_ the light markings between the black spots on the upper edge of the front wing are _yellow_, whereas in _Urticæ_ the _outer one next the blue and black border is pure pearly_ WHITE. The two other marks on the front edge are yellow. _Polychloros_ has also, near the _lower corner of the front wing, an extra black spot_, not found in _Urticæ_. The blue spots on the border are in this species almost confined to the hind wings. {124} The _caterpillar_ generally feeds on the elm, whence the butterfly is occasionally called the "Elm Butterfly," but it has also been found on the willow, and on the white beam-tree. Mr. Boscher of Twickenham informs me that the specimens he has bred from caterpillars fed on the _willow_ have been all far below the average size. The caterpillar is thorny, and of a tawny colour, broadly striped with black along each side. The _chrysalis_ is of a dull flesh colour, with golden spots. The _butterfly_ makes its appearance in July and August, _hybernated_ specimens being also frequently seen in the spring, from March till May. In some places and seasons it is not rare, but is very uncertain in its appearance, abounding most in the southern districts, and being almost unknown in Scotland. It is fond of gardens and other frequented places. * * * * * THE SMALL TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY. (_Vanessa Urticæ._) (Plate IX. fig. 2.) This pretty species is much commoner than the last, being, in fact, the most plentiful of all the _genus_, and found everywhere, in gardens, by weedy road-sides and waste grounds, &c. Its markings are very similar to those of the last, but the colouring is much more gay and brilliant. {125} The distinguishing mark of this species--the possession of a pure _white_ spot near the upper corner of the front wing--has been already pointed out under _V. Polychloros_. The blue crescent-spots of the border are much more marked than in the last, and extend along the edge of the front wing. The orange colour also approaches a _scarlet_, and the yellow spots have a brighter hue than in _Polychloros_. The _caterpillar_, which is found feeding in large companies on the nettle, is of greyish colour, with a black line on the back, and brown and yellow stripes on the sides. Thorny, like rest of the genus. The _chrysalis_ is generally of a brown hue, spotted with gold, but I have seen it gilded all over, making a very splendid appearance. Hybernated individuals of this butterfly are seen during the spring months, but the first emergence from the chrysalis takes place in June, and the insect is seen on the wing constantly from that time till October. The following interesting notice of the capture of a swarm of these butterflies in _mid-winter_, is quoted, from the _Zoologist_, p. 5000. The writer is a Mr. Banning, resident near Ballacraine, in the Isle of Man:-- "Whilst standing in my farm-yard on the day following Christmas-day (1855), it being unusually fine and warm, I was suddenly astonished by the fall of {126} more than a hundred of the accompanying butterflies (_V. Urticæ_). I commenced at once collecting them, and succeeded in securing more than sixty. These I have fed on sugar spread over cabbage-leaves and bran until now, and, to all appearances, those which still survive (more than forty in number) are thriving well, and in good condition." * * * * * THE COMMA BUTTERFLY. (_Grapta C. Album._) (Plate IX. fig. 3.) The singularly jagged outline of this butterfly at once distinguishes it from every other native species, though, did we not know it as a distinct species, it might have been taken for one of the two previous species very much stunted, deformed, and torn, so similar is it in colour and the plan of its markings. The upper surface is deep fulvous, or rusty orange, and marked with black and dark brown. In different individuals, the under side varies greatly in its tints and markings, especially near the border of the wings, which are sometimes of a deep rich olive brown, sometimes pale tawny. They all agree, however, in bearing in the centre of the hind wings the character from which the insect takes its specific name, viz. a white mark in form of the letter C, which has also been likened with less justice to a , whence its English name of "Comma." {127} The female is of a paler tint than the male, and the edges of the wings are less deeply scalloped and cut. The figure is that of a male. The _caterpillar_ is tawny-coloured; but the back, for about the hinder half its length, is whitish; head black. The body is armed with short spines, and there are two ear-like tubercles projecting from the side of the head. It has been found feeding on the elm, willow, sloe, currant, nettle, and hop. The _chrysalis_ is of the curious shape shown at fig. 24, Plate I.; of a brownish tint, with gold spots. The _butterfly_ appears in July and August, and hybernated individuals in the spring, up till May. Its range seems to be nearly confined to the Midland and Western districts. It was formerly found near London, and in other places, whence it has now disappeared. The following localities are given for it:--Carlisle and the Lake district, York, Green Hammerton (Yorkshire), Doncaster, Broomsgrove (Worcestershire), Warwickshire, Peterborough, Scarborough, Barnwell Wold (Northamptonshire), Bristol, Gloucester, Dorchester. I found it very plentiful on the banks of the Wye, in 1858; and in the following May I took one in South Wales, at Pont-y-Pridd. In Scotland, Fifeshire has been mentioned as a locality. This is a rapid flyer, and not very easily caught when fresh on the wing. * * * * * {128} THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia._) (Plate IX. fig. 4, Male; 4 _a_, Female.) The beautiful genus to which this butterfly belongs is distinguished by the adornment of silvery spots and streaks with which the under side of the hind wings is bedight; while the upper surface is chequered with black, upon a rich golden-brown ground, the device reminding one of those old-fashioned chequered flowers called "fritillaries," whence the common name of these butterflies. Of all the British Fritillaries, this is, perhaps, the loveliest, from the exquisite softness and harmony of the silvery pencillings on the iridescent green of the under side; though some of the others with bright silver _spots_ are gayer and more sparkling. The two sexes differ considerably on the upper surface; the _male_ being marked with black (as in the engraving) upon a bright orange-brown ground, while the _female_ is without the broad black borders to the veins of the front wings, and the ground colour is suffused with an olive-brown tint, inclining sometimes to green. The black spots are also larger. Beneath, however, both sexes are marked nearly alike with _washy streaks of silver_, and not with defined spots. {129} The _caterpillar_ (fig. 7, Plate I.), as with all the Fritillaries, is thorny, with two spines behind the head longer than the rest; black, with yellow lines along the back and sides. It feeds on violet leaves, also on the wild raspberry and nettle. The _chrysalis_ (fig. 16, Plate I.) is greyish, with the tubercles silvered or gilt. The _butterfly_ is out in July and August, and is not rare in the woods of the South and Midland districts, but it also extends its range into Scotland. On the banks of Wye, about Tintern and Monmouth, I found it extremely abundant. It has been seen swarming in a teasel-field, near Selby, Yorkshire. Its predilection for settling on bramble sprays has been alluded to on page 47. * * * * * THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY. (_Argynnis Aglaia._) (Plate X. fig. 1, Male.) This is a handsomely-marked insect--orange-brown, chequered with black, above. Beneath, the _front wing_ is coloured nearly as above, _but bears near the tip several silvery spots_. The hind wing is splendidly studded with rounded spots of silver, on a ground partly tawny, partly olive-green and brown. The _male_ is the sex {130} represented, the female being darker above, both as to the ground colour and markings. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on the dog-violet, is very similar to that of the last; as also is the _chrysalis_. The _butterfly_ is out in July and part of August, and may be seen in a variety of situations, from the breezy tops of heathy downs, to close-grown forest-lands in the valleys; and it seems to be distributed over the whole of the country, occurring in widely distant localities, from the south coast to Scotland. * * * * * THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY. (_Argynnis Adippe._) (Plate X. fig. 2.) On the upper surface, this insect so closely resembles the last, that it is difficult in a description to discriminate between them; but _beneath_, the two are distinguished by the _absence in Adippe of the silvery spots near the tip of the front wing_; and though there is some similarity in the arrangement of the silver spots on the hind wing, and in its general colouring, _Adippe_ is distinguished by a row of rust-red spots, with small silvery centres, between the silver border spots and the next row inwards. By comparing the figures of the under sides of _Adippe_ and _Aglaia_, these will be readily made out. {131} The _caterpillar_ is thorny, greyish, with black spots on the back, intersected by a white line. Feeds on the violet. The _chrysalis_ is reddish, spotted with silver. The _butterfly_ appears in July, in many open places, in woods, and on heaths, in various parts of England, but most plentifully in the south. Like the last species, it is an active and wary insect on the wing, and requires considerable agility and dexterity for its capture. * * * * * THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY. (_Argynnis Lathonia._) (Plate X. fig. 3.) This splendid little species is one of the prize-flies of the collector--that is, if the specimen be an undoubted native; for while a "Queen of Spain" taken within our shores will command a considerable sum of money in the market, another, precisely similar, but brought over from the opposite French coast, may be bought for a very few pence; but the mode of carriage, you see, makes all the difference, and the value of the insect depends entirely upon whether its own wings or a steam-boat have brought it over the Channel. So much for "the fancy." When figured side by side with the other Fritillaries, this species looks distinct enough from any of them; {132} but it has been several times confounded with small specimens of _Adippe_ and with _Euphrosyne_, and its capture has thereupon been erroneously published; but this must have been the effect of a description imperfectly written or read. It will be observed that the form of the front wings differs in this from the rest of the Fritillaries, the outer margin being _concave_ in its outline. The inner corner of the hind wings also is more sharply angular. Above, the colouring of the wings is similar to that of the others of the genus, tawny-brown and black. Beneath, the front wing has a group of silver spots near the tip, the ground colour of the hind wing is yellowish, and the silver spots are proportionately larger than in the other species; _near the margin of the hind wing_, and parallel with its edge, are _seven dark-brown spots with silver centres_. The _caterpillar_ is brown, striped with white, and yellowish tint; head, legs, and thorns, tawny coloured. It feeds on the wild heartsease, also on sainfoin and borage. The _chrysalis_ is tinted with dull-green and brown, and spotted with gold. The _butterfly_ is said to be double-brooded--one brood appearing in June, the other in September. The most likely places in which to look for it are clover fields in the south of England, and more especially on the south-east coast. Though still classed among the rarest of British butterflies, it has been found in a great many localities. It has been taken at Brighton; Shoreham; Eastbourne; Dover; Margate; Ashford; Chatham; Exeter; Bristol; Harleston, near Norwich; Colchester; Lavenham; Peterborough. [Illustration: XIII.] {133} THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. (_Argynnis Euphrosyne._) (Plate X. fig. 4.) This very common insect is considerably smaller than any of the preceding species, though small specimens of the last sometimes do not much exceed it in size. The upper surface is lively orange-brown, with black markings. Beneath, the _hind wing_ is mapped out with black lines into various irregular spaces, _all_ of which are filled with tints of dull yellow, ochreous, or reddish orange; excepting a row of silver spots on the border, _one silver spot in the centre of the wing_, and _one_ triangular one close to the root of the wing. The _caterpillar_ is black, with white lines; and the pro-legs red. It feeds on various species of _viola_. The _butterfly_ appears first in May, and there is another brood in autumn, about August. It frequents woods and hedgerows, being met with most profusely in the south; but its range is extended into Scotland. In Ireland I believe it is unknown. * * * * * {134} THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. (_Argynnis Selene._) (Plate XI. fig. 1.) This butterfly, which is very nearly related to the last, often so closely resembles it in the marking of the upper surface, that even practised eyes are sometimes at a loss to distinguish the two, without a reference to the under side; for on this side do the real distinctive marks lie, and chiefly on the hind wing. In addition to the silver border and central spots of _Euphrosyne_, this species has several other silvery or pearly patches distributed over the hind wing; and the reddish-orange colour adjoining the silver border in _Euphrosyne_ is exchanged for dark chestnut-brown in _Selene_. In average size the two insects differ very slightly, though the name of this expresses an inferior size. The _caterpillar_ much resembles that of the last, and feeds on violet-leaves. The _chrysalis_ is greyish. The _butterfly_ is double-brooded, appearing first in May and again in August. It is not so common an insect as _Euphrosyne_, but is met with in similar situations, and has a range nearly co-extensive with that of the latter. * * * * * {135} THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY. (_Melitæa Cinxia._) (Plate XI. fig. 2.) Though usually rather abundant where it occurs at all, this insect is one of the most local of all our butterflies, and I can only find recorded about a dozen places for it in the country. Of these, the Isle of Wight is the great metropolis of the insect, and there, in many places round the coast, numerous colonies have been established. This butterfly is distinguished from the next (_M. Athalia_), which it very much resembles, principally by the characters on the under surface. The hind wing (beneath) is covered with alternate bands of bright straw-colour and orange-brown, divided by black lines; and possesses in _the marginal straw-coloured band a row of clear_ BLACK SPOTS. Another row of black spots crosses the centre of the wing. It will also be observed that the _hind wings_ have on _their upper surface a row of black spots_ parallel with, and not far from, the margin. The colouring of the upper side is orange-brown with black markings. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on the narrow-leaved plantain, is thorny and black, with reddish head and legs. The chrysalis is brownish, marked with fulvous tint. A highly interesting account of the habits and {136} history of this butterfly in all its stages has been sketched from the life by the Rev. J. F. Dawson (who has made an intimate acquaintance with a colony of the insect at Sandown, Isle of Wight), and will be found in the _Zoologist_, p. 1271. The _butterfly_ first appears about the first or second week in May, and thence continues till about the middle of June, seldom enduring till July. It is to be looked for in rough, broken ground, such as the Isle of Wight landslips, where plenty of the narrow-leaved plantain grows. Other localities for the Glanville Fritillary are, Folkestone below West-Cliff (abundant); round Dover; Birchwood; Dartford, Kent; Stapleford, near Cambridge; Yorkshire; Lincolnshire; Wiltshire; Peterboro', Stowmarket; and in Scotland, at Falkland in Fifeshire. * * * * * THE PEARL-BORDERED LIKENESS FRITILLARY. (_Melitæa Athalia._) (Plate XI. fig. 3.) This is another very local butterfly, though rather more widely and generally distributed than the last, which, as before stated, it greatly resembles in appearance, especially on the upper side. {137} It may be characterised negatively as _not_ having the rows of black spots found on both surfaces of _Cinxia_, though its colouring is very similar--fulvous (or orange-brown) and black above; straw-coloured, fulvous, and black beneath. The _caterpillar_ is black, with rust-coloured spines; and feeds on various species of plantain. The _butterfly_ is out from May to July, and is met with (if at all) on heaths, clearings in woods, &c. Localities, in some of which it is very plentiful, are, Caen Wood; Coombe Wood; Epping; Halton, Bucks; Bedford; Aspley Wood, Beds; Plymouth, Teignmouth, Stowmarket, Dartmoor, Devonshire; Oxford; Wiltshire; Colchester; St. Osyth; Tenterden; Faversham; Deal; Canterbury. Very rare in north of England. * * * * * THE GREASY OR MARSH FRITILLARY. (_Melitæa Artemis._) (Plate XI. fig. 4.) The _black_ markings on the upper side of this butterfly closely approach those of the last two species, but the interstices, instead of being filled up with a _uniform fulvous tint_, as in those, are "coloured in" with _several distinct shades_, some with _pale tawny yellow_, others with _deep orange brown_. This latter tint forms a band parallel {138} to the outer margin of each wing, the band on the front wings having a row of pale spots in it; that on the hind wings a row of black spots. _Beneath_, the upper wing has an appearance of the markings having been "smudged" together, and a shining surface, as if it had been greased, whence the common name of the insect; the hinder wings are like those of the two last, yellowish, banded with brownish orange, the outer band of which bears a _series of black spots each surrounded by a pale yellowish ring_. The _front_ edge of the front wing is slightly _concave_ in its outline, about the middle, whereas it is _convex_ in _Cinxia_ and _Athalia_. The _caterpillar_ is black, with reddish brown legs. It is gregarious, feeding under protection of a web upon the leaves of plantain, devils-bit scabious, and some other plants. The _chrysalis_ is drabbish, with darker spots, and is said to suspend itself by the tail from the top of a tent-like structure made of blades of grass spun together at the top. The _butterfly_ appears in June (sometimes a little earlier or later), and frequents marshy meadows, moist woods, &c., but is a very local insect, abounding most in the south. The specimens, however, that I have seen from the north, are much larger, brighter, and more distinctly marked than the "southerners." The nearest localities to London are, Hornsey, and Copthall Wood at the top of Muswell Hill; West Wickham Wood, and {139} High-Beech (Epping). It is also found near Brighton (plentifully); Carlisle; Durham; Burton-on-Trent; York; Haverfordwest, S. W.; Cardiff, S. W.; Weston-super-Mare; Bristol; and a great number of other places distributed throughout the country. In Ireland at Ardrahan, co. Galway. Rare in Scotland. * * * * * THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY. (_Nemeobius Lucina._) (Plate XI. fig. 5.) Though this little insect bears the name of _Fritillary_, at the end of its lengthy and important title, it really belongs to a family widely differing from that of any of the true Fritillaries previously described, and it only shared their name on account of its similarity in colour and markings. The _caterpillar_ (Plate I. fig. 8), instead of being long and thorny like those of the true Fritillaries, is _short, thick, and wood-louse shaped_. Its colour is reddish brown, with tufts of hair of the same colour. It feeds on the primrose. The _chrysalis_ differs from that of the true Fritillaries as much as the caterpillar does, being of the form, and suspended in the manner, shown at fig. 25, Plate I. The _butterfly_ is chequered on the upper surface with {140} tawny, and dark brown or black. It appears in May and June, and again in August, being found in woods, principally in the south, and its range is often confined to a small spot hardly fifty yards in diameter, within which it may be quite plentiful. The following are among its recorded localities:--Carlisle; Lake District; West Yorkshire; Roche Abbey, Yorkshire; Peterborough; Stowmarket; Pembury; Barnwell Wold, Northants; Oxford; Blandford; Worcester; Gloucestershire; Bedfordshire; Epping; Coombe Wood; Darenth Wood; Boxhill; Dorking; Brighton; Lewes; Worthing; Lyndhurst; Teignmouth. The _males_ of all the members of the family to which this butterfly belongs, and of which this is the sole European representative--_the_ ERYCINIDÆ--have only _four_ legs adapted for walking, whilst the _females_ have _six_. * * * * * THE BROWN HAIR-STREAK. (_Thecla Betulæ._) (Plate XII. fig. 1, Male; 1 _a_, Female.) The genus to which this butterfly belongs, contains five British species, elegant and interesting insects, though not gaily tinted. They are most obviously distinguished from other small butterflies by the _tail-like_ projection on the lower edge of their hind wings (though one of their {141} number, _T. Rubi_, has this very slightly developed). From each other they are best distinguished by the characters on their under surface, where they all bear a more or less distinct _hair_-like _streak_, whence their common name--Hair-streak. The Brown Hair-streak is the largest of the genus, measuring sometimes an inch and two-thirds in expanse. The two sexes differ considerably on the upper surface, the male being of a deep brown colour, slightly paler near the middle of the front wing, while the female possesses on the front wing a _large patch of clear orange_. Both sexes have several orange marks upon the lower angles of the hind wings. Beneath, the general colour is tawny orange with duller bands, and marked with one white line on the front wing, and _two parallel white lines on the hind wings_. The _caterpillar_ is green, marked obliquely with white; it feeds on the birch and also on the sloe. The _butterfly_ appears in August, continuing into September. It is generally distributed through the south, but is by no means an abundant insect. Mr. Stainton observes that it has a habit of "flitting along in hedges just in advance of the collector;" but it is also found in oak woods in company with the Purple Hair-streak. Forty were taken in a season in woods near Henfield, Sussex. Other localities are, Underbarrow Moss, Westmoreland; North Lancashire, common in some parts; Preston; Valley of the Dovey, Montgomeryshire; {142} Cardiff, S. W.; Barnwell Wold; Peterborough; Colchester; Epping; Darenth Wood; Coombe Wood; Brighton; Tenterden; Winchester; Woolmer Forest, Hants; Plymouth; Dartmoor; Wallingford, Berks; Ipswich; Dorsetshire; Norfolk; Wiltshire; Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire. * * * * * THE BLACK HAIR-STREAK. (_Thecla Pruni._) (Plate XII. fig. 2.) The upper side is very dark brown, sometimes almost black, and bearing near the _hinder_ edge of the _hind wings_ a _few orange spots_. This character will at once distinguish this from the next species (_W. Album_). On the under side of the hind wing is a _broad band of orange_, having a _row of black spots on its inner edge_. The _caterpillar_ is green, with four rows of yellow spots. It feeds on the sloe. The _butterfly_ comes out about the end of June or in July. It is generally a very rare insect, but is occasionally taken in great plenty in certain spots. The Rev. W. Bree, writing to the _Zoologist_ from the neighbourhood of Polebrook, North Hants, says, "_Thecla Pruni_ is very uncertain in its appearance. In 1837 it literally swarmed in Barnwell and Ashton Wolds; I do not scruple to say that it would have been possible {143} to capture some hundreds of them, had one been so disposed; for the last few years it has appeared very sparingly indeed." It has also been found in the following localities:--Overton Wood; Brington, Huntingdonshire; and Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire. * * * * * THE WHITE LETTER HAIR-STREAK. (_Thecla W. Album._) (Plate XII. fig. 3.) This is very much like the last in appearance, and has often been mistaken for it by inexperienced eyes. The _points_ of difference are--on the upper side, the absence of the orange band at the hinder edge of the hind wings, and the presence of a _bluish grey circumflex line at the inner angle_; here also is sometimes a _small orange dot_;--beneath, the _orange band forms a series of arches_, bounded on the edge nearest the root of the wing _by a clear black line_ instead of the rounded black spots seen at this part in _Pruni_. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on the elm, is wood-louse shaped; pea-green, barred with yellow; head black. May be beaten off elm trees in May. The _butterfly_ appears in July, and is found in various situations, sometimes flying high up round elm trees, sometimes descending to bramble hedges, or fluttering {144} about in weedy fields a foot or two from the ground. It was formerly a much rarer insect than at present, and now its appearance in any given locality is a matter of much uncertainty. Mr. J. F. Stephens writes as follows to the _Zoologist_:-- "For eighteen years I possessed four bleached specimens only of _Thecla W. Album_, having vainly endeavoured to procure others, when, in 1827, as elsewhere recorded, I saw the insect at Ripley, not by dozens only, but by scores of thousands! and although I frequented the same locality for thirteen years subsequently, sometimes in the season for a month together, I have not since seen a single specimen there; but in 1833 I caught one specimen at Madingley Wood, near Cambridge." Other localities:--Near Sheffield; Roche Abbey; York; Peterborough; near Doncaster; Polebrook, Northants; Allesley, Warwickshire; Brington, Huntingdonshire; Yaxley and Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire; Needwood Forest, Staffordshire; Wolverston, near Ipswich; Chatham; Southgate, Middlesex; West Wickham Wood; Epping; Bristol. * * * * * {145} THE PURPLE HAIR-STREAK.(_Thecla Quercus._) (Plate XII. fig. 4, Male; 4 _a_, Female.) At once the commonest and the handsomest of the Hair-streaks, being found in almost every part of England where there is an oak wood, and looking like a small Purple Emperor, with its rich gloss of the imperial colour. The _male_ has all the wings, in certain lights, of a dark brown colour, but with a change of position they become illuminated with a deep rich purple tint, extending over the whole surface excepting a narrow border, which then appears black. The _female_ has the purple much more vivid, but confined to a _small patch_ extending from the root to the centre of the front wing. Beneath, the wings are shaded with greyish tints, crossed by a white line on each wing, and having _two orange spots_ at the inner corner of the hind wing. The _caterpillar_ (Plate I. fig. 9), which feeds on the oak, is reddish brown, marked with black. The _chrysalis_, which is sometimes attached to the leaves of the oak, and at others is found _under the surface of the earth_ at the foot of the tree, is a brownish object, of the lumpy shape shown in Plate I. fig. 28 (a form shared by the chrysalides of all the Hair-streaks). {146} The _butterfly_ is seen in July and August, flitting about in sportive groups round oak trees, and occasionally descending within reach of the net. It also affects other trees besides oaks, some thirty or forty at a time having been seen gambolling about one _lime_ tree. It being so generally distributed, it will be needless to particularize its localities. * * * * * THE GREEN HAIR-STREAK. (_Thecla Rubi._) (Plate XII. fig. 5.) This pretty little species is at once known from all other English butterflies by the rich _bright green_ colour that overspreads its under surface. Above, the wings are deep, warm brown. The _caterpillar_ is green, spotted and striped with white, and feeds on the bramble; also on the broom, and other plants of the same order. The _butterfly_ appears first in May and June, and again in August, it being _double-brooded_. It is found flying about rough brambly hedges, and often settles on the outer leaves of low trees about a dozen feet from the ground. It seems to occur generally throughout the country, and extends into the southern parts of Scotland. It has been found in many localities close to London. * * * * * {147} THE SMALL COPPER BUTTERFLY. (_Chrysophanus Phlæas._) (Plate XIII. fig. 1.) We now arrive at a genus characterized by the splendid golden or burnished coppery lustre and tint of their wings; of which, however, the present little species is the only one that remains to us, should the "_Large Copper_" be really (as it is feared) extinct. This little, but lively representative of the genus, is one of our commonest and most widely distributed butterflies, flashing about in the sunshine, joining in a dance with the no less lively blues, or settling on the lilac flowers of the scabious, &c., whose soft tones set off to the best advantage the metallic effulgence of this little gem. The _caterpillar_ feeds on sorrel leaves; is green, with three red stripes. The _chrysalis_ and caterpillar both resemble in shape those of the Hair-streaks. The _butterfly_ is supposed to be _triple_-brooded, coming out in April, June, and August; and is so common, that no localities need be given. * * * * * {148} THE LARGE COPPER BUTTERFLY. (_Chrysophanus Dispar._) (Plate XIII. fig. 2.) A few years ago, this was the pride of British entomology, for we were supposed to have the insect entirely to ourselves, it being unknown on the Continent, whilst it literally swarmed in some of the fens of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire. Then, from some cause, never satisfactorily explained, it almost suddenly disappeared, and, there is reason to fear, has become quite extinct in this country. Still, hopes are entertained that it may be surviving in some unexplored districts, and that it will again "turn up." As comparatively very few persons have ever seen this splendid creature on the wing, the following communication from one who _has_, quoted from the _Intelligencer_, will be of interest to those who have not read it in that periodical. It is from the pen of Mr. E. C. F. Jenkins, of Sleaford, Lincolnshire. He writes: "I proceed to give you some account of my own acquaintance with that most beautiful insect, which, some thirty years ago, was so abundant in the unreclaimed fens about Whittlesea Mere, that I never expected to hear of its utter extermination. Its brilliant appearance on the wing in the sunshine I shall never forget, and to watch it sitting on {149} the flower of the _Eupatorium cannabinum_ and show the under sides of its wings, was something ever to be remembered. I once took sixteen in about half an hour on one particular spot, where the above-mentioned plant was very plentiful; but unless the sun was very bright they were very difficult to find. In those days the larva was unknown, and I attribute the disappearance of the butterfly to the discovery of the larva, to the unceasing attacks of collectors, and to the burning of the surface-growth of the fens, which is done in dry weather when they are to be reclaimed." The two sexes of this butterfly differ very remarkably in the appearance of the upper surface. This, in the _male_, is of an effulgent coppery colour, narrowly bordered with black, and having a black mark in the centre of each wing. The _female_ is larger, has a redder tinge, with a row of black spots on the front wings, and the hind wings nearly covered with black, excepting a band of coppery red near the margin, extending also more or less distinctly along the courses of the veins. Underneath, both sexes are nearly alike, the hind wing of a general _light blue tint_, with a red band near the margin, and spotted with black. The _caterpillar_ is green, darker on the back, and paler at the sides, it feeds on the water dock. The _butterfly_ used to be found in July and August, being formerly especially abundant about Yaxley and Whittlesea Mere, and has been taken also at Benacre, Suffolk; and Bardolph Fen, Norfolk. {150} Various reports of its capture, during the last two or three years, have been published; but they all seem to require confirmation. This butterfly is now generally considered to be a _large_ local variety of the continental one called _Hippothoë_, with which it closely agrees in its markings. * * * * * THE BLUES. (Genus _Polyommatus_.) We now arrive at a numerous genus of elegant and lively little insects, collectively known as the "Blues," though some of them are _not blue_ at all. In their manners, and the localities they inhabit, there is so much in common, that one description of these will answer for nearly every one of them; so that my small available space will be in great part devoted to pointing out the marks of distinction between the various species, ten in number, several of them closely resembling others in general appearance, and requiring some care in their discrimination. Their _caterpillars_, which are wood-louse shaped, or _onisciform_, generally feed on low plants, chiefly of the papilionaceous order; and the _butterflies_ are found in dry meadows, on downs, and in open heathy places. The first species, _P. Argiolus_, is, however, an exception to the above, both in its food and haunts. {151} Several species of this genus are often found together. For example, in the Isle of Wight, last August, I took _P. Argiolus_, _Corydon_, _Adonis_, _Alexis_, and _Agestis_, all within about one hour, and a space of a few yards square in the corner of a field. * * * * * THE AZURE BLUE BUTTERFLY. (_Polyommatus Argiolus._) (Plate XIII. fig. 3, Male; 3 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, beautiful lilac blue--the male with a narrow black border (fig. 3), the female with a broad one, sometimes extending over the outer half of the wing (fig. 3 a). Under side, very delicate _silvery blue, almost white_, with numerous small black spots. _No red spots._ _Caterpillar_, green, with darker line on back. Feeds on the flowers of holly, ivy, and buckthorn. The _butterfly_ appears in May, or sometimes in April, and again in August, frequenting _woods_ and hedges, especially where holly and ivy abound. I noticed immense numbers about the ivied walls of Chepstow Castle. As the name "Azure Blue" is in general use, I have retained it above, but that of "Holly Blue," sometimes {152} applied to it, is preferable, as its colour is much less an azure blue than that of _Adonis_. Localities:--Common in the south, and found as far north as Durham and the Lake District. Not known in Scotland. * * * * * THE BEDFORD BLUE, OR LITTLE BLUE. (_Polyommatus Alsus._) (Plate XIII. fig. 4, Male; 4 _a_, Female.) This is the _smallest of British butterflies_, specimens being sometimes seen even smaller than those figured. _Colouring_:--Upper side, dark brown, distinctly powdered with blue near the root of the wing in the _male, without blue in the female_. Under side, _pale grey-drab_, bluish near the base, marked with rows of _black spots_ in pale rings. _No red spots._ _Caterpillar_, green, orange stripe down back, and streaks of same colour on each side. The _butterfly_ is out in May and June, and is sometimes seen much later. It is generally met with on limestone or chalky soils; and, from a long list of localities I have looked over, it seems to be distributed over England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. * * * * * {153} THE MAZARINE BLUE. (_Polyommatus Acis._) (Plate XIII. fig. 5, Male; 5 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, male, _deep purple, or mazarine blue_, with a _border of black_ (fig. 5); female, _dark brown_ (fig. 5 _a_). Under sides of both sexes similar, _pale greyish drab_, tinged at the base with greenish blue, numerous _black spots in white rings_. No red spots. Though this elegant butterfly was frequently met with some years ago, it has lately become one of our rarest species, and I can give no locality where it can be now found. It has been _reported_ as taken lately at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, and somewhere in South Wales, also in other places, but only singly. Collectors, on visiting any new district, should net all the Blues they are not _quite_ sure are common ones, and this may perchance turn up among them sometimes. The _caterpillar_ is said to feed on the flower heads of common Thrift (_Armeria vulgaris_). The _butterfly_ may be _looked for_ in July. * * * * * {154} THE LARGE BLUE. (_Polyommatus Arion._) (Plate XIV. fig. 1.) This is the _largest_ of all our "Blues," and, next to the last, the rarest, though still taken in some numbers every year. _Colouring_:--Upper side, _dark blue_, granulated with black scales that give it a dull aspect, having a black border, and a series of _large black spots across the front wing_. Under side, greyish drab, suffused with greenish blue near the body; towards centre, many black spots in indistinct light-coloured rings, and a double border of the same. _No red spots._ The _caterpillar_ is _unknown_. The _butterfly_ appears in July, frequenting rough, flowery pasture-grounds, but is exceedingly local. A famous place for it is Barnwell Wold, about a mile and a half from the village of Barnwell, near Oundle, Northamptonshire, where the insect was discovered by the Rev. W. Bree many years ago; but it is less abundant there than formerly, from the repeated attacks of collectors, who catch all they can find. Other localities, mentioned in various works, are--Brington, Huntingdonshire; Shortwood, and some other spots, near Cheltenham; Charmouth, Dorsetshire; Dover; Downs {155} near Glastonbury, Somerset; Downs near Marlborough, Wiltshire; Broomham, Bedfordshire; near Bedford; near Winchester. * * * * * THE CHALK-HILL BLUE. (_Polyommatus Corydon._) (Plate XIV. fig. 2, Male; 2 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, _male, pale silvery greenish blue_, with very silky gloss, and shading off into a _broad black border_. Female, dark smoky brown, with a leaden tinge, sprinkled near the body with _greenish_ blue scales of the _same colour_ as the males; border of orange spots, more or less visible. _Under side_ marked as in fig. 2 _a_, on a brown ground, with a row of _red_ spots near border of hind wing. The _caterpillar_ (Plate I. fig. 10) is green, striped with yellow on the back and sides. The _chrysalis_ is brownish, and of the shape shown at fig. 29, Plate I. The _butterfly_ is out in July and August, frequenting chalky downs, especially in the south, and where it does occur is often extremely abundant. Occasionally it is found _off the chalk_, having been seen in Epping Forest, decidedly _not_ a chalk district. Other localities {156} are--Croydon; Brighton; Lewes; Dover; Winchester; Isle of Wight; Halton, Bucks; Newmarket; Peterborough; Norfolk; Suffolk; Berkshire; Oxfordshire; Wiltshire; Gloucestershire. At Grange, North Lancashire, it is the commonest "Blue," _not on chalk_, but _limestone_. * * * * * THE ADONIS BLUE. (_Polyommatus Adonis._) (Plate XIV. fig. 3, Male; 3 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, _male, brilliant sky-blue, without any lilac tinge_, bordered by a distinct black line, the _fringe distinctly barred with blackish_. Female, dark smoky brown, sprinkled near body with _pure blue scales the colour of those of male_; border of orange spots, more or less visible. Under side, male, marked as in fig. 3; border of red spots. Female, almost exactly like that of Corydon (fig. 2 _a_), but usually has the black spots on the front wing smaller. This is a most lovely little butterfly, the blue of its upper surface being quite unapproachable among native insects. Mr. Stainton, speaking of the different blues of Corydon and Adonis, happily observes that, "_Corydon_ {157} reminds one of the soft silvery appearance of _moonlight_, whilst _Adonis_ recalls the intense blue of the sky on a hot summer's day." _Caterpillar_ like that of Corydon. The _butterfly_ is double-brooded, appearing first in May and again in August. It is found on the same soils and in most of the localities with the last, but is, I believe, more confined to the south. * * * * * THE COMMON BLUE. (_Polyommatus Alexis._) (Plate XIV. fig. 4, Male; 4 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, male, lilac blue. Female, purplish blue about the centre, brown towards the margins, but the proportions of blue and brown are very variable--sometimes all the wings have a border of orange-red spots, sometimes these are absent from one or both pairs of wings. _Fringe_ in both sexes _white, uninterrupted by dark bars_. _Under side_, male, marked as in fig. 4, and hardly to be distinguished from under side of male Adonis, except by the ground colour, which is paler and _greyer_ than in Adonis. Female, same pattern as male, but coloured with warmer tints--more like male Adonis. {158} This very pretty little insect is the blue butterfly one sees everywhere, abounding in meadows, on heaths and downs, and not at all confined to chalky soils, like some other "blues." The _caterpillar_ is green, with darker stripe on the back, and white spots on each side. It feeds on Bird's-foot Trefoil and other leguminous plants. The _butterfly_ is to be found almost constantly from the end of May to the end of September, being double-brooded. * * * * * THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE. (_Polyommatus Ægon._) (Plate XIV. fig. 5, male; 5 _a_, Female.) _Colouring_:--Upper side, _male, purplish blue_ (rather deeper than that of Alexis), with a rather broad black margin. Female, dark brown, sometimes slightly tinged with blue, and bordered on the hind wings with dull orange spots; but these are often absent. Fringe white, _not_ barred with black. Under side, _near the margin of the hind wings_, and between that and the orange border spots, are several _metallic spots, of a bluish tint_, whence the insect has its name of "Silver-studded." {159} The _caterpillar_ is brown, with white lines. Feeds on broom and other plants of the same order. The _butterfly_ appears in July and August, and is very frequently met with throughout the country on heaths, commons, and downs, both on sandy and chalky soils. In many places it is the commonest of the "Blues." It has been found at Epping; Coombe Wood; Darenth Wood; Box Hill; Ripley, Surrey; Brighton; Lewes; Deal; Lyndhurst; Blandford; Brandon, Suffolk; Holt, Norfolk; Birkenhead; Bristol; Sarum, Wiltshire; Lyme Regis; Parley Heath, Dorsetshire; Manchester; York; several places in Scotland. * * * * * THE BROWN ARGUS. (_Polyommatus Agestis._) (Plate XIV. fig. 6.) Though this butterfly and the next are classed among the "Blues," from their possessing the same structure and habits, there is _no trace of blue_ in the colouring of _either sex_, as in all the preceding species of _Polyommatus_. In this species the colour of both sexes on the upper side is a _warm, dark brown_, having on all the wings a border of dark orange spots. The female hardly differs from the male, except in having this border broader, and more extended on the front wing; where, {160} in the male, it is sometimes very indistinct. The under side much resembles that of the female of _Alexis_, the border of orange spots being even more distinct on the front wing than on the hind one. It will be observed on referring to Plate XIV. that on the under sides of all the butterflies there figured, there is an irregular black spot situated near the front edge of the upper wing and midway in its length--this is called the "_discoidal spot_." It will also be observed that the common Blue (fig. 4) has, on the area of the wing, between the discoidal spot and the root of the wing, two spots, which are _absent in this species_. This forms a very ready mark of distinction, though it requires a good many words to explain it. The _caterpillar_, which feeds on _Erodium Cicutarium_, and perhaps on _Helianthemum_ (Rock Cistus), is green, with pale spots on the back, and a brownish line down the middle. The _butterfly_ appears in May and June, and again in August, and is common in very many localities in the south, being particularly abundant on the downs of the south coast and the Isle of Wight. * * * * * {161} THE ARTAXERXES BUTTERFLY. (_Polyommatus Artaxerxes._) (Plate XIV. fig. 7.) _Colouring_, same as in the last species (_Agestis_); but on the upper surface, the orange border-spots are often hardly perceptible on the front wing, and there is a distinct _white_ spot in the centre of the front wings. The _under side_ also is precisely like that of Agestis, with the black spots removed from the centre of the white rings, which are thus changed into _large white spots_, as shown in the figure. There has been a great deal of discussion among entomologists, as to whether this be a distinct _species_, or only a variety of _Agestis_. I believe it to be the latter, but do not attach much importance to the question; and as this butterfly is found under the name of _Artaxerxes_, in almost every cabinet, and is rather a famous little insect, I have thought it best to give it a separate heading under its usual title, and collecting readers may still label it in their cabinet either as above, or as "_P. Agestis, var. Artaxerxes_," and probably will be equally right either way. The popular nature and limited extent of this work will not, however, admit of the subject being entered into scientifically, and I can only here state that I have {162} seen specimens from various parts of the country, that include every intermediate variety between the ordinary _Agestis_ of the south, and the _Artaxerxes_ of Scotland. The Durham Argus, formerly called _P. Salmacis_, forms one of these gradations. Against the idea of _Agestis_ and _Artaxerxes_ being one species, it has been objected, that the former is double, the latter single brooded. What of that? Plenty of species that are double-brooded in the south of Europe are well known to become single-brooded in a more northern situation. The _caterpillar_ is said to be exactly like that of _Agestis_. It feeds on _Helianthemum vulgare_ (Rock Cistus). The _butterfly_ is found in July and August in several parts of Scotland, and the north of England. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, has been long noted for producing it. [Illustration: XIV.] {163} THE SKIPPERS. (Family--_Hesperidæ_.) These curious little butterflies form a very natural group; in many respects, both of structure and habits, approaching the moths, and therefore placed at the end of the butterflies. They are of small size, but robust appearance, and not brightly coloured. Their flight is rapid, but of short continuance, and they seem to _skip_ from flower to flower: hence their name. They are chiefly distinguished scientifically from other butterflies by the form of the _antennæ_, which are more or less hooked at the tip (see one magnified on Plate II. fig. 14), by the great width of the head, and the distance between the roots of the _antennæ_, by their moth-like habit of rolling up leaves for their habitation when caterpillars, and by spinning a _cocoon_ for the chrysalis. The caterpillars are shaped as in fig. 11, Plate I.; the chrysalides, as in figs. 26 and 27. There are _seven British species_. * * * * * THE GRIZZLED SKIPPER. (_Thymele Alveolus._) (Plate XV. fig. 1.) The ground colour of this smart little butterfly is very dark _brown, or black, with a greenish hue_ over it, and it is sharply marked with squarish spots of _creamy white_. The _fringe_ is also _chequered with_ the same colours. Sexes similar in appearance. The _caterpillar_ feeds on the wild Raspberry, also, it is said, on _Potentilla alba_, and _P. anserina_, and is greenish, with white lines. The _butterfly_ appears in May, and again in August, being double-brooded. It appears to be common in grassy wood-openings all over the country, extending also into the south of Scotland. * * * * * {164} THE DINGY SKIPPER. (_Thanaos Tages._) (Plate XV. fig. 2.) Certainly a rather "dingy" butterfly, its colour being _dull grey brown_, with confused bands of darker brown; near the border _a row of whitish dots_. Sexes similar. The _caterpillar_ (fig. 11, Plate I.) feeds on Bird's-foot Trefoil, and is pale green, with four yellow lines and rows of black dots. The _chrysalis_ is shown at fig. 27, Plate I. The _butterfly_ comes out in May and August, being double-brooded, and is found on hill-sides, dry banks, old chalk pits, &c. generally throughout the country, though it is less common than the last. It is also met with frequently in Scotland. [Illustration: XV.] {165} THE CHEQUERED SKIPPER. (_Steropes Paniscus._) (Plate XV. fig. 3.) _Sexes similar. Wings chequered with brownish black, and tawny orange above_; beneath, in addition to the above colours, there are on the hind wing several bright spots of pale buff _distinctly outlined_ with dark brown--having a much more ornamental effect than we generally meet with on the under surface in this family--the colouring on that side being usually faint and _blurred_ so as to give a washed-out or wrong-sided appearance. The _caterpillar_ is brown, striped and "collared" with yellow; head black. It feeds on the Plantain, also on Dog's-tail Grass (_Cynosurus cristatus_). The _butterfly_ appears in June, but is very local--being either found plentifully in a place or not at all. It has occurred at Barnwell, and Ashton Wold, Northants; Kettering; Sywell Wood, near Northampton; near Peterborough; Clapham Park Wood, and Luton, Bedfordshire; Bourne, Lincolnshire; Monks Wood, Hunts; White Wood; Gamlingay, Cambridgeshire; Stowmarket; Milton; Rockingham Forest; Dartmoor; Netley Abbey; Charlbury, near Enstone, Oxon. * * * * * THE LULWORTH SKIPPER. (_Pamphila Actæon._) (Plate XV. fig. 4, Male; 4 _a_, Female.) This plainly-coloured little butterfly, prized by collectors for its rarity, has, in the male sex, great general resemblance to that of the next species--the common _P. Linea_--but _Actæon_ may be distinguished by having the wings clouded over nearly the whole surface with {166} dull brown, having something of a greenish cast. The _female_ is, however, very different from that of _Linea_, having all the wings of uniform dingy brown, excepting a crescent-shaped row of tawny spots near the tip of the front wing, and a more or less distinct streak of the same colour near the centre. The male _Actæon_ is further distinguished from the female by the possession of a blackish streak near the centre of his front wing. _Beneath_, the wings are clouded obscurely with tawny yellow and a dingy brownish tint, the yellow tinge predominating in the male. The _caterpillar_ is unknown. The _butterfly_ appears in July and August, but is so extremely limited in its local range that it is only to be met with, so far as is known, in three spots--all on the same line of coast--viz. Lulworth Cove, Dorsetshire; the "Burning Cliff," about five miles nearer Weymouth along the coast; and at Sidmouth, Devonshire. At the present time I believe the "Burning Cliff" is the locality where the insect is found in the greatest plenty. It is to be looked for on the rough broken ground covered with weeds that slopes down to the shore on this coast. Mr. Humphreys states that in 1835 he saw it in great abundance at Shenstone, near Lichfield. * * * * * {167} THE SMALL SKIPPER. (_Pamphila Linea._) (Plate XV. fig. 5, Male; 5 _a_, Female.) Upper side, _uniform orange tawny colour_, shaded into brown at the borders. The _male_ (fig. 5) has an oblique blackish line near the centre of the front wing; this is absent in the female (fig. 5 _a_). The males of this butterfly very much resemble those of the last rare species (_Actæon_), but they may be distinguished by the middle part of the upper wing not being clouded with brown, as it is in _Actæon_. Under side, two shades of tawny colour, but _not spotted_. The _caterpillar_ is green, with four white lines, and feeds on grasses. The _butterfly_ appears in July, and is very common and widely distributed. * * * * * THE LARGE SKIPPER. (_Pamphila Sylvanus._) (Plate XV. fig. 6, Male; 6 _a_, Female.) Upper side, dark rich brown, shaded and spotted with tawny or fulvous tint. The _male_ is known by a {168} dark-brown, _burnt_-looking streak near the centre of the front wings; the female being without this mark. Under side, greenish, with _indistinct_ yellowish spots. The _caterpillar_ is green (darker on the back), and dotted with black; spotted with white underneath. It feeds on various grasses. The _butterfly_ appears in May, and again in August or the end of July; and is very common in almost every locality, frequenting grassy places in and near woods, road-sides, &c. * * * * * THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER. (_Pamphila Comma._) (Plate XV. fig. 7, Male; 7 _a_, Female.) This butterfly closely resembles the last, especially on the upper side; which is, however, more brightly and clearly marked. But the chief distinction is to be found on the _under side_, which is marked, on a greenish ground, with _clear-cut, square white spots_. The male, as in the last species, is distinguished by the thin blackish bar placed obliquely on the front wing. The outline of this species also differs somewhat from that of the last, especially in the males. This difference will be better understood by comparing figs. 6 and 7 on the plate, than by description. {169} The _caterpillar_ is dull-green and reddish, with a white collar, and spotted with white near the tail-end. It feeds on leguminous plants. The _butterfly_ appears in July and August, but is only found in a limited number of localities, and these chiefly in the southern counties; but where found at all, it is generally abundant. Among its localities are the following:--Croydon; Brighton; Lewes; Dover; Lyndhurst; Blandford; Plymouth; Old Sarum, Wiltshire; Barnwell and Ashton Wolds, Northamptonshire; Halton, Bucks; Newmarket; Gogmagog Park, Cambridge; Hull; Scarborough. * * * * * {170} REPUTED BRITISH SPECIES. On Plate XVI. are grouped together figures of six species of butterflies which are not admitted into our regular British lists, on account of the extreme rarity of their capture, or the fact of their not having been observed at all for several years past. They are all _common_ species in various parts of the Continent, and some of them will probably occur again in this country. * * * * * PAPILIO PODALIRIUS.--The SCARCE SWALLOW-TAILED Butterfly (fig. 1).--There is no reasonable doubt that several individuals of this elegant butterfly were formerly taken in various parts of the country, but no captures have occurred for many years past. The caterpillar, also, was more than once found in the New Forest District, Hampshire. Generally a common insect on the Continent. [Illustration: XVI.] {171} PARNASSIUS APOLLO.--The APOLLO Butterfly (fig. 2).--I have good reason for believing that a specimen of this splendid Alpine butterfly was captured in this country very lately, and it is not at all impossible that it may be some day found on our north country mountains, or those of the Lake District. It is a most beautiful insect, with its singular semi-transparent and partially _glazed_ wings; the lower of which bear large eye-spots of crimson-scarlet. * * * * * EREBIA LIGEA.--The ARRAN BROWN Butterfly (fig. 3).--Of this species, greatly resembling our _E. Blandina_, several specimens were formerly taken by some entomologists in the Isle of Arran, where, as also in other mountain districts, it may probably still exist; but its haunts have to be re-discovered by some enterprising butterfly-hunter. From _Blandina_, which it almost exactly resembles on the upper surface, it may be distinguished by the marking of the under side of the hind wing, on which is an irregular, broken band of _pure white_, and between this and the margin a row of _three_ distinct black eye-spots. * * * * * ARGYNNIS DIA.--WEAVER'S FRITILLARY.--This species is so nearly like _Euphrosyne_ or _Selene_, on the upper surface, that it readily might be, and perhaps {172} sometimes is, passed by as one of those common insects. Underneath it is chiefly recognised by the beautiful blush of _silvery purple_ that extends in a band across the middle of the hind wings, and more faintly tinges the front wings near the tip. There is little reason to doubt that this insect was really taken by Mr. Richard Weaver at Sutton Park, near Tamworth; also by Mr. Stanley, near Alderley, in Cheshire. * * * * * CHRYSOPHANUS CHRYSEIS.--The PURPLE-EDGED COPPER Butterfly.--As this species has been admitted by that very careful and accurate entomologist, Mr. Stainton, into his "Manual," I cannot refuse it a place here, though, from all the information I can gain, its only claim to the name of "British" rests on a tradition of its having been taken a long time ago in Ashdown Forest, Sussex; and since then, by a _dealer_, in Epping Forest. It is a beautiful insect, coppery red, bordered with changeable purple, and I should be glad to see it fairly established in our lists. * * * * * POLYOMMATUS BÆTICUS.--The LONG-TAILED BLUE.--This Butterfly has been long known, as a _southern_ insect, with a very wide range of distribution, abounding in the south of Europe and thence extending into India, Java, &c. Then last year it was seen in {173} Guernsey, and in August of the same year an individual was actually captured in this country, the scene of the event being somewhere on the chalk downs in the neighbourhood of Brighton, and the fortunate captor being Mr. McArthur, of that town. My friend and neighbour, Dr. Allchin, of Bayswater, was on the spot at the time, and saw the insect shortly after its capture. The _butterfly_, which on the upper side has somewhat of the aspect of a female "Common Blue," will be at once recognised by its _long tail-like appendages to the hind wings_. Beneath, its plan of colouring is totally distinct from that of any of our native "Blues" (_Polyommati_), being destitute of the numerous little eye-like spots, which are replaced by bands of fawn colour and white; but at the lower angle of the hind wings are two spots of glittering metallic green, reminding one, on a small scale, of the "eye" of a peacock's feather. The habits of the insect are those of our Common Blues--skipping about over grassy places, and for a Common Blue it would on the wing be readily mistaken. Collectors will in the coming season doubtless search the south coast district thoroughly, and many a Common Blue will be apprehended on suspicion. Should our little friend _Bæticus_ continue his northward progress (as we have some reason to hope he may), we may find him regularly enrolled on the native lists, and gracing the ranks of that select little company entitled "Our British Butterflies." * * * * * {175} REFERENCES TO PLATES. PREPARATORY STATES AND DETAILS. PLATE I. Fig. Caterpillars of-- 1. Swallow-tailed Butterfly. 2. Brimstone B. 3. Meadow-brown B. 4. White Admiral. 5. Purple Emperor. 6. Peacock B. 7. Silver-washed Fritillary. 8. Duke of Burgundy Fritillary. 9. Purple Hair-streak. 10. Chalk-hill Blue B. 11. Dingy Skipper. Chrysalides of-- 12. Swallow-tailed B. 13. Brimstone B. 14. Black-veined White B. 15. Large Garden White B. 16. Silver-washed Fritillary. 17. Orange-tip B. 18. Wood-white B. 19. Marbled-white B. 20. Meadow-brown B. 21. White Admiral. 22. Purple Emperor. 23. Large Tortoiseshell B. 24. Comma B. 25. Duke of Burgundy Fritillary. 26. Small Skipper B. 27. Dingy Skipper B. 28. Purple Hair-streak B. 29. Chalk-hill Blue B. PLATE II. 1. Egg of Garden White B. 2. -- Queen of Spain Fritillary. 3. -- Large Heath B. 4. -- Peacock B. 5. -- Large Tortoiseshell B. 6. -- Meadow-brown B. 7. -- Wood Argus. 8. Head of Red Admiral B. magnified. 9. Section of sucker of ditto, magnified. 10. Papillæ on end of do. magnified. 11. Portion of Eye of Butterfly, magnified. 12. Antenna of Fritillary, magnified. 13. -- Swallow-tailed B. magnified. 14. -- Skipper B. magnified. 15. Base of Antenna, magnified. 16. Arrangement of Scales on Wing, magnified. 17. Plumed Scale, magnified. 18. Long form of ditto, magnified. 19. Another form of ditto, magnified. 20. -- from Small White B. magnified. 21. -- from Orange-tip B. magnified. 22. Battledore Scale from Blue B. magnified. 23. Ordinary Scale from Garden White B. magnified. {176} 24. Ordinary Scale from Wood White, magnified. 25. Ditto. 26. Ordinary Scale from Brimstone B. magnified. 27. Ditto. 28. Ditto. 29. Ordinary Scale from Common Blue B. magnified. 30. Ditto. 31. Ditto. 32. Ordinary Scale from Small Tortoiseshell B. magnified. 33. Ditto. 34. Ditto. 35. Ditto. 36. Ordinary Scale from Chalk hill Blue B. magnified. 37. Ordinary Scale from Apollo B. magnified. 38. Form common to Vanessa genus magnified. BUTTERFLIES. PLATE III. Fig. 1. Swallow-tail. 2. Brimstone. 3. Clouded Yellow, 3 _a_, female. 4. Pale Clouded Yellow. PLATE IV. 1. Black-veined White. 2. Large Garden White. 3. Small Garden White. 4. Green-veined White. 5. Bath White. PLATE V. 1. Orange Tip, 1 _a_, female. 2. Wood White. 3. Marbled White. 4. Wood Argus. 5. Wall. 6. Grayling. PLATE VI. 1. Meadow Brown, 1 _a_, female. 2. Large Heath. 3. Ringlet. 4. Scotch Argus. 5. Mountain Ringlet. 6. Small Ringlet. 7. Small Heath. PLATE VII. 1. White Admiral. 2. Purple Emperor. 3. Painted Lady. PLATE VIII. 1. Red Admiral. 2. Peacock. 3. Camberwell Beauty. PLATE IX. 1. Large Tortoiseshell. 2. Small Tortoiseshell. 3. Comma. 4. Silver-washed Fritillary, 4 _a_, fem. PLATE X. 1. Dark Green Fritillary. 2. High-brown Fritillary. 3. Queen of Spain Fritillary. 4. Pearl-bordered Fritillary. PLATE XI. 1. Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary. 2. Glanville Fritillary. 3. Pearl-bordered Likeness Fritillary. 4. Greasy Fritillary. 5. Duke of Burgundy Fritillary. {177} PLATE XII. 1. Brown Hair streak, 1 _a_, female. 2. Black Hair-streak. 3. White Letter Hair-streak. 4. Purple Hair-streak, 4 _a_, female. 5. Green Hair streak. PLATE XIII. 1. Small Copper. 2. Large Copper, 2 _a_, female. 3. Holly, or Azure Blue, 3 _a_, female. 4. Bedford Blue, 4 _a_, female. 5. Mazarine Blue, 5 _a_, female. PLATE XIV. 1. Large Blue. 2. Chalk-hill Blue, 2 _a_, female. 3. Adonis Blue, 3 _a_, female. 4. Common Blue, 4 _a_, female. 5. Silver-studded Blue, 5 _a_, female. 6. Brown Argus. 7. Artaxerxes Butterfly. PLATE XV. 1. Grizzled Skipper. 2. Dingy Skipper. 3. Chequered Skipper. 4. Lulworth Skipper, 4 _a_, female. 5. Small Skipper, 5 _a_, female. 6. Large Skipper, 6 _a_, female. 7. Silver-spotted Skipper, 7 _a_, fem. PLATE XVI. 1. Scarce Swallow-tail. 2. Apollo. 3. Arran Brown. 4. Weaver's Fritillary. 5. Purple-edged Copper. 6. Tailed-Blue (_P. Boeticus_). * * * * * {178} INDEX. PAGE Antennæ, 27 Apollo Butterfly, 171 Apparatus, 39 Arran Brown B., 171 Artaxerxes B., 161 Artist and Butterfly, 37 Bath White B., 88 Black-veined White B., 77 Blues, The (Genus _Polyommatus_), 150 Blue B., Adonis, 156 Azure, 151 Bedford, 152 Chalk-hill, 155 Common, 157 Holly, 151 Large, 154 Mazarine, 153 Silver-studded, 158 Tailed (_Boeticus_), 172 Boxes, 43 Brimstone B., 67 Brown Argus B., 159 Butterfly Emblems, 34 hunting, 39 Cabinets, 55 Camberwell Beauty B., 121 Caterpillar, 7 Chrysalis, 12 Classification, 58 Clouded Sulphur B., 75 Yellow B., 71 Comma B., 126 Copper B., Large, 148 Purple-edged, 172 Small, 147 Eggs of B., 3 Eye of B., 27 Fritillary B., Dark Green, 129 Duke of Burgundy, 139 Glanville, 135 Greasy, 137 High-brown, 130 Pearl-bordered, 133 Pearl-border. Likeness, 136 Queen of Spain, 131 Silver-washed, 128 Small Pearl-bordered, 134 Weaver's (_Dia_), 171 Garden White B., Large, 80 Small, 84 Grayling, 99 Green-veined White, 86 Heath B., Large, 102 Small, 111 Hair-streak B., Black, 142 Brown, 140 Green, 146 Purple, 145 White-letter, 143 {179} Ichneumon, 18 Imago, 19 Larva, 7 Latin names, 60 Legs of B., 31 Marbled White B., 95 Meadow Brown B., 101 Nets, 40 Orange Tip B., 91 Pain in Insects, 50 Painted Lady B., 117 Pale Clouded Yellow B., 75 Peacock B., 120 Purple Emperor B., 113 Red Admiral B., 118 Reputed British Species, 170 Ringlet B., Common, 103 Mountain, 107 Small, 109 Scotch Argus B., 105 Skippers (Family _Hesperidæ_), 163 Skipper B., Chequered, 165 Dingy, 164 Grizzled, 163 Large, 167 Lulworth, 165 Small, 167 Silver-spotted, 168 Speckled Wood B., 97 Swallow-tail B., 65 Scarce, 170 Tongue of B., 25 Tortoiseshell B., Large, 123 Small, 124 Wall B., 98 White Admiral B., 112 Wings of B., 20 Wood Argus B., 97 Wood White B., 94 * * * * * LONDON: PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER, 70 TO 76, LONG ACRE, W.C. * * * * * NATURAL HISTORY--ZOOLOGY. 42/- ROUTLEDGE'S ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY. 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Ditto. 5/- HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS. 22 pages of Coloured Illusts. T. MOORE. 3/6 BRITISH FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES--the Club-Mosses, Pepperworts, and Horsetails. Coloured Plates by COLEMAN. T. MOORE. 1/- ---- Cheaper Edition. Coloured Plates. Ditto. 5/- PROFITABLE PLANTS: used for Food, Clothing, Medicine, etc. 20 pages of Coloured Illustrations. T. C. ARCHER. 5/- PALMS AND THEIR ALLIES. 20 pages of Coloured Illustrations. Dr. B. SEEMANN. 5/- BRITISH MOSSES. 20 pages of Coloured Illustrations. R. STARK. 3/6 THE FAMILY DOCTOR. 500 Illustrations, comprising all the Medicinal Plants. _For Books on Potato, Apple, Asparagus, Mushroom, Fruit, Grape, Flax, see "Agriculture and Farming," page 41._ _George Routledge & Sons, London, Glasgow, and New York._ * * * * * NOTES [1] Plural _Chrysalides_. [2] Making _Lepidos_ in genitive. [3] A word derived from the Latin, and meaning literally a "sucker." [4] _Antenna_ in the singular number. [5] Bailey's "Festus." [6] As beginners in entomology are, I know, often glad to be informed of some reliable dealer from whom to procure the apparatus required for the pursuit, I have pleasure in here giving the name of Mr. T. Cooke, of 30, Museum Street (six doors from the British Museum), where all the apparatus mentioned in this work, and numerous other natural history articles, are to be found, good and cheap, I believe. For the guidance of young amateurs, I will mention the prices of a few of the more necessary articles I have myself purchased or examined at the above establishment. Cane ring-nets, with stick, and ready for use, 2s.; ring-net, with three-jointed metal ring and screw-socket, 4s. 6d.; pocket collecting-boxes, corked, 3d. to 1s. each; store-boxes, 10 in. by 8 in., corked top and bottom, 2s. 6d.; drying houses, for securely keeping setting-boards when in use, and containing eleven corked setting-boards and drawer for pins, &c., 10s. 6d.; sheet cork for lining cabinets, 7 in. by 3½ in., 1s. 6d. doz. sheets; entomological pins, three sizes, mixed, 1s. oz., &c., &c. [7] Polyommatus Boeticus. [8] A very ingenious and neat contrivance--the invention of my friend Dr. Allchin, of Bayswater. It may be obtained of Messrs. Cooke & Son, Naturalists, 30, Museum Street, London, W.C. It is of brass, with screw caps, the inner one having a small hole through which the chloroform can be used, drop by drop. The price is 4s. Also, the new Cyanide Killing-bottles, 1s. 6d.; 2s. ready for use. [9] _Cleopatra_, as Duponchel observes, is found in France, only in the hottest parts, and is first seen as we go southwards, about Avignon, but abounds most on the shores of the Mediterranean. Why the two varieties _Cleopatra_ and the common _Rhamni_ fly together we cannot fully explain; but it is possible there may be a constitutional difference between individual insects, just as we see that of two Englishmen going to a hot climate, one will brown deeply, while the complexion of the other will hardly alter, though exposed to the very same external influence. [10] See page 171. [11] See the meaning of Chrysalis and Aurelia, on page 12. 
61981	----	Transcriber's Note. References in the book to its illustrations are by "Plate" with Roman numerals. The illustrations themselves are labelled "Plate" with Arabic numerals. A plate's number in Roman numerals is equal to a plate's number in Arabic numerals. In several instances the author has spelled words differently to the accepted way. That spelling is retained in this transcription. The illustration on the book's cover is referred to in the text as Plate 16. PEEPS AT NATURE EDITED BY THE REV. CHARLES A. HALL V. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES IN THE SAME SERIES EACH CONTAINING 16 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS (EIGHT OF WHICH ARE IN COLOUR) LARGE CROWN 8VO. PICTURE COVER BIRD LIFE OF THE SEASONS COMMON BRITISH BEETLES BRITISH MOTHS WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WONDERFUL WAYS BRITISH LAND MAMMALS BRITISH FERNS, CLUB-MOSSES, &c. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE GARDEN ROMANCE OF THE ROCKS THE NATURALIST AT THE SEA-SHORE POND LIFE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS PUBLISHED BY A. AND C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. 1 AGENTS AMERICA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64 & 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK AUSTRALASIA OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 205 FLINDERS LANE, MELBOURNE CANADA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD. ST. MARTIN'S HOUSE, 70 BOND STREET, TORONTO INDIA MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LTD. MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY 309 BOW BAZAAR STREET, CALCUTTA [Illustration: PLATE 1. 1. Swallow Tail 2. Black-veined White 3. Large Garden White (Female) 4. Small Garden White (Male) 5. Green-veined White (Female) 6. Bath White (Male) 7. Orange Tip 8. Wood White (Male) 9. Pale Clouded Yellow] BRITISH BUTTERFLIES BY A. M. STEWART CONTAINING 16 ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURING ALL THE SPECIES, VIZ.: 8 FULL-PAGE IN COLOUR 8 PAGES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS A. & C. BLACK, LTD. 4, 5 & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. 1 1918 _First published May, 1912_ INTRODUCTORY EDITORIAL NOTE I take it that this little "Peep at Nature," needs no apology; the exquisite coloured plates, produced direct from natural butterflies by the three-colour process, are a sufficient justification of its appearance. The author is a practical entomologist of many years' standing. He writes from the fulness of a rich experience in the fields. He justly advocates the "Paisley" method of setting insects. I know it to be the more expeditious, and less calculated to damage specimens, than the ordinary process. His notes on the preservation of larvæ will be welcome in many quarters. The publishers desire me to express their indebtedness to Messrs. Watkins and Doncaster, 36, Strand, W.C., for kindly arranging and lending the specimens from which the coloured plates have been produced. CHARLES A. HALL. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTORY EDITORIAL NOTE v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vii I. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF A BUTTERFLY 1 II. THE CAPTURE AND PRESERVATION OF BUTTERFLIES 13 III. THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES DESCRIBED 29 INDEX 88 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I. SWALLOW-TAIL--BLACK-VEINED WHITE--LARGE GARDEN WHITE--SMALL GARDEN WHITE--GREEN-VEINED WHITE--BATH WHITE--ORANGE-TIP--WOOD WHITE--PALE CLOUDED YELLOW[*] _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE II. METHOD OF SETTING WITH BRISTLE AND BRACES 9 III. "COP" OF 120'S COTTON ON STAND, AND SETTING-NEEDLE FOR "PAISLEY" METHOD OF SETTING 16 IV. CLOUDED YELLOW--BRIMSTONE--SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY, ETC.[*] 25 V. GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--HEATH FRITILLARY, ETC.[*] 32 VI. "PAISLEY" METHOD OF SETTING 35 VII. APPARATUS FOR PRESERVING LARVÆ 38 VIII. RED ADMIRAL--PAINTED LADY--MILK-WEED, ETC.[*] 41 IX. MARBLED WHITE--MOUNTAIN RINGLET--SCOTCH ARGUS, ETC.[*] 48 X. DARK GREEN FRITILLARY--HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY, ETC. 51 XI. LARVA OF LARGE GARDEN WHITE--PUPA OF LARGE GARDEN WHITE, ETC. 54 XII. SMALL HEATH--GREEN HAIRSTREAK--PURPLE HAIRSTREAK, ETC.[*] 57 XIII. ADONIS BLUE--CHALK-HILL BLUE--LITTLE BLUE, ETC.[*] 64 XIV. PUPA OF RED ADMIRAL--LARVA OF RED ADMIRAL, ETC. 73 XV. BROWN ARGUS--AZURE BLUE--SILVER-STUDDED BLUE, ETC. 80 XVI. LIFE-HISTORY OF SMALL TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY: OVA--LARVÆ--PUPA--MALE INSECT (TO RIGHT)--FEMALE (LEFT)--FOOD-PLANT (NETTLE)[*] _On the cover_ [*] These eight illustrations are in colour; the others are in black and white. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES CHAPTER I THE LIFE-HISTORY OF A BUTTERFLY What is the difference between a butterfly and a moth, and how am I to distinguish between them? is a question very often put to the student of insect life--the entomologist. Butterflies and moths both belong to the Natural Order, _Lepidoptera_, or scale-winged insects. Butterflies may be distinguished as day flyers, and the moths fly by night. The main physical difference between them appears in the forms of the antennæ, or horns; in the butterflies these organs are club-shaped at the extreme ends. But the antennæ of the various species do not all follow a common pattern. In some the knob is abrupt and much smaller, after the manner of a drum-stick; in others, the thickening commences well down the shaft, and is gradually increased until it very much resembles an Indian club. The antennæ of the moths, on the other hand, show much diversity of form, and in a great many species they are totally different in the male and female. A very common and beautiful form is the feathered, or comblike, antenna; another is long and threadlike, and some show a combination of these two forms; others, again, seem to be striving after the butterfly type, and approach the club shape. It should be noted that not a few moths fly during the day, but it is rare, exceedingly rare, to find a butterfly abroad after sundown. With a little practice in observation, the novice soon learns to distinguish between the two. The stages of development of butterflies and moths are practically the same: first the egg; next the caterpillar, or larva; then the pupa, or chrysalis; and, lastly, the imago, or perfect insect. The eggs of the Lepidoptera are surpassingly beautiful. Are they like birds' eggs? Not at all! In the first place they are too minute for comparison with the larger product of the birds; both in colour and form they more nearly resemble small shells or pearls, as a great many of them are beautifully opalescent, especially when empty. A good hand-lens will reveal a great deal of their beauty, but the low power of an ordinary compound microscope will be necessary to enable you to see all the nice detail of pattern sculptured on their surfaces. Each species of butterfly, or moth, produces eggs of particular shape and ornamentation, so it is quite possible, in most cases, to say to which species an egg belongs. How long the egg may remain unhatched depends a good deal upon which butterfly's egg it is, the season of the year, and the temperature. Not many butterflies pass the winter in this country in the egg state, that season being usually passed either as a half-fed hibernating caterpillar, or as a chrysalis; and in a few cases it is only the female which passes the winter in some secure retreat, to emerge again in the spring, and then deposit her eggs on the fresh-growing verdure. But, generally speaking, eggs laid during the summer hatch out in from ten to sixteen days. And it is well to be on the lookout for the young larvæ even earlier, if you intend to rear some species in confinement. If you have secured eggs to rear from, watch them from day to day to see if they darken, as they often assume a dark leaden hue immediately before hatching. This is a useful warning, and serves as a hint to have plenty of fresh food ready for the young family about to arrive. The caterpillars are ravenous eaters; you will not notice this fact particularly at first, because they are then such tiny creatures, but in proportion to their size their eating capacity is enormous. They grow at an exceedingly rapid rate and to such an extent that they literally burst their skins! In a very short time--three or four days--the old skin bursts and out comes Mr. Caterpillar with a brand-new one. And this is the manner of their growth; several times (five or six) this skin-shedding process is repeated. And then the creature prepares for the last and final change before turning into a butterfly. There are one or two more points I would ask you to notice about our caterpillar ere we pass on to consider his next stage. The legs are generally sixteen in number. There are six true legs, one pair on each of the first three body-segments behind the head; four more pairs near the anal end, and the last segment carries another pair, known as the "anal claspers." The first six may be said to represent the same legs in the perfect insect. Note also the breathing holes, or spiracles, placed in a row along either side of the larva. The head _seems_ to carry very large eyes, but it does not really do so; the real eyes are very minute, and it requires a good strong pocket-lens to make them out. There are twelve of them all told, and they are not all of equal size. There are six on either side of the mouth, and the three larger ones on each side are not very difficult to find. The mouth is furnished with strong mandibles for biting and chewing food, and also contains the spinneret for the production of the silk used on various occasions. All these details should be carefully noted--the head, the eyes, the breathing spiracles, the mandibles, the fore-legs and claws, and the hind- or pro-legs. Mark the totally different types of feet which terminate these two sets of legs. You will need to use your lens for this observation, and to enable you to see the beautiful structure of the pro-leg foot, it will be necessary for you to examine it through a compound microscope. It is well for the young entomologist to know these more prominent features of a caterpillar's economy, if for no other reason than to be able to answer the questions that are sure to be put to him on these and many other points. But only a small percentage of the larvæ that are born into the world live to become butterflies; some seasons a larger number than usual may escape, and then we have a butterfly year, but the relentless ichneumon flies soon restore the balance. They, too, have their young to provide for, and a strange mode of existence they have. Once you get to know these ichneumons at sight, you will be astonished at the number of them. All the summer through you will find them hawking about the trees, bushes, nettles, and heather, and, indeed, wherever larvæ are to be found, there, too, you will find these flies. There are many species of them. Once a female has discovered a larva its doom is sealed. The ordinary larva has very few defensive weapons; he may wriggle and squirm and _look_ terrifying, but all the same the ichneumon sets about her task of placing one or two, and in many cases a dozen or two, of her eggs either upon or under his skin. These eggs soon hatch, and the little white maggots pass their existence inside the doomed creature, eating all the tissues away, at first avoiding the vital organs, which they leave until the last. When they have reached their allotted span, and are about to change to the pupa state themselves, they soon finish off their victim, and all that remains of what might have been a brilliant butterfly is a little shrivelled bit of skin and a host of little--or it may be a few big--black, brown, or grey flies. Sentiment apart, these parasitic flies are extremely useful. When you consider the large number of eggs laid by a single female butterfly or moth--from two to six hundred is a fair average--you will realize that if this enormous progeny were to survive and go on increasing without any check, the vegetation of the world would very soon prove quite inadequate to support the vast army of caterpillars, to say nothing of you and me. You may at some time find a dozen or two larvæ of some particular species of butterfly or moth, and at the time of collecting them they may seem healthy and all right, but weeks afterwards you may discover that only a very small number will change to chrysalids, the ichneumons having had the rest. If you can catch and induce a female butterfly to give you a batch of eggs in captivity, then you may be sure, providing your treatment of them has been right, that all your brood will arrive at the perfect state. The next stage we have to consider we will pass over briefly. The change from the larva to the chrysalis is always a very fascinating performance to watch, not that one could sit and see the whole performance right through from start to finish, the time occupied is too long for that. Generally the process lasts a day or two, but by watching at frequent intervals, where several individuals are engaged at the same operation and each at its own stage of the work, it is not difficult to follow the whole process of the transformation. Try it with the larva of the Large Garden White butterfly, perhaps the commonest, and therefore the easiest to procure; you will gather plenty of "stung" or "ichneumoned" examples, but still a sufficient number should be clean to serve your purpose. We will not enter into all the details of the "spinning-up" process and describe how an attachment is secured at the anal extremity, and how our little friend "loops the loop." Some species, such as the Tortoiseshell, get over this part of their difficulty by omitting the loop altogether, and therefore hang head downward, suspended only by the hooks and silk at the tail. Concealment during this stage is the creature's only hope and chance of survival; other defence they have none. Their colour may occasionally protect them by virtue of making them harmonize beautifully with their surroundings. The ichneumons seldom molest them during the chrysalis stage; but birds and small animals have sharp eyes when foraging for food, so it is usually far more difficult to discover these chrysalids than to find the feeding caterpillars. The time passed as a chrysalis is very variable; ten days to a fortnight in summer is sufficient for many species; others pass over the whole winter, like the spring brood of our common white butterflies, so that these can be sought for during the winter months under the overhanging portion of palings, walls, outhouses, and in similar situations. The cold does not seem to injure them; it may, and generally does, retard their emergence, and possibly has some effect on the colours of the wings, but it cannot change their ultimate pattern. Experiments have been tried with various chrysalids, part of a brood being hatched out after being submitted to a very low temperature, and another part of the same brood after being treated with a high temperature. Speaking generally, the coloration of those subjected to the cold treatment was brightened and intensified, and Nature does the same thing in her own way. The early summer butterflies, which pass through the winter as chrysalids, are almost invariably larger and brighter than the midsummer or autumn brood of the same species. But suppose our caterpillar to have successfully run the gauntlet--ichneumon, bird, beast, and beetle--and to have become a healthy pupa, and that the time has arrived when he must make the last and greatest transformation in his short and interesting career. Several days prior to his exit as a butterfly taking place, a noticeable change occurs in the apparent colour of the chrysalis. As a matter of fact it is not the chrysalis shell which is changing colour, but the developing insect, the colours of which are beginning to show through it, at first rather faintly; but latterly the pattern of the wings can be distinctly seen, and the whole body surface gets darker. When this stage is reached, the advent of our butterfly is not long delayed. The hour chosen is usually early in the morning, so that by the time the sun is high and the fresh perfumed flowers are nodding in the breeze, our little butterfly has expanded and dried his wings, and is now quite prepared for the beautiful and consummating act in the wonderful drama of his existence. [Illustration: PLATE 2 Method of Setting with Bristle and Braces] While he is drying his wings and preparing for a life amongst sunshine and flowers, we might spend a few minutes with him ere he leaves us, and the more so, as now he looks his very best, arrayed in all his new-found finery. Such wings! no wonder he looks proud as he slowly opens and closes them, repeating this action over and over again as if to prove their smooth working before he launches forth upon the air. And the wonderful pattern of these wings is all built up of tiny scales placed as regularly as the slates on a roof. Your pocket-lens will show you much of this, but to examine the individual scales, their various shapes and structure, you will require a compound microscope. These scales are the "dust" you will find on your finger and thumb if ever you pick up a butterfly in such an unscientific manner. You will notice, too, that the under sides of the wings bear quite a different design from the upper sides; this is nearly always the case, and in many foreign butterflies this difference between the two sides is so very remarkable as to be quite startling in its effect. Well I remember an old sergeant-major, who had spent many years in India, and had done a lot of "butterfly dodging" in his day, telling me of this wonderful effect. He said one would come upon an open piece of meadow-land blazing with flowers and butterflies, but, on being disturbed, the whole crowd of insects would rise in the air, and then, he would say, they looked like a different set altogether. When you capture a few specimens of any species, examine closely the under sides, and in any case, if you wish to preserve them, always set one of each sex with the under side uppermost. Next to the wings the head claims our attention; it supports three very essential organs--the eyes, the horns, or antennæ, and the tongue, or sucker. The antennæ are undoubtedly the organs of smell, which is perhaps the most highly developed sense in the Insect World. That the eyes are a marvel of beauty, and that the tongue is a finely finished little instrument for its work no one can question; but the sense of smell has a much longer range than even the eye, with all its facets. And you will generally find, in relation to the faculty which any animal or insect has to exert most so as to procure its food and propagate its kind, the organ of that faculty reaches the highest point of development and service. The eyes of the condor and the gannet must be marvellous in range and penetrating power. I have watched scores of the latter birds sailing and hovering 150 feet and more above a troubled sea. Suddenly there would be a slight pause, and then a rocket-like dive right down into the waves below. To see a fish on the surface from such a height would be a great feat, but to see and catch one a dozen feet deep in a broken sea as a gannet can do, is wonderful indeed. With butterfly and moth the sense of smell is of the greatest importance. Their vision is good, but short in range; so to find the flowers wherein lies their food the sight is good, but the power to detect them by scent must be far better. "Over the hedge is a garden fair," and if a butterfly cannot see through the hedge, he can at least smell through it. He could fly over it? Yes, but if his sense of smell says there is nothing there for him, you see he is saved the time and trouble; and his life is short. "Assembling" and "treacling" for moths are two methods employed by insect-hunters to secure an abundance of specimens otherwise difficult to obtain, and in both cases it is this same wonderful sense of smell which is the insect's undoing. For "assembling," a captive virgin female is taken at dusk to the locality where the species is likely to occur, and if males are about they very soon make their appearance. The female being in a gauze-covered box, they will swarm over it in their efforts to find an entrance, and when thus engaged can be easily captured. As for the subtle odour emitted by the lady, you or I could never detect it, yet these moths come swarming from far and near. I once witnessed a curious phase of this instinct on a hillside in Arran. My attention was arrested by a number of males of _Bombyx Quercus_ (variety, _Callunæ_), keeping near and flying over a certain spot, and, thinking a female might be about, I went over to investigate. It was a female, but a dead and crushed one; how it had met its end I could only conjecture; but evidently, although the insect was mutilated, the scent still lingered, and brought the males circling round. This large moth flies boldly during the day, and in Arran the larvæ feed on the heather. The eyes of a butterfly are large and of the usual insect pattern--_i.e._, compound, being made up of a number of tiny lenses, hexagonal in shape, like the honeycomb of the domestic bee. Roughly, about three thousand of these lenses go to make up the two eyes. As pointed out, their range of vision is comparatively short, but within their range vision must be very keen--before, behind, above, and below. I once saw a sparrow try to capture a Large Garden White in a street in the town; he darted at it again and again, much in the manner of the ordinary spotted flycatcher, but the butterfly seemed to have no difficulty in evading him, and eventually he gave up the game. A small portion of the eye makes a good slide for the microscope, but the individual lenses are hardly visible through an ordinary hand-glass. On the top of the head are one or two small simple eyes, which do not look as if they could be of much service, but one never knows, and the butterflies will not tell, although they have long tongues. The tongue is a very pretty structure; when not in use it lies coiled up in spiral fashion like a watch-spring, and is then well protected by two little side-covers called the "palpi." Needless to say, the tongue cannot sting. No moth or butterfly has a stinging organ; the tongue is too delicate for any "cut and thrust" work. It is not difficult to mount a butterfly's tongue for the microscope, and its examination well repays the trouble. Particularly noticeable under the microscope are the little bell-shaped suckers placed in long rows near the tip. If you wish to make and examine a cross section, take the head of a freshly killed specimen and extend the tongue in a little melted paraffin wax; when this is thoroughly set, cut it across in very thin slices with a sharp razor; place one on a glass slide, then on to the microscope stage, and there you are! You will soon discover that the simple-looking tube is a very complicated affair, and quite a little study in itself. We will not linger over what remains of the anatomy of our butterfly. The legs are six in number, but occasionally the first pair are useless for walking, and only the middle and last pairs are fully developed. Always remember the maximum number of legs for all insects is six. Caterpillars may have more or less; they occur as footless grubs with no legs at all, while some have as many as sixteen legs. The last, or abdominal, section of a butterfly's body carries the sexual organs; it is usually more slender in the males than in the females. CHAPTER II THE CAPTURE AND PRESERVATION OF BUTTERFLIES In the rearing of butterflies from eggs and in watching them all through their larval stages, we learn a great deal concerning their life and habits, and finally secure perfect specimens for the cabinet. But the glories of the chase and the charm of the country ramble weigh more in the balance with the naturalist, and the story of a captured specimen is often far more interesting than the record of a bred one. Of butterfly nets used in the chase there are many and varied patterns in the market. I made my own and a better balanced one it would be hard to find. Having seen and handled a few in my time, my experience has been that they are mostly too heavy, have too many loose parts, and their weight is badly distributed. Indeed, I saw one lately which felt more like a hammer in one's hand. I think if you try to get one made after the pattern here described and figured on p. 15, you will not be disappointed with it. Now, it is one of the avowed purposes of this little book to make the study and collecting of butterflies cost _all_ the time a boy can spare, and little, or, at least, not much in money. The requirements for a ring folding net are 2 yards of steel wire, rather less than 1/8 inch in thickness (cost about threepence); three copper rivets and washers, 3/16 inch by 3/8 inch long (cost one penny); one 1/4-inch iron screw-head bolt and nut (one penny). Cut the wire into two pieces, each 20 inches long, and two pieces 16 inches long. If you can get a tinsmith friend to turn the eyes for you, so much the better; you will thus avoid the most difficult part of the operation, but you would lose some valuable lessons and the satisfaction of having made the whole thing yourself. The accompanying cut will show you how the eyes are turned and riveted, and how the nut is fixed in the tube which the tinsmith will make for you, and he will also solder the nut in the narrow end for a few coppers. Or you can get him to make the whole concern, as I have done for a friend of mine. I simply gave the tinsmith mine for a pattern, and in a few days he handed me over an exact duplicate, and only charged one shilling and sixpence for it. [Illustration: DETAILS OF FOLDING-NET. 1, Ring open, about 16 inches diameter; 2, tin tube with nut soldered in at narrow end; 3, net complete, showing wooden handle fitting into tin tube. Detail A shows how eyes are turned; B, larger eye for passing over screw; C, screw soldered in position.] The net itself is easily made. You will need 1-1/2 yards of the best and strongest muslin and a piece of stout twilled cotton, with which to make the hollow binding round the wire for strength. This binding must be at least 2 inches deep, so as to slip off and on the ring easily when you wish to repair the ring or wash the net. Get green muslin if you care for it; I tried green, too, but speedily gave it up, as I found the white net more effective for seeing and handling moths in after dark. Do not shape the net down to too fine a point; rather make it more of a cup-shape and nearly the depth of your arm. And, lastly, while we are on the subject of the net, always carry a few strips of gum paper with you on an excursion; they are very handy and effective for repairing a damage, say, after contact with a bramble-bush. Most butterflies are very impatient in the net, and strongly resent their imprisonment, so either double your net over the instant a capture is made, or catch the net by the neck, so to speak, with your left hand, leaving your right free for the pinching process. Pinching must be very carefully done, or your specimen may be spoiled. It can be done only when the wings are closed; you give the insect a sharp nip between your finger and thumb nails, right under the junction of the wings and the body--_i.e._, on the under side of the thorax, always taking care not to crush or mangle the specimen. Do not attempt to actually kill it; just give a sufficient pinch to stun it; then you may open the net, remove your specimen, and pin it in your collecting box, which should be as nearly air-tight as you can make it, and lined with sheet cork. Place some freshly pounded laurel-leaves secured in a piece of muslin at one end of your box. The fumes given off by the bruised leaves soon kill the insects. Don't use ammonia for killing butterflies; it alters their colours, and, in fact, ruins some altogether. Cyanide of potassium or laurel-leaves are the best killing agents, and the latter are by far the safest for boys to handle, as cyanide is very poisonous. [Illustration: PLATE 3 "Cop" of "120's" Cotton on Stand, and Setting-Needle for "Paisley" Method of Setting] Specially-made entomological pins can be purchased from all dealers in naturalists' requisites. Black enamelled pins are the vogue just now, and they last longer than the silvered or gilt ones, and resist "grease" better. Many insects, you should know, have a small, and some a large, amount of oil in their bodies, which gradually makes its presence seen, first in the abdomen, and later it spreads (if not checked) to the wings. The oil, coming in contact with the white or yellow pin, soon corrodes it through; the black enamel resists its action longest. Try to check this "greasing" of your specimens on its first appearance on the body, and if you notice it before it has spread to the wings all may be well. Break the abdomen off at once, and drop it into benzine, where you can let it remain a day or two. Then transfer it to a box of fine dry plaster of Paris for another day or so, and you will be surprised how beautiful and clean it will come out. Another hint: Push a little pin into each body when broken off, and attach a _white_ thread to the pin; now you can do what you like with the body without touching it with your fingers; lastly, replace each body, sticking it in position with a dab of entomological gum, to be had from Messrs. Watkins and Doncaster, 36, Strand, W.C. Supposing you have arrived home with a few butterflies, and wish to set them. This is best done as soon as possible after they are killed. They may remain unset a few days if kept damp and yet properly aired; you must prevent them from hardening on the one hand, and getting mouldy on the other, through too long and close keeping; so have a watchful eye on them until set. Setting-boards can be either bought or made. This is a question for each worker to determine for himself. Some collectors may have special facilities for making them, while others may have a profusion of pocket money wherewith to buy them. When I was a boy I made my own. It was a work of necessity. As a lad I had always so many specimens to set in summer-time that it would have been sheer ruination to have bought all the boards required. On Plate II. you have an illustration of a setting-board, and the photograph is in itself an indication of how butterflies are to be set before being placed in the permanent collection. Note the setting-bristle mounted in a cube of cork. This is used to hold the wing in position while the card braces are being placed. The collector can easily mount a bristle for himself. A cat, badger, or other whisker will serve; do not try to push it through the cube of cork, but glue it between two pieces; by doing so you will save your bristle from being spoiled and make a firmer job. Keep your old _thin_ postcards, from which to cut braces, and always have a boxful of various sizes handy, and in the same box, in a separate compartment, have an abundance of small, thin pins. Good setting, like other operations, is largely a matter of practice. Be careful not to injure the wings in any way, and place your braces on them so that they will not leave marks. I find a common fault with beginners is that they do not lower the specimen far enough down into the groove of the setting-board, with the result that the wings are bent and deformed by the braces pressing them down. See that the wings of your specimens lie flat and naturally spread out over the surface of the board on either side of the groove. A setting-needle is sometimes an exceedingly useful tool. A very neat one can be made in a few minutes with a goose quill, a little sealing-wax, and the finest sewing-needle you can secure. Melt the wax and fill one end of the quill for half an inch or so, heat the eye end of the needle until nearly red-hot, and push it into the wax. This tool is very useful for adjusting a wing as occasion demands. Let your insects remain as long as possible on the boards; they should be left on for a fortnight in warm, dry weather, but longer in the spring and autumn. The wings of imperfectly dried specimens are liable to spring up, or droop. There is another method of setting Lepidoptera which only requires to be more widely known to quickly supersede the use of braces and bristle. It is sometimes called the "Northern" method, but I prefer to call it the "Paisley," because it was first used in that town. Its advantages are: Greater speed, less apparatus, less expense, and less liability to damage the specimens. Instead of the usual setting-board, a block is used--that is to say, your setting-boards are cut up into short pieces, in length a little less than the width of the board. Thus, a board 2-1/2 inches wide should be cut into pieces 1-3/4 inches long. As no corked surface is needed these blocks can be made or bought very cheaply; the usual cost, from a joiner, is about two shillings per hundred. The only other requisite is a cop of very fine cotton "120^8" or even finer if you can get it. This you will be able to obtain from a cotton-spinner or his agent; by-and-by, as this method of setting becomes more widely known the dealers will probably stock a few of these fine cotton-yarn cops.[#] Plate III. will show you how to construct a stand for the cop. The rest is easy. Pin your insect in the same way as you would do for braces; place it on the block with wings well down on its surface, holding the block in your left hand. Give your cotton a turn round the extreme edge of the block, then bring it directly above your insect. Now blow the wing on the left side as far forward as you wish it to go, and, while it is held extended by your blowing, bring the cotton down gently across it and there you have it, secured in position. Give two or three extra turns to hold it safe and repeat the operation for the other wing. If the wings should be stiff and refuse to go far enough forward, secure them as far forward as they will blow, with one turn of the cotton only, then gently assist them farther with a setting-needle. When in a satisfactory position, give the few extra turns of the cotton. I can set from sixty to one hundred and twenty insects in an hour by this method. [#] Readers desirous of adopting this most excellent method of setting, and yet experiencing difficulty in getting suitable cotton-yarn, should communicate with the author, Mr. A. M. Stewart, 38, Ferguslie, Paisley.--EDITOR. In removing an insect from a block, draw a sharp knife across the back of the block and lift off _all_ the cotton at once. If the body of the specimen being set needs support, as sometimes happens, give the cotton two or three cross turns, and with your setting-needle raise the body on to this as shown on Plate VI. One hint more: See that your lines diverge from near the body at the bottom to near the tip of the wings at the top; the reason for this is that if you have to slip the wing forward under a turn of the thread it will not be damaged if the thread is arranged as indicated, whereas if your thread be laid on, say, from the outer bottom corner in towards the head, it would then scrape the wing, and be sure to remove some of the scales, thus damaging the specimen. The correct method is shown on Plate VI. With ordinary care and usage a good cop should last a year or two. After your insects are set, by whatever method, they need to be put aside in a dry, airy place to harden, and be secured against the ravages of mice and spiders. For their better protection, it is usual to place them in a "drying case," which need not be an elaborate affair. My drying case was constructed out of an empty box obtained from the grocer; judging from the legend on the outside it had once contained tins of preserved apples. This is set up on end with the bottom removed and made into cross shelves. Light muslin cloth is tacked on in place of the bottom, so as to admit air but exclude dust. On the front, where the lid was originally nailed, is a hinged frame, covered with the same material, acting as a door. This drying house is not exactly pretty, but it has served its purpose admirably for many years. A representative of the larva of each species is now considered essential to a complete collection of butterflies, and it is rendered even more perfect if egg-shells and chrysalis cases can also be included. We now have a fairly easy and reliable process for preserving larvæ, a process which any aspiring young collector can carry through without much trouble or expense. It is really very simple and costs little. True, one can purchase apparatus specially made for the work for ten, or even five, shillings, but equally good results can be obtained with the expenditure of a few pence and a little ingenuity. I strongly advise young folk to make their own apparatus; by so doing they develop resourcefulness, and a handy youngster is not likely to make a failure of his life. In the first place you will need a hot-air chamber. Any empty toffee-tin will serve this purpose; one somewhere about 6 inches long by 4 inches in diameter will be a handy size. Get a piece of copper or soft iron wire, such as milliners use; give the wire two or three turns round the tin, twisting it as tightly as you can: then give the two free ends a turn or two round a gas-bracket near the burner, so as to bring your tin, with the open end next you, just over the burner. Or you may mount the tin over a spirit-lamp, in which event you will not be troubled with soot gathering on the outside of your oven. You now have an oven which you can make as hot as you want it by regulating your flame; you will soon discover the right temperature in which to dry a skin quickly without burning it. The skins of small, thin-skinned caterpillars dry very quickly, whilst those of large moths, such as the Oak Eggar, dry more slowly even with more heat. Your next requirement is a glass blowpipe: this you can purchase at the chemist's for a copper. Ask for a glass tube about a foot long and a quarter of an inch in diameter. Now, this tubing is made of a very soft and pliable kind of glass, and by heating it over a flame you should have no difficulty in drawing out one end of the tube into a fine point, not too long and not too abrupt; the illustration (Plate VII.) will show you the right length of the point. Hold the end over the gas-jet, keep turning it round, and in a minute it will become red and soft; remove the end of the tube from the flame, grasp it with a pair of forceps, and gently and steadily pull the heated portion until it is drawn to a point of the required length. Nip off the part you caught with the forceps, and your tube is ready. Or another way is to heat the tube in the middle, and pull the two ends apart; this will give you two blowpipes, and you can make a fine point to one for small caterpillars and a wider aperture to the other for large ones. I used to know a friendly chemist who would "point" as many tubes as I wanted at his Bunsen burner in a few minutes. To complete your blowpipe, you will need about 2 inches of a watch-spring--any watch-repairer will give you a broken spring. The photograph on Plate VII. shows how the piece of spring is placed and used; it is bent to the required shape while heated, and bound in position with fine copper wire. The wire I use is the same as that required for mounting dried larva skins; it can be obtained at any shop where electrical appliances are sold; it is an extremely fine wire covered with green silk thread. Your larva-preserving outfit is completed with a sheet of blotting-paper and an ordinary lead pencil. I will now describe the process. [Illustration: PLATE 4. 1. Clouded Yellow (Male) 2. Brimstone (Male) 3. Silver-washed Fritillary (Male) 4. Dark-green Fritillary (Male) 5. High Brown Fritillary 6. Queen of Spain Fritillary 7. Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary 8. Pearl-bordered Fritillary 9. Greasy Fritillary] There could be no better species to begin with than the caterpillar of the Large Garden White butterfly; get one as nearly full-grown as possible, lay it out on the blotting-pad before you, place the lead pencil across it gently, but firmly, just behind the head, and roll it towards the tail. This kills the larva instantly, and empties out its internal organs by the anal orifice. Roll your pencil over it again to make sure the skin is thoroughly clean inside; then insert your blowpipe into the anal orifice, letting the spring down on the last segment so as to hold the skin on; apply your mouth to the other end of the blowpipe, blow the skin out gently, and insert in the hot-air oven. Keep blowing gently for a few seconds; watch progress; touch the skin with your finger to see if it is getting hard and dry. Don't blow too hard and make it look like a bursting sausage; try to keep it as natural in appearance as possible. In a few minutes it will be quite hard and dry; when dry, raise the spring, and a slight touch with the thumb-nail will liberate it from the blowpipe. The skin is now ready for mounting on silk-covered wire or a thin dry twig with a little entomological gum or seccotine. Our specimen is now ready to take its place in the collection. We now have to face the problem of storing the collection. It is probably beyond the means of a young collector to purchase a cabinet with drawers, costing ten shillings per drawer, and he will be well advised to keep his specimens in store-boxes which he may be able to make for himself. I made some very serviceable ones with scented soap-boxes got from our grocer. Any size will do, but it is best to have your boxes all of one size if possible, say 10 inches by 14 inches by 4 inches. Get a few light deal boxes about these dimensions, nail on the lids, paper them all over the outside with good stout brown packing-paper having a glossy surface; paste it on with thin glue; set aside a day or two to dry. When dry, take a sharp saw and cut the boxes round the sides and ends, so that each box is divided into two equal traylike halves. Glue a stout cardboard shell round the inside of one half, and attach the other half by two small brass hinges. The cardboard shell rises above the sides of the tray, and when the other half of the box is folded over it "stays put," as the Yankee says; and, in addition, you have a fairly air-tight construction. These store-boxes fold after the manner of a book-form chess or draught board. Each half requires to be lined on the inside with sheet cork, which you can get from dealers in entomologists' sundries, and finally covered with thin white paper. Such a store-box costs less than one and sixpence. Keep two or three boxes for duplicate specimens, and as many for your permanent collection. By-and-by you will want glass-topped cases, but by the time you have arrived at that stage you should have gained sufficient experience to enable you to know where to buy them. See that every specimen before being transferred to your permanent collection bears with it a small label setting forth the date and place of capture, thus: EPPING, 9/6/11. _J. Roberts._ ABBEY WOOD, HERTS, 7/9/11. _Robertson._ Keep these tickets as inconspicuous as possible and with the writing or printing in such a position as to be easily read without requiring to remove the insect. The following list of British butterflies is thoroughly modern, and in labelling your specimens you should adopt its nomenclature, and also follow the order given in arranging your collection. Both Latin and English names are included, but if you wish to be a thorough entomologist you should accustom yourself to use the scientific names. The Latin name is the same everywhere "from China to Peru." If you use an English name of a butterfly in writing to a foreign collector he will probably fail to recognize the species referred to, but if you give the scientific name he will know it at once. LIST OF BRITISH BUTTERFLIES ARRANGED IN THEIR FAMILIES AND GENERA, WITH THEIR SCIENTIFIC AND POPULAR NAMES. Family: PAPILIONIDÆ. _Papilio machaon._ SWALLOW-TAIL. Family: PIERIDÆ. _Aporia cratægi._ BLACK-VEINED WHITE. _Pieris brassicæ._ LARGE WHITE. _Pieris rapæ._ SMALL WHITE. _Pieris napi._ GREEN-VEINED WHITE. _Pieris daplidice._ BATH WHITE. _Euchloë cardamines._ ORANGE-TIP. _Leucophasia sinapis._ WOOD WHITE. _Colias hyale._ PALE CLOUDED YELLOW. _Colias edusa._ CLOUDED YELLOW. _Gonepteryx rhamni._ BRIMSTONE. Family: NYMPHALIDÆ. _Argynnis selene._ SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. _Argynnis euphrosyne._ PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. _Argynnis lathonia._ QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY. _Argynnis aglaia._ DARK GREEN FRITILLARY. _Argynnis adippe._ HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY. _Argynnis paphia._ SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY. _Melitæa aurinia._ GREASY FRITILLARY. _Melitæa cinxia._ GLANVILLE FRITILLARY. _Melitæa athalia._ HEATH FRITILLARY. _Vanessa c-album._ COMMA. _Vanessa polychloros._ LARGE TORTOISESHELL. _Vanessa urticæ._ SMALL TORTOISESHELL. _Vanessa io._ PEACOCK. _Vanessa antiopa._ CAMBERWELL BEAUTY. _Vanessa atalanta._ RED ADMIRAL. _Vanessa cardui._ PAINTED LADY. _Limenitis sibylla._ WHITE ADMIRAL. Family: APATURIDÆ. _Apatura iris._ PURPLE EMPEROR. Family: SATYRIDÆ. _Melanargia galathea._ MARBLED WHITE. _Erebia epiphron._ MOUNTAIN RINGLET. _Erebia æthiops._ NORTHERN BROWN, OR SCOTCH ARGUS. _Pararge ægeria._ SPECKLED WOOD. _Pararge megæra._ WALL BROWN. _Satyrus semele._ GRAYLING. _Epinephele janira._ MEADOW BROWN. _Epinephele tithonus._ SMALL MEADOW BROWN. _Epinephele hyperanthus._ RINGLET. _Cænonympha typhon._ MARSH RINGLET. _Cænonympha pamphilus._ SMALL HEATH. Family: LYCÆNIDÆ. _Thecla betulæ_. BROWN HAIRSTREAK. _Thecla w-album._ WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK. _Thecla pruni._ BLACK HAIRSTREAK. _Thecla quercus._ PURPLE HAIRSTREAK. _Thecla rubi._ GREEN HAIRSTREAK. _Polyommatus dispar._ LARGE COPPER. _Polyommatus phlæas._ SMALL COPPER. _Lycæna bætica._ LONG-TAILED BLUE. _Lycæna ægon._ SILVER-STUDDED BLUE. _Lycæna astrarche._ BROWN ARGUS. _Lycæna icarus._ COMMON BLUE. _Lycæna bellargus._ CLIFDEN BLUE. _Lycæna corydon._ CHALK-HILL BLUE. _Lycæna argiolus._ AZURE BLUE. _Lycæna semiargus._ MAZARINE BLUE. _Lycæna minima._ LITTLE BLUE. _Lycæna arion._ LARGE BLUE. Family: ERYCINIDÆ. _Nemeobius lucina._ DUKE OF BURGUNDY. Family: HESPERIDÆ. _Syrichthus malvæ._ GRIZZLED SKIPPER. _Nisoniades tages._ DINGY SKIPPER. _Hesperia thaumas._ SMALL SKIPPER. _Hesperia lineola._ ESSEX SKIPPER. _Hesperia actæon._ LULWORTH SKIPPER. _Hesperia sylvanus._ LARGE SKIPPER. _Hesperia comma._ SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER. _Carterocephalus palæmon._ CHECKERED SKIPPER. The remaining pages of this volume will be devoted to a description of the species mentioned in the foregoing list, together with notes on habits and other points. Assisted by the splendid coloured plates, which are produced from actual specimens, and the notes in the following pages, the young collector should have no difficulty in identifying the specimens he secures. CHAPTER III THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES DESCRIBED THE SWALLOW-TAIL (_Papilio Machaon_), Plate I., Fig. 1.--I find, in Scotland, where I live, that the first question put by friends looking over one's insect treasures usually refers to this butterfly. "Is that a British butterfly?" they ask; and on being assured that it is, they tender the information that they never saw one like it in this neighbourhood; and it takes much explanation to make them understand how rare and local some butterflies and moths are. Alas! he is our one and only Swallow-Tail--the connecting link between our small island family and the great host of tropical and subtropical Swallow-Tails that flaunt their gorgeous colours under sunnier skies. And we hope he may long remain with us. The incentive to travel and capture this butterfly in his native haunts is not so great as it may have been half a century ago. For a few pence, or by exchange, the larva or chrysalis can be had from a dealer, and with ordinary care and attention it is not a difficult species to rear, and thus see alive. That this species is already getting scarcer should be a warning to all who are interested in the preservation of our native fauna. Its extermination might not be a very difficult task; and although it is common in many places on the Continent, its reintroduction into England would certainly be attended with great trouble and difficulty. Two years ago (1909) an experiment was made, under very favourable conditions, to "naturalize" a colony of this fine butterfly at Easton, near Dunmow, in Essex, the property of Lord Warwick. Lord Warwick and Professor Meldola laid down a large number of chrysalids which duly hatched, and, although the surrounding marsh land had been liberally stocked with the food-plant, yet no eggs or larvæ were found after the butterflies had passed their season, nor have any been seen since. Doubtless the butterfly has many natural enemies, and when we consider the draining, burning, and rush-cutting that go on in these fen lands, it will be apparent that the time cannot be far distant when an effort will need to be made, such as at Wicken, to provide "Cities of Refuge," for many of our rare and persecuted little friends. I speak for birds, butterflies, flowers and ferns. An educated public taste would do more for them all than any amount of Acts of Parliament. The Swallow-Tail measures fully 3 inches across the expanded wings; the prevailing tint is a pale primrose yellow, with bars and masses of black, the latter powdered with yellow scales on the fore-wings, and with pale blue on the hind-wings. There are also two red eye spots on the inner angle of the hind-wings near the tails. The under side looks not unlike a washed-out version of the upper, with a little more red on the hind-wings. The caterpillar, too, is very beautiful, being green in colour, belted with black, and the black is studded with red spots. It thrives well on various members of the carrot family--carrot, parsley, fennel, celery; it has occasionally been found feeding on the common carrot leaves in rural gardens in neighbourhoods where the insect abounds. The chrysalis, in which form the insect passes through the winter, is hung up in quite the orthodox manner, belted round the back and attached at the tail. If you should find chrysalids in this position during the winter months and wish to remove them, cut away the whole support, and set them up again in your hatching cage, as you found them. Always avoid unnecessary handling of these delicate objects. There are certainly two, and probably three, broods during a favourable summer, so this butterfly may be captured from May to August. Its headquarters are in the Fen counties of Cambridge and Norfolk, and it is found in many similar localities in fewer numbers. BLACK-VEINED WHITE (_Aporia Cratægi_), Plate I., Fig. 2.--This is one of the rarest of our butterflies, though why it should be so is rather difficult to say. As it feeds upon hawthorn in the larval state the puzzle is all the greater, as a commoner or more widely distributed plant it would be hard to find. It may be also found on blackthorn, cherry, plum, apple, and pear. It is not difficult to distinguish this fine insect from all the other "Whites" on our list. The wings are rather thinly scaled; you can note this by holding the insect up to the light, and looking through the wing with an ordinary pocket-lens. Do the same with its near neighbour, the Large Garden White, and you will see a difference--the Black-Veined White is semi-transparent, while the other is quite dense. The almost black network of veins is another unmistakable feature, as is the entire absence of a fringe to the wings. Two and a half inches is the average expanse of the extended wings. [Illustration: PLATE 5. 1. Glanville Fritillary 2. Heath Fritillary 3. Comma 4. Small Tortoiseshell 5. Large Tortoiseshell 6. Camberwell Beauty 7. Peacock] The caterpillar is rather hairy, dull-coloured underneath, black on the back, with two lines of broad red spots running from head to tail. When you find this caterpillar, you generally get a whole brood of them, as they are gregarious and live under a web until nearly fully fed. The chrysalis is of a bright straw colour, spotted and streaked with black, and is not so angular as the chrysalis of the Large Garden White. The butterfly is out in midsummer, and is rarely seen outside of the most southern counties, and even there it seems to prefer the coast. In Continental gardens it sometimes attacks the fruit-trees in such numbers as to constitute a plague. THE LARGE GARDEN WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Pieris brassicæ_) Plate I., Fig. 3, is well known to everybody. Town and country seem to be the same to him; indeed, I do believe he lives and thrives best in the town and village gardens; only twice have I met with the larva in a really wild situation, once finding a few caterpillars on a lonely shore in Arran, and I once got a chrysalis on a beech-tree trunk on the border of a large wood. Cabbage, kale, savoy, and cress, are the plants which the female usually selects as the most suitable to lay her eggs on, but as the caterpillars grow towards maturity there are few plants they will not attack, especially if they are driven by hunger and a lack of their usual food. The butterfly hardly needs description; suffice it to say that the female, besides having a rather larger expanse of black at the tip of the fore-wing, has also two black spots and a dash (see figure) on the same wing. These are entirely wanting on the upper side of the male, but are present on the under side. The male is a little smaller than the female. Beyond question this butterfly is the most destructive of all the British species; fortunately it is largely held in check by ichneumon flies. Once I brought home a dozen or two caterpillars of this species from an isolated locality on the Mull of Kintyre, hoping to obtain some possible varieties. Not one butterfly did I hatch; they had all been stung, and mostly by a large grey dipterous fly (Plate XI., Fig. 4), although some few contained the little blackish imp which is their usual parasite. This little fellow it is who spins the small cocoons round the shrivelled skin of the victim (see Plate XI., Figs. 3, 5). The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the backs of leaves, and are somewhat long; they are straw-coloured, and stand up on end, so they are not difficult to find and collect, or destroy if too numerous. The caterpillar is yellow, speckled with black, and slightly spiny; it is also one of the easiest and most satisfactory to preserve. The chrysalis may be found during the winter attached to walls and fences. The butterfly is common throughout the summer. SMALL GARDEN WHITE (_Pieris rapæ_), Plate I., Fig. 4.--This butterfly is very like the last, but much smaller. Both species are generally found together. On the wing and in the caterpillar state they find the same nooks and corners in which to pass the winter as chrysalids. [Illustration: PLATE 6 "Paisley" Method of Setting] But the caterpillars are very different in appearance. In this species the colour is a soft velvety green, with a faint yellow line down the back. Stretched at full length on the midrib of a cabbage-leaf, it is by no means a conspicuous object, and may be quite easily overlooked; but if you see the leaves riddled with holes, and find excrement lying between them and at the base, don't cease looking until you find the culprit, sometimes deep in a cabbage, or on the back of the outer leaves. Other caterpillars besides those of the Large and Small Whites may be present in force, notably those of the Cabbage moth (_Mamestra brassicæ_), large stout caterpillars varying from green to black; they are far too numerous, so have no compunction about destroying all you find. The caterpillar is apt to lose its colour in preserving, as is the case with all green caterpillars. GREEN-VEINED WHITE (_Pieris napi_), Plate I., Fig. 5.--Unlike the last two species, this White is more often found in the country than the town, and in my experience it is only a casual visitor to suburban gardens. I have never found the caterpillars there. To distinguish it from the last species it is only necessary to examine the under side, where both fore- and hind-wings are strongly veined with greyish-black, the female particularly so. On the upper side the veins are distinctly marked, but the line is finer. In a rather wet meadow where Ladies' Smock abounds in early June, I have seen this butterfly in profusion, and not at all easy to capture when the sun was high. But when King Sol is sinking in the west, and all decent butterflies have gone to rest, a turn through the same meadow while the light still lingers reveals the Veined Whites all at rest on the flower-heads of the Ladies' Smocks. It is then quite easy to select a few of the best, and search for varieties, until in the deepening twilight butterflies and flowers became so blended as to present only a whitish blurr to the eye. There are two broods--one out in June, the other in August. The caterpillar is green, with yellow spots on the sides, and may be found on various plants of the cruciferous order, the cress group in particular. I have found it on the Ladies' Smock (_Cardamine pratense_) and on the large-flowered Bitter Cress (_Cardamine amara_). For your collection always mount at least one of each sex with the under side uppermost. The specimen figured is a female; the male has only one round spot on each fore-wing. BATH WHITE (_Pieris Daplidice_), Plate I., Fig. 6.--This is the rarest of all our Whites; indeed, it is doubtful if it breeds in this country at all. A few specimens are taken annually on the south-east coast and neighbourhood, and the likelihood is that they are migrants from the Continent. On the other hand, it is just possible that on account of its close resemblance to the Green-Veined White when on the wing, it is often passed over when mixed up with and flying amongst a number of that species. The sexes are easily distinguished by the female having the upper side of the hind-wings broadly checkered with a double band of black spots, which is entirely wanting in the male. The under side, however, of both sexes is beautifully marbled in dark green on a creamy white ground. The caterpillar is a dull green with yellow lines on back and sides, and may be fed on cabbage or Dyer's Rocket. The chrysalis is very similar to that of the Small Garden White. The butterfly may be met with in May and June, and again in August and September. THE ORANGE-TIP BUTTERFLY (_Euchloë Cardamines_), Plate I., Fig. 7.--This is the only member of its genus inhabiting this country, though there are several others met with on the Continent. It has a wide range in Britain and may be met with from Aberdeenshire to the south coast of England, although it appears to be becoming scarcer and more local in the northern half of the kingdom. The ground colour of the upper side of the wings is white, with a large orange patch occupying almost the outer half of the fore-wing, relieved by a black tip and a black spot. In the female these black marks are larger, but the orange is entirely wanting. The under side of the fore-wing is like the upper, but the under side of the hind-wing is beautifully marbled in dark green, an effect obtained by the commingling of black scales on a yellow ground. The caterpillar is green, with a white line on the sides, and feeds on various species of _Cardamine_; hence meadow-lands are its favourite resorts, and there the curious sharp-looking little chrysalis may be found hung up to some dead stem during winter. The butterfly appears in early June and does not generally survive that month. THE WOOD WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Leucophasia sinapis_), Plate I., Fig. 8. --This is the smallest and most fragile of our white butterflies. The wings are white with a black tip on the fore-wing, and the under side of the hind-wing clouded with black scales. The body is long, slender, and a little flattened laterally. It is not a common species, and is very local where it does occur. It has been found as far north as the Lake District, and down to the south coast. It is unrecorded for Scotland, but has been taken in Ireland. The caterpillar is green, with yellow lines on the sides; it feeds on various members of the pea family--Vetch, Trefoil, etc. It appears on the wing in May, and sometimes a second brood occurs in August; so you may look for the caterpillar in June and again in September. THE PALE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY (_Colias Hyale_), Plate I., Fig. 9.--I think there can be little doubt that this fine butterfly is on the increase with us; from all over the southern counties come records of its comparative plenty. In the _Entomologist_ (October, 1911) I read of over one hundred being seen or captured by various collectors. Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Bucks, are amongst the favoured places, and Lucerne- or Clover-fields are the attractions. [Illustration: PLATE 7 Apparatus for Preserving Larvæ] The question of the migration of this and the following species is still very far from being satisfactorily settled. That we do get a swarm over from the Continent when conditions are favourable is a matter of common knowledge, but whether we have resident and permanent colonies of our own is still doubtful. In any case this year (1911) has been a _Hyale_ year, and we give thanks. The ground colour of this butterfly is a pale primrose-yellow. There is a broad black border beginning at the tip of the fore-wing and continuing on to the hind-wing, where it gradually dies out at the bottom angle; placed on this band of black are a few yellow spots. There is also a black spot on the fore-wing, and a faint orange spot near the middle of the hind-wing. The under side is more of a yellow shade, and a line of brown spots runs round the outer margin of both wings. There is a silvery spot in the centre of the hind-wings, like a figure 8 bordered with pinkish brown, and in fine fresh specimens the fringe is of the latter colour. The female is a shade lighter in ground colour and also shows more black. The caterpillar may be looked for in June and July on Clover and Lucerne; it is green, with yellow lines running along the back and sides. The chrysalis is green with a single yellow line. The latter half of August and the first half of September cover the best period of its flight in this country; on the Continent there is a spring brood. THE CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Edusa_), Plate IV., Fig. 1.--As with the last species, we have still much to learn of the habits of this fine butterfly. Some years it is plentiful, while in others hardly a specimen will be seen--and as for the caterpillars, we never hear of them being successfully searched for. The probability is that from a few spring visitors from the Continent we get a number of descendants in August, when a great many more arrive from across the Channel and mingle with them. The distribution of nearly all animals is regulated by the food-supply, the climate, or their enemies; yet none of these seem to satisfactorily account for the disappearance and reappearance of _Edusa_ with us. It is a strong flying insect with a roving disposition, and on quite a few occasions it has been noted as far north as Arran and the Ayrshire coast, in Scotland. The brilliant orange and black wings make its identity unmistakable. Not so, however, with the light sulphur-coloured female variety, which very nearly approaches the typical female form of _Hyale_, but it may be distinguished by the broader black band on both fore- and hind-wings, and a heavy sprinkling of black scales near the base of the former, and all over the latter. The orange spot too, in the centre of the hind-wing is deeper, and, being on a darker ground, looks much brighter. There is no corresponding male variation. The caterpillar is dark green, with a light line on each side, varied with yellow and orange touches. It feeds on various plants of the pea order--vetches, trefoils, clovers, etc. The chrysalis is brown spotted, and is striped with a yellow line. The butterfly appears with us during August and September. [Illustration: PLATE 8. 1. Red Admiral 2. Painted Lady 3. Milk Weed 4. White Admiral 5. Purple Emperor (Male)] THE BRIMSTONE BUTTERFLY (_Gonepteryx rhamni_), Plate IV., Fig. 2.--When I glance at this beautiful butterfly, I always feel inclined to laugh, not _at_ the butterfly--oh dear no!--but at a practical joke I once saw through, much to the astonishment of a soldier friend. He had brought home a large assortment of fine butterflies from India, and in going over the stock my attention was arrested by the peculiar pattern on one of them. For ground colour and outline it certainly resembled our own Brimstone, but what weird markings! Turning the hand-glass on it revealed the fact that it was _hand-painted_. I asked the sergeant who did this, and then he suddenly remembered, and gave vent to a loud guffaw. "The scamps, by Jove! That carries me back to a certain mess-room at Darjeeling when this insect was handed over to me by a certain young officer as a great rarity. He was sure there was not another like it in the camp; and he was right. Lots of our fellows went 'butterfly dodging,' and had big collections to take home; but not one of them had this one. They named it 'The Officer's Fancy.' Now, I recollect seeing this same officer out sketching and fooling around with a box of paints. It's clever, though, isn't it? He took us all completely in." This was hardly to be wondered at! The colours had been very delicately laid on, and the pattern adopted was of the eye-spot and streak order, so that the whole effect was quite harmonious and in good taste. But the Brimstone requires no artificial aids to make it a warm favourite with all butterfly lovers; if it lacks variety of colouring, it more than makes up for it in the beautiful sweeping outlines of the wings. No other butterfly on our list can show such sweet harmony of line and contour. Like a breeze-blown daffodil, he greets us on our early spring rambles, just when the opening blossoms and leafy buds are all doubly welcome, in that we have missed their friendly presence through the long days of winter. The female hibernates in all sorts of out-of-the-way corners--in dense holly-bushes, piles of brushwood, chinks of walls, etc., coming forth again in May or even earlier to deposit her eggs on the Buckthorn and its allies. The antennæ are rather short and more like a club than a drum-stick, while the beautiful white silken mane along the back is quite a noticeable feature. The female is of a much lighter tint than the male. The caterpillar is green, with paler sides, along which runs a white line: it may be found on the Buckthorn from May till July. The chrysalis, which is supported on the tail and band principle, is green and yellow, and rather oddly shaped. It hatches in the course of about three weeks. This butterfly is a plentiful insect south of the Border, but we have yet to record it for Scotland. THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Selene_), Plate IV., Fig. 7.--Like all the members of its family the ground colour of the wings of this insect is a reddish-brown, marbled and spotted with black. For size it differs little from the next species, and the upper surface of the two being so much alike, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. The under side (Plate X., Fig. 3), especially of the hind-wings, however, renders the task of identification comparatively easy: the ground colour is a deeper brown in this species and causes the pearl border to stand out in stronger relief; besides, numerous other pearl spots brighten its surface. It is a local butterfly, with a wide range of distribution both in England and Scotland; and where it does occur it is generally common. In the South it may be double brooded, but in the North the June flight is all we see of it for the year. The caterpillar is black, with an interrupted white line along the back; the spines are brown; it feeds on the dog violet (_Viola canina_). The chrysalis is ash-coloured. THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_), Plate IV., Fig. 8.--Perhaps this is the commoner of these twin butterflies, though its range of distribution is much the same as the foregoing. In its case, also, the under side of the _hind_-wings furnishes us with the main points of distinction. Here the markings are a warm mid-red shade on an ochreous ground; the pearl border is very pronounced, and in the middle of the wing a single pearl reposes. Nearer the body there is another smaller spot hardly so bright. If you set several of these two species with the under side uppermost, you will soon get quite familiar with the difference between them. Plate X., Figs. 3, 5, shows this distinction. The caterpillar is similar to the last species and prefers _Viola_ as a food-plant, but I have found it in little colonies where it most certainly must have fed on other plants, as _Violas_ of any species were distinctly rare in the district, which is wet and marshy. For Scotland there is a single brood in June, while in the South it is double-brooded--May and August. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Lathonia_), Plate IV., Fig. 6.--This is, unfortunately, the rarest of all our Fritillaries; unfortunately, because it is the most beautiful and brilliant. In outline the fore-wing differs from that of the two preceding species, being slightly concave on the outer margin, while the hind-wing bears a slight trace of scalloping. But it is on the under side where all the treasures lie. A row of seven pearl spots adorns the outer margin of the hind-wing; then comes a row of small dark spots, each with a pearl-spot in its centre; then a profusion of large and small glittering patches completes this beautiful wing. The under side of the fore-wing has only three (or sometimes a tiny fourth) pearl spots near the tip. This butterfly is taken occasionally in clover-fields in our south-eastern counties. The specimens taken there are possibly migrants from the Continent. The caterpillar is dark, with a white line on the back, yellow lines on the sides, and is clothed with short red spines. It may be found on _Violas_. As this insect is double-brooded on the Continent, it is well to look out for it during the whole summer from May to September. THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Aglaia_), Plate IV., Fig. 4.--The only claim this handsome species has to be called green lies in the fact that the under side of the hind-wing has for its ground colour a delightful tawny green. But the main attraction is the lovely rows of pearl spots ornamenting the under side (Plate X., Fig. 1); and there are four of these rows. One, and it is perhaps the finest, runs round near the outer margin, and consists of nine gems; the next, a little nearer the body, has eight, and is slightly irregular; the next row has only three, rather widely apart; and the fourth, and last, has also three very small ones quite near the base of the wing. The under sides of the fore-wings have also their pearl spots. Near the outer margin you will find a row with eight of them, beginning boldly near the tip; they gradually fade until the last of the row is barely visible. On some male specimens there are two silvery spots also near the tip, but on other specimens these are absent. The under side of the fore-wing has very little green to show; the tip of the wing is just tinted, and this tint is carried along the costal margin. I have described the under side in some detail, as I have seen it described as having only three rows of spots on the hind-wing, and no pearl spots at all on the fore-wing; and for another reason, I want you always to confirm your captures by a good textbook, as by so doing you will learn some valuable lessons in comparison and observation, and in noting details; and also it will enable you, perhaps, to add some fine variations to your collection. The caterpillar lives on various species of wild _Viola_, and may be found on them in the early summer, but as the butterfly has a wide range of distribution, season and locality make it vary a good deal in the time of its appearance. It has been found from the North of Scotland to the South of England. July is the month to look for it. I always find it more abundant near the coast. It is a bold flying species, and often difficult to capture; but in good settled weather I have taken it frequently at rest on thistle-tops _at sundown_. THE HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Adippe_), Plate IV., Fig. 5.--In this and the foregoing we have again two species very easy to confound, and all the more so when we note that stable characters are somewhat hard to find on the upper surface of the wings--in general the ground colour in _Adippe_ is richer and darker, and the outer margin of the fore-wing is not so rounded as in _Aglaia_, being either straight or very slightly concave. The arrangement of the second row of spots, which runs round near the outer margin of both wings, is different in the two species, but they are very inconstant and even vary in the sexes; so the _under side_ must be again consulted (Plate X., Fig. 2). And here we have an unfailing test. In _Adippe_, on the _under side_ of the hind-wing near the outer margin, there is a row of dark red spots lined internally with black, and in the centre there is a small pearl spot. These eyelike spots are never present in _Aglaia_. The general green tint, too, of _Aglaia_ is absent in _Adippe_. The silvery spots on the under side of the fore-wing of _Aglaia_ are rarely to be seen in this species. In some females of _Adippe_ three shadowy spots are visible near the tip. I have never seen these on a male; so we have it that, in the great majority of specimens of _Adippe_, the under side of the fore-wing is devoid of silvery spots. While _Adippe_ may be fairly common in the South, it is by no means so widely distributed, nor does it range so far north as _Aglaia_. In Scotland it is unknown. The caterpillar is dark grey, with a whitish line along the back, and is covered with rust-red spines. It feeds on _Viola_. The butterfly appears in July. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_), Plate IV., Fig. 3.--This is the largest of our native Fritillaries, and is easily distinguished from the others by an entire absence of the silvery spots so characteristic of this genus. The upper surface of the male is of a warm, orange-brown, streaked and dotted with black on both wings; the under side of the fore-wing is much lighter, the spots on it are smaller, and the tip is marked with olive; the hind-wing under side bears a fine combination of pale olive with faint lavender and silver streaks, while its outer margin is distinctly scalloped. The female is quite different. In it the ground colour of the upper side of the fore-wings is much paler, and the black streaks along the veins are absent. The hind-wings have the same pale tint, but with a more decided tinge of olive, while the under sides of both wings, and especially of the hind ones, are pale olive green, and the scalloping round the outer margin of both wings is more pronounced. In the female variety _Valesina_, the upper surface has a dark olive ground shading out towards the tip of the fore-wings. This, with the black spots lying on it, gives the butterfly quite a black appearance at a little distance. This variation is mostly found in the New Forest. The butterfly is common in many districts of England, but is rare in Scotland. The caterpillar is covered with long spines, nearly black, and has a pale line along the back and sides; it feeds on Dog Violet and Wild Raspberry. The chrysalis is rather stout, hangs by the tail, and is greyish, with shining points. The perfect insect is out in July and August. THE GREASY FRITILLARY (_Melitæa aurinia_), Plate IV., Fig. 9.--This may not seem a pretty or poetical name for a butterfly. Beauty, poetry, and the "fitness of things," might have suggested a more appropriate title; but, as Dickens has said, "the wisdom of our ancestors is not to be disturbed by unhallowed hands," and as the technical name is in this instance some compensation, we may have to let it go at that. "Greasy" the butterfly is not, but only _looks_ as if it were, when slightly worn; and, owing to some peculiarity in the arrangement of its scales, this slight wearing is very soon accomplished. Happily it is not a difficult insect to rear, and fine specimens without a suspicion of greasiness in their appearance can thus be had for the cabinet. This butterfly is quite distinct from any other British Fritillary, inasmuch as it has two very distinct ground colours on the upper side of its wings, a rich orange-brown and a pale ochreous yellow. The bands of this latter shade are bordered with dark brown; a reference to the coloured figure will show how these colours are disposed. It is a rather variable species, and is widely distributed. It is found in glens and damp meadows and is generally abundant where found, though local. [Illustration: PLATE 9. 1. Marbled White 2. Mountain Ringlet 3. Scotch Argus 4. Speckled Wood 5. Wall Brown 6. Grayling (Male) 7. Meadow Brown (Female) 8. Small Meadow Brown 9. Ringlet 10. Marsh Ringlet] The caterpillar is black, with a greyish line along the sides, and a small white dot above this between each segment. The chrysalis is ashen, with red and black spots; it is rather "dumpy," and may be found on various low plants early in the summer, and again, in some southern localities, in the autumn. Like nearly all the Fritillaries the larvæ hibernate while very small, so it is best to leave them in their natural state until fairly well fed. Narrow-leaved Plantain, Scabious, and, some observers say, Foxglove and Speedwell, are its favourite foods. The times of flight are May and August. In many Scotch localities, Argyllshire, Ayrshire, etc., this species is abundant. THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Cinxia_), Plate V., Fig. 1.--This little butterfly is one of the "threatened species." If due care and discretion be not exercised, there is a possibility of its becoming extinct in this country. "Threatened people live long," but it were wise not to push our little friend too far; and wiser still if collectors who live in or near its favourite haunts would not only try to preserve it, but also make some attempt to spread its range into other localities apparently suitable for its propagation. We have far too few native butterflies to run the risk of losing any we have. And as the food-plant is the Ribbed or Narrow-leaved Plantain, it follows that even were this species as abundant as its food would warrant, it could not possibly do any harm to anyone, either gardener or farmer. The ground colour might be called Fritillary brown, relieved with the usual black bands and spots; the hind-wings show a distinct row of black spots on a light ground running round near the outer margin. But the under side (Plate X., Fig. 4) is more striking and unmistakable, especially that of the hind-wing. The fringe itself is dotted at intervals with black; then follows a line of crescent spots on a cream-coloured ground; a fulvous band scalloped with a black outline traverses the wing, and on this band are dark spots edged with red. Then there is a cream band with black spots, and a broken-up band of fulvous spots edged with black. There is cream again next the body, with a few more black spots. The under side of the upper wing is a light orange-brown, and cream towards the tip, and bears a few black spots. The caterpillar is black, with dark red between the segments; head and pro-legs red; spines short, crowded, black. The chrysalis is stout, yellowish-grey, dotted with black, and is sometimes enclosed in a loose web. The chrysalids I have reared always adopted this mode of concealment and protection. I have also been much impressed with the strong resemblance of the caterpillar to the flower-heads of the Narrow-leaved Plantain, amongst which it lives. The Isle of Wight appears to be the headquarters of the species, and it is found in a few other localities on the mainland. It appears in May and June. [Illustration: PLATE 10 1. Dark Green Fritillary (under side) 2. High Brown Fritillary (under side) 3. Small Pearl Bordered Fritillary (under side) 4. Glanville Fritillary (under side) 5. Pearl Bordered Fritillary (under side) 6. Heath Fritillary (under side)] THE HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Athalia_), Plate V., Fig. 2.--There is more black, or dark brown, on the upper surface of this species, hence the insect looks darker in general aspect than any of the foregoing Fritillaries. The under side, too (Plate X., Fig. 6), is marked very like _Cinxia_, but the light bands on the hind-wings are more of a yellow tint, and the line of black spots through the central band are wanting; the veins are also more prominent and black. Altogether it is not difficult, on comparing the two under sides, to at once distinguish them. It is also a rather local species, being confined to the South of England and Ireland. Both caterpillar and chrysalis are very like those of the last species; the spines, however, are rust-coloured. It feeds on Plantain. The perfect insect is out from May to July. THE COMMA BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa c-Album_), Plate V., Fig. 3.--The tatterdemalion of the family, it looks, indeed, as if some hungry caterpillars had been dining on its wings, and had been scared away in the middle of the feast, leaving all sorts of rags and tatters to attest their visit. The costal margin is the only line left entire; all the others are deeply scalloped and indented. Two tails form the longest projections from the middle of the outer edge of the hind-wings. The ground colour is a uniform rusty red, varied with black spots arranged in the same order as in other species of this genus. There is a dark border round the outer margin of both wings. The under side is strikingly different from the upper, and looks extraordinarily like a dry, withered leaf, the more so on account of its ragged outline. In the middle of the hind-wing is a very clear comma-shaped mark; from this the insect takes its name. The caterpillar is yellowish on the back for the first five segments, then white to the tail; under side brown. The spines are shorter than in others of this group. It feeds on Hop, Elm, Gooseberry, Nettle, Willow, and Sloe. The chrysalis is brown, with gilt points. The butterfly appears in July and is rather local, being found mostly in the Midlands and Wales. It has been recorded for Scotland, but not of late years. THE LARGE TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Polychloros_), Plate V., Fig. 5.--The ground colour of this handsome species is a tawny yellow, marked with three large black patches along the costa of the fore-wing; between these patches the colour is somewhat lighter. There are four other black spots occupying the centre of the wing, which also has a black border dotted with brown; hind-wing tawny, with one black patch on the upper margin, but not extending inward to the body as a similar spot does in the next species (_Urticæ_). The dark border is continued along this wing, and is studded with blue spots edged with a paler line. This species might be confused by the novice with the next, but not if the two were together for comparison; then the points in which they differ are seen to be distinct and permanent. In _Urticæ_ the light ground between the costal blotches is yellow and the outer spot blue-white; there are only _three_ black spots in the centre of the wing, the largest one being continued _down to the margin_, which is not the case with the corresponding spot in _Polychloros_. On the hind-wing the black patch continues downward towards the bottom angle and inwards to the body, whereas this spot neither goes in nor down in _Polychloros_. Lastly, the ground colour in _Urticæ_ is of a bright red, almost a scarlet, with the blue spots extending into _both_ wings. The caterpillar of _Polychloros_ is brown, spiny, and striped along the back and sides; it feeds on Elm, Willow, and Cherry, during the summer months. The butterfly appears in August. It is by no means so common with us as its smaller and gayer cousin, being confined mostly to the South of England. There are occasional records for Scotland; I was present when a specimen was captured by a friend on the coast of Argyllshire in the year 1887. THE SMALL TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Urticæ_), Plate V., Fig. 4.--Among the many puzzling problems that naturalists have to solve, few present greater attractions than those relating to the migration and hibernation of animals. The birds have long claimed the attention of ornithologists in this respect, but the insects have in a great measure been neglected. However, there are signs of a revival. Migratory and hibernating butterflies are well enough represented in the British list to supply material for much patient and useful research. The facts about them are not all known--not by any means. We know, or fancy we do, that the dominating factor in both cases is the food-supply, but that there are other and important elements to be considered is beyond dispute. The Small Tortoiseshell is a hibernating species, but why does it not deposit its eggs in the autumn, and go the way of all flesh and butterflies? Could it not evolve a method of securing its eggs so that the young caterpillars might have a fair chance of survival when ushered into the world? Or has it found it easier and safer to take care of these eggs itself during the long winter months, and then, when returning spring once more brings the Nettle-shoots above ground, launch forth upon the wing once more, to seek and to find a home and a larder for its numerous children to be? What would be the fate of these eggs if laid in the autumn? Who can tell? Various enemies and agencies would be constantly at work seeking to destroy them. The Nettles have all died down and left hardly a trace behind. And what the rain and wind had not scattered far and wide, the ants and beetles would account for. The Small Tortoiseshell is perhaps the best known of all our coloured butterflies, occurring, as it does, all over the country from Land's End to John o' Groats. It is very like the last species, though smaller and brighter; but as I pointed out the various distinguishing marks in describing _Polychloros_, I need not go into them again. The caterpillars feed in companies when young, spreading themselves over the Nettles as they grow older. They are black on the back with a checkered double line along the sides; across each segment is a row of branched spines with numerous small simple hairs between. The chrysalis hangs by the tail; it is grey-brown, with gilt points. The eggs are laid in May, and the butterfly appears towards the end of June, and continues more or less abundant until October, when the females retire to some safe corner in old walls or outhouses, there to await the passing of the winter. [Illustration: PLATE 11 1. Larva of Large Garden White 2. Pupa of Large Garden White 3. Ichneumon Cocoons 4. Dipterous Parasite of Large G. White 5. Ichneumon Flies hatched from 3 6. Pupa of Small Tortoiseshell 7. Larva of Small Tortoiseshell 8. Larva and Pupa of Glanville Fritillary 9. Larva of Greasy Fritillary] THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Io_), Plate V., Fig. 7.--This beautiful species is too well known, and too distinct in its colour and pattern to require any written description. Few butterflies possess a name which so aptly describes them, and to make a mistake in its identification is hardly possible. All its efforts seem to have been exspended on the ornamentation of the upper surface, for the under side has hardly an attractive note. Dark and sombre though it be, it is well adapted for concealment during its period of hibernation. The caterpillar is black, with bands of white dots round each segment, and the spines are larger than in the Small Tortoiseshell. It feeds in batches on Nettles, from June to August. The chrysalis inclines to green and has burnished spots. This species is common in England, and is occasionally met with in the South and West of Scotland. THE CAMBERWELL BEAUTY (_Vanessa Antiopa_), Plate V., Fig. 6.--Why does not this handsome butterfly settle down amongst us, increase and multiply, and thus swell the little band of real natives who gladden the eye of the entomologist on his country rambles? It is a common insect over most of the Continent, and most abundant in North America, well up into Canada, where the winter is extremely severe. We have the food-plant in abundance, yet it is questionable if ever the Camberwell Beauty has been found in any but the winged state in this country. Records there are of its capture year after year, but there never seems to be progeny left by these occasional visitors. The wings are a dark chocolate-brown, bordered with creamy white. Between the brown and the white is a broad black band studded with blue spots; there are also two white spots on the costal margin near the tip of the fore-wing. It measures from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 inches in expanse, North American specimens being the largest. The caterpillar is black, with white dots, and has a row of red spots along the back. The pro-legs are also red, spines black. It feeds on the Willow. The chrysalis is brown, with darker spots; its abdominal points are sharp and angular. Single specimens of this species occur in most seasons from August to October, generally in the South, but it has been recorded for Scotland on several occasions. THE RED ADMIRAL (_Vanessa Atalanta_), Plate VIII., Fig. 1.--He must have been a poet who first conceived so appropriate a name for this gallant rover. Possibly he was living long ago-- "When Britons truly ruled the waves, In good Queen Bess's glorious days," or later, when Nelson's old "wooden walls" spread their bellying sails to catch the breeze. Those were days of romance. Fancy the Admiral of a super-Dreadnought--that big, black abortion of coal and iron--being associated with a butterfly! We would rather peer into the future and elect our aerial commander the "Red Admiral" of a fleet of graceful aeroplanes. This would certainly be more appropriate. [Illustration: PLATE 12. 1. Small Heath 2. Green Hairstreak 3. Purple Hairstreak (Female) 4. White-letter Hairstreak 5. Black Hairstreak 6. Brown Hairstreak (Female) 7. Large Copper (Male) 8. Small Copper 9. Long-tailed Blue 10. Silver-studded Blue (Male) 11. Brown Argus 12. Common Blue (Male)] The colours of this butterfly on the upper surface are singularly bold, striking, and, withal, simple. They furnish a good test of colour discrimination. I have heard them spoken of as "jet black," "intense black," or "velvety black." If you take a specimen into a good light, you will see that the whole area enclosed by the scarlet bands is a deep coffee-brown, while outside the band, on the fore-wing, the colour is black splashed with white, and there is a blue streak near the outer margin. The under side is a marvel of beauty too complex and wonderful for cold print. Common though this insect is all over our island from August to chill October, who can say that he has discovered his "retreat and hiding-place" from the storms and frosts of winter? Indeed, there are those who boldly assert that the Red Admiral _does not_ hibernate with us at all, and, consequently, we are indebted each year for our supply to spring visitors from the Continent, which may be the reason why in some years it is more abundant than in others. The caterpillar is a powdery yellow-grey in colour, sometimes inclining almost to black; a line of white spots appears on each side; there are some darker markings along the back, and a row of branched spines light in colour crosses the middle of each segment. You will generally find it hiding within a curled Nettle-leaf during the day. The chrysalis is grey, with a few shining points. THE PAINTED LADY (_Vanessa cardui_), Plate VIII., Fig. 2, is quite a suitable companion for a "Red Admiral," and they are often seen in company, although _cardui_ is the earlier on the wing by at least a fortnight, and often a month. The ground colour of the upper surface is a rosy orange, varied with black and brown markings, while the white spots near the tip of the fore-wing are almost similar to those of the Red Admiral. Here, too, the under side is an exquisite bit of painting. It reminds one of a frosted window done in harmonious secondary colours. No doubt this subtle pattern must be protective, for you will notice that when the insect is at rest with the wings shut, the bright portion of the under side of the fore-wing is concealed. This is decidedly a migratory species, and it is an open question whether it hibernates in Britain. In Scotland we never see it until the autumn, and occasionally it arrives in fair numbers. We had one extraordinary swarm about the year 1880; I remember being on holiday at the time on the Island of Cumbrae, in the Firth of Clyde. _Cardui_ was everywhere, and even fighting for possession of the Thistle-tops. In 1911 I had to be content with the sight of two specimens in Arran, but I heard of several more. Like the other _Vanessa_ caterpillars, the larva of this species is thorny, brown, and bears lines and spots of yellow. It may be found on Thistles and Nettles in May and June. The chrysalis is like that of _Atalanta_ in colour, but hardly so stout. THE WHITE ADMIRAL (_Limenitis Sibylla_), Plate VIII., Fig. 4.--This butterfly is almost black on the upper surface, relieved by white bars and spots, and there is a row of dense black spots near the outer margin of the hind-wings. These white marks are carried through the wings to the under side, but the ground there is formed of various shades of brown, with some black dots and pencillings--while on the under surface of the body, and spreading out from it on to the wings, is a considerable region of a light sky-blue tint, very pleasing to the eye. The caterpillar feeds on Honeysuckle, and is a lively green; the spines are reddish, those on the third, fourth, and sixth segments being larger than the others. There is also a white line bordered with brown along each side. The head is also red, with two lines of white down the face. The chrysalis is dark green, with silvery dots and lines, and bears grotesquely swollen lumps. This is a butterfly that I am afraid is becoming scarcer year by year; it is confined to the South. It is out in July. THE PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_), Plate VIII., Fig. 5, is undoubtedly the king of the forest glade. Wearing the regal purple, he looks down upon the world from his lofty throne on the top of some lordly oak. Somehow the build of this fine insect when seen in the hand cannot fail to impress the beholder with a sense of muscular power. The thorax is long, broad, and deep--more so than in any other British butterfly--and the abdomen, head, and antennæ are in like proportion. The wings are ample and in shape smart and serviceable. No loose scales or fluffy hairs soften the firm compactness of his whole bearing. Dark brown and purple alternate with the changing light all over the upper surface; a dash or two of red, and one eye-spot on the bottom angle of the hind-wing, with a bar and a few spots of white, are the main additions to the changing hues of the purple. The under side has a daring lightning flash of blue-white on a brown and olive ground on the hind-wing. The fore-wing (under side) has various spots of black and white on a darker ground, while there is also one eye-spot near the outer angle. He is said to have a fondness for carrion, and this queer taste is sometimes his undoing, as he is more readily captured when indulging his appetite than when soaring round the crown of some lofty oak. But it is better still to seek for the caterpillars. These may be found on low Sallows or Poplars. They are green, dusted with white, and have oblique dashes of yellow on the sides; they taper considerably towards the tail, while the head is adorned with a pair of horns. The chrysalis is similarly coloured while alive, but when its inhabitant is gone the colour vanishes with it, and all that remains looks like a little bit of crumpled tissue paper. It may be found suspended to the under side of a leaf of the food-plant. The butterfly is out in July in the southern counties, and is oftener seen than captured. THE MARBLED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Melanargia Galathea_), Plate IX., Fig. 1.--We now come to a group of butterflies (the _Satyridæ_) quite the reverse in build and habits from the Emperors and Admirals. Of medium or small size, though the wings are ample, the body is small and the muscular power is never great; hence they are soft and downy, never fly far at a stretch, and are, although many of them common, very local in their habits. And the Marbled White is no exception to the group. His name may suggest something hard, polished, and durable, yet he is anything but that. I wonder what his name might have been had he been common north of the Tweed, and not known in the South? To Sir Walter Scott, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), or Professor Blackie, the similarity of the black and white wings to the checking and soft, embracing folds of their own beloved tartan plaids would at once have appealed to their imagination, and henceforth they would have alluded to him as the "Shepherd's Plaid" butterfly. Creamy-white, with grey and black checking, and a few eye-spots on the black band of the hind-wings complete his simple scheme of colour. The under side is somewhat similar to the upper. Although common enough where it is found, it is a very local and stay-at-home butterfly. The caterpillar is a grass-feeder, and is green, with a red head and tail. It tapers considerably towards both extremities. They are very small when they hibernate. The butterfly is out in July and August. THE MOUNTAIN RINGLET BUTTERFLY (_Erebia Epiphron_), Plate IX., Fig 2.--It is strange that this fragile little fellow should choose the rough mountainside for his home. In a boggy hollow of Ben Lomond, nearly 2,000 feet above the sea, buried in snow almost the whole winter through, I know a colony of this butterfly which lives and flourishes under these seemingly impossible conditions. Doubtless it could be found on many more of our Highland hills. The wings are a dark, fulvous brown, with an inconstant red bar near the outer edge of both wings, and on this rusty bar are usually a few small eye-spots, sometimes absent, or reduced to mere specks. The under side is almost similar. It is a very easily damaged little creature, requiring great care in handling, and I may add that in catching it is always advisable to carefully select your specimens _on the ground_, as quite a large percentage always appear to be rubbed, so soon do they become unfit for the cabinet even in the height of their season, which occurs during the first fortnight of July. The caterpillar is said to be green, and feeds upon various grasses. It is also found on the mountains of Cumberland and Westmorland. THE SCOTCH ARGUS BUTTERFLY (_Erebia Æthiops_), Plate IX., Fig. 3.--Like all butterflies, the Scotch Argus is seen at its best in its native haunts. You feel it has a subtle kind of association with its surroundings that defies definition. Seeing this species flirting about in dozens in a dell where the air is heavily laden with the perfume of Bog-myrtle and Honeysuckle, and where dragon-flies, bees, hover-flies, wasps, and ants, raise a drowsy hum dear to the ear of the entomologist, not to mention the hordes of bloodthirsty little midges, tends to the formation of a mental impression, which we always associate with this beautiful butterfly. It takes strange notions, too, at times. I have found it often "at home" as described above, and, again, I have come upon it solitary and alone on the bare hillside, far from the madding colony amongst which it was born. Five such wanderers I once encountered in a single day in August. All were on the move, either seeking a lost home or lover, or possibly pastures new. The breeding ground is generally some sheltered glade or open corner of a wood. The butterfly is coloured a beautiful dark, velvety brown, with a broad, irregular tawny red band near the outer margin of both fore- and hind-wings. Within this band on the fore-wings are three black spots, each having a tiny white spot in its centre, and the hind-wings have in most cases a similar adornment; but as these spots are subject to great variation, always aim at securing a good row for your cabinet in order to show as many variations as you can find. The under sides of the sexes differ from each other and are distinctive. In the female the under side of the fore-wing is marked very much the same as the upper side, but the whole colour scheme is lighter, while the hind-wings are a lighter brown, with a pale lavender band, distinctly iridescent and with just a trace of spots. The male, though nearly the same in markings, is very much darker. The caterpillar is a grass-feeder, and is green, with some lighter and darker stripes. It is very like the grass it lives amongst. The eggs are laid in the autumn, and the young caterpillars hibernate. THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY (_Pararge Ægeria_), Plate IX., Fig. 4.--There must be something peculiar about this butterfly, which always reminds me of a snake; it is curious how such an idea gets into one's head and sticks there. I have a lot of preserved home and foreign snakes, and not a few of them are checkered and marked like this butterfly's wings; one large skin of a boa constrictor bears a remarkable resemblance both in colour and spots. Nature seems to delight in these eyelike markings--you will find them on the trout, the peacock, the leopard, and on certain beetles, flowers, and birds' eggs. Wherever you find them they are always beautiful and interesting, and have a certain protective use. The Speckled Wood is more easily recognized than described. The upper side is of a dull brown, spotted with pale yellow, or (as in some northern specimens I have taken) with white. There is one eye-spot near the tip of the fore-wing, and a row of three, sometimes four, similar spots in a submarginal row on the hind-wings. The under side is richer and warmer in colour, having a purple tinge, while the eye-spots of the hind-wings are nearly obsolete, but the spot on the fore-wing is, if anything, brighter. It is a fairly common species, and loves quiet, shady lanes on the edge of woodlands. In the South it is double-brooded. The female is larger and brighter than the male. The caterpillar is a grass-feeder, and is green, with lighter stripes. The butterfly is out from May to August. [Illustration: PLATE 13. 1. Adonis Blue (Male) 2. Chalk-hill Blue (Male) 3. Little Blue 4. Azure Blue 5. Large Blue 6. Duke of Burgundy Fritillary 7. Grizzled Skipper 8. Dingy Skipper 9. Small Skipper 10. Lulworth Skipper 11. Large Skipper (Female) 12. Pearl Skipper (Male) 13. Checkered Skipper] THE WALL BROWN BUTTERFLY (_Pararge megæra_), Plate IX., Fig. 5.--A rather smaller butterfly than the last, with the same number and arrangement of the eye-spots. The ground colour is, however, a light tawny brown, with dark brown markings. There is a broad diagonal bar across the fore-wings of the male. All the wings are bordered with brown. The female has two zigzag lines in place of the bar, and consequently has a lighter appearance; she is usually a bit larger than her mate. The under side of the hind-wings is a beautiful study in greys and browns, with the dainty little eye-spots double ringed. This species is common on waste lands and roadsides throughout the country; it is local in Scotland, but abundant where found, especially in Ayrshire. There are two broods only in the South. The caterpillar is light green, with lines on the back and sides, and may be swept from grasses with the net in midsummer. The chrysalis is short and stout, and is found suspended by the tail to a strong grass stem. The butterfly loves to rest on walls and stones which have been warmed by the sun; hence the name the "Wall Brown." THE GRAYLING BUTTERFLY (_Satyrus Semele_), Plate IX., Fig. 6.--This fine butterfly is larger and bolder in flight than any other of this group in our country. But you must always remember that butterflies love the sunshine, and without its cheering presence they are all very dull fellows indeed. Hence it is that a butterfly may appear, and really is, difficult to catch on a bright, warm day; yet it may fall an easy victim, and give but indifferent sport on a dull one. The Grayling has a strong partiality for living near the sea, and is found all along the west coast of Scotland, whether it be on a rock-bound shore or in a sandy, sheltered bay. During July and August one is pretty sure to encounter the Grayling sporting along just above high-water mark, and, not infrequently, whole colonies of them. The lichen-covered rocks above the shore are his favourite resting-place, and here he can sit and bask in the sun, and once he has closed his wings he may be said to have disappeared, so beautifully does the under side of his wings blend with the colour of the surrounding rocks. He shows a certain amount of wisdom, too, at times, for if you make a stroke at him with a net and miss, he is off to sea, flit-flitting just above the water, and making a wide detour before coming back to land. The wings are brown, with an irregular light tawny band, in which, on the fore-wing, are two eye-spots, and on the hind-wing only one. But the finest ornamentation is on the under side of the hind-wings, which bear a strong resemblance to a granite rock speckled with lichens. The caterpillar, I think, feeds mostly at night, as I have found it during the day under stones in hilly districts near the sea. It is variable in colour--brownish to black, with a few lighter lines on the back and sides, and it has a dirty putty-colour on the under side. It feeds on grass in May. The butterfly is out from July to September. It appears in August in Scotland. THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY (_Epinephele Janira_), Plate IX., Fig. 7.--Perhaps this is the commonest of all our brown butterflies. On roadside or hillside, moor or meadow, one can hardly fail to notice this homely brown insect all through the summer rambles. The males are smaller and dingier than the females. They have an obscure reddish patch on the fore-wing which, with an eye-spot, relieves the upper surface of dark brown. The females are brighter and often more variable, the fulvous patch on their fore-wings being large and bright, and even extending into a band on the hind-wings. There is occasionally an inner patch of suffused yellow on the centre of the fore-wings; the under side is a paler brown, with a decided band of grey-brown on the hind-wing, which is also slightly scalloped. The caterpillar is a delicate green, with a white line on either side, and may be swept from moorland grasses in May and June. The chrysalis is short and dumpy; pale papery grey, rather fragile, and is hung up by the tail to a grass-stem. The butterfly is out practically all through the summer. THE SMALL MEADOW BROWN (_Epinephele Tithonus_), Plate IX., Fig. 8.--Also a common species, but does not so range far north. Wings, a bright tawny red inclining to yellow, bordered with dark brown, with an indistinct diagonal bar across the wings in the male. There is also a black spot near the tip of the fore-wings containing two tiny white spots; occasionally there are two small eye-spots on the hind-wings also. The under side of the hind-wing is shaded with red-brown and pale ochre, and bears a few small white spots surrounded by red rings. Under side of the upper wing is pale tawny yellow with outer edge dark; there is a black spot at the tip with _two_ white dots in it. The caterpillar varies from green to grey-brown; there is a dark red line along the back, and two light lines run along each side. It is a grass-feeder, and prefers a drier situation than the last species. Perhaps this is the reason for it being found in Ayrshire, the driest and sandiest county in Scotland. July and August are the butterfly's months. THE RINGLET BUTTERFLY (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_), Plate IX., Fig. 9.--This is a common and not very attractive-looking butterfly. Its colours, if it can be said to have any, are dingy in the extreme. The upper surface is a dark sooty-brown hardly relieved by a few faint eye-spots, which are very small and not always present. A dirty white fringe completes the upper side. The under side affords some compensation, however, for here we have the ringlets in some variety--pale yellow for the outer ring, which encloses black with a white spot in the centre. They are arranged three on the upper wing and five on the lower. They vary in size, as will be seen from the figure (Plate XIV., Fig. 9). It is not a very lively insect; it frequents dry pasture-fields in Scotland, preferring those bordering the sea. The caterpillar is like the last species, but a greener grey; it feeds on grasses. The butterfly is out in July. When you do happen upon this species, keep a sharp lookout for varieties, as it has quite a range of well-known "sports"; the variation is mostly on the under surface. THE MARSH RINGLET (_Cænonympha Typhon_), Plate IX., Fig. 10.--This insect has to be sought for on the swampy moorlands and mountains of the North. It is of a dingy fawn-colour, sometimes brighter, often as if it had been held over the fire and "Peat-reekit." It is somewhat remarkable what a number of creatures inhabiting this same region have gradually come to assume a similar coloration. Many of the Highland cattle on these moors have this dirty tawny-yellow tint; the deer and the hare find protection under the same guise. The upper surface of the Marsh Ringlet is varied with a few eye-spots, though I possess specimens with no spots at all, while others have four on each of the hind-wings and two on each of the fore-wings. The under side is generally better marked by eyes, six forming a row round the outer margin of each hind-wing, of which the first and last are usually the largest; fore-wing under side--two eye-spots, the one nearest the tip being the larger. There is also a light bar across this wing, and this is continued on to the hind-wing, where it broadens out and is irregular and often interrupted. The ground colour here is a subdued green-grey, getting lighter towards the fringe. Females have more ample and rounded wings than the males. I find the most comfortable way to hunt this butterfly is with bare feet and legs, and the trousers well tucked up, which will perhaps convey some idea of the nature of the ground it loves to flit over. Splash, splash you go over the _Sphagnum_ and Cotton-grass, Heather and Marsh Wortleberry, while overhead the eerie cries of the curlew and the lapwing remind the naturalist that there are many young families hidden amongst the Heather, who will rejoice when they see the last of him and that fearful net of his. The caterpillar is green, with white lines, and feeds on Cotton-grass in May. The butterfly appears towards the end of June. THE SMALL HEATH BUTTERFLY (_Cænonympha Pamphilus_), Plate XII., Fig. 1.--This can be best described as a smaller and brighter edition of _Typhon_; occasionally a _large_ specimen may even be mistaken for a _small Typhon_, but you can always tell the smaller species by the presence of only one eye-spot on the tip of the fore-wing, and no eye-spots anywhere else. Its habits, too, are different, preferring, as it does, a much drier and more pastoral country to sport over. And its range is also wider, being found all over the country from June till September. The caterpillar is green and a grass-feeder. I have swept it from grass in August. THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla betulæ_), Plate XII., Fig. 6.--There are five British species included in the very distinct group of interesting little butterflies, to which this species belongs. All of them are nearly black on the upper surface, but the undersides are exceedingly chaste in pattern, if not showy in colour. The Brown Hairstreak is the largest of the five. The male is a dark brown relieved by a lighter spot edged with black on the fore-wing, and the bottom angle of the hind-wing and the little tails are orange. The female has an orange bar across the fore-wing. The under side (Plate XIV., Fig. 7) is a tawny orange inclining to deep orange at the margins; a double white irregular line edged with black runs across the hind-wings, and between these lines the tawny shade is darker; the fringe is white. The caterpillar is green, marked with diagonal yellow lines and tapers considerably towards each extremity. It feeds on Birch and Blackthorn. Though by no means a common insect, it is found in a great many localities from North to South of England, but not in Scotland. The butterfly is out in August. THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla w-album_), Plate XII., Fig. 4.--A smaller and, on the upper surface, a blacker insect than the last. Excepting for a small indistinct spot in the centre, and near the outer margin of the fore-wing, the upper surface is devoid of markings of any kind. The under side, however, provides all the distinctive features necessary for identification. The colour is a cool brown-grey, the fore-wing being traversed by a white line; the hind-wing has a similar white line, which forms a W at the basal angle; under it is a broad orange scalloped band, edged with black and white; the extreme outer edge is black, and this black edging scallops into the orange band. Tail black. The caterpillar feeds on Elm; is pale green, with yellow bars and two rows of whitish humps along the back. It may be got by beating the Elm in early summer. The Butterfly appears in July, but is far from common, York being about its northern limit. THE BLACK HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla pruni_), Plate XII., Fig. 5.--About the same size as the last, but many individuals are smaller. The ground colour is almost black, but near the tail are two or three conspicuous orange spots, which are not present in _w-Album_. The orange band on the under side of the hind-wing is much bolder and is edged with black spots on _both_ sides, the inner row of spots being partially ringed with white; the white hairstreaks are fainter and slightly interrupted. This is the rarest of the group, and confined to a few localities in the South and South-East. The caterpillar is green, with yellow spots and lines; it is found on Sloe and Oak. The perfect insect is out in July. THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla quercus_), Plate XII., Fig. 3.--The commonest and most widely distributed of the Hairstreaks extending well into Scotland where, however, it is not common. The upper surface in the male is shot with purple, while the female has a patch on either fore-wing of a still more pronounced sheen. The under side (Plate XIV., Fig. 8) is a cool grey; the "hairstreak" is white and strongly defined by an inner edging of dark brown. There are also two orange eye-spots near the tail, which in this species is rather small. [Illustration: PLATE 14 1. Pupa of Red Admiral 2. Larva of Red Admiral 3. Larva of Small White 4. New Small Skipper 5. Pupa of Small White (showing hole through which ichneumons emerged) 6. Larva of White Admiral 7. Brown Hairstreak (under side) 8. Purple Hairstreak (under side) 9. Ringlet (under side)] The caterpillar is a reddish-brown and grey mixture, with a lighter angular pattern along the back, and a light line along the sides. It feeds on Oak. I once came upon a small colony of this little butterfly flying round some Oak-trees in Argyllshire, but not one of them came lower than 15 feet from the ground, and after trying a variety of expedients I had to retire discomfited without a single capture. A visit to the same spot on subsequent days failed to reveal a single specimen. August was the month. In the South it is out in June. THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla rubi_), Plate XII., Fig. 2.--The smallest of the British Hairstreaks and a fairly common species. Deep dingy brown above, bright emerald-green below, traversed by white hairstreaks, although in some specimens I have taken these white lines are absent. An elusive little butterfly, as when it settles amongst green herbage with the wings closed it is rendered almost invisible, so well does it harmonize with its surroundings. The caterpillar is green, spotted and striped with yellow; it feeds on Bramble and Broom. The butterfly is out in June generally, but I have found it in the closing days of May in a favourable season. In the South a second brood appears in August. It reaches as far north as Perthshire, and is frequently met with in the West Highlands. THE LARGE COPPER BUTTERFLY (_Polyommatus Dispar_), Plate XII., Fig. 7.--I am afraid there is now only one British locality where this fine butterfly can be successfully pursued. Strange to say it is not one of the few places where it was found so abundantly a century ago. Neither is it any use going after it there with a net, or any other of the usual appliances. The correct place and method are no great secret, being, as it is, in the very heart of London--to wit, Stevens' Auction Rooms, King Street, Covent Garden. A cheque-book there is a more reliable, and, if properly handled, sure means of bringing a specimen into one's collection. I don't suppose there is anybody now alive who remembers having seen the Large Copper flitting about its native Fen lands so long ago as 1850 or thereabout, for the precise date is difficult to discover. The Large Copper has become as extinct as the dodo or the great auk. Fortunately, many specimens are still to be seen in old and well-preserved collections, and not a few of these have already passed through the hands of the auctioneer. There are various Continental "Coppers" which more or less resemble the "dear departed." And it is as well that the points of difference should be well known, as these foreigners can be had for a few pence. _Dispar_ sells at as many pounds. The male and female differ very much from each other, the male being a clear scarlet copper tint, with black margins and a small black spot in the centre of the fore-wing. The female is larger and not so brilliant; the black marginal band on the fore-wing is broader, and has a row of black spots in addition to the central black spot. The hind-wings are much dingier, except for a brighter band round the outer margin next the black outline. It was out in July and August in the Fen lands of the south-eastern counties. Various causes have been assigned as the reason for its disappearance. Draining of, and burning rubbish on, these wastes, and the constant persecution the insect had to endure from mercenary natives who, once they discovered there was money in it--and the more money, doubtless, the scarcer it became--all lent their quota of assistance towards finally exterminating this fine butterfly. THE SMALL COPPER BUTTERFLY (_Polyommatus Phlæas_), Plate XII., Fig. 8.--Less in size but hardly less brilliant in colour, the Small Copper is not likely to share the fate of its larger relative. A lively, restless, little imp it is, and has well earned the title of "the flea," by which it is known in some districts. As it is the "only Copper we possess now," a detailed description is unnecessary, but I would direct the young collector's attention to the fact that there are some nice variations of this common little species apt to be overlooked, perhaps the most striking being a white form, and another and commoner one having a row of blue spots on the upper surface of the hind-wings. The caterpillar feeds on various species of Sorrel, and is green with three red lines. There are several broods in the year, but it is generally more abundant in the autumn. Found everywhere. THE LONG-TAILED BLUE (_Lycæna Bætica_), Plate XII., Fig. 9.--While there is no doubt this lovely little blue has been repeatedly taken on our shores, the fact remains that we must still regard it as an occasional visitor only. It may, and we all hope it will, yet be classed amongst our resident fauna. From what we know of it, it seems to have a more than usually wide range; it is recorded for Europe, Africa, Western Asia, East Indies, and Australia. The male is a deep blue, with two black spots just above the tails; the female shows more brown. The under side is quite different from that of any of our native blues, being barred and spotted in white, and two shades of fawn-brown, with two green spots near the tail. A lookout for it may be kept all along our south coast during July and August. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycæna Ægon_), Plate XII., Fig. 10.--In all of the group to which this insect belongs, numbering about ten species, the males differ very much in colour, especially on the upper surface, from the females. The males are nearly always blue of various shades, and the females brown and blue in varying proportions. In _Ægon_, the male is a warm violet-blue, the outer margins being bordered with black. The female is brown shot with blue, which becomes more intense near the outer margin of the hind-wings, where there is a row of orange spots touching an outer row of black spots; but these two rows may be nearly or altogether absent. The under side (Plate XV., Fig. 4) is banded with orange and black-spotted, the black spots being ringed with white. The silver studs are on the outer margin of the orange band, principally on the hind-wings. This is a fairly abundant species all over England on dry soils, and has been met with in Scotland. The caterpillar is green, sometimes brown, with a darker line along the back and white lines on the sides. It feeds on Clover, Vetch, Broom, and other leguminous plants. The butterfly is out in July and August. THE BROWN ARGUS (_Lycæna Astrarche_), Plate XII., Fig. 11.--Here is a "blue" in which _both_ sexes are brown, a rather unusual thing. In every other particular, however, it bears the family hall-mark. The upper surface is dark brown, bordered with bright orange spots. The under side (Plate XV., Fig. 6) is banded with orange and spotted with black dots ringed with white. For the Scotch variety, _Artaxerxes_, these spots are solid white, and there is in addition a _white discoidal spot_ on the upper side of the fore-wing. This variety is local in Scotland, but fairly numerous where found, generally near the sea, and plentiful all along the Ayrshire coast in June and July. It is said to feed on _Helianthemum_, but has probably many other food-plants, such as the Hemlock Stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_), which is common where it flies. The caterpillar is green, with a darker line along the back, and a pale line on each side; head black and shining. There are many intermediate forms between _Artaxerxes_ and the type. THE COMMON BLUE (_Lycæna Icarus_), Plate XII., Fig. 12.--Known to everyone who sees anything at all of the country. It is _the_ blue butterfly, noticed even by those who hardly know a butterfly from a bullfrog. An intelligent little chap he is, too, with an eye for his own safety, as I once found when I had the opportunity of observing quite a number of them on a piece of waste ground near the sea. The weather was dull and threatening rain, and not a butterfly was on the wing; but I could see plenty of our common blue friend hanging on, with closed wings, to the ends of rushes, grass-stalks, and on thistle-tops; but always when I came within a step or two they adroitly changed their position, putting whatever they were resting or hanging on between us, just edging round the corner as it were, so as to be out of sight. Apparently the idea of _flying_ away from an enemy was here considered as too risky under the conditions which prevailed; the safest plan was to hide, so hide they did. It was the funniest game of hide-and-seek I ever played. I have since seen the small blue dragon-flies adopt the same tactics on the rushes by the side of a pond. No wonder this little fellow is so common. In the struggle for existence he has shown himself able and well-fitted to survive; nevertheless I had a good time amongst them that afternoon and boxed some fine varieties. The male bears a warm shade of blue, and the female is from nearly black to brown, with a blue blush spreading from the body outwards, both wings being bordered with a row of orange and black spots, often on a ground of white. Sometimes, too, there is a discoidal black spot edged with white; but the females are very variable. The under side (Plate XV., Fig. 5) has the characteristic markings of the "blues," and, excepting that the female is a little darker in ground colour, both sexes are pretty much alike. The caterpillar is green, with a dark line on the back, and a light yellow line on each side; it feeds on Trefoil and Clover. The perfect insect is common everywhere from June till August. THE CLIFDEN BLUE, OR ADONIS BLUE (_Lycæna Bellargus_), Plate XIII., Fig. 1.--It will be sufficient to point out the specific characters of each of these blues without going into minute detail, which would be wearisome, even if it were possible (which it is not) to paint in words what Nature has painted so admirably on the butterflies' wings. The male Adonis is a brilliant azure blue; fringe, deep and white, and divided into sections by black lines. Female, brown to nearly black, with a row of orange and black spots round the base of the hind-wing and sometimes continued faintly into the fore-wing; it is browner on the under side than the male. Both resemble the Common Blue very much, but the spots are scarcely so numerous or so bold. The wings, however, are generally more ample, those of the males being more rounded. The caterpillar is green, with a darker line on the back, and a yellow line on each side; spotted with orange on the back. This is a fairly common species confined mostly to the South, where, being double-brooded, it is out in June and August. THE CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycæna Corydon_), Plate XIII., Fig. 2.--A larger insect than the last, and the male an extremely pale iridescent blue, which is shaded off at the margins into a black border, with a white fringe checked with black. Female, dark brown, black and white checked fringe; eye-spots nearly obsolete along the margin of both wings. Under side in male almost white, shading to pale green, blue next the body on the fore-wing; hind-wing, with a wash of pale brown for the ground; spots black, outlined with white. A marginal row of orange spots is confined to the hind-wing in the male, but extends to the fore-wing in the female; the ground colour of it, however, is a pale fawn, which sets forth the eye-spots beautifully. The caterpillar is green, striped on the back and sides with yellow. A decidedly southern species, frequenting the chalk downs of the South and the Isle of Wight, or the limestone districts of the Midlands. It is out in July and August. THE AZURE BLUE OR HOLLY BLUE (_Lycæna Argiolus_), Plate XIII., Fig. 4.--This is a very dainty little butterfly of a deep sky-blue, with rounded wings narrowly fringed with white, ticked with black. The female has a broad, irregular, black border, occasionally extending well into the wing. But the under side (Plate XV., Fig. 3) marks a new departure, being of a very pale, shimmering blue, with only a few small, black spots, which form an incomplete row on fore- and hind-wings. [Illustration: PLATE 15 1. Brown Argus (var. _Artaxerxes_) 2. Brown Argus (var. _Artaxerxes_) (under side) 3. Azure Blue (under side) 4. Silver-Studded Blue (under side) 5. Common Blue (under side) 6. Brown Argus (under side) 7. Mazarine Blue (upper side) 8. Mazarine Blue (under side) 9. Chalkhill Blue (under side) 10. Large Blue (under side) 11. Little Blue (under side)] The caterpillar is green, with a dark line on the back, and a black head. It feeds on the _flowers_ of Holly, Ivy, and Buckthorn. Being double-brooded, the perfect insect appears first in April and May, and again in August. It is generally distributed in England, though commonest in the South; not known to occur in Scotland. THE MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycæna semiargus_), Plate XV., Figs. 7 and 8.--Males, a very dark purple-blue--in fact, this is our darkest "Blue," and shares the distinction with the Long-Tailed Blue of being extremely scarce. Possibly those met with now are visitors from the Continent. The blue deepens into a black border at the margins; fringe short and white. Female, a uniform dark brown; under side a pale buff colour, with an irregular row of black spots edged with white. There are no orange spots on this species. It is said to feed on Thrift; hence it is likeliest to be met with near the coast during July. Good Continental specimens can be purchased cheaply, or got by exchange. And I hold it is better to fill in your row with these, carefully labelling them to indicate their source, than to have an empty space always staring you in the face. Unless this species becomes more common, the average collector's chance of capturing British specimens is exceedingly remote. THE LITTLE BLUE (_Lycæna Minima_), Plate XIII., Fig. 3.--The smallest of our butterflies, the average expanse being only 3/4 inch. Male, blackish-brown dusted with blue towards the base of the wings. Female, solid brown; under side (Plate XV., Fig. 11) a pale salmon, blue spotted as in _Argiolus_, with black outlined with white; no orange spots on either sex. The caterpillar is dull green, orange-striped on back and sides. It feeds on Trefoils, etc. This species is local, but common all over the British Isles, except in the extreme North. It is one of our early species, appearing in May and June. THE LARGE BLUE (_Lycæna Arion_), Plate XIII., Fig. 5.--This is the largest of our "Blues" and the rarest of our really resident species, and although it appears to be able to hold its own and maintain its numbers fairly well, I would strongly urge collectors to at least let all the "fair" and worn specimens retain their liberty. Again and again I have seen specimens set up and sent out in exchange that should never have been taken. Of a dark blue colour, black-bordered, _Arion_ can always be recognized by the row of black spots across the middle of the fore-wing; they are sometimes very large in size. There is occasionally a row of black spots round both wings, just inside the margin. The under side (Plate XV., Fig. 10) is a pale grey, gradually shading into a bright blue-green next the body, profusedly spotted with black in white rings. The caterpillar, which feeds on Wild Thyme in the spring, is dark rust-coloured. The butterfly is out in July, and is found mostly in the extreme south-west counties. THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_), Plate XIII., Fig. 6.--Very like a diminutive member of the Fritillary family, but it has no real connection with it, and better still, it has a whole family (_Erycinidæ_) and genus to itself, being the only one of its kind found in Europe. The upper surface is a tawny orange, with dark brown checkerings, while a row of marginal black spots runs round the outer margins. The under side of the hind-wings has a double row of pale, almost white, spots across the centre, and black spots, similar to those on the upper side, round the edge. The caterpillar is short and tapering, pale brown with a darker line on the back, and a lighter one on the sides. It feeds on Primrose. This species is said to be double-brooded in the South, out in June and again in August as far north as Carlisle and the Lake District. Note: the female has six perfect walking legs, the male only four, the front pair being rudimentary, as with many of the larger butterflies. THE GRIZZLED SKIPPER (_Syrichthus Malvæ_), Plate XIII., Fig. 7.--The Skippers, of which there are eight species in this country, are often referred to as the connecting-link between the butterflies and moths, and not without some justification. The antennæ are somewhat short, club-shaped, and _hooked_ at the extremity. The head is large, and the antennæ spring from just above the eyes; their base is thus wide apart. Compare a Skipper with a Blue in which the roots of the antennæ almost touch. The body of the Skipper is stout and mothlike, and the wings not so ample, and more angular than in the average butterfly. The caterpillars live in a rolled leaf or several leaves spun together, and pupate in a slight cocoon. The Grizzled Skipper is a small butterfly measuring just over 3/4 of an inch in expanse. The ground colour is nearly black, checkered with white square spots, as is also the fringe. The under side is lighter. The caterpillar is a rusty brown, with lighter lines on the back and sides. The species is doubled-brooded, appearing in May and August, and is generally distributed over the country as far north as the South-West of Scotland. THE DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_), Plate XIII., Fig. 8.--This is dull grey-brown, and very Quaker-like in its sombre garb, with a lighter and a darker band across the wings. The under side is a pale drab, with a few faint light spots. And truly one may be excused if at times it is mistaken for a night-flying moth. The caterpillar feeds on trefoil, and is green, with four yellow lines and some black dots; it is very stout in the middle, tapering to either end. This Skipper is also doubled-brooded, appearing in May and August, generally on dry soils such as the chalk, or limestone, or, as in Scotland, on the sand-dunes of Ayrshire, where it is locally common. THE SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Thaumas_), Plate XIII., Fig. 9.--Upper side a uniform tawny-orange shade, with a dark brown or black border. There is also a black dash across the fore-wing of the male, which is absent in the female. On the under side there is a tawny patch along the inner margin of the hind-wing, and the tip of the fore-wing is light. These are good identification points, as they are fairly stable. The caterpillar is green, with two white lines on the back and a yellow line on either side. It feeds on grasses in the spring. The butterfly appears in July and is common in England, but is not known in Scotland. THE NEW SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Lineola_), Plate XIV., Fig. 4.--Is very like the last, so much so, that it had been taken for many years by collectors and confused with _Thaumas_. There were few collections that did not possess a mixed series. But once its identity was established, it was soon placed in its rightful position. It may be distinguished from _Thaumas_ by the absence of the fulvous patch on the inner margin of the under side of the hind-wings, and also by the absence of the light tip on the under side of the fore-wing. The black dash across the upper side of the fore-wing of the male is fainter, shorter, and more often altogether absent. The under side of the hind-wing is a light buff without marks of any kind. The caterpillar is a bronze-green, with four yellow lines on the back and one on the sides; it feeds on grasses in damp meadows, mostly in the south and south-eastern counties. The species is local, but common where it occurs. Out in July and August. THE LULWORTH SKIPPER (_Hesperia Actæon_), Plate XIII., Fig. 10.--An extremely local species, being only found in two or three localities on the south coast. It may be distinguished from the two preceding Skippers, first, by its more dingy colour; second, by the female having a semicircular row of light spots near the tip of the fore-wing. These are very faintly visible in some males, but they have, in addition, a black streak along the centre of the wing. The under side in both sexes is similar, a pale dingy fawn, with no particular markings. The antennæ are very short. The caterpillar is green, with a dark line on the back, and a double line of yellow on each side. This species may be looked for on rough ground facing the sea during July and August. THE LARGE SKIPPER (_Hesperia Sylvanus_), Plate XIII., Fig. 11.--Upper surface tawny-orange shading into darker at the margin of both wings; on this dark margin are a few pale spots, mostly at the tip of the fore-wing. The male has an almost black streak near the centre of the fore-wing; this is not present in the female. The under side is a light tawny olive, with pale lighter spots. The caterpillar is green, with a dark line on the back, and a light stripe on the sides. It is a grass-feeder. This Skipper is abundant all over England in May and again in August, but is rare in Scotland. THE PEARL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Comma_), Plate XIII., Fig. 12.--This species is not quite so large as the last. It is darker, and the spot markings are much brighter and more decided. This is the case especially on the under side, as there the spots are bright enough to suggest pearls. Hence the name. Note, too, the dark streak in the middle of the fore-wing of the male; it is divided along the centre by a white line. This white line is wanting in the Large Skipper. The dark streak is only on the upper wings of the males. _Comma_ is also a more local and scarce insect, being confined mostly to the South of England. The caterpillar is greyish-red, and has a double dark line on either side; it feeds on various Vetches and Trefoils. The butterfly is out in July and August. THE CHECKERED SKIPPER (_Carterocephalus Palæmon_), Plate XIII., Fig. 13.--The upper side of this butterfly is speckled and bordered with tawny-orange spots on a dark brown ground. The under side has a lighter ground colour, and the spots are outlined with dark brown. The caterpillar is dark, almost black, with a yellow line on the sides, and, as it hibernates over the winter, may be looked for in the spring. It feeds on grasses and Plantain. This is a very local species, and I am afraid, to judge from reports, becoming rarer. The south and south-eastern counties are the favoured localities. THE MILKWEED BUTTERFLY (_Danais Erippus_; variety, _Archippus_), Plate VIII., Fig. 3.--This is an American species, but an occasional visitor to our shores, and, as it is a strong-flying species with the bump of adventure abnormally developed, it is now met with in many lands where it was at one time unknown. I have large fine specimens from Canada, so it can stand the rigours of the Canadian winter; and if it should find a suitable food-plant for the caterpillars here, we may hope, in the near future, to add this fine butterfly to the select little band of British butterflies. INDEX British Butterflies described, 29 Butterflies, antennæ of, 1, 10 capture and preservation, 13 eyes of, 11 how to kill, 16 list of British, 27 sense and smell, 10 sight, 10 tongues of, 12 Butterfly net, 14 Collection, storing of, 25 Drying-case, 22 Entomological pins, 17 FAMILIES OF BUTTERFLIES. _Apaturidæ_, 28 _Erycinidæ_, 29 _Hesperidæ_, 29 _Lycenidæ_, 28 _Nymphalidæ_, 27 _Papilionidæ_, 27 _Pieridæ_, 27 _Satyridæ_, 28 "Grease," treatment of, 17 Ichneumons, 5 Larvae, preservation of, 22 _Lepidoptera_, 1 Life-story of Butterflies, 1 Pins, entomological, 17 Scales, 9 Setting boards, 18 bristle, 18 needle, 19 Paisley method, 20 with braces, 18 SPECIES OF BUTTERFLIES: Blue, Adonis, 79 Azure, 80 Chalkhill, 80 Clifden, 79 Common, 78 Holly, 80 Large, 82 Little, 81 Long-tailed, 76 Mazarine, 81 Silver-studded, 76 Brimstone, 41 Brown Argus, 77 Camberwell Beauty, 55 Clouded Yellow, 39 Pale, 38 Comma, 51 Copper, Large, 74 Small, 75 Fritillary, Duke of Burgundy, 82 Dark Green, 44 Glanville, 49 Greasy, 48 Heath, 51 High Brown, 46 Pearl-bordered, 43 Queen of Spain, 44 Silver-washed, 47 Small Pearl-bordered, 42 Grayling, 65 Hairstreak, Black, 72 Brown, 71 Green, 73 Purple, 72 White-letter, 71 Meadow Brown, 67 Small, 67 Milkweed, 87 Orange-tip, 37 Painted Lady, 58 Peacock, 55 Purple Emperor, 59 Red Admiral, 56 Ringlet, 68 Marsh, 69 Mountain, 62 Scotch Argus, 62 Skipper, Checkered, 87 Dingy, 84 Grizzled, 83 Large, 86 Lulworth, 85 New Small, 85 Pearl, 86 Small, 84 Small Heath, 70 Speckled Wood, 64 Swallow Tail, 29 Tortoiseshell, Large, 52 Small, 53 Wall Brown, 65 White Admiral, 59 Bath, 36 Black-veined, 32 Green-veined, 35 Large Garden, 33 Marbled, 61 Small Garden, 34 Wood, 38 BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD, ENGLAND 
43270	----	TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES Obvious spelling, typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. More detail can be found at the end of the book. Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. THE PERAMBULATIONS OF A _Bee and a Butterfly_, &c. &c. [Illustration] Published by Tabart & Co. 12, Clifford Street, May 1812. THE PERAMBULATIONS OF A _Bee and a Butterfly_, In which are delineated THOSE SMALLER TRAITS OF CHARACTER WHICH ESCAPE THE OBSERVATION OF LARGER SPECTATORS. _BY MISS SANDHAM_, AUTHOR OF THE TWIN SISTERS, &c. "The daily labors of the Bee "Awake my soul to industry." GAY. LONDON; _Printed by W. Lewis, Paternoster-row;_ FOR B. TABART AND CO. CLIFFORD-STREET, NEW BOND-STREET; AND MAY BE HAD OF ALL BOOKSELLERS. 1812. CONTENTS. CHAP. I. A young Bee, deceived by fine weather, leaves the Hive too early, and contrary to the advice and commands of his Mother--His sufferings and close confinement, the result of his disobedience: excites the compassion of a Butterfly--a friendship formed between them in consequence of it. CHAP. II. The Bee gets again on the wing--Is introduced by his friend to a field of cowslips--Interrupted by Children--Instance of vanity in the Butterfly--Conversation of the Bee and his Friend as they return--He resolves to find his Hive. CHAP. III. The Bee out early in search of his former abode, accompanies the Butterfly to a bed of Tulips--Farther discovery of vanity in the latter--Children in pursuit of him--The Bee appears in his defence and commits a great _outrage_--He sees his Hive at a distance--His Joy on beholding it--His Return and Re-admission there--The consequence of a Bee in danger. CHAP. IV. The farther flights of the Bee and the Butterfly--Visit to a Cottage--Such abodes not always the dwelling of Peace--Disagreement between two Friends--The meanness of an Informer--The Bee's observation on their conduct--Regard to appearances observable in Creatures superior to the Butterfly--His triumph on perceiving it. CHAP. V. The Butterfly deceived by a Flower--Their visit to a conservatory--The alarm occasioned by their joining a Party after Dinner--A Battle ensues--The Bee puts the Ladies to flight--His confinement--The Butterfly's anxiety--His Friend regains his Liberty and returns late to the Hive--The Butterfly detects flattery in a Gentleman to a Lady, and is alarmed by a hint from his Friend as they separate for the Night. CHAP. VI. The Bees swarm--Their fondness for their Queen--The Bee in waiting--The Butterfly goes into the Country on a party of Pleasure, is overtaken by a Storm--Returns in a Stage-coach--An Officer exercising his genius in _hoaxing_ his Fellow-travellers--The Butterfly recounts his adventures to his Friend--Their remarks on what passed during his Journey. CHAP. VII. The Butterfly's alarm, and account of a _Naturalist_--Wasps ensnared in a Bottle--A Bee drowning in a Pot of Honey, is extricated by his Friend--Flies--The Bee's remarks upon them, nearly offends his Friend by comparing them with him--The Butterfly foretells the approach of Winter, and notwithstanding the kind endeavours of his Friend, dies--The Bee's Regret--He performs the last Office for him, and returns to the Hive, where, after remaining the Winter, he persuades the whole Community to remove their Quarters--They forsake their Hive and retire beyond the reach of Men. PREFACE. The flattering pictures of men and manners, which are drawn in most of the present publications for youth, can alone be well applied, when they are considered not as what mankind are, but what they ought to be; and, indeed, we may search the world through before we find their likeness. Such is the simplicity of unguarded youth, that even when disappointed in their expectation of happiness from one quarter, they seek it in another equally fallacious; and, drawing all their ideas from fancied excellencies, fondly imagine, that while looking only for mental satisfaction, and the pleasures arising from friendship, rational society, and the exercises of humanity, they cannot be mistaken in the pursuit; though too often the frequent inconsistencies observable in those whom they have been led most to admire, excites a sigh of sad surprise, till from a more enlarged judgment, matured and exercised with a feeling sense of what they view, they learn that continual and glaring absurdities are all the fruit produced in nature's soil. It is to open this lesson to them that the following pages are written, and with the hope that if Folly does not blind their eyes, and Prejudice (who, whichever way she turns, chooses to see things _only_ through her own medium,) has not yet erected her throne in their breasts, they may receive even from the limited remarks of a Bee and a Butterfly a gentle hint or two of what they may expect to meet with in their future walks through life; and thus warned of the strange contrarieties, perceivable in human nature, escape the additional pang their being totally unexpected would produce. THE PERAMBULATIONS, &c. &c. CHAP. I. "Imagination to his view "Presents it, deck'd with every hue, "That can seduce him not to spare "His pow'rs of best exertion there." COWPER. A Bee who had passed the first winter of his life under the fostering care of his mother, though often warned by her of mistaking a fine day early in the spring for the summer, or the time in which it would be of any use to make an excursion from the hive, was eager to begin his travels; he heard his companions talking of the flights they had taken in the former summer, and had tasted of the honey they had at that time brought home, and laid up in store for food when none other could be procured: he had also enjoyed some of those flights with them, and had helped to gather in the common stock, (for Bees, though ever so young, are seldom idle;) but he was not aware that many a cold and wint'ry day would yet precede the time of gathering in a fresh store; even after the sun had shone, and the birds had sung, as if it was nearly come. During the severity of winter he remained quietly in his cell, rejoiced in the shelter it afforded him, and joined the crowded hive in paying every respect to their queen and mother, who, while she treated them with the care and tenderness of a parent, kept up her dignity as a sovereign, and ruled her subjects with the greatest order. Every part of her dominions was thoroughly known to her, and nothing suffered to remain within them that could annoy her numerous family; she rejoiced in their prosperity, and all were happy under her government except the little fellow who is to be the hero of my tale. He would often creep to the entrance of the hive and peep, first on one side and then on the other, of the covering placed before it by its careful owners, while the blustering winds were raging around; but no sooner did the least warm weather appear than it was removed for the inhabitants to have more air, and this, to our young one, was a joyful sight; he looked upon it as a prelude to the summer, and running to his companions, he said, "we shall soon be able to get out, the way is open." "Be not too eager;" replied one of more experience than himself, "by the time one winter has passed over your head you may be a little wiser." "It _is_ passed, I think," returned the young one, "don't you feel the warmth of the sun? It reminds me of the pleasant rambles we took together last summer, and I am impatient to renew them." "You are indeed _impatient_," replied the hoary Bee, "but time enough yet; don't you know that our cities are always placed in such advantageous situations that we have the earliest benefit from the sun's rays? but let not this make you suppose the season farther advanced than it is." "Well, now," replied the conceited chatterer, "only put your head out and feel how very warm it is." "No, I thank you," returned the other, with a shrug; "I know what it is to trust to appearances, and can feel even here that the cold weather is not gone, and if you go only to the back of the hive you may hear how the wind still whistles behind it." "I had rather look at the sunshine," returned the simple one, and leaving his sage adviser he determined to think that it was because he was old and lazy he wished to stay at home, and keep others there also, as an excuse for his own idleness; "let them stay then," said he, "but for my part I am inclined to make the most of my time, and no doubt shall bring home many a load before these old creepers will believe that there is anything to be gathered." This resolution of the young Bee was not long a secret in the community; he buzzed it about among all his acquaintances; nor was it hid from the queen, who, acting in the two-fold character, first warned him of the danger, and then, on pain of their not being re-admitted, absolutely forbade any one's going out of the hive without her leave. But what can deter the obstinacy of a conceited youngster? Nothing. If experience obliges him to confess that in _one_ thing he is wrong, he still continues as firmly bent upon another; and if once inclined to think that he must know as well as others, will continue to think so, till experience teaches him that in all things he is liable to mistake. But my little hero was not yet brought to this conclusion, neither perhaps are many who will read his history; but, as our ingenious fabulist tells us,-- "Every object of creation "Can furnish hints for contemplation," who knows whether something may not be learnt from the history of a Bee? In spite of the remonstrances of her majesty, he still wished to get out, and after daily visiting the front of the hive for nearly a month, during which time the fine weather continued, he began to persuade himself the interdiction could not extend so far as this; "It has been fine a great while," said he to himself, "and if we stay within at this rate we shall let all the summer pass away;" and again his former surmise returned, "they are old and lazy," continued he, "and while they have any food left, are determined not to seek for more; I will not stay, however;" and he was still farther confirmed in this resolution, when boldly advancing quite out on the block he saw other Bees, from a neighbouring hive, taking the air, and appearing like himself to be thinking it high time to get abroad. A swarm of insects also were enjoying themselves, and frisking about in the warm sun. Struck with shame that these should be on the wing before him, he at that moment forgot all the kind admonitions of his mother, and the punishment that awaited him if he disobeyed them; and mounting in the air, his loud humming testified his joy at being again at liberty. But alas! where was he to go? or to what flower could he now pay his court? The fluttering insects he had seen were but the dancers of the day, just born to frisk a few hours, and then return to their original nothingness; and our young adventurer disdained to join the giddy train, or even to appear to notice what was so unlike the character of a busy Bee. It was now the latter end of April, when the thorn is in blossom, violets and primroses also decorate the hedges, and the hypatica, and polyanthus "of unnumbered dyes," already appeared in the gardens; but very few leaves were yet on the trees, though the buds were bursting, and many of the fruit-trees were in full bloom; to these our little wanderer winged his way, and as he flew from blossom to blossom, and from one branch to the other, he could not but acknowledge with regret that his limbs felt cold, and very different from the vigour they possessed the former summer. He wished to attribute it to his having been kept so long within the hive, but a sudden blast soon checked his ardour; a shivering came over him, and a drowsiness, which he could not account for, succeeded; presently a pelting shower obliged him to creep for shelter into a wall, against which the trees were nailed, and here he began to see his error; "Can I go back again?" said he; "Ah! no, they will not receive me; my absence is by this time known, and I am never to be admitted more. Oh, my mother! would that I had followed your counsel!" He had scarcely spoken these words, when a mist spread itself before his eyes; his breath appeared failing, and he found himself still more inclined to sleep, yet instinct told him that in such a state to give way to the inclination was dangerous; he feared the cold would seize him while insensible, and his life must pay for it, but all his efforts to keep himself awake were vain; the rain continued so, that he could not get out to use his wings, and at length lost to all recollection, he sunk stupid and senseless to the bottom of his retreat. How long he continued in this torpid state I cannot say, but his friends he had left, after anxiously expecting his return from day to day, and being disappointed, gave him up for lost; and though he often awoke during his confinement, it was only to a keener sense of his misery; his limbs were still too stiff to move, his eyes dim, and each time that he closed them to return to sleep, (now the only alleviation of his sorrows,) he concluded he should never open them again: he breathed a sigh of regret on the remembrance of the home he had quitted, and would gladly have returned, and in the presence of the whole community acknowledge his rashness; but alas! he could not now move a wing: yet as the warm weather came on, he felt himself revive beyond his hopes: he could look out from the place of his confinement, and though not so ardent in his expectations as a few weeks before, he began again to feel a pleasure in the rays of the sun, and to anticipate a future enjoyment of them. "I shall not die," said he to himself, "but shall yet be able to accomplish my desire, and shew myself an industrious Bee." The trees on which he had before observed only blossom were now full of leaves; where the bloom had first appeared, he saw the fruit, yet in its infant state. "This is not now the food for me," said he, and he looked wishfully around to observe if there were any flowers near, from which he could gather his accustomed nourishment. While thus engaged, a Butterfly, on sportive wing, came frisking by, and though he settled first on one leaf, and then on another, was unmindful of him, till he fixed directly on that which shaded the place from which our poor invalid was examining the neighbouring plants. "Oh!" said he, with a heavy sigh, as he marked the light wing of this new comer, "Oh! that I could fly like him and ramble from flower to flower, without pain or dread of any." The attention of the Butterfly was attracted by the mournful tone in which this was uttered, and unlike many of his kind, he even stopped to listen to the complaining insect, and ask if he could relieve him; "Perhaps," said he, "you are entangled in a spider's web; and though I am unused to the art of war, I will endeavour to liberate you." "An offer like this," replied the Bee, "I should not have expected from one of your nature; but you can give me no assistance; it is not a web which keeps me here, but ill health, and which I have brought upon myself by my own folly: I have no one else to blame, that I am not flying about as you are, though I hope to some better purpose." "Do not be too sure of that," replied the good-humoured Butterfly, "nor despise the help of one so insignificant as you suppose I am; if I can in any way assist _you_, I shall not have been flying about in vain." "I beg your pardon," returned the Bee, conscious that he should not have answered in such a manner; "pray let the pain I feel plead my excuse; I have been confined within this place for I don't know how long, and now I feel the enlivening beams of the sun without being able to enjoy them, and must even starve for want of food, after I have escaped death from the cold that first seized me." "Do not be discouraged," replied the Butterfly, "look at the border just below you, where there are many of the most beautiful flowers; surely they will afford you nourishment; you need not fear starving in the midst of plenty." "I can't extend my wings," said the Bee, very mournfully. "If not your wings," replied his cheerful comforter, "can't you use your feet and crawl down the wall, and then upon the ground, till you reach the flowers; don't be afraid, I'll venture my life that you will be able to fly after taking a little of the delicious food they offer you." Animated by the Butterfly's words, the poor half-starved Bee endeavoured to follow his advice, and slowly creeping forth, he reached at length the desirable haven of a beautiful convolvulus, whose head rested on the ground, whilst his compassionate adviser waited on the nearest bud to observe his progress; "did not I say you could reach it?" said he, fluttering his wings for joy, "who shall despise the counsel of a Butterfly?" "I will not for the future," replied the Bee, as he felt himself reviving from the sweet smell of the flowers, and the warm rays of the sun shining full upon his back, and again he entreated him to pardon the churlishness with which he at first received it. "Oh, say no more of that," returned the Butterfly, "but tell me if you do not find yourself better already? what, because you could not fly, were you to starve? Though it may be a disgrace for one who has wings to crawl, yet surely it is better to do this than lie down and die; but I do not despair of seeing you fly to-morrow;" and, as he said this, extended his wings, as if to depart. "You will not leave me," said the Bee, who the longer he nestled in the bell of the flower and tasted the food it afforded, felt his affection increase for the means through which he had procured it; "Won't you stay and see me return to my habitation? I think you'll already observe an alteration for the better." The Butterfly received this invitation with pleasure; indeed he had only pretended to be going that he might observe if he was still of so little consequence in the eyes of the Bee, as for him not to wish his stay. He therefore readily accepted it, attended him home, and had the pleasure of seeing him much better able to get up the wall than down it: and from this time a lasting friendship commenced between them, no less singular in its kind than in the cause of it; for naturally these insects do not notice the other. The Butterfly, after seeing his new friend safely landed at his old resting-place, and with him a little store of the delicate food he had been tasting, marked the place, and kindly promised to see him again the next morning, "when," said he, "I hope I shall find you both able and willing to take a short flight with me," and then left him. CHAP. II. "Excuse me then if pride, conceit, "The manners of the fair, and great, "I give to monkeys, asses, dogs, "Fleas, owls, goats, _butterflies_, and hogs; "I say that these are proud; what then? "I never said they equal men." GAY. The Bee thus returned began to feel something like pleasure, and as the morning sun lighted the place in which he had been so long a prisoner, his hopes revived that he should yet feel a greater benefit from them. He had not room to move his wings freely, yet he thought them rather more pliable, and creeping upon the branch of the tree which shaded the entrance of his habitation, he endeavoured to cleanse them from the dirt and stiffness which had incumbered them, and after repeatedly stroking his back with the little brushes with which Nature had supplied his feet, he succeeded, and was able to fly from his station to a neighbouring flower. He had not forgotten the Butterfly, but he did not suppose that he would remember him or his engagement of the preceding evening, but again he had to acknowledge the mistake of prejudice, for he had not been long upon the flower, (made more sweet by his having found the use of his wings to obtain it,) before he saw his friend approaching, flying through the air, and never fixing till he had found the spot on which he had left him. The loud humming of the Bee soon discovered that he was not far off, and the Butterfly hastening towards him, congratulated him on having found his liberty. "You are taking your breakfast," said he, "I give you joy of a fine morning," and after the kindest enquiries of how he now found himself, he expressed his hope that he would be able to accompany him to a field of cowslips which he had passed at a little distance; "they smell so sweet, and look so beautiful," continued he, "hanging down their yellow heads, that though I certainly admire a greater variety of colours, I could not but be pleased with these, and had I not wished for your company, could have flown from one to the other for some time; I am sure one day's feasting on their sweets will restore you to perfect health; come, shall I lead the way?" "I cannot but be grateful for your solicitude," returned the Bee, "and that you should so far forget your nature as to be anxious for me who am of so different an one; I am able to fly but very slowly, if at all, and _you_ will like to extend your rambles much farther than I can accompany you; do not, therefore, think of tying yourself to me." The Butterfly was evidently disappointed; "I know," said he, "that our natures are different; I am not held in such high estimation as yourself, nor am I half so useful, or my life so long as your's; 'the creatures but of a day,' is what we are generally called, yet that _day_ it is my wish to spend well, and as far as is in my power to be of benefit to another; if it was to one meaner than myself it would be gratifying, but when I consider that it is to a _Bee_ that my services are useful, it is doubly so; why then will you deny me this pleasure?" The Bee could not but be struck with this singular proof of friendship in one from whom he had not deserved it, and though he might be unwilling that any of his old companions should see him associating with one whom they were mostly inclined to treat with contempt, he could no longer resist his importunity, and therefore promised to accompany him to the place he had mentioned, and where he was amply recompenced by the delicious food he found there, for the fatiguing though short flight he had taken to procure it, whilst the good-natured Butterfly was equally gratified by seeing his friend enjoy the fragrance he had introduced him to. "You will stay here all day," said he, "and by night I expect to see you strong and hearty; if you please, I will fly about a little, and perhaps shall be able to bring you intelligence of food for to-morrow, but promise me to remain here till my return." "Undoubtedly," replied the Bee, half lost in one of the sweet recesses he was thus enjoying, "believe me I feel your kindness! If you had not visited me last night, and encouraged my feeble efforts to move, I should have laid still and died, and all these bounties of Nature would have been spread in vain for me; indeed, I am obliged to you, and feel that though you may never be of such service to me again, I should be sorry to lose your acquaintance." This acknowledgement was sufficient for the Butterfly, who fluttered about in grateful joy, and in the course of the day made many excursions, from all of which he returned with good humour and kind enquiries; while the Bee continued to fly from flower to flower, and though he was sometimes ready to regret that he had not a hive, to which he could carry the produce of his labours, and receive the commendations of his mother for so doing, he felt that he was yet too weak to work to much advantage, and therefore tried to be content with what was necessary for himself. Several Bees came to this field of sweets, in which he was thus revelling; but none of his old acquaintance were among them, and he forbore to speak to them; "though idle myself," said he, "I will not make others so by engaging them in talk with me;" and indeed so anxious was he not to disgrace the character of what a Bee _should be_, that if he thought any of them were noticing him, he would pretend to be earnestly at work also, lest they should suppose him an idle drone. In his next visit, the Butterfly brought him such intelligence as he thought would be agreeable to him; "We are in the land of plenty," said he, "every thing is flourishing, and innumerable flowers are every where to be seen." "I shall soon be able to visit them," returned the Bee, "and after one more night's rest I shall almost forget that I have been ill; I have already recovered my spirits, and my health will soon return." As they were thus talking, they observed a troop of children with baskets in their hands, and an old man at their head, who seemed to be directing their steps to the field they were in. "These are some of my tormentors," said the butterfly, "though they appear to admire me, and to wish me no harm, they are in reality my greatest enemies; even the sound of their voices puts me in a fright: Oh! how sick I am of hearing them singing, "Butterfly, butterfly, come to me," though you may be very sure I never accept their invitation; once I was shut up in a box for nearly a whole day by one of these _kind_ admirers, with a few green leaves for me to eat and sleep upon; and I suppose she thought she was doing me a very great favor to procure me such a residence; but I was much more obliged to another little girl, who in her absence let me out of my confinement, and since that time I have been more than ever anxious to escape their notice." "I know nothing of an alarm of that sort," replied the Bee, "children are in general afraid of me, and I have sometimes been half inclined to regret it, though in reality I believe it is the best thing that could happen, but these," continued he, "if I am not mistaken, are going to be otherwise employed than in admiring either you or me, for I think we shall see them gathering the flowers on which we have been feeding," and this was actually the case, for as they entered the field, the old man encouraged them to begin by promising that when the wine was made for which these cowslips were to be gathered, they should all have a glass of it. "What devouring creatures are these men," observed the Bee, "every one of these sweet flowers will be destroyed to make their wine; but they are 'the Lords of the Creation,' and take away at one stroke what would satisfy us more moderate creatures for months and months; but see, the children are coming, had you not better take to your wings?" "Not yet," replied the Butterfly, "they are going to be otherwise engaged; 'tis when they are idle, or at play, that I have most reason to be alarmed, and besides here are a great many more of my race frisking about, though among ever so great a number, I am the most admired." The Bee smiled at this discovery of vanity in his friend, though he made no reply, and as the children began clearing the field at the other end of it, they continued a little longer to enjoy the sweets they were so soon to be deprived of, till the shades of the evening began to advance, when the Bee proposed returning home, and bade adieu to those charming flowers from which he had gathered health and strength, and a sufficient stock of honey to take home with him. "Where do you repose for the night?" said he to his friend, "have you no settled place of abode, or do you rest upon the first flower you meet with?" "I generally pass the night under a green leaf, or in the cup of a flower," replied the Butterfly, "and may this evening find a place to repose in near _your_ habitation, if you have no objection." "I should be glad of your company within it," returned the Bee, "were it large enough to admit us both, but what do you live upon? cannot you taste some of the provision I am going to carry home? you shall be very welcome." The Butterfly testified his thanks by a fluttering of his wings; "but I do not particularly relish that food," said he, "and you would perhaps wonder what it is we do eat, for it is no uncommon opinion that we live upon air; however, in our reptile state, we make up for our little eating now; were you to see the devastation we make in the vegetable world, you would be surprised; three or four dozen of us will destroy a bed of cabbages in an hour or two, and we often strip a shrub of all its leaves in the course of a morning." "And do you boast of this?" replied the Bee; "surely it is exulting in mischief." "It is our _nature_," returned the thoughtless Butterfly; "and what is the mischief, as you call it, compared to that which men are daily doing? do they not destroy us by thousands, whenever they have an opportunity? and why should _you_, of all others, plead for them, who, when you have spent your lives in their service, and procured for them that food which they can obtain from no other quarter, burn and destroy your hives and yourselves too? Oh! I have passed one of these monuments of their ungrateful cruelty, and seen the mangled remains of your fellow-creatures till my wings have quite trembled again, and yet you never do them harm; they form your habitation, and encourage you to build in them by pretending to shelter you from all evil, yet after all this fancied kindness, if they think you are too old to labour for them any longer, as a reward for all you have done, they set fire to your houses, and destroy thousands of you in the flames! talk no more of mischief in eating a few cabbages, or devouring the leaves of a tree." "These are shocking truths," replied the Bee, "my blood runs cold to think of it, and yet such is my nature that, though I know I am safe from such devastations where I now am, I would rather add my labours to the common stock of my native hive, could I but find the way to return to it, and share the fate of my fellow-labourers, if such a fate awaits them; but who knows that we may not escape? it is not every Bee that is thus destroyed." "Nature," returned his friend, "has armed you with a defensive weapon with which I think you might soon repel your destroyers: but as for us poor _Butterflies_, we can do nothing to defend ourselves." "'Tis true," returned the Bee, "we have this weapon, and we have often made our enemies fly by using it; but you must know, such is their cunning cowardice, that they will not attack us on equal terms; they must have the covert of the night for their cruel work, and when we are all in our hives, each enclosed in their waxen cell, they begin the horrid massacre; I should feel it more, but that I believe they take as great delight in destroying each other as they do in killing us; for I have heard them rejoicing together that so many of the _enemy_ were slain, and I know they mean their fellow men by _this_ appellation, for they don't _dignify_ us with that title; their great enmity to insects arises from what they destroy; and yet, in one day, they themselves devour more than any of them, but then they think every thing that can be useful to them was only made for that purpose, and no one can say they do not take care to make it fulfill that end, whatever else is left undone." "But the question is, whether they have any right to destroy you, after that is done?" rejoined the Butterfly. "A question too hard for me to answer," returned the Bee; "but this I know, that we have a right to defend ourselves against them whenever we can; and I know also, that for the kindness you have shown me I'll defend you from their attacks as long as I am able: but we are arrived at my dwelling, let us rest upon this tree while the sun is taking its last peep at the horizon." After refreshing themselves with a little of the honey the Bee had brought home, and of which the Butterfly just tasted a little, because he would not appear to refuse what was kindly meant, they parted for the night, the Bee resolving to travel farther the next day, and, if possible, to find out his old habitation, though not without assuring the Butterfly that if he should be so happy as to be re-admitted, it should make no difference in his friendship for him. CHAP. III. "And thus a never-ceasing pleasure flows, "Or to the human, or the bestial race, "From those ideal charms we all attach to place." LOCAL ATTACHMENT. The next morning our two friends awoke with the sun, and before half my readers are out of their beds, their peregrinations commenced, one in quest of whatever he could turn into something useful, the other to find what was new and entertaining. When they met, the Bee was still desirous of finding his old habitation. "But why?" said the Butterfly, "surely the little cell you now live in will do very well for the summer; you are in no danger where you are, and have the delightful privilege of calling it all your own." "All this is true," replied the Bee, "but what a life am I now leading? adding nothing to the general stock; while all my brethren are busily employed in gathering what will be of equal benefit to each, no, no: there is a pleasure in being thus mutually assistant to others which only those who have experienced it can know; and I am resolved, if possible, to enjoy it again." The Butterfly looked surprised, for though capable of that attachment which proceeds from finding an agreeable companion; and with some idea of the services bestowed upon those we love, and which endears the name of friend, he could not imagine that any pleasure could arise from spending his time in labour; but as long as his friend had assured him of the continuance of his regard, he was desirous that he should obtain what he wished, and willingly offered to assist him in the search. During their airy rounds they often stopped to refresh themselves on some favorite flower, and though seldom fixing on the same, and to a casual observer did not appear to be at all connected, they were never out of sight of each other. It was from one of these resting places, in which the Bee was delightfully employed extracting sweets from an "extended field of blossomed beans," that the Butterfly stretched his wings to a neighbouring garden; here such various beauties met his eyes that he could not help returning to call his friend to enjoy them with him. "Such a bed of tulips, I have met with," said he, "whose splendid colours can only be equalled by my wings; pray come, and see what lovely flowers." "Have you not yet learnt that there is something more valuable in a flower than its colour?" returned the Bee, with a smile; "for my part I would prefer these honeyed beans, though I suppose you would think them hardly worth looking at, but of all other flowers tulips have the least sweetness about them, and are fit only to please the eye of those men and butterflies who judge only by appearance; but though I have seen the former admiring a bed of tulips, I have often observed that if they wish to ornament themselves, or their houses, the flowers which we chiefly prefer are also the objects of their choice! as for these beans, though I believe they admire their smell, men are, as I said before, such destructive creatures, that while they are enjoying what is sweet they are at the same time destroying it; and as they expect something still more valuable from these flowers, they are content to let them remain upon their stalks; but we can have our fill of their sweets, and yet not injure what they will hereafter produce. Oh! had I but a hive to go to," continued he, as he stretched his wings to accompany his friend, "how many times should I have gone thither yesterday, and to-day from the cowslips and the beans, and what repeated loads should I have carried home." "Surely, surely," thought the idle Butterfly, "you need not regret that; to fly hither and thither as you like, with no incumbrance of any kind, and, no care beyond to-morrow, is far better;" so thought the Butterfly, and so perhaps think many Butterflies of the human race; but he forbore to repeat his sentiments on this subject, for, unconscious to himself, he was awed by the superiority of his friend, while he felt no wish to be of the same opinion. "And so these are the flowers you admire," continues the Bee, as they alighted, "and which can only be equalled in Beauty by _your_ wings? Ah, my dear friend, would not your wings be just as useful if they were not covered with red and purple? look at the plain white ones of numbers of your race, who are now flying around us; _you_ cannot extend your flight farther than _these_; but see, some children are entering the garden, I question if you will not soon have a greater cause to regret the beauty of your wings than to admire it, and that you will be the object of their pursuit as soon as you meet their eyes, while your plainer brethren will pass unregarded." This prediction was soon verified, for no sooner did the little ones perceive this self-admiring Butterfly than they all exclaimed, "Oh! what a beauty! let us catch it." "If _you_ get on that side of the bed, and _I_ on this," said a boy, who appeared to be the eldest of the party, "I will throw my hat at it, and we shall soon have it in our possession." "Not for the world, master Henry," said the maid, who accompanied them; "you would destroy those beautiful flowers at once if you did, and your papa would be so angry." "The flowers then are more admired than you are my friend," observed the Bee, "for you see the maid will not let them be injured, not even to procure a sight of your still _more_ beautiful wings." "Don't laugh at me," replied the Butterfly, somewhat mortified; "I am glad, however, that I have found a place of safety; if I take care not to quit this station, they will not be able to get at me." Altho' it was his intention to remain there, his young pursuers would not let him be at rest, but with one thing and another so contrived to shake the flowers upon which he settled, that, at last, wearied out with these repeated removals, he took to his wings, and flew to a neighbouring rose-tree. "Now, now," cried all the children, "we shall have it; don't let it get upon the tulips again, and we shall certainly catch it." The Bee lay all this time in the bell of a hyacinth, not unmindful of his friend, or his pursuers, but thinking his present alarm might be an useful evidence of what he had been saying, and a check to his vanity, he resolved to let him feel a little more of the dangerous effect his much-admired beauty was likely to produce; but after the young folk had given him one or two hasty flights round the garden, he came forward, and appearing in front of all the young ones, soon checked the eagerness of their chace. "A Bee, a bee," exclaimed they, "take care, or it will sting you," while the poor trembling Butterfly began to take fresh courage on seeing his friend approach; and, seating himself on the branch of an honey-suckle, endeavoured to regain his breath. The oldest boy was now resolved to make one more effort, and creeping slowly to the place, put forth his hand to reach the prize, when the Bee, perceiving his intention, again darted before his eyes, and made him retreat. "Thank you, thank you, my dear friend," said the poor Butterfly, "surely they will not attempt to pursue me any more; you must have sufficiently frightened them." "I'll do something more than frighten them if they do," replied the Bee; "they shall feel what it is to enrage one of us;" nor would these children, animated by the presence of each other, give up their chace, till the Bee had absolutely fulfilled his threat, by just touching the hand of one of them with his sharp sting: and Oh! what a clamour was instantly raised by the whole party for this cruel act, as it was called; the child cried, and the maid declared it was a shame of the _nasty_ Bee to sting one who never thought of hurting _him_: while all the others gathered round their _wounded_ brother to express their pity and abhorrence of the deed; and while they retired from the garden to get something to alleviate the smart, our two friends were left to recover themselves and congratulate each other on their safety. "I never was so near being taken in my life, and escaped at last," said the Butterfly; "but to _you_, my friend, I am indebted for my present liberty; if you had not exerted yourself in my behalf I must have been in their possession; I tremble at the thought of it, and am completely tired out in the chace they have given me." "Now, then, I hope you will acknowledge that your beauty is no real advantage to you," replied the Bee, "but till you are recovered I will visit yonder beautiful acasia which seems to court my notice; besides, I am not without a hope that from it I shall see my ardently desired home; I seem to remember its being near it." Our airy traveller spoke this with peculiar animation, but on reaching the tree, his pleasure was still higher, for, from thence, he beheld the spot he was in pursuit of; although many hives were near it, he could distinguish his own from all the rest by a thousand little marks known only to those who inhabit it. His heart beat with transport; it appeared to him the abode of peace and plenty, and it was within his _reach_ also; the flower on which he had rested was entirely disregarded, and he stood gazing on the well known spot, "stung with the thoughts of home." The endearments of his mother returned to his mind with double force, nor could he fear being well received by her, and if by her, all the rest he knew dared not use him differently; "I will acknowledge my disobedience to her commands," said he, "and when she knows what I have gone through she will forgive me; I shall again receive her commendations, and repose myself under her mild and equitable government." With these thoughts he could scarcely forbear flying away, and rushing at once into the presence of his friends; but he recollected the poor Butterfly, and though there was nothing in their natures which could assimilate, he still remembered that in a great measure he owed his present health and strength to him; "when first we met," continued he, "there was nothing in me to induce his affection; I was poor, sick, and helpless, and yet _he_ was interested for me, and shall I leave him now? no, I will return and tell him what I have seen, and that though for the future I shall reside with more suitable associates, we may still often meet." Thus determined, he hastened back, with all the liveliness of joy, to inform his friend, who observed his coming, and the cheerful air with which he approached; "I have seen my hive," cried the Bee, without giving him time to make the enquiry, "I have seen it! come, won't you go with me, and at least see the place to which I am going to return, and though I cannot ask you to enter with me, (none but bees being permitted to come in there) I shall never see you when I am out of it without pleasure." "My dear friend," replied the Butterfly, "after the kindness you have shewn me this morning, it would be ungrateful not to rejoice in what gives you pleasure; I think I am now able to use my wings again, and will readily accompany you; and though I know I must stand at an humble distance while you enter, yet I shall be anxious to hear how you are received, and whether your old companions will forgive your leaving them." "I have but the displeasure of _one_ to fear," replied the Bee, "and if she forgives me, the rest have nothing to do with it, nor have I much to apprehend from that quarter, since the authority of a sovereign is tempered by the affection of a parent." Thus conversing they pursued their flight till arriving at a short distance from the well-known hive, "Don't you see it?" said the Bee, fluttering his wings for joy; "don't you behold the welcome spot?" "I see a number of hives," returned the Butterfly, not quite so enraptured as his friend, "but which is yours I cannot tell." "Mark the one into which I fly," said the Bee, "and then you'll know it." "But when shall I see you again?" enquired the Butterfly in a melancholy tone, on seeing his friend preparing for flight; "to-day?" "Perhaps not," replied the other; "I may not be permitted to come out again, or I may be indulged with a day's rest, and conversation with my mother, but do not suffer yourself to doubt my friendship for you, because I do not fly out every hour and repeat my professions of it; to-morrow, at farthest, I shall renew my labours for the general good, and then if you like to accompany me in my flights, I shall be glad of your company." With these words he stretched his wings, while the Butterfly bade him farewell, and watching his approach and entrance to the hive, resolved to hover round the place in hopes of learning what reception he had met with. As the returning vagrant advanced towards the centre of all his hopes and fears, he felt the latter sensibly encrease, yet he could not but advance; at first he settled on the block upon which the hive was placed, every part of which was perfect in his recollection; he observed no one near, for as it was now the middle of the day, almost all were out, busily employed, except a few, whom he knew were always on the watch to keep out every intruder; at length he ventured within the hive, and immediately all the humming inmates which were then at home flocked around him; some concluded that he had mistaken his hive, while others imagined they could recollect his form and figure. "Do you not know me?" said he, "I once belonged to your fraternity, and my heart is still knit towards you." On hearing an unusual murmur the mother queen appeared, with all her attendant train, to enquire who the bold intruder was? The way was cleared for her approach, and a solemn silence prevailed, while the stranger, with unfeigned humility, answered to the question. No sooner did her majesty know her returning child, than in one loud hum she expressed her satisfaction, and this was heard and attended to by all around, and presently the general voice was that he should be re-admitted. "I am not returned unto you sick, or unable to work," replied the delighted Bee, after he had expressed his thanks for their generous reception of him; and then related to his attentive and sympathyzing parent all he had gone through since he had so rashly left the hive, whilst the rest waited till the close of the day before they indulged their curiosity by hearing it, nor did he forget to acknowledge that it was to the attention of a Butterfly that he owed his life. "A Butterfly," returned the queen, whose dignity felt hurt that any of her race should be indebted to so trifling a creature, "sure you must have been sunk very low indeed, to need the assistance of a Butterfly." "I have learnt, my dear mother," replied the young one, "that there is no creature, however mean, but may be of service some time or other; the Butterfly is well aware of the great difference there is between us." "And sensible, I hope, of the honour done him, in being permitted to assist a Bee?" rejoined the mother. This important affair being settled, though not entirely to the satisfaction of the queen, who while she forbore to say more upon the subject, resolved narrowly to watch the conduct of her son, fearing he would gain too much of the frivolity of the Butterfly if he long associated with him: and after shewing him a cell in which he might for the future reside, she left him to prepare it for his reception. CHAP. IV. "Think not that treachery can be just; "Take not informers' words on trust." GAY. As the winged inhabitants flocked towards home, laden with their honeyed store, the return of the wanderer was announced to each; and the labors of the day being ended, they all gathered round him to hear the account of his adventures. In the mean time the Butterfly continued without the hive, not unpleasantly situated, as a number of flowers were about the place, had he not been yet in suspense respecting his friend, when, as he was just going to give up all hopes of meeting with him till the next morning, he had the pleasure of seeing him come out upon the block, in company with two or three other Bees. "Will he speak to me now, that _these_ are with him," thought the Butterfly, and he fluttered round the place, half afraid that he should find the promises of his friend forgotten; but not so, the Bee, (though perhaps he might feel a little at the opinion he judged would be formed by his present associates on seeing him speaking familiarly to one so much beneath them,) flew towards him, to tell him he had been well received, directing him to a place of safety in which he might pass the night; "to-morrow," said he, "we shall meet again." The Butterfly was much pleased at this unexpected interview, and after thanking him for his attention, promised to join him in the morning. The Bee then returned to his companions, and the Butterfly retired to the place which had been pointed out to him, and from whence he could see the entrance of the hive, and watch the coming of his friend when they were next to meet. I shall now proceed to acquaint my reader with the future travels of our two friends, and without attending to the minute occurrences of each day, enter at once upon those events which more particularly belong to my design. As soon as the sun was sufficiently above the earth, the inhabitants of the hive hastened forth, eager to pursue their daily task-- "Around, athwart, "Thro' the soft air the busy nations fly." And among the first came our young adventurer, whom the Butterfly immediately prepared to accompany; though till he saw him a little separated from the others, he did not presume to approach. "How do you do, my friend?" said the Bee, as soon as he drew near; "are you inclined for a long flight to-day? I have now a double motive to work hard, having a wish to make up for my lost time, as well as to shew my sense of gratitude for the reception I have met with from the friends I am returned to." "I am willing to accompany you," replied the Butterfly, "and am glad to see you in such spirits; but you are already eyeing some of those beautiful flowers, and while you are engaged with them I will visit the nearest cottage, and return before you have finished your task." "That's right," replied the Bee, "and tell me if you find the inhabitants as well, or as busily employed, as I am going to be." The Butterfly departed, and on entering the window of the humble dwelling, he perceived a woman sweeping out the lower room, "which served them for parlour, kitchen, and hall," and preparing the breakfast; three or four children were entrusted to the care of another somewhat older than themselves, and who was endeavouring to keep the little ones from entering, and interrupting their mother. The Butterfly was unnoticed by the woman, but no sooner did the children see it, who (like all others, wanting what is denied them,) were peeping in at the door and enquiring when they might come in, than a little boy begged to enter, promising to catch it in a minute, and his entreaties at last prevailed, though he did not find it quite so easy to take the nimble creature as he had fancied. He had again and again to watch its settling, and to experience disappointment in his endeavour to secure it; while the rest of the little ones were at the door eagerly looking on, and the mother sometimes fretting, and sometimes laughing at his fruitless efforts; when all at once the eldest girl gave notice of her father's approach to breakfast. [Illustration] No sooner was this intelligence heard, than the Butterfly was suffered to rest in quiet; the mother declared that "nothing was ready;" she scolded the child and blamed herself for being so foolish as to be stopped in the middle of her work by the chacing of a Butterfly, and before any thing was in proper order the _master_ entered, who by his rough voice and peremptory manner seemed determined to keep up the authority of that title. While he was grumbling at not finding his breakfast ready, and his children standing silent around the table, the Butterfly, happy to escape, extended his wings, and returned to his companion, whom he found still employed at his accustomed task. "Well, what discoveries have you made," enquired the Bee, "have you seen any one so busy as me?" "_One_ was," replied the Butterfly, laughing, "till I put an end to her work; a little humoured brat of a boy was suffered to enter into the midst of it, and hunt me from one side of the room to the other, and this foolish pursuant took the attention of the woman, who stood with the broom in her hand, admiring the dexterity of her aukward cub, I suppose, till the approach of the father was announced; then the scene was entirely changed, the hunt was given over, and she was cross with herself and every one else because she had been interrupted, which after all was her own fault; the man came in still more out of humour, and thus the house which at your first entrance you might have imagined the abode of peace and domestic comfort, was made directly otherwise; and _my harmless_ visit, I dare say, they would say was the cause of it; when to a reasonable observer it would be plain that the whole of his disturbance arose from the wayward fancy of the child, the indulgence of the mother, and the ill temper of the father: however, such is my happy lot, having wings, I could fly away from all their troubles, but those are to be pitied who cannot escape them." "During your absence," said the Bee, "I have seen two friends in this garden, who appeared so happy in the society of each other that I am anxious to see more of them, such friendship being rather rare among the human race, and as soon as I have carried home this load of honey, I intend to visit the house I saw them enter." "Do, do," replied the Butterfly, pleased to find his friend could attend to any thing besides his work, "and while you are thus engaged, I will amuse myself with an old acquaintance or two whom I see yonder." With these words they parted for a little while, promising to meet again in the same place, and to which the Bee returned long before the fluttering Butterfly, who had flown to a neighbouring field, and there among the daisies and king-cups with which the ground was nearly covered, he continued with his former associates nearly the whole morning, idly chacing each other in airy rounds till he had almost forgot the engagement he had made, and was still less inclined to regret his living an idle life. "I am not born to work," said he, "and if the place I fill in the world is not of such importance as my friend's, as a Butterfly I have an equal right to live, and to follow my own inclination;" he therefore returned to meet him without an apology for being behind the time, and on finding him busily employed, and nearly ready to take home another load, "what," said he, "you could not leave your favorite work to make your intended visit? surely you are too intent in gathering that food which I fear you will never be allowed to enjoy?" "You are mistaken," replied the Bee, "I have been, and seen the two ladies, but they are no longer friends." Oh what fickle creatures these men and women are! young and old, they are all changeable alike. One was sitting at an open window, and the other walking up and down the room apparently much distressed; "what not one word?" said she to the other; "I did not mean to offend you." No answer was returned, and she continued to express her sorrow, which was received with the utmost indifference; at length she made another attempt, and offering her hand to her offended friend, she said, "Come, Charlotte, will you not be reconciled?" This also was equally disregarded, and the feelings of the poor offender seemed entirely altered; she no longer solicited forgiveness, but left the room, saying, "It is not necessary for me to acknowledge more; you do not treat me like a friend; talk no more of your regard for me." As soon as she was gone the other began singing, as loudly as she could raise her voice, though the words she uttered now, so far from being in unison with her mind, as expressed in her countenance, that I could not help smiling; they were descriptive of content and self-satisfaction, neither of which I think _she_ could at that time feel. On leaving her, and entering another window, I was sorry to see the one I had been interested for in earnest conversation with a third person, who, pitying her dejected and melancholy appearance, asked if she might not attribute it to the ill humour of her friend, and while her mind was thus hurt with the treatment she had received, drew from her a complaint which perhaps she would not have made at any other time. "She does not deserve your regard," said the stranger, "and you give up too much to her;--if you continue to do so, she will by and bye expect you to say or do nothing but as she directs; and her friendship for you can never be real if she requires such subjection." "These are very odd things," observed the Butterfly; "we poor insignificant creatures never have any thing of this sort; if we associate together, we do not spend our time in complaining of each other." "I have not done with them yet," returned the Bee, "but mean to pay them another visit, and I fancy shall see still more reason to conclude that these wonderful creatures, whom the animal race hold in such respect, are not so steady and constant in their conduct and pursuits as either they, or we, the still meaner insect tribes, are, though I must say those of the latter order are not in so much awe of them. We do not fly from them if they come in our way, but in many things consider them as subservient to us, and that which _they_ look upon as exclusively their own, and which a cat or a dog would not venture to touch, _we_ have most likely made many a meal from before it comes to their table." A few days after this, the Bee renewed his visit, as he had proposed, and there was astonished to see the very same third person now engaged with the other lady, and relating to her with many exaggerations all that her offending friend had repeated to her, while smarting under the effect of her ill humour, though all the pains she took to draw it out of her, and the encouragement with which she listened to her complaint, were entirely omitted in the recital. "Only think of this," said the Butterfly, on hearing an account of his friend's second visit. "Is this the use they make of the power of speech, and which they imagine sets them so completely above the animals? surely they had better be without it, than use it to such a purpose; but what will be the end of this? will not the eyes of the two friends be opened, think you? and they will leave the acquaintance of that mean incendiary, who, under such a show of friendship, endeavours to widen the breach between them?" "Perhaps not," replied the Bee. "Their conduct may yet want that consistency; I hope they will be reconciled to each other, but I doubt whether they will give up this perfidious acquaintance, though the more their regard for each other increases, the more must their contempt for her be increased. I question, also, if the tale _she_ has this day told will not rankle in the breast of the hearer for many future years, and whether there will ever again be that mutual confidence in the two friends which once appeared." The next house they saw, the Butterfly entered alone, as the Bee observed some flowers at a distance which appeared more worthy of his attention. While he was busily employed in extracting their sweets, his friend returned laughing, "Oh!" said he, "I wish you had been with me. Smile no more at the regard I shew to outward appearance; why there is a young man who is storming and raging about the house, because his neckcloths and shirts are not brought home so nicely as he expected, and he is throwing them from one end of the room to the other, while the poor woman, who has, perhaps, been working hard to make them what they are, stands trembling before him, as if she had committed the greatest trespass in the world. The beauty of my wings if once destroyed, is lost for ever, but these evils, if they are any, are soon remedied; and, at the next house," continued he, "is another instance of the vanity of the sex; _there_ is a boy who has got a new coat just brought home from the taylor's, and because the day is rather lowering, and his father won't let him wear it out, he is determined not to go out at all, and he is now sitting in his own room with the coat on, though there is no one but himself to admire it. I have seen females carry their fondness for dress as far as this," continued he, "but I thought men and boys were above such vanity; I declare I am half ashamed of them." At this moment a heavy shower came on, and the Butterfly hastened to the shelter of a large leaf on a cucumber bed, where also the Bee was obliged to secure himself, nor could he take home the honey he had gathered till the rain had ceased. On his return, he found the Butterfly just ventured from his retreat, and stretching his wings, he was enquiring of one of his own species, "if their colours had received any injury?" The Bee heard the enquiry, and though he believed his friend would not have made it had he thought him within hearing, he was not now so inclined to laugh at him as formerly on account of it, "for," said he, "since I have heard such instances of vanity in a race so superior, I can forgive it in a Butterfly." On finding that the drops still continued on the flowers, so as to prevent his gathering any thing from them, he determined to return to the hive, and there assist in forming some cells with the wax he had been busy in procuring, though the Butterfly was earnest in desiring him to take an afternoon's flight with him, "and enjoy a little pleasure." The Bee smiled at what his friend called by that name; "my enjoyment is to be usefully employed," said he, "and to receive my mother's approbation; but as I know this is a pleasure _you_ cannot understand, I would not wish to deprive you of what you can enjoy; go, therefore, and take your fill of it while you may, and to-morrow perhaps we may meet again." His friend departed with this encouragement, yet not able to comprehend why all creatures did not find a pleasure in the same thing, though to the eye of reason such a distinction of enjoyments in the various objects of creation, is an evident token of the Wisdom with which they are formed. CHAP. V. "If chance a mouse came in her sight, "She finely counterfeits a fright, "So sweetly screams if it come near her, "It ravishes all hearts to hear her." SWIFT. The next day the Bee had taken home two or three loads before his friend made his appearance, who, when he came, expressed his surprise at finding him where he was. "I have been in such a beautiful conservatory," said he, "and surely I saw _you_ there, almost buried in the heart of a flower; and so intent were you upon your labour, that you would not even answer me when I called; there must certainly have been something very attractive to have kept you there so long, but how you got here before me is what I most wonder at." "I don't understand you," returned the Bee, "I have been in no conservatory, the utmost of my flights to-day have been from the hive to this place." "And have you _really_ been no where else?" said the Butterfly in astonishment; "why I never saw anything so like you in my life; I concluded that you were so buried in the flower that you did not hear my call, or was unwilling to move, lest you should alarm some ladies and gentlemen who were very near you." "I think I can tell what has deceived you," returned the Bee, "you have seen a Bee-Orchis, as they are called, a flower which bears both the form and resemblance of _our_ species. And so you really took it for _me_?" "If it was _not_ yourself," replied the Butterfly, "and you wish to see your _own_ likeness, pray come with me, and behold it; for never did I see one Bee so like another, as that flower is like you." "I have known many of our young ones who are not acquainted with it," said the Bee, "so deceived by the resemblance, that if they happen to meet with one, they pass it by, thinking, that one of their fellow-laborers is engaged there already; but if you will shew me the spot I will not be so put off." So saying, he followed the Butterfly, who was immediately on the wing; and soon arrived at a very large house, one end of which formed the conservatory. The fragrancy of the flowers it contained, the great variety of them, and those of the most delicate nature, made the Bee clap his wings for joy. "Why, my dear friend," said he, "you have brought me to a treasure-house indeed; a store of sweets, I can hardly forbear returning to call all my companions to share it with me; I am sure there would be work enough for the whole hive were they here." While he was thus expressing his delight, the Butterfly was searching for the flower he had noticed before, hardly satisfied, till he had the testimony of his own eye-sight in seeing them together, that his friend had told him the truth; however, when he discovered it, and saw the Bee still flying about in admiration, he was obliged to acknowledge he had been wrong. The Bee employed himself here for some hours, during which he had gone and returned from the hive several times, bringing with him a few of his companions, who were attracted by the account he gave of this charming place; the Butterfly also met with much to amuse him, and continued uninterruptedly to enjoy themselves, till, as the evening advanced, they resolved to visit some other part of the house, and the Butterfly led the way to the dining parlour, where some ladies and gentlemen were sitting after dinner, with a variety of fruits and wines before them. The attention of the Bee was immediately attracted by a very fine peach one of the ladies had just taken on her plate, and little thinking of the consequence of his temerity, he flew towards it: the lady screamed, and pushed back her chair, while the company eagerly enquired the cause. "Oh, a Bee!" exclaimed she, "I am frightened to death if I see one." "And I," said another, who sat opposite to her, "shall faint, if it comes near _me_; I really cannot bear it in the room." At this moment the Bee, as if desirous of seeing whether she spoke truth or not, flew directly across the table, and alighted on her head. "Oh where is it?" said she, jumping off her seat, "I am sure it is on me! dear Mr. Wippersnap," addressing the gentleman who sat next her, "for goodness sake take it off! what shall I do?" While the other lady sat fanning to recover her alarm, and the rest of the party with anxious looks watched the motions of the bold intruder, the gentleman, proud of his superior courage, "begged them not to be alarmed, for he would destroy it in a moment;" and giving it a gentle touch to drive it from its present station, he began the attack with an open knife he held in his hand, professing that he would cut it asunder at one blow; his blows, however, were not so decisive, for though he aimed several, the Bee contrived to escape them all. At this one or two other gentlemen, with more regard to the imaginary feelings of the ladies than to the reality of those belonging to the Bee, raised the same weapons in their defence, but all their efforts served only to exasperate the object of their rage, while the Butterfly sat trembling under the most cruel apprehensions for his friend's safety. During this alarming battle the ladies were happy to leave the room; and no sooner were they retired than the fight was over, the weapons of war were laid aside, and the enraged Bee suffered to rest upon the table, and recruit his strength: his fierce opponents declared they were never so foiled before, till one, less courageous than the rest, wisely, as he thought, turned an empty wine glass over him, and thus was our unfortunate adventurer again in a close confinement. The Butterfly was now alarmed for his friend from another cause, and feared the want of air would be too much for him. "Cruel monsters," said he to himself, as he observed the gentlemen draw their chairs closer to the table, and filling their glasses appeared determined to suffer no other interruption to their cheerfulness; "do they call themselves humane, who can leave a poor creature in that situation, and after they have cut and slashed at him in such a manner, that if their dexterity had been equal to their will, they would not have left a whole bone in his skin. Oh! that I had the sting of a thousand Bees, I would use them all to revenge his cause." With these words he fluttered round the table, and viewed his friend (who lay motionless at the bottom of his transparent prison) on every side; "he will certainly die," thought he, "if he is not dead already. Oh my friend! would that I could release you! but the attempt would be fruitless." The gentlemen were too agreeably engaged to observe the anxious Butterfly, who every time he saw them extend their hands towards the place, hoped some little compassion had touched their breasts, and that they were going to liberate his friend; but no such thing, the evening closed in, and he was yet in confinement, till the tea being announced, the gentlemen jumped up to attend the ladies, and soon after the servants entering to take away the bottle and glasses, give the poor prisoner an opportunity to escape. The window was still open, upon the edge of which sat the expecting Butterfly, but it was some time before the Bee, who had been insensible the greatest part of the time, could so far recollect himself as to know where he was, or who was waiting for him. On seeing him slowly crawling on the table, the Butterfly concluded he was too much hurt to fly, and coming towards him, with the utmost tenderness he said, "Oh! my friend, are you not cruelly wounded?" "Not so much as I expected," returned the Bee, greatly revived at the sight of his old companion. "I am very stiff from the blows I have received, but luckily my wings are not hurt; pray lead the way from this detested spot, and I will follow with the greatest pleasure." With this request the Butterfly gladly complied, rejoicing to hear his friend speak so cheerfully, who was no sooner out of the house than he begged to rest upon a neighbouring tree. "You have been very roughly handled," said his friend, "by these _superior_ sort of people; I had hoped better things of them, because they are called so, but I do not find their hearts are better, or their conduct towards us less reprehensible than those of a lower order; but why did you not use your sting, my friend? I think it then would have made even those courageous gentlemen sound a retreat." "I am very careful of extending that," replied the Bee, "as it is very seldom we can use it to any advantage without leaving it in the wound, and that in general is fatal to us; a gentle touch is sufficient in our defence, but _here_ it would have had no effect but to enrage them still the more, and I must either have died by their hands, or soon afterwards by losing it; but what a fuss the ladies made at my approach, did they not? did you ever see any thing so foolish, as all to run away from my presence? Why many of their fellow-creatures, whom they judge inferior in education and ideas to themselves, would have been ashamed to have acted so." "If you are inclined to put them to flight again," said the Butterfly, "I think I see the same party in the room above." "No, I thank you," returned the Bee, "I must hasten to the hive as fast as my bruises will let me; they will be quite alarmed at my being out so late, or fancy that my old fondness for wandering is come on again, and I should be sorry that should be their opinion; besides," continued he, shrugging his shoulders, "I have had enough of the company of ladies and gentlemen for to-day, though no doubt I lost much entertaining conversation during my captivity." "I believe not," replied the Butterfly, "for my part I heard them say very little else than "the bottle is with you Sir," and "let us have another;" and "will you give us a toast, Sir?"" "And is it thus these men of _education_ converse together?" replied the Bee; "I am astonished at it, but were we to sit and talk of it the whole of the night we should not make them better; we will therefore go home; I have only to say that I am glad I have escaped their malice, and am obliged to you, my friend, for the affection which prompted you to stay for me;" and now extending their wings they soon arrived at the hive, which the Bee entered, and accounting for his late return received the congratulations of all his companions on his safety. The Butterfly found a resting-place near it, and the next day met his friend with anxious enquiries of "how he found himself?" The Bee was still stiff, and felt too much of the ill effects of his last visit to wish to accompany him on another, at present, therefore he remained but just without the hive, and left the Butterfly to make 'the voyage of observation' by himself. In the evening, as they again met, he enquired into the result of his rambles. "I am more and more astonished at the weakness of mortals," returned the Butterfly, "and am convinced that a _fine lady_ will believe any thing, and will be pleased with the greatest nonsense, if said to her by way of compliment; though I have visited but one house to-day, and that was with one of my old acquaintance, with whom I flew about till we chaced each other into a spacious drawing-room, in which sat a young lady, who was endeavouring to lay the imitation of flowers upon a small table; I believe they call it _painting_, and it was nearly finished; a gentleman sat by her, and seemed to admire every stroke of her pencil, though for my part I could not see any thing so very admirable in it; the colours, to my eye, were put on very roughly, and I could not have thought he would have paid so ill a compliment to her understanding, as to suppose she would have believed him, when on our settling on them after we had sported round the room, he declared that we took them for natural flowers." [Illustration] "And did she believe him?" asked the Bee. "She smiled," returned the Butterfly, "and seemed very much pleased; and it is certain that she did not contradict him, though she soon drove us off again, fearing, I suppose, that we should discover the deception; but we had done that long before, and only fixt ourselves there because it was the nearest place to rest on. After this we flew out, and met with other companions, and I don't know how it was, but the day seemed gone before we were aware; however, we have enjoyed ourselves without interruption, and _you_, I hope, are better able to pursue what affords you pleasure, than when I left you in the morning?" "I am recovering very fast," returned the Bee, "and it is quite necessary I should, for I believe a wonderful change is soon to take place in my circumstances, and you must not be surprised if you should not see me in this neighbourhood much longer." "What do you mean?" enquired the Butterfly, half alarmed, though he knew not from what cause; "you are not going to hide yourself from me, are you?" "No," returned the Bee; "_our_ movements cannot be hid, we shall make noise enough about it, but I am not at liberty to disclose the secrets of the hive; to-morrow, perhaps, if you keep a good look-out, and the weather is fine, you may see what will unravel this mystery; in the meanwhile assure yourself of the continuance of my friendship, and do not think, after the attention I experienced from you last night, and on a former occasion, I can forget you." With this assurance the Butterfly suffered his friend to depart without making any farther enquiry, and sheltering himself for the night under a large holly-hock, resolved not to let the sun arise without his awaking to observe the movements of the Bee, and his companions; and, if possible, to find out the meaning of what he had heard. CHAP. VI. "When nought but balm is breathing through the woods "With yellow lustre, bright, that the new tribes "Visit the spacious heavens, and look abroad "On Nature's common, far as they can see, "Or wing their range and pasture." THOMPSON. The next morning all was bustle and activity in the hive at a very early hour, and the Butterfly also arose, and shook his wings, determined to let nothing escape his observation which could discover the occasion of it: but though there seemed much noise within, no one came out; and, after waiting a great while, he began to think that nothing particular was intended by what his friend had said, or that some confusion among themselves prevented their putting it in execution. He frisked about among the flowers, yet still contrived to keep the hive in view; till at length he saw a Bee advance, whom, from her majestic appearance, he concluded was the queen; a number of attendants immediately followed her; and, among the rest, his friend. She turned as if to take a last look at the home she was about to leave for ever, and on seeing multitudes of its inhabitants flocking out, as fast as the narrow entrance would allow, appeared to glory in the exulting throng; till raising her wings she led the way to seek some other habitation. Immediately all the train followed her example, and the air was filled with the numerous retinue; who, by the noise they made, appeared to vie with each other in paying her respect. All were earnest in their endeavours to get near her, and to the eye of the Butterfly, who followed at an humble distance, they appeared a formidable phalanx; eager not only to prevent the approach of danger, but that even the eye of a stranger should be fixt upon her. Presently a crowd of people, from the neighbouring houses, came running towards them, with pot-lids in their hands, with which, as the whole body were slowly hovering round the trunk of an old tree, they endeavoured to drown their humming noise with a much louder one of their own; and this, from what they said, and their calling for the hive, the Butterfly learnt was to make them sooner settle. All this time it would have been difficult to have said who watched their motions most attentively, the men and women, or the Butterfly. As soon as her officious attendants would give her an opportunity, her majesty fixt her feet upon a projecting branch, and happy were those who could cling the closest to her. All were now as desirous of fixing with her, as before they were of flying; and when they could no longer see or touch this sole object of their attention, they were still eager to press, and hang upon each other, as if pleased to touch but the back of a bee, who perhaps touched another that had hold of their Queen. The noise now ceased, and the bees were suffered to hang, unmolested, for nearly an hour, in a large round cluster; still and motionless, as if no life or power was in them. Their proceedings were so entirely new to the Butterfly, that, had not his friend been amongst them, he should have wished to see the end; but he saw a man approach, whose face and arms were entirely covered, and placing a new hive under them, he shook the branch till the whole united body fell into it. A cloth was then thrown over them, and he bore it away in triumph. "And will they suffer themselves to be thus taken?" thought his attentive observer, as he eagerly extended his wings to follow the man; "will they be content to remain in that desolate habitation without a cell, or any provision in it? no, no; the man will soon perceive his mistake," continued he, as he saw him place it on a block, which had been before prepared for it, "as soon as they can get their liberty, they will return from whence they came." However, it was himself, and not the man, who was mistaken; on the whole, the Bees liked their new abode very well; and it was not till the next day that he saw any of its inhabitants coming out in search of food; when he met his friend, who asked him "if he did not think he had given him notice of something worth seeing?" "I think I see that you have changed for the worse," returned the Butterfly; "you have left a full hive with comfortable cells, and plenty of food, for one which is destitute of both!" "We shall soon get this as well stocked as the other," replied the Bee; "but did you not see our Queen? a sight of her is seldom had; were you not charmed with her majestic appearance?" "Upon my word, no," said the Butterfly with a smile; "but you must recollect that I am not one of her numerous progeny; and to the eye of a Butterfly she is no more than another of her species; but why did you leave your home? is it grown old, and crazy; or does it let the rain in?" "I fancy we understand building better than for that to be the case," answered the Bee, somewhat offended; "but we were too full; we encreased so fast that there was not room for us all in one hive. We have therefore chosen another queen, in whom, by the bye, I am astonished that you see nothing to admire; and we young ones are come forth with her, to form another settlement. Happy shall we be to contribute to her tranquillity and comfort, and to supply her every want; while she is kind enough to permit us to call her ours, for the present; therefore, you must not expect to see me one moment at leisure; till we have, in some degree, given our abode the appearance of an habitation, we cannot be comfortable; we have already formed a cell for our beloved Queen, and a few others for her principal attendants; among which number, I am proud to say, I am; you must excuse me if I now leave you abruptly, as I am on the search for something nice for her to eat." "Proud, indeed," thought the Butterfly, as he saw his friend hastily depart. "Why, I am hardly spoken to now this new queen is come in the way. Well," continued he, "I am glad _we_ have no sovereign, in whose service we might spend our lives. Our time is our own, and we enjoy it as we like," added he, clapping his wings, and flying off in pursuit of some companion as thoughtless as himself. The next morning he returned very early to the hive in hopes of seeing his old friend, though he did not suppose he would allow him his company for more than a minute. "We can converse together as we fly," said the Bee, who advanced to meet him, "but I must fetch some honey for her majesty's breakfast; won't you accompany me? we still go on building very fast, and wax is brought in great abundance for that purpose." "While you are thus employed, I do not expect to have much of your company," said the Butterfly, "and have therefore made an agreement with some of my old acquaintance to take an excursion into the country, and enjoy ourselves there for a few days. The summer is passing quickly away, and our lives, supposing no accident cuts us off, must end with it; we must, therefore, frisk while we may." "Certainly," replied the Bee, "_you_ were made for that purpose, and by the time you return I shall probably be more at liberty; we have a great deal to do, but there is likewise a number of hands, all able and willing to assist;" and directing his friend to find out the hive when he came back, he wished him much pleasure, and thus they parted for a short time, the one to play, and the other to work, though both equally pleased with the pursuit they were about to follow. The Butterfly soon after joined his gayer friends, and sailing high in air, they winged their way, to "range the forest's green retreat." "These thro' the tangled wood-walks play, "Where no rude urchin paces near, "Where sparely peeps the sultry day, "And light dews freshen all the air." Thus sported the happy party, uninterruptedly enjoying the live-long day, and resting at night within "the lily's bell!" They skimmed the purple heath, visited the rivers' brink, and each day brought some new pleasure in their view, till at length the weather began to change, a cold wind blew, and there was every appearance of an approaching tempest; and now it was that the Butterfly began to think of his friend the Bee, and of his warm comfortable hive; though he knew he could not be admitted there, he felt that it must be very pleasant to have such an asylum to retreat to. Every one of his fluttering companions were now flying away, each desirous of finding a place of safety for himself, and _he_ still bent upon returning to his more _steady_ friend, endeavoured to gain the way which led to his abode, though the wind was now so powerful that he could scarcely bear against it, or see the way he was taking. At this moment a stage-coach passed him, and though he did not know it would convey him from the place he was then in, he was glad to take the shelter it afforded, and flying in at one of the open windows he soon found a resting-place. After recovering from the disorder and confusion the rough wind had put him into, he had time to examine where he was, and noticed two young ladies, and an officer very gayly drest, apparently confined within this very small space. "What's this?" exclaimed the gentleman; "a Butterfly! we want no such intruders here; ladies, are you alarmed? is the creature disagreeable?" "Let the poor thing alone," said an elderly man, whom the Butterfly had not observed before, "it's as free to live as you are; 'tis true we have _frivolity_ enough in our cargo, but the horses won't feel this addition to it." "It has taken shelter from the storm," said one of the ladies, not at all regarding what he said; "and if it does not settle on _me_ it is welcome to remain." The coachman now got off his box, and opening the door, begged to know if there was room for a young woman, who was on the outside. "It rains hard," said he, "and she will be wet to the skin if she stays there." Instead of answering his enquiry the officer, in a low voice, replied thus: "I say, who is this old fellow in the corner? any one of consequence? hey?" "Oh bless you, no Sir, _he_ won't mind her coming in, if you don't." "Mind her coming? no, I suppose not," replied he, "but the ladies are to be consulted; what say you ladies? have you any objection?" They looked at each other as if hesitating for an answer, which the old gentleman observed, and immediately offered to get out, and let her have his place; at this the whole party seemed rather ashamed, and one of the ladies replied, "Oh dear no! we only thought her clothes might be wet." "And spoil yours, I suppose?" returned the old gentleman rather roughly, "but I dare say you will have no objection to this young officer's sitting between you, and then she can take his place, and you will be in no danger." This proposal was readily acceded to, and the young woman came in with many thanks, while the gallant gentleman seated between the two ladies declared, that "if he did not incommode them he was the happiest man alive, and only wished that they were going to travel hundreds of miles together." "An enviable situation truly," said the old man, with an air of contempt, and folding his arms, as if preparing to sleep; "I," said one of the ladies, "shall soon be at my journey's end," naming the place at which she was to be set down; "and I," replied the other, "am to go but one mile further." "Oh! Heavens! and what shall I do then?" returned their admiring beau, "shut up in this place by myself; I shall certainly hang myself if I have an opportunity! what lose such charming companions so soon?" At this the ladies both smiled, and seeing such sort of conversation pleased, he plied them with it very freely, while the old man slept, or pretended so to do, and the young women looked rather inclined to blush for those of her sex who could receive such flattery. When one of the ladies left the coach, the other seemed fearful that their complimenting admirer would hurt himself, in straining his neck to look after her, as she ran through the rain to a house which stood at a little distance from the road. On drawing his head in again, he praised her beauty exceedingly, till fearing he should carry his encomiums too high, so as to offend the other, whose countenance already bespoke an approaching gloom; he dissipated the very appearance of it in a moment, by "begging to know if they were not sisters, their likeness to each other was so great?" This had the desired effect, for though she assured him they were not, yet if her companion was handsome, and they were alike, she must be so likewise. To be handsome is as much as some people desire, thought the Butterfly, on observing her face resume a smile, "no wonder that we Butterflies should wish it." After some more conversation equally foolish, she also arrived at the place of her destination, and the gentleman, not at all regarding his other companions, again deplored the melancholy situation he should be left in. As soon as the lady was gone, the old gentleman thus addressed him, "Young man, I think you have shown your folly whilst you have been attempting to hoax those women; _that's_ the word, is it not?" "Poor country girls!" replied the officer, laughing, "how pleased they were; they believed every word I said; they look as if they had never been beyond their own country town, and yet I made one of them think that I supposed she had lived in London all her life." "And where have you lived?" replied the old man, "to learn that there is any wit in making people appear more ridiculous than they really are?" "Oh," said the other, "they'll go home and talk of me for days to come; I should not wonder if they expected to see me returning in search of them within a short time, as not being able to live out of their company." The old gentleman then turned to the young woman, who had sat a silent spectator like the Butterfly, and bade her take a lesson from what she had seen and heard, not to believe what was said to her; "_you_ may perhaps one day or other meet with an idle fellow," continued he "who may think proper to amuse himself by talking thus, but do not you pay so ill a compliment to your own understanding, as to sit with a simper on your countenance at whatever nonsense he may chuse to utter." The young woman expressed her thanks, while the disconsolate beau sat with his head half out of the window, as if wishing to avoid any farther conversation. The weather seemed now cleared away, the wind and the rain had ceased, and the Butterfly began to prepare for flight. On seeing this the old gentleman said, "Ah, go, poor harmless creature, I am glad for your sake, and this young woman's, that I have travelled this way to-day, or neither of you would have been admitted." Our adventurer would have thanked him if he could, and leaving the window had the pleasure of seeing he was very near the place he wished to be in; he saw some hives at a distance, and among them was his friend's abode, who, on seeing his approach, came to meet him, and to whom the Butterfly, after they had expressed their pleasure at again being together, related the adventures he had met with, particularly the way in which he had been brought back, and many were the moralizing remarks occasioned by the recital of what had passed during his ride. "The race of human beings must certainly be degenerated," observed the Bee, "since all other creatures were first put under their subjection, and in no other way can I account for the superior conduct, and in many respects the superior wisdom also, of those whom they think so much below them." The Butterfly then asked in what state of forwardness the new hive was in, and was happy to learn, that during his absence they had nearly completed the building within it, and that his friend was now ready to accompany him on his flights as usual. CHAP. VII. "Not all that tempts your wandering eyes, "And heedless hearts, is lawful prize, "Nor all that glitters gold." GRAY. In the course of the next day the two friends met again, and while the Bee did not forget the more important work of gathering food for the approaching winter, he did not so earnestly pursue it as to make him unmindful of other things. "See here," said he to the Butterfly, as they flew towards a house whose open windows seemed to invite their entrance; "let us go in, I think we shall meet with something worth our notice?" The Butterfly hastened on, but no sooner had he reached the window than turning back, he winged his flight another way, with much greater speed, calling to his friend to follow him. "What have you seen that has so alarmed you?" enquired the Bee, as he hurried after him, "what is in that house so very frightful?" "It belongs to a _naturalist_," replied the Butterfly, "and don't you know what detestable creatures these are? had he seen me I should have lost my life in the cruelest manner." "A naturalist!" returned the Bee, "I never heard of one, what does he do?" "Do?" replied the trembling Butterfly, "why, he would tear me limb from joint if I was in his power, and yet endeavour to preserve my life only to try how much he could make me suffer; did you not see how many of my species were pinned up against the walls of his room, whose peculiar form or colour had attracted his attention? he thinks nothing of taking the life of any thing he admires. Oh! it turns me sick to think of it; had I flown one inch farther I might have been thus impaled, and _you_ also; no doubt you would not have escaped his observation, and for the sake of your sting, or examining what you carry your honey in, you would have been quickly dispatched; various are the instruments he has got about him, and numberless insects does he daily destroy." "These are detestable creatures indeed," answered the Bee; "what can't they be satisfied with viewing our forms as we pass along, but must they pull us to pieces, by way of admiration? I fancy when they have taken the most accurate survey, they could not make either a Bee, or a Butterfly; it is a pity therefore that they should destroy that life which they can never give. I declare the more I see of these human beings, and think of their cruelty, as well as absurdities, it makes me almost determine to quit the haunts of men, and if it ever should be my lot again to seek another habitation, I would use all my influence with my fellow Bees in order to remove to some wild wood where they might never find us." "You would be perfectly right," returned the Butterfly; "as for us, if we escape them one summer, we willingly resign our lives at the end of it, and led by instinct seek a place in which we die unlamented, and soon forgotten; but this is not the case with _you_; while you live you are useful, and at your death a whole society feels your loss; but look," continued he, pointing towards a bottle that hung tied to the branch of a fruit-tree, in which were several wasps decoyed thither by the liquid it contained, and dying in the sweets they sought, "there is another instance of their malice, don't you see those poor creatures?" "Oh! yes," returned the Bee, "and though I am no friend to wasps, who are often wishing to share the fruits of our labour, without having any right to them; and in many things are striving to imitate us, though I believe their chief aim is to do mischief, yet I cannot justify men who use such _mean arts_ to entrap them to their destruction; but what is that I see in yonder window?" continued he with a hurried air, "something that more particularly demands my attention, a Bee in distress; and hark, he calls to me for assistance;" so saying, without waiting for the Butterfly to accompany him, he flew towards the place, where was a Bee nearly drowning in a pot of honey. "And one of my own hive too!" exclaimed he, as he drew nearer; "my dear brother, how came you in such a situation?" "Surely we are to see nothing but shocking sights to-day," observed the compassionate Butterfly, who had hastily followed his friend, half afraid that something still more terrible had happened, "but," said he, on seeing the struggling captive, "he will not die; 'tis certain he can keep his head above the edge till you have procured more assistance; I fear I am not strong enough to help to pull him out." While he was speaking, his companion had flown to the hive, and with incredible swiftness returned with more of the community, who altogether lent their aid, and after much toil and pains extricated the poor exhausted Bee from the ill effects of seeking too large a share of those sweets which only proved so, when moderately enjoyed, 'safe in themselves but dangerous in the excess.' "I only rested on the edge of the pan," said he, as soon as he could speak, "and after an unsuccessful flight was glad to see a store of that which I had been so long searching for in vain; I thought I would just take a sip or two, and perhaps bring home a little of it to the hive." On hearing this one of the oldest of the throng thus addressed him: "Know, my brother, that what we make ourselves is only welcome there, and that food for which we labour hardest, is the sweetest to the palate of every industrious Bee; idle drones and wandering wasps may sip the honey which others have prepared, but let the danger you have escaped to-day teach you to use the powers nature has given you, and taste the sweets of your own procuring rather than that of others." The trembling Bee thanked him for his advice, and promising to follow it, he was escorted home by all the train, where he met with other assistants, who cleared away the clammy substance that still encumbered him, and he was suffered to rest within all that day to recover himself. Meanwhile, the Butterfly waited without the hive, till his friend returned, and they renewed their flight. Nothing particular met their eye till they passed some flies, who were round a piece of horse-flesh, the smell of which discovered where it lay, and its half devoured state shewed the avidity with which these buzzing insects fed upon it. "See," said the Bee, "what opposite natures are within the circle of creation. These devouring flies find as much pleasure in eating from this stinking carrion, as from the choicest honey; nay, perhaps _this_ is more agreeable to them, though nothing in which they can thrust their devouring trunks escapes their taste, but with this _delicious morsel_, that really poisons the surrounding air, they are so delighted, that they even chuse it for an habitation likewise. Here they lay their eggs, and bring forth their young, and having no trouble to hunt for food for them, they spend their time in flying round it, till their habitation and provision being gone together, they are obliged to seek another residence equally convenient. Though you bear the same name, my friend," continued he, "I am witness that you have not their nature." "Their nature!" interrupted the Butterfly, half offended at being mentioned together, "no! I hope not, or their name either! what, shall the beautiful winged tribe of Butterflies be put upon a footing with these carrion-eaters, who live upon what, even in our crawling state, we should reject with disgust. If I may speak my opinion, I think their form, and the noise they make while flying, is more like your race than ours, though alas! in one respect, I feel myself too closely allied to them, that is, I must shortly resign my being; the date of my life will soon be ended; I have felt the chilling blast of the morning air long before you are out of your hive, and if you are not already aware of it, can give you notice that winter is approaching." "Indeed," replied the Bee, "I have seen some tokens of it myself; the flowers are not in such plenty, and as their faded leaves fall off, no young buds are seen to supply their place; however, such is the use which we have made of the summer, that we are not afraid to look forward to the time when every outward resource shall fail: but, my friend, I fear you are of too delicate a frame to live through the winter, though the place of your retreat be ever so warm; but have you not thought of where you will retire to?" continued he. "A place to die in is easily found," replied the Butterfly, "and you must not be surprised if you see me no more; the damps of the night will soon prove fatal, and I know not if I shall survive another." "Do not speak so," returned the Bee, "how gladly would I afford you an asylum if it was in my power; however, I cannot let you resign your life so easily; green leaves are yet to be found, and now, within our reach, I see a convenient crevice, into which you may creep; _there_ cherish life as long as you can, my friend, and by only venturing out when the sun shines brightly, you may perhaps extend your days beyond their usual period, and have your name recorded, as a Butterfly who has survived the summer." "Thank your kindness," returned the short-lived insect, "my life has been already lengthened through your means, but you cannot renovate my nature; may yours be extended." "As long as it can be useful," said the Bee, interrupting him, "but to you I owe all that I have gathered this summer," added he; "for had it not been for your friendly and compassionate encouragement when first we met, I should have sunk a victim to the consciousness of deserved destruction; say not, therefore, that you have been of no use in the world." "I will not," returned the Butterfly, faintly fluttering his wings, as if with his last breath he was desirous of rejoicing it had been in his power to do good. From this time the poor Butterfly was still more sensible of the weakness of his frame, and flying towards the place his friend had pointed out, he entered, never to quit it more, "self-buried 'ere he died," for in the morning when the Bee visited the spot he was deaf to his voice, and his pitying friend had to lament the sudden change in one he had so very lately seen frisking about in all the gaiety of health and spirits. "Poor fly," said he, "thou hast been faithful to me, and has even forgot thy wonted pleasures to afford me assistance; I will not leave thee to the devouring jaws of thy fellow insects, at least thy little body shall be preserved from being so destroyed," and with this resolution he spent one whole day in gathering wax, and stopping up the crevice which contained the remains of his friend--all the return he could now make for his former kindness. After having given this last proof of affection, he returned to the hive, and there in the busy labors of the Commonwealth soon forgot the shock which the unexpected death of his airy companion had occasioned. During that winter they were suffered to remain unmolested, and as the ensuing summer approached, (according to the plan he had formed so long ago,) he proposed their taking a farther flight, and seeking a refuge in some solitary wood; "I have seen more of mankind than you have, my friends," said he, "and have observed both their customs and manners; believe me, they are inconsistent fickle creatures; their conduct towards one another shows that they are not to be trusted; much more, then, have _we_ reason to be afraid of them. You very well know it is in our power to live without their assistance; what is it which they procure us but just an empty shell for our habitation? for this they expect our stock of honey, and to obtain it scruple not to take our lives! We have already seen, in the destruction of one or two of our neighbouring hives, the fate which awaits us; but could I persuade all of my species to wing their flight beyond their reach, they might be taught a little more humanity, and would perhaps spare our lives, if we were again in their power. Content to share with us what our labours have produced, they might then leave us to die when our exhausted nature fails, and for their own sakes also would not cut us off in the prime of life, and while we have health and strength to add to the stock, which would be as much for their benefit as our own." This speech had the desired effect; the whole community seemed roused by it, and entering into his scheme, on the appointed day not a Bee was left behind, but altogether mounting the air they winged their flight far beyond its usual extent, nor could all the clattering of pots and kettles make them settle, till clear of the noise and out of the sight of man they found an habitation for themselves, and under the covert of a thick wood passed the remainder of their days in peaceful industry. THE END. W. Lewis, Printer, Paternoster-row, London. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES Obvious spelling, typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. Changed 'Tabart & C[superscript]o.' to 'Tabart & Co.'; frontispiece Moved 'CHAP VI' heading in Chapter Summary Section from incorrect place to before 'The Bees swarm'; pg vii Spacing retained in 'every where' and 'every thing'; pg 26 and pg 34 Spacing retained in 'well known'; pg 48 Spacing retained in 'any thing'; pg 65 et al. Added missing end quotes, 'been feeding,' to 'been feeding,"'; pg 28 Added missing end quotes, 'no longer friends.' to 'no longer friends."'; pg 67 Added missing second end quotes, 'a toast, Sir?"' to 'a toast, Sir?""'; pg 89 Added missing end quotes, 'creature disagreeable?' to 'creature disagreeable?"'; pg 106 Added missing start quotes, 'I never' to '"I never'; pg 46 Removed bad quotes, 'hurting _him_:"' to 'hurting _him_:'; pg 46 Removed bad quotes, '"Though you bear' to 'Though you bear'; pg 125 Added missing end and start quotes, '"Oh! said he, I' to '"Oh!" said he, "I'; pg 73 Typo; changed 'laid' to 'said'; pg 29 Typo; changed 'littles' to 'little'; pg 42 Typo; changed 'flowers' to 'flower'; pg 47 Typo; changed 'gardon' to 'garden'; pg 65 Typo; changed 'surservient' to 'subservient'; pg 70 Typo; changed 'Bee,' to 'Bee.'; pg 72 Typo; changed 'he weapons' to 'the weapons'; pg 83 Archaic use of 'an' before 'h' retained; for example 'an humble'; pg 50 et al. Archaic spelling of 'chace', 'chaced' and 'chacing' retained; pg 44 et al. Archaic spelling of 'aukward' retained; pg 64 Archaic spelling of 'taylor' retained; pg 74 Archaic spelling of 'incumbered' and 'incumbrance' retained; one occurrence of 'encumbered' also retained; pg 19 et al. Archaic spelling of 'chuse' retained; one occurrence of 'choose' in preface also retained; pg 113 et al. Archaic spelling of 'fixt' retained; one occurrence of 'fixed' also retained; pg 92 et al. Archaic spelling of 'encrease' and 'encreased' retained; three occurrences of 'increase' etc. also retained; pg 52 et al. Archaic spelling of 'gayly drest' retained; pg 106 
42606	----	Transcriber's note: The conventional male and female symbols are rendered as [M] and [F] in this edition. In the discussion of _Papilio polytes_ the male symbol [M] must be distinguished carefully from the unbracketted M denoting the male-like variety of females. * * * * * CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS C. F. CLAY, MANAGER LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C. EDINBURGH: 100 PRINCES STREET [Illustration] NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS: MACMILLAN AND CO. TOKYO: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA _All rights reserved_ MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES BY REGINALD CRUNDALL PUNNETT, F.R.S. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics in the University of Cambridge Cambridge: at the University Press 1915 * * * * * PREFACE This little book has been written in the hope that it may appeal to several classes of readers. Not infrequently I have been asked by friends of different callings in life to recommend them some book on mimicry which shall be reasonably short, well illustrated without being very costly, and not too hard to understand. I have always been obliged to tell them that I know of nothing in our language answering to this description, and it is largely as an attempt to remedy this deficiency that the present little volume has been written. I hope also that it will be found of interest to those who live in or visit tropical lands, and are attracted by the beauty of the butterfly life around them. There are few such countries without some of these cases of close resemblance between butterflies belonging to different families and groups, and it is to those who have the opportunity to be among them that we must look for fuller light upon one of the most fascinating of all nature's problems. If this little book serves to smooth the path of some who would become acquainted with that problem, and desire to use their opportunities of observation, the work that has gone to its making will have been well repaid. To those who cultivate biological thought from the more philosophical point of view, I venture to hope that what I have written may not be without appeal. At such a time as the present, big with impending changes in the social fabric, few things are more vital than a clear conception of the scope and workings of natural selection. Little enough is our certain knowledge of these things, and small though the butterfly's contribution may be I trust that it will not pass altogether unregarded. In conclusion I wish to offer my sincere thanks to those who have helped me in different ways. More especially are they due to my friends Dr Karl Jordan for the loan of some valuable specimens, and to Mr T. H. Riches for his kindly criticism on reading over the proof-sheets. R. C. P. _February, 1915_ CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. INTRODUCTORY 1 II. MIMICRY--BATESIAN AND MÜLLERIAN 8 III. OLD-WORLD MIMICS 18 IV. NEW-WORLD MIMICS 37 V. SOME CRITICISMS 50 VI. "MIMICRY RINGS" 61 VII. THE CASE OF _Papilio polytes_ 75 VIII. THE CASE OF _Papilio polytes_ (_cont._) 93 IX. THE ENEMIES OF BUTTERFLIES 104 X. MIMICRY AND VARIATION 125 XI. CONCLUSION 139 APPENDIX I 154 APPENDIX II 157 PLATES I-XVI AND DESCRIPTIONS 160 ff I-V. ORIENTAL MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES. VI-IX. AFRICAN BUTTERFLIES. X-XIII. SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES. XIV. SCALES OF LEPIDOPTERA. XV. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES. XVI. NORTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES. INDEX 183 "The process by which a mimetic analogy is brought about in nature is a problem which involves that of the origin of all species and all adaptations."--H. W. BATES, 1861. "With mimesis, above all, it is wise, when the law says that a thing is black, first to inquire whether it does not happen to be white."--HENRI FABRE. * * * * * {1} CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY It is now more than fifty years since Darwin gave the theory of natural selection to the world, and the conception of a gradual evolution has long ago become part of the currency of thought. Evolution for Darwin was brought about by more than one factor. He believed in the inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts, and he also regarded sexual selection as operating at any rate among the higher animals. Yet he looked upon the natural selection of small favourable variations as the principal factor in evolutionary change. Since Darwin's time the trend has been to magnify natural selection at the expense of the other two factors. The doctrine of the inherited effects of use and disuse, vigorously challenged by Weismann, failed to make good its case, and it is to-day discredited by the great majority of biologists. Nor perhaps does the hypothesis of sexual selection command the support it originally had. At best it only attempted to explain those features, more especially among the higher animals, in which the sexes differ from one another in pattern, ornament, and the like. With the lapse of time there has come about a tendency to {2} find in natural selection alone a complete explanation of the process of evolution, and to regard it as the sole factor by which all evolutionary change is brought about. Evolution on this view is a gradual process depending upon the slow accumulation by natural selection of small variations, which are more or less inherited, till at last a well-marked change of type is brought about. Could we have before us all the stages through which a given form has passed as natural selection transforms it into another, they would constitute a continuous series such that even refined scrutiny might fail to distinguish between any two consecutive terms. If the slight variations are not of service they will get no favour from natural selection and so can lead to nothing. But if of use in the struggle for existence natural selection preserves them and subsequent variations in the same direction until at length man recognises the accumulation as a new form. Moreover when the perfect thing is once elaborated natural selection will keep it perfect by discouraging any tendency to vary from perfection. Upon this view, of which the most distinguished protagonist was Weismann, natural selection is the sole arbiter of animal and plant form. Through it and it alone the world has come to be what it is. To it must be ascribed all righteousness, for it alone is the maker. Such in its extreme form is the modern development of Darwin's great contribution to philosophy. But is it true? Will natural selection really serve to explain all? Must all the various characters of {3} plants and animals be supposed to owe their existence to the gradual operation of this factor working upon small variations? Of recent years there has arisen a school of biologists to whom the terms mutationist and Mendelian are frequently applied. Influenced by the writings of Bateson and de Vries, and by the experimental results that have flowed from Mendel's discovery in heredity, they have come to regard the process of evolution as a discontinuous one. The new character that differentiates one variety from another arises suddenly as a sport or mutation, not by the gradual accretion of a vast number of intermediate forms. The white flowered plant has arisen suddenly from the blue, or the dwarf plant from the tall, and intermediates between them need never have existed. The ultimate fate of the new form that has arisen through causes yet unknown may depend upon natural selection. If better endowed than the parent form in the struggle for existence it may through natural selection come to supplant it. If worse endowed natural selection will probably see to its elimination. But if, as may quite possibly happen, it is neither better nor worse adapted than the form from which it sprang, then there would seem to be no reason for natural selection having anything to do with the relation of the new form to its parent. Between the older and the newer or mutationist point of view an outstanding difference is the rôle ascribed to natural selection. On the one view it {4} builds up the new variety bit by bit, on the other the appearance of the new variety is entirely independent of it. From this there follows a radical difference with regard to the meaning of all the varied characters of plants and animals. Those who uphold the all-powerfulness of natural selection are bound to regard every character exhibited by an animal or plant as of service to it in the struggle for existence. Else it could not have arisen through the operation of natural selection. In other words every character in plant or animal must be adaptive. On the mutationist view this of course does not follow. If the new character which arises independently of natural selection is neither of service nor disservice to its possessors in the struggle for existence, there seems no reason why it should not persist in spite of natural selection. In attempting to decide between the two conflicting views the study of adaptation is of the first importance. It was perhaps in connection with adaptation that Darwin obtained the most striking evidence in support of his theory, and it is clear from his writings that it was in this field he laboured with most delight. The marvellous ways in which creatures may be adapted in structure and habit for the life they lead had not escaped the attention of the older naturalists. John Ray wrote a book[1] upon the subject in which he pointed out that all things in the Universe, from the fixed stars to the structure of a bird, or the tongue of {5} a chameleon, or the means whereby some seeds are wind distributed, are "argumentative of Providence and Design" and must owe their existence to "the Direction of a Superior Cause." Nor have there been wanting other authors who have been equally struck by the wonders of adaptation. But their studies generally led to the same conclusion, an exhortation to praise the infinite Wisdom of Him Who in the days of Creation had taken thought for all these things. The advent of natural selection threw a new light upon adaptation and the appearance of design in the world. In such books as those on _The Fertilization of Orchids_ and _The Forms of Flowers_ Darwin sought to shew that many curious and elaborate structures which had long puzzled the botanist were of service to the plant, and might therefore have arisen through the agency of natural selection. Especially was this the case in orchids where Darwin was able to bring forward striking evidence in favour of regarding many a bizarre form of flower as specially adapted for securing the benefits of cross-fertilization through the visits of insects. In these and other books Darwin opened up a new and fascinating field of investigation, and thenceforward the subject of adaptation claimed the attention of many naturalists. For the most part it has been an observational rather than an experimental study. The naturalist is struck by certain peculiarities in the form or colour or habits of a species. His problem is to account for their presence, and as nearly all students of adaptation have been close {6} followers of Darwin, this generally means an interpretation in terms of natural selection. Granted this factor it remains to shew that the character in question confers some advantage upon the individuals that possess it. For unless it has a utilitarian value of some sort it clearly cannot have arisen through the operation of natural selection. However when it comes to the point direct proof of this sort is generally difficult to obtain. Consequently the work of most students of adaptation consists in a description of the character or characters studied together with such details of its life-history as may seem to bear upon the point, and a suggestion as to how the particular character studied _may_ be of value to its possessors in the struggle for existence. In this way a great body of most curious and interesting facts has been placed on record, and many ingenious suggestions have been made as to the possible use of this or that character. But the majority of workers have taken natural selection for granted and then interested themselves in shewing how the characters studied by them might be of use. Probably there is no structure or habit for which it is impossible to devise some use[2], and the pursuit has doubtless provided many of its devotees with a pleasurable and often fascinating exercise of the imagination. So it has come about that the facts {7} instead of being used as a test of the credibility of natural selection, serve merely to emphasise the pæan of praise with which such exercises usually conclude. The whole matter is too often approached in much the same spirit as that in which John Ray approached it two centuries ago, except that the Omnipotency of the Deity is replaced by the Omnipotency of Natural Selection. The vital point, which is whether Natural Selection _does_ offer a satisfactory explanation of the living world, is too frequently lost sight of. Whether we are bound or not to interpret all the phenomena of life in terms of natural selection touches the basis of modern philosophy. It is for the biologist to attempt to find an answer, and there are few more profitable lines of attack than a critical examination of the facts of adaptation. Though "mimicry" is but a small corner in this vast field of inquiry it is a peculiarly favourable one owing to the great interest which it has excited for many years and the consequently considerable store of facts that has been accumulated. If then we would attempt to settle this most weighty point in philosophy there is probably nothing to which we can appeal with more confidence than to the butterfly. * * * * * {8} CHAPTER II MIMICRY--BATESIAN AND MÜLLERIAN Mimicry is a special branch of the study of adaptation. The term has sometimes been used loosely to include cases where an animal, most frequently an insect, bears a strong and often most remarkable resemblance to some feature of its inanimate surroundings. Many butterflies with wings closed are wonderfully like dead leaves; certain spiders when at rest on a leaf look exactly like bird-droppings; "looper" caterpillars simulate small twigs; the names of the "stick-" and "leaf-" insects are in themselves an indication of their appearance. Such cases as these, in which the creature exhibits a resemblance to some part of its natural surroundings, should be classified as cases of "protective resemblance" in contradistinction to mimicry proper. Striking examples of protective resemblance are abundant, and though we possess little critical knowledge of the acuity of perception in birds and other insect feeders it is plausible to regard the resemblances as being of definite advantage in the struggle for existence. However, it is with mimicry and not with protective coloration in general that we are here directly {9} concerned, and the nature of the phenomenon may perhaps best be made clear by a brief account of the facts which led to the statement of the theory. In the middle of last century the distinguished naturalist, H. W. Bates, was engaged in making collections in parts of the Amazon region. He paid much attention to butterflies, in which group he discovered a remarkably interesting phenomenon[3]. Among the species which he took were a large number belonging to the group Ithomiinae, small butterflies of peculiar appearance with long slender bodies and narrow wings bearing in most cases a conspicuous pattern (cf. Pl. X, fig. 7). When Bates came to examine his catch more closely he discovered that among the many Ithomiines were a few specimens very like them in general shape, colour, and markings, but differing in certain anatomical features by which the Pierinae, or "whites," are separated from other groups. Most Pierines are very different from Ithomiines. It is the group to which our common cabbage butterfly belongs and the ground colour is generally white. The shape of the body and also of the wings is in general quite distinct from what it is in the Ithomiines. Nevertheless in these particular districts certain of the species of Pierines had departed widely from what is usually regarded as their ancestral pattern (Pl. X, fig. 1) and had come to resemble very closely the far more abundant Ithomiines among whom they habitually flew (cf. Pl. X, figs. 2 and 3). To {10} use Bates' term they "mimicked" the Ithomiines, and he set to work to devise an explanation of how this could have come about. The _Origin of Species_ had just appeared and it was natural that Bates should seek to interpret this peculiar phenomenon on the lines there laid down. How was it that these Pierines had come to depart so widely from the general form of the great bulk of their relations, and to mimic so closely in appearance species belonging to an entirely different group, while at the same time conserving the more deeply seated anatomical features of their own family? If the change was to be regarded as having come about through the agency of natural selection it must clearly be of advantage to the mimicking forms; otherwise natural selection could not come into operation. What advantage then have the Ithomiines over the majority of butterflies in those parts? They are small insects, rather flimsy in build, with comparatively weak powers of flight, and yet so conspicuously coloured that they can hardly be mistaken for anything else. In spite of all this they are little subject to the attacks of enemies such as birds, and Bates attributed this to the fact that the juices of their bodies are unpalatable. According to him their striking and conspicuous pattern is of the nature of a warning coloration, advertising their disagreeable properties to possible enemies. A bird which had once attempted to eat one would find it little to its taste. It would thenceforward associate the conspicuous pattern with a disagreeable flavour {11} and in future leave such butterflies severely alone. The more conspicuous the pattern the more readily would it be noticed by the enemy, and so it would be of advantage to the Ithomiine to possess as striking a pattern as possible. Those butterflies shewing a tendency to a more conspicuous pattern would be more immune to the attacks of birds and so would have a better chance of leaving progeny than those with a less conspicuous pattern. In this way variations in the direction of greater conspicuousness would be accumulated gradually by natural selection, and so would be built up in the Ithomiine the striking warning coloration by which it advertises its disagreeable properties. Such is the first step in the making of a mimicry case--the building up through natural selection of a conspicuous pattern in an unpalatable species by means of which it is enabled to advertise its disagreeable properties effectively and thereby secure immunity from the attacks of enemies which are able to appreciate the advertisement. Such patterns and colours are said to be of a "warning" nature. The existence of an unpalatable model in considerable numbers is the first step in the production of a mimetic resemblance through the agency of natural selection. We come back now to our Pierine which must be assumed to shew the general characters and coloration of the family of whites to which they belong (cf. Pl. X, fig. 1). Theoretically they are not specially protected by nauseous properties from enemies and hence their conspicuous white coloration renders {12} them especially liable to attack. If, however, they could exchange their normal dress for one resembling that of the Ithomiines it is clear that they would have a chance of being mistaken for the latter and consequently of being left alone. Moreover, in certain cases these Pierines _have_ managed to discard their normal dress and assume that of the Ithomiines. On theoretical grounds this must clearly be of advantage to them, and being so might conceivably have arisen through the operation of natural selection. This indeed is what is supposed to have taken place on the theory of mimicry. Those Pierines which exhibited a variation of colour in the direction of the Ithomiine "model" excited distrust in the minds of would-be devourers, who had learned from experience to associate that particular type of coloration with a disagreeable taste. Such Pierines would therefore have a rather better chance of surviving and of leaving offspring. Some of the offspring would exhibit the variation in a more marked degree and these again would in consequence have a yet better chance of surviving. Natural selection would encourage those varying in the direction of the Ithomiine model at the expense of the rest and by its continuous operation there would gradually be built up those beautiful cases of resemblance which have excited the admiration of naturalists. Wallace was the next after Bates to interest himself in mimicry and, from his study of the butterflies of the Oriental region[4], shewed that in this part of {13} the world too there existed these remarkable resemblances between species belonging to different families. Perhaps the most important part of Wallace's contribution was the demonstration that in some species not only was it the female alone that "mimicked" but that there might be several different forms of female mimicking different models, and in some cases all unlike the male of their own species. One of the species studied by Wallace, _Papilio polytes_, is shewn on Plate V. We shall have occasion to refer to this case later on, and it is sufficient here to call attention to the three different forms of female, of which one is like the male while the other two resemble two other species of _Papilio_, _P. hector_ and _P. aristolochiae_, which occur in the same localities. Instances where the female alone of some unprotected species mimics a model with obnoxious properties are common in all tropical countries. It has been suggested that this state of things has come about owing to the greater need of protection on the part of the female. Hampered by the disposal of the next generation the less protected female would be at a greater disadvantage as compared with the mimic than would the corresponding male whose obligations to posterity are more rapidly discharged. The view of course makes the assumption that the female transmits her peculiar properties to her daughters but not to her sons. A few years later Trimen[5] did for Africa what Bates had done for America and Wallace for {14} Indo-Malaya. It was in this paper that he elucidated that most remarkable of all cases of mimicry--_Papilio dardanus_ with his harem of different consorts, all tailless, all unlike himself, and often wonderfully similar to unpalatable forms found in the same localities (cf. p. 30). We may now turn to one of the most ingenious developments of the theory of mimicry. Not long after Bates' original memoir appeared attention was directed to a group of cases which could not be explained on the simple hypothesis there put forward. Many striking cases of resemblance had been adduced in which both species obviously belonged to the presumably unpalatable groups. Instances of the sort had been recorded by Bates himself and are perhaps most plentiful in South America between species belonging respectively to the Ithomiinae and Heliconinae. On the theory of mimicry all the members of both of these groups must be regarded as specially protected owing to their conspicuous coloration and distasteful properties. What advantage then can an Ithomiine be supposed to gain by mimicking a Heliconine, or _vice versâ_? Why should a species exchange its own bright and conspicuous warning pattern for one which is neither brighter nor more conspicuous? To Fritz Müller, the well-known correspondent of Darwin, belongs the credit of having suggested a way out of the difficulty. Müller's explanation turns upon the education of birds. Every year there hatch into the world fresh generations of young birds, and each {15} generation has to learn afresh from experience what is pleasant to eat and what is not. They will try all things and hold fast to that which is good. They will learn to associate the gay colours of the Heliconine and the Ithomiine with an evil taste[6] and they will thenceforward avoid butterflies which advertise themselves by means of these particular colour combinations. But in a locality where there are many models, each with a different pattern and colour complex, each will have to be tested separately before the unpalatableness of each is realised. If for example a thousand young birds started their education on a population of butterflies in which there were five disagreeable species, each with a distinct warning pattern, it is clear that one thousand of each would devote their lives to the education of these birds, or five thousand butterflies in all[7]. But if these five species, instead of shewing five distinct warning patterns, all displayed the same one it is evident that the education of the birds would be accomplished at the price of but one thousand butterfly existences instead of five. Even if one of the five species were far more abundant than the others it would yet be to its advantage that the other four should exhibit the same warning pattern. Even though the losses were distributed _pro rata_ the more abundant species would profit to some extent. For {16} the less abundant species the gain would of course be relatively greater. Theoretically therefore, all of the five species would profit if in place of five distinct warning patterns they exhibited but a single one in common. And since it is profitable to all concerned what more natural than that it should be brought about by natural selection? Müller's views are now widely accepted by students of mimicry as an explanation of these curious cases where two or more evidently distasteful species closely resemble one another. Indeed the tendency in recent years has been to see Müllerian mimicry everywhere, and many of the instances which were long regarded as simple Batesian cases have now been relegated to this category. The hypothesis is, of course, based upon what appears to man to be the natural behaviour of young birds under certain conditions. No one knows whether young birds actually do behave in the way that they are supposed to. In the absence of any such body of facts the Müllerian hypothesis cannot rank as more than a plausible suggestion, and, as will appear later, it is open to severe criticism on general grounds. Perhaps the next contribution to the subject of mimicry which must rank of the first importance was that of Erich Haase[8], to whose book students of these matters must always be under a heavy obligation. It was the first and still remains the chief work of general scope. Since Haase's day great numbers of {17} fresh instances of mimetic resemblance have been recorded from all the great tropical areas of the world, and the list is being added to continually. Most active in this direction is the Oxford School under Professor Poulton to whose untiring efforts are largely due the substantial increases in our knowledge of African butterflies contributed by various workers in the field during the past few years. Whatever the interpretation put upon them, there can be no question as to the value of the facts brought together, more especially those referring to the nature of the families raised in captivity from various mimetic forms. With the considerable additions from Africa[9] during the past few years several hundreds of cases of mimicry must now have been recorded. Some of the best known and most striking from among these will be described briefly in the next two chapters. * * * * * {18} CHAPTER III OLD-WORLD MIMICS The earlier naturalists who studied butterflies made use of colour and pattern very largely in arranging and classifying their specimens. Insects shewing the same features in these respects were generally placed together without further question, especially if they were known to come from the same locality. In looking through old collections of butterflies from the tropics it is not infrequent to find that the collector was deceived by a mimetic likeness into placing model and mimic together. During the last century, however, more attention was paid to the anatomy of butterflies, with the result that their classification was placed upon a basis of structure. As in all work of the sort certain features are selected, partly owing to their constancy and partly for their convenience, the insects being arranged according as to whether they present these features or not. Everybody knows that the butterflies as a group are separated from the moths on the ground that their antennae are club shaped at the end, while those of the moth are generally filamentary and taper to a fine point. {19} [Illustration: Figs. 1-8. Terminal portion of front legs of butterflies belonging to different families. (After Eltringham.)] 1. _Hypolimnas misippus_, [F] (Nymphalidae). 2. " " [M] ( " ). 3. _Abisara savitri_, [F] (Erycinidae). 4. " " [M] ( " ). 5. _Lycaena icarus_, [F] (Lycaenidae). 6. _Cupido zoë_, [M] ( " ). 7. _Ganoris rapae_, [M] (Pieridae). 8. _Papilio echerioides_, [F] (Papilionidae). {20} The butterflies themselves may be subdivided into five main groups or families[10] according to the structure of the first of their three pairs of legs. In the Papilionidae or "swallow-tails," the first pair of legs is well developed in both sexes (Fig. 8). In the Pieridae or "whites," the front legs are also similar in both sexes, but the claws are bifid and a median process, the empodium, is found between them (Fig. 7). In the remaining three families the front legs differ in the two sexes. The females of the Lycaenidae or "blues" have well-developed front legs in which the tarsus is terminated by definite claws (Fig. 5), whereas in the males the terminal part of the leg, or tarsus, is unjointed and furnished with but a single small claw (Fig. 6). This reduction of the front legs has gone somewhat further in the Erycinidae (Figs. 3 and 4), a family consisting for the most part of rather small butterflies and specially characteristic of South America. In the great family of the Nymphalidae the reduction of the front legs is well marked in both sexes. Not only are they much smaller than in the other groups, but claws are lacking in the female as well as in the male (Figs. 1 and 2). Though the structure of the fore limbs is the character specially chosen for separating these different families from one another, it is of course understood that they differ from one another in various other distinctive features. The chrysalis of the Nymphalidae for example hangs head downwards suspended by the {21} tail, whereas in the Pieridae and Papilionidae metamorphosis takes place with the chrysalis attached by the tail but supported also by a fine girdle of silk round the middle so that the head is uppermost. The larvae also afford characters by which some of the families may be distinguished--those of the Papilionidae for example having a process on the back which can be extruded or retracted. Owing to the great size of the family of the Nymphalidae, in which the number of species approaches 5000, it is convenient to deal with the eight sub-groups into which it has been divided. The characters serving to mark off the sub-groups from one another are various. Sometimes it is the minuter structure of the tarsus, at others the form of the caterpillar or the chrysalis, at others the arrangement of the nervures that form the skeleton of the wing. Into these systematic details, however, we need not enter more fully here[11]. What is important from the standpoint of mimicry is that these divisions, made solely on anatomical structure, correspond closely with the separation of models from mimics. Of the eight sub-families into which the Nymphalidae are divided four, viz. the Danainae, Acraeinae, Heliconinae, and Ithomiinae, provide models and some, but far fewer, mimics; two, the Satyrinae and Nymphalinae, provide many mimics and but few models, while two groups, the Morphinae and Brassolinae, practically do not enter into the mimicry story. {22} Simple mimicry, explicable, at any rate in theory, on the lines laid down by Bates, is a phenomenon of not infrequent occurrence in tropical countries, though rare in more temperate lands. In each of the three great divisions of the tropical world we find certain groups of butterflies serving as models, and being mimicked by butterflies belonging as a rule to quite different groups. Speaking generally the models of any given region are confined to a few groups, while the mimics are drawn from a greater number. In Asia the principal models belong to the Danaines, the Euploeines, and to a group of swallow-tails which from the fact that their larvae feed on the poisonous _Aristolochia_ plant are generally distinguished as the "Poison-eaters," or _Pharmacophagus_ group. Of these the Danaines and Euploeines are closely related and have much in common. They are usually butterflies of medium size, of rather flimsy build and with a somewhat slow and flaunting flight. In spite, however, of their slight build they are toughly made and very tenacious of life. Most butterflies are easily killed by simply nipping the thorax. There is a slight crack and the fly never recovers. But the collector who treats a Danaid in a way that would easily kill most butterflies is as likely as not many hours after to find it still alive in his collecting box or in the paper to which it may have been transferred when caught. They give one the impression of being tougher and more "rubbery" in consistence than the majority of Lepidoptera. Moreover, the juices of their bodies seem {23} to be more oily and less easily dried up. In general colour scheme they vary a great deal. Some, such as _Danais chrysippus_ (Pl. IV, fig. 1), are conspicuous with their bright fulvous-brown ground colour and the sharp white markings on the black tips of their fore wings. Others again such as _Danais septentrionis_ (Pl. I, fig. 3), with a dark network of lines on a pale greenish ground, are not nearly so conspicuous. Of the Euploeines some have a beautiful deep blue metallic lustre (cf. Pl. II, fig. 4), though many are of a plain sombre brown relieved only by an inconspicuous border of lighter markings (cf. Pl. I, fig. 10). Both Danaines and Euploeines serve as models for a great variety of species belonging to different groups. _Danais septentrionis_ (Pl. I, fig. 3) is a very abundant species in India and Ceylon, and in the same region there are several other very similar species. Flying with them in Northern India are two species of _Papilio_, _P. macareus_ and _P. xenocles_ (Pl. I, fig. 4), which resemble these Danaids fairly closely. In Southern India and Ceylon one of the two forms of _Papilio clytia_ (Pl. I, fig. 7) is also regarded as a mimic of these Danaids. In the same part of the world there is a Pierine of the genus _Pareronia_, whose female is very like these Danaines on the upper surface (Pl. I, fig. 1). The male of this Pierine is quite distinct from the female (Pl. I, fig. 2). The common _Danais chrysippus_ (Pl. IV, fig. 1), found in this region, has been described as probably the most abundant butterfly in the world, and serves {24} as a model for several species belonging to different groups. It and its mimics will, however, be described in more detail later on. Mention must also be made of the striking case of the Danaid, _Caduga tytia_ and its Papilionine mimic _P. agestor_ from Sikkim (Pl. II, figs. 2 and 3). In both species the fore wings are pale blue broken by black; while the hind wings are pale with a deep outer border of rusty red. Not only in colour but also in shape the swallow-tail bears a remarkable resemblance to the Danaid. _C. tytia_ is also mimicked by a rare Nymphaline _Neptis imitans_, which exhibits the same striking colour scheme so very different from that of most of its allies. No less remarkable are some of the cases in which the Euploeines serve as models. _E. rhadamanthus_, for example, is mimicked by the scarce _Papilio mendax_, and a glance at Figs. 8 and 9 on Plate II shews how well this butterfly deserves its name. _Euploea rhadamanthus_ also serves as a model for one of the several forms of female of the Nymphaline species _Euripus halitherses_. In some Euploeines the sexes are different in appearance--a somewhat unusual thing among butterflies serving as models in cases of mimetic resemblance. Such a difference is found in _Euploea mulciber_, the male being predominantly brown with a beautiful deep blue suffusion, while the female is a rather lighter insect with less of the blue suffusion and with hind wings streaked with lighter markings (Pl. II, figs. 4 and 5). It is interesting to find that _Elymnias malelas_, a Satyrid which mimics this species, {25} shews a similar difference in the two sexes (Pl. II, figs. 6 and 7). It is remarkable that similar sexual difference is also shewn by the rare _Papilio paradoxus_, the two sexes here again mimicking respectively the two sexes of _Euploea mulciber_. Many of the Euploeines, more especially those from Southern India and Ceylon, lack the blue suffusion, and are sombre brown insects somewhat relieved by lighter markings along the hinder border of the hind wings. _Euploea core_ (Pl. I, fig. 10), a very common insect, is typical of this group. A similar coloration is found in one of the forms of _Papilio clytia_ (Pl. I, fig. 8) from the same region as well as in the female of the Nymphaline species _Hypolimnas bolina_ (Pl. I, fig. 6). The male of this last species (Pl. I, fig. 5) is quite unlike its female, but is not unlike the male of the allied species, _H. misippus_, which it resembles in the very dark wings each with a white patch in the centre, the junction of light and dark being in each case marked by a beautiful purple-blue suffusion. There is also a species of _Elymnias_ (_E. singhala_) in this part of the world which in general colour scheme is not widely dissimilar from these brown Euploeas (Pl. I, fig. 9). The third main group of models characteristic of this region belongs to the Papilionidae. It was pointed out by Haase some 20 years ago that this great family falls into three definite sections, separable on anatomical grounds (see Appendix II). One of these sections he termed the _Pharmacophagus_ or "poison-eating" {26} group owing to the fact that the larvae feed on the poisonous climbing plants of the genus _Aristolochia_. It is from this group that all Papilios which serve as models are drawn. No mimics of other unpalatable groups such as Danaines are to be found among the Oriental Poison-eaters. In the other two sections of the genus mimics are not infrequent (cf. Appendix II), though probably none of them serve as models. To the Pharmacophagus group belong the most gorgeous insects of Indo-Malaya--the magnificent Ornithoptera, largest and most splendid of butterflies. It is not a large proportion of the members of the group which serve as models, and these on the whole are among the smaller and less conspicuous forms. In all cases the mimic, when a butterfly, belongs to the _Papilio_ section of the three sections into which Haase divided the family (cf. Appendix II). _Papilio aristolochiae_ (Pl. V, fig. 5), for example, is mimicked by a female form of _Papilio polytes_, and the geographical varieties of this widely spread model are generally closely paralleled by those of the equally wide spread mimic. For both forms range from Western India across to Eastern China. Another poison-eater, _P. coon_, provides a model for one of the females of the common _P. memnon_. It is curious that in those species of the poison-eaters which serve as models the sexes are practically identical in pattern, and are mimicked by certain females only of the other two Papilio groups, whereas in the Ornithoptera, which also belong to the poison-eaters, the difference between the sexes is exceedingly striking. {27} Though the Pharmacophagus Papilios are mimicked only by other Papilios among butterflies they may serve occasionally as models for certain of the larger day-flying moths. _Papilio polyxenus_, for example, is mimicked not only by the unprotected _P. bootes_ but also by the moth _Epicopeia polydora_ (Pl. III, figs. 5 and 6). Like the butterfly the _Epicopeia_, which is comparatively rare, has the white patch and the outer border of red marginal spots on the hind wing. Though it is apparently unable to provide itself with an orthodox tail it nevertheless makes a creditable attempt at one. There are several other cases of mimetic resemblance between day-flying moths and Pharmacophagus swallow-tails--the latter in each case serving as the model. Rarely it may happen that the rôle of butterfly and moth is reversed, and the butterfly becomes the mimic. A very remarkable instance of this is found in New Guinea where the rare _Papilio laglaizei_ mimics the common day-flying moth _Alcidis agathyrsus_. Viewed from above the resemblance is sufficiently striking (Pl. III, figs. 1 and 2), but the most wonderful feature concerns the underneath. The ventral half of the moth's abdomen is coloured brilliant orange. When the wings are folded back they cover and hide from sight only the dorsal part of the abdomen, so that in this position the orange neutral surface is conspicuous. When, however, the wings of the butterfly are folded they conceal the whole of the abdomen. But the butterfly has developed on each hind wing itself a bright orange patch in such a position that when the {28} wings are folded back the orange patch lies over the sides of the abdomen. In this way is simulated the brilliant abdomen of the moth by a butterfly, in which, as in its relations, this part is of a dark and sombre hue. A few models are also provided in the Oriental region by the genus _Delias_, which belongs to the Pierines. A common form, _Delias eucharis_, is white above but the under surface of the hind wings is conspicuous with yellow and scarlet (Pl. II, fig. 1). It has been suggested that this species serves as a model for another and closely allied Pierine, _Prioneris sita_, a species distinctly scarcer than the _Delias_. There is some evidence that the latter is distasteful (cf. p. 115), but nothing is known of the _Prioneris_ in this respect. Other species of _Delias_ are said to function as models for certain day-flying moths belonging to the family Chalcosiidae, which may bear a close resemblance to them. In certain cases it may happen that the moth is more abundant than the Pierine that it resembles[12]. Tropical Africa is probably more wealthy in mimetic analogies than Indo-Malaya, and the African cases have recently been gathered together by Eltringham in a large and beautifully illustrated memoir[13]. The principal models of the region are furnished by the Danainae and the allied group of the Acraeinae. Of the Danaines one well-known model, _Danais chrysippus_, {29} is common to Africa and to Indo-Malaya. Common also to the two regions are the mimics, _Argynnis hyperbius_ and _Hypolimnas misippus_ (cf. Pl. IV, figs. 3 and 7). The case of the last named is peculiarly interesting because it presents well-marked varieties which can be paralleled by similar ones in _D. chrysippus_. In addition to the typical form with the dark tipped fore wing relieved by a white bar there is in each species a form uniformly brown, lacking both the dark tip and the white bar of the fore wing. There is also another form in the two species in which the hind wing is almost white instead of the usual brown shade. In both species, moreover, the white hind wing may be associated either with the uniformly brown fore wing or with the typical form. There is also another common African butterfly, _Acraea encedon_, in which these different patterns are closely paralleled (cf. Pl. IX). Several other species of butterflies and a few diurnal moths bear a more or less close resemblance to _D. chrysippus_. Danaine butterflies with the dark interlacing fines on a pale greenish-blue ground, so characteristic of the Oriental region, are represented in Africa by the species _Danais petiverana_ (Pl. VI, fig. 1) ranging across the continent from Sierra Leone to British East Africa. A common Papilio, _P. leonidas_ (Pl. VI, fig. 2) has a similar extensive range, and has been regarded as a mimic of the Danaine. In S. Africa _P. leonidas_ is represented by the variety _brasidas_ in which the white spots are reduced and the blue-green ground is lacking. _Brasidas_ bears a strong resemblance to the tropical {30} Danaine _Amauris hyalites_ (Pl. VI, fig. 3) of which it has been regarded as a mimic. It must however be added that it is only over a small part of their respective ranges, viz. in Angola, that the two species are to be met with together. The butterflies belonging to the genus _Amauris_ are among the most abundant and characteristic Danaine models of Africa. Some of the black and white species such as _A. niavius_ (Pl. VIII, fig. 6) are conspicuous insects in a cabinet. Others again, such as _A. echeria_ (Pl. VIII, fig. 7), are relatively sombre-looking forms. Among the best known mimics of the genus is a species of _Hypolimnas_[14]--_H. dubius_. This interesting form is polymorphic and mimics different species of _Amauris_. The variety _wahlbergi_, for example, is very like _A. niavius_, while _mima_ strongly resembles _A. echeria_ (Pl. VIII, figs. 8 and 9). It was at one time supposed that these two varieties of _Hypolimnas dubius_ were different species and the matter was only definitely settled when the two forms were bred from the eggs of the same female. Other mimics of _Amauris_ are found among the Papilios and the Nymphaline genus _Pseudacraea_. But among all the mimics of Danaines in Africa and elsewhere _Papilio dardanus_ is pre-eminent, and has been described by more than one writer as the most important case of mimicry in existence. Not only does it shew remarkable resemblances to various {31} Danaids, but it presents features of such peculiar interest that it must be considered in more detail. _Papilio dardanus_ in its various sub-races is spread over nearly all the African continent south of the Sahara. Over all this area the male, save for relatively small differences, remains unchanged--a lemon-yellow insect, tailed, and with black markings on fore and hind wings (Pl. VIII, fig. 1). The female, however, exhibits an extraordinary range of variation. In South Africa she appears in three guises, (1) the _cenea_ form resembling _Amauris echeria_, (2) the _hippocoon_ form like _Amauris niavius_, and (3) the _trophonius_ form which is a close mimic of the common _Danais chrysippus_[15]. Except that _cenea_ does not occur on the West Coast these three forms of female are found over almost all the great continental range of _dardanus_ and its geographical races. Northwards in the latitude of Victoria Nyanza occurs a distinct form of female, _planemoides_, which bears a remarkable resemblance to the common and distasteful _Planema poggei_, and is found only where the latter is abundant. All of these four forms are close mimics of a common Danaine or Acraeine model. Other forms of female, however, are known, of which two, _dionysus_ and _trimeni_, are sufficiently distinct and constant to have acquired special names. _Dionysus_ may be said to unite the fore wing of the _hippocoon_ form with the hind wing of the _trophonius_ form, except that the colour of the last part is yellow instead of {32} bright brown. It is a western form and is unlike any model. _Trimeni_ also is unlike any model but is of peculiar interest in that it is much more like the male with its pale creamy-yellow colour and the lesser development of black scales than occurs in most of the forms of female. At the same time the general arrangement of the darker markings is on the whole similar to that in the _hippocoon_ and in the _trophonius_ form. _Trimeni_ is found on the Kikuyu Escarpment, near Mt Kenia, along with the four mimicking forms. Continental Africa, south of the equator, has produced no female similar to the male. But in Abyssinia is found another state of things. Here, so far as is known, occur three forms, all tailed, of which one is similar in general colour and pattern to the male, while the other two, _niavioides_ and _ruspina_[16], resemble respectively a tailed _hippocoon_ and a tailed _trophonius_. Lastly we have to record that _Papilio dardanus_ is also found as the geographical race _humbloti_ on Comoro Island, and as _meriones_ on Madagascar. In both forms the females are tailed, and resemble the males. From this long series of facts it is concluded that the male of _P. dardanus_ represents the original form of both sexes. On the islands of Comoro and Madagascar this state of things still survives. But it is supposed that on the African continent existed enemies which persecuted the species more than on the islands {33} and encouraged the development of mimetic forms in the female. The original female still lingers in Abyssinia though it is now accompanied by the two mimetic forms _niavioides_ and _ruspina_. Over the rest of the area occupied by _dardanus_ the females are always tailless and, with the exception of _trimeni_ and _dionysus_, wonderfully close mimics. _Trimeni_, the intermediate form, provides the clue to the way in which the mimetic females have been derived from the male, viz. by the prolongation across the fore wing of the dark costal bar already found in the females of the Madagascar and Abyssinian races, by the deepening of the dark edging to the wings, and by the loss of the tail. Through the gradual accumulation of small variations _trimeni_ came from the male-like female, and by further gradual accumulation of small favourable variations the mimetic forms came from _trimeni_. South of the equator the male-like form and the intermediate _trimeni_ have disappeared owing to the stringency of selection being greater. Moreover the likeness of mimic to model is closer than in the north, a further proof of the greater stringency of natural selection in these parts. Such in brief is the explanation in terms of mimicry of the remarkable and complex case of _dardanus_. Although the Euploeinae are not represented on the African continent, it is the headquarters of another distasteful family of butterflies--the Acraeinae--which is but sparingly represented in the Oriental region[17]. {34} Of smaller size than the Danaines they are characterised, like this group, by their tenacity of life and by the presumably distasteful character of their body juices. They are said also to possess an offensive odour apparently exuded through the thorax. The majority of the members of the group fall into the two genera _Acraea_ and _Planema_. Species of Acraea are on the whole characterised by their general bright red-brown colour and by the conspicuous black spots on both fore and hind wings. A typical Acraeine pattern is that of _Acraea egina_ (Pl. VI, fig. 7) which is mimicked remarkably closely by the Nymphaline _Pseudacraea boisduvali_ and by the Swallow-tail _Papilio ridleyanus_ (Pl. VI, figs. 5 and 6). In the genus _Planema_ the spots are as a rule fewer and clustered near the body, while on both fore and hind wings there is a tendency to develop clear wide band-like areas of orange or white (cf. Pl. VII). Like the Acraeas the Planemas are principally mimicked by species of _Pseudacraea_ and of _Papilio_. Some of the cases of resemblance between _Planema_ and _Pseudacraea_ are among the most striking known. _Planema macarista_ is one of those comparatively rare instances in which a model shews a marked difference in the pattern of the two sexes. The clear area on the fore wing of the male is deep orange, whereas in the female it is somewhat different in shape, and, like the area on the hind wing, is white (cf. Pl. VII, figs. 1 and 2). {35} _Pseudacraea eurytus hobleyi_ (Pl. VII, figs. 6 and 7) shews a similar difference in the sexes, the male and female of this species mimicking respectively the male and female of _Planema macarista_. The case is made even more remarkable by the fact that both of the sexual forms of _Planema macarista_ are mimicked by the Satyrine _Elymnias phegea_ (Pl. VII, fig. 9), though in this species either the black and white, or the black, white, and orange form may occur in either sex. Among the best Papilionine mimics of the Planemas is _Papilio cynorta_ whose female is extraordinarily like the common _Planema epaea_ (Pl. VII, figs. 5 and 10). The resemblance of the _planemoides_ female of _P. dardanus_ to _P. poggei_ has already been noticed. A striking feature of the African continent is the frequency with which mimetic forms are found among the Lycaenidae. As a rule the "blues" rarely exhibit mimetic analogies, but in Africa there are several species, especially those of the genus _Mimacraea_, which closely resemble Acraeines. Others again bear a marked resemblance to certain small Pierines, _Citronophila similis_ from S. Nigeria for example being extraordinarily like the common _Terias brigitta_, a small bright yellow Pierine with black-edged wings. A remarkable feature of the African continent is the absence of the Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails. Of such Papilios as exhibit mimicry, and as compared with the total number of the group present the proportion is large, the majority resemble one or other {36} of the characteristic Danaines, while a few such as _P. ridleyanus_ and _P. cynorta_ resemble either an Acraeoid or a Planemoid model. As in the Oriental region the African Pierines do not offer many instances of mimetic analogies. The genus _Mylothris_, in which certain species are characterised by orange patches at the bases of the undersurfaces of the fore wings, is regarded by some authors as providing models for allied genera such as _Belenois_ and _Phrissura_. But as neither models nor mimics offer a marked divergence in appearance from the ordinary Pierine facies it is doubtful whether much stress can be laid on these cases. Africa also offers a few striking instances of mimicry in which day-flying moths play a part. The conspicuous Geometer _Aletis helcita_ is an abundant form, and with its strong red colour and black wing margins broken by white it is a striking object in the preserved state. Among the forms which bear a close resemblance to it are the Nymphaline _Euphaedra ruspina_, and the Lycaenid _Telipna sanguinea_[18]. * * * * * {37} CHAPTER IV NEW-WORLD MIMICS Of all the continents South America affords the greatest wealth of butterfly life, and it is in the tropical part of this region that many of the most beautiful and striking cases of mimicry are to be found. Viewed as a whole the butterfly population presents several features which serve to mark it off from that of the other two great tropical areas. In the first place the proportion of gaily coloured forms is higher. Bright red, yellow or fulvous brown contrasted with some deep shade approaching black form the dominant notes. Sombre coloured species are relatively scarcer than in the Oriental and African regions. In the second place when looking over collections from this part of the world one cannot help being struck by the frequency with which similar colour combinations occur over and over again in different as well as in the same groups. Now it is a simple scheme of black with an oblique scarlet band upon the fore wings--now an arrangement with alternating stripes of bright brown and black relieved with patches of clear yellow--now again a scheme of pure transparency and black. {38} Gay and pleasing as are the designs turned out the palette is a small one and invention is circumscribed. Under such conditions it might well be supposed that instances of close resemblance between different species would be numerous, and this in effect is what we find. As in Asia with its Euploeines and Danaines, and in Africa with its Danaines and Acraeines, so in S. America are the fashions set by two dominant groups of models. These are the Heliconinae and the Ithomiinae, both peculiar to this region and both characterised, like the Old-world Danaids, by slow flight and great tenacity of life. Both live on poisonous plants--the Heliconines on Passifloras and the Ithomiines on Solanaceae. In both groups, but more especially in the Ithomiinae, the species are numerous, and the number of individuals in a species often beyond computation. From the point of view of mimicry these two groups have so much in common that they may conveniently be considered together. It was from among the Ithomiines, as already pointed out, that the models came for the Pierine mimics of the genus _Dismorphia_ upon which Bates founded the theory of mimicry. Though the Pierine mimics are the most striking the Heliconines and Ithomiines are mimicked by members of other groups. A few Papilios (Pl. X, fig. 8), certain Nymphalines such as _Protogonius_ (Pl. X, fig. 9), _Eresia_, _Phyciodes_ and _Colaenis_ (Pl. XI, fig. 4), together with various day-flying moths, more particularly of the genera {39} _Castnia_ and _Pericopis_, are among the well-known mimics of this group of models. The models themselves are very variable in appearance. In one locality the predominant pattern is black with a warm red-brown diagonal bar occupying rather more than a third of the fore wing (Pl. XV, fig. 5), in another it consists of parallel bands of black and fulvous brown with clear yellow patches at the tips of the fore wings (cf. Pl. X, fig. 7), while in yet another locality it is different again. Different localities often have their own peculiar pattern and this affects the various mimics as well as the Ithomiine and Heliconine models. These groups of different species, some belonging to palatable and some to unpalatable groups, all exhibiting a close resemblance in colour and pattern, are far more strikingly developed in S. America than in either Asia or Africa, and it is not uncommon for eight or ten species to enter into such an association. A group of this sort which possesses unusual interest is the so-called "Transparency Group" from certain parts of the Amazon region. It was originally described by Bates with seven species belonging to six different genera. To-day it is said that no less than 28 species of this peculiar facies are known, though some are excessively rare. The majority are Ithomiines, but two species of the Danaine genus _Ituna_, the Pierine _Dismorphia orise_ (Pl. XII, fig. 2), the Swallow-tail _Papilio hahneli_, and several species of diurnal moths belonging to different families (cf. Pl. XII, fig. 4) also enter into the combination. {40} In connection with it there is a feature of peculiar interest in that the transparent effect is not always produced in the same way. In the Ithomiines such as _Thyridia_, where there are normally two kinds of scales, the wider ones for the most part lose their pigment, become much reduced in size and take on the shape of a stumpy V (Pl. XIV, fig. 3). Also they stand out for the most part more or less at right angles to the wing[19], and the neck by which they are joined to the wing membrane is very short. The longer and narrow form of scales also tend to lose their pigment and become reduced to fine hairs. In _Dismorphia_ the scales, which are of one sort, are also reduced in size though apparently not in number. Like the wider scales of the _Thyridia_ they tend sometimes to project at right angles to the wing membrane, though not to the same extent as in the Ithomiine: possibly because the neck of the scale is not so short. As in _Thyridia_ these reduced scales lose their pigment except in the transition region round the borders of the transparent patches. In _Ituna_ there is a difference. The scales are not reduced to the same extent in point of size. Their necks are longer as in normal scales and they lie flat on the wing membrane. The majority of the scales, as in the preceding cases, lose their pigment, but mixed up with them is a certain proportion, about one-quarter, {41} in which the pigment is retained. In _Castnia_ and in _Anthomysa_ the scales on the transparent parts which are without pigment are also somewhat reduced in size, being stumpier than the normal ones. At the same time they tend to stand out at right angles to the wing membrane[20]. The neck here again is shorter in the transparent than in the pigmented scales. A good deal of stress has been laid upon this case by some supporters of the theory of mimicry, since it is supposed to shew that a similar effect can be brought about in a variety of ways; consequently the existence of this assembly of similar transparent forms belonging to various families cannot be put down as due to the effect of similar conditions, but must be regarded as having arisen in each instance in a different manner through the independent action of natural selection[21]. It is doubtful, however, whether such a conclusion necessarily follows from the facts. In all of the cases the process would appear to be similar: loss of pigment, reduction in the size of the scales, and eventually a tendency for the scales to stand at right angles to the wing--this last part of the process apparently depending upon the reduction of the neck of the scale. It has been said that greater transparency is brought about by the scales standing out at right angles in this way, but as the scales {42} themselves are already transparent there would appear to be no reason why this should be so. Of course the process has not proceeded in all of the forms to the same extent. There is least change in _Ituna_ where the scales are not much reduced in size and where a fair proportion are still pigmented. There is probably most in an Ithomiine such as _Thyridia_, where the scales are not only small and entirely without pigment, but also are for the most part neckless so that they stand out at right angles to the wing. Having regard to the fact that several widely separate genera with different types of scaling formed the starting points, the final results do not seem to preclude the supposition that the transparency has arisen through a similar process in all of them. It is somewhat remarkable that no Satyrine exhibits mimicry in S. America, in spite of the fact that transparency of the wings, as in so many of the butterflies of this region, is quite common in the group. On the other hand the relatively large number of more or less mimetic Pierines is a striking feature of S. America. For the most part they belong to the genera _Dismorphia_ and _Perrhybris_, and resemble the yellow, black, and brown Heliconines and Ithomiines, though some of the former genus are mimics of the small transparent Ithomiines. Some of the species of _Pereute_ with their dark ground colour and the bright red bar across the fore wing (Pl. XI, fig. 6) resemble _Heliconius melpomene_, as also does _Papilio euterpinus_. But some of the most interesting Pierine {43} mimics are several forms belonging to the genus _Archonias_ (Pl. XI, fig. 10) which exhibit the simple and striking arrangement of black, red and white so characteristic of the Swallow-tail Poison-eaters of S. America. They form one of the rare instances of a Pharmacophagus Papilio being mimicked by a butterfly which does not belong to the Swallow-tail group. As everywhere in the tropics the Papilios of S. America supply a goodly proportion of the mimicry cases. A few, such as _P. zagreus_ (Pl. X, fig. 8), enter into the black-brown and yellow Ithomiine-Heliconine combination; _P. euterpinus_ resembles _Heliconius melpomene_ (Pl. XI, fig. 5); _P. pausanias_ is like _Heliconius sulphurea_ (Pl. XI, figs. 1 and 2). But this practically exhausts the list of Papilios which mimic Heliconines and Ithomiines. The great majority of mimicking Swallow-tails in S. America find their models among the Poison-eaters of their own family, offering in this respect a contrast to those of Asia where the majority of models are among the Danaines and Euploeines, and of Africa where they are exclusively Acraeines or Danaines. The Poison-eaters of S. America fall into two well-marked groups which we may call the red-spotted and the dark green groups respectively. The red spotted group form a remarkably compact and uniform assemblage. The general ground colour is a deep black-brown (Pl. XI, figs. 8 and 9), the hind wings are almost invariably marked with red near the centre or towards the outer margin, and the fore wing may {44} or may not bear a patch which is generally whitish in the female, though often of a brilliant blue or green in the male. This simple colour scheme with variations runs throughout about three-quarters (some 40 species) of the Poison-eaters. The same general colour scheme is also found in about two dozen species of the unprotected Swallow-tails. As the total number of the unprotected species is placed by Seitz at less than 100 this means that fully one-quarter of them fall into the general colour scheme adopted by the majority of the Poison-eaters. In many cases the resemblance between mimic and model is so close as to have deceived the most expert entomologists before the structural differences between the groups had been appreciated (cf. Appendix II). The matter is further complicated by the fact that polymorphism is not uncommon, especially among the females of the mimetic forms. _Papilio lysithous_ for instance has no less than six distinct forms of female, which differ chiefly in the extent and arrangement of the white markings on the wings, one form lacking them entirely. Several of these forms may occur together in a given locality, and may resemble as many distinct species of Poison-eaters. Thus the three forms _lysithous_, with white on both wings, _rurik_, with white on the fore wing only, and _pomponius_ without any white, all fly together in Rio Grande do Sul and respectively mimic the three distinct Pharmacophagus species _nephalion_, _chamissonia_, and _perrhebus_ (Pl. XIII). It is worthy of note that mimics are provided by both unprotected {45} groups of Swallow-tails in S. America, whereas in Asia the Cosmodesmus division never provides mimics for Pharmacophagus models (cf. Appendix II). In the second and smaller group of the Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails the general colour scheme is a more or less dark metallic blue-green with a tendency towards the obliteration of light markings. Some idea of their appearance may be got from the figure of the Central and N. American _P. philenor_ on Pl. XVI, fig. 1. Though one or two unprotected Papilios in S. America fall more or less into this colour scheme, the group, from the point of view of mimicry, is not nearly so important as the red-spotted one. Nevertheless the blue-green Pharmacophagus group as represented by _P. philenor_ is supposed to play a considerable part in mimicry in N. America. _P. philenor_ is found throughout the greater part of the Eastern United States, straggling up as far as the Canadian border. On the west it is also found reaching up to North California. Over considerable parts of its range are three other Swallow-tails, belonging to the unprotected Papilios, which are regarded by Professor Poulton and others as mimics of _philenor_[22]. One of these, _P. troilus_, is dark brown with a dusting of blue scales over the hind wing (Pl. XVI, fig. 2). The sexes here are more or less alike. _Troilus_ stretches up into North-west Canada some way beyond the limits reached by its model. _P. glaucus_ is a black and yellow Swallow-tail with two forms of female. {46} One of these resembles the male while the other is darker and is said to mimic _philenor_. It is known as the _turnus_ form and is found more commonly in the southern part of the range of the species, _i.e._ in the country where _philenor_ is more plentiful. The third species, _P. asterius_, has a more southerly distribution. Its female is darker and nearer to _philenor_ than the male. It must, however, be admitted that none of the three species bears a very close resemblance to _philenor_. It is suggested that this is because _P. philenor_ is a tropical form which has only recently invaded N. America. The crossing of _philenor_ has, as it were, induced the three mimicking _Papilios_ to turn dark, but the model has not been long enough in contact with them for the likeness to become a close one. The explanation, however, hardly accounts for the fact that the best mimic of the three, _P. troilus_, in which both sexes are dark, is found far north of _philenor_. Either the dark colour was established without the influence of the Pharmacophagus model, or else the species rapidly extended its range northwards after having been modified under the influence of _philenor_ in the south. But in that case the critic may ask why it does not revert to the original pattern now that it has got beyond the model's sphere of influence. On the whole it seems at present quite doubtful whether any relation of a mimetic nature exists between _P. philenor_ and these three species of _Papilio_. _P. philenor_ is also regarded as serving as a model {47} for two Nymphaline butterflies in the United States. One of these is the large Fritillary _Argynnis diana_ of which the dark female has a markedly blue tint on the upper surface (Pl. XVI, fig. 3). The other is a _Limenitis_[23] related to our own White Admiral. This form, _L. astyanax_ (Pl. XVI, fig. 5), is a dark form with a bluish iridescence on the upper surface. It is found, like _P. philenor_, over the greater part of the Eastern States, while to the north, near the Canadian boundary, its place is taken by _L. arthemis_ with prominent white bar across both wings (Pl. XVI, fig. 4). There is reason for believing that where the two overlap there is occasional inbreeding, and that the hybrid is the form known as _proserpina_, resembling _astyanax_ more than _arthemis_. It must be admitted that in general appearance _L. astyanax_ and _Argynnis diana_ are more like _Papilio troilus_ than _P. philenor_. In explanation it has been suggested that all the mimics are on the way to resembling _P. philenor_, and consequently we should expect them at certain stages to shew more resemblance to one another than to the form they have all as it were set out to mimic. On this view they will all arrive at a close resemblance to _philenor_ in time. Another explanation is that favoured by Professor Poulton on which it is assumed that we are here dealing with a case of Müllerian Mimicry, all of the species in question being distasteful with the exception perhaps of _A. diana_. Thus _troilus_ and _astyanax_ though distasteful are less so than {48} _philenor_. Hence it is of advantage to them to have even a chance of being mistaken for the more obnoxious _philenor_, and so the one has come from the black and yellow Swallow-tail pattern and the other from the white-banded _arthemis_ form to what they are, _i.e._ more alike to one another than to _philenor_. They now form a Müllerian combination for mutual protection along with the dark females of _glaucus_ and _asterius_. But they are themselves still moderately distasteful so that it is to the advantage of the female of _Argynnis diana_ to mimic them. Whether they are all on the way to resembling _philenor_ more closely, or whether they have sufficiently vindicated their inedible properties and are now stationary, it is for the future to reveal to posterity. Lastly we have the view that these different species have attained their present coloration entirely independently of one another, and that we are not here concerned with mimicry at all. Since the sole evidence available at present is that based on general appearance and geographical distribution, the view taken of this case must rest largely upon personal inclination. Though the cases just quoted are only very problematically mimetic, N. America has yet several examples of resemblance between distantly related forms as close as any that occur in the tropics. In this region are found two species of the genus _Danais_--_D. archippus_ occurring all over the United States and reaching up northwards into Canada, _D. berenice_ found in the South-eastern States, _e.g._ in Florida, where it is said to be more abundant than _archippus_. {49} _D. archippus_ (Pl. XVI, fig. 8) is very similar to the oriental _D. plexippus_ (Pl. IV, fig. 2), from which perhaps its most notable difference lies in the extent and arrangement of the white spots near the tip of the fore wing. _D. berenice_ is not unlike _archippus_ in its general colour scheme but is smaller and darker (Pl. XVI, fig. 9). We have already had occasion to mention the common Nymphaline, _Limenitis arthemis_ (Pl. XVI, fig. 4) which is found in Canada and the Northeastern States. Widely spread over N. America is a close ally of this species, _L. archippus_, which, though so similar in structure and habits, is very different in external appearance. As appears from Pl. XVI, fig. 6, _L. archippus_ is remarkably like the Danaid which bears the same specific name. In the Southern States _L. archippus_ is replaced by a form slightly different in details of pattern and distinctly darker, _L. floridensis_ (= _eros_) (Pl. XVI, fig. 7). In Florida occurs also the darker N. American Danaid, _D. berenice_, to which the colour of _L. floridensis_ approximates more than to _D. archippus_, and it is of interest that although the last named is also found in this locality it is said to be much less abundant than _D. berenice_. Nevertheless it appears to be true that the range of _L. floridensis_ is much more extensive than that of its model; in other words, that there are considerable regions where _L. floridensis_ and _D. archippus_ coexist, and from which _L. archippus_ and _D. berenice_ are wanting. * * * * * {50} CHAPTER V SOME CRITICISMS The facts related in the last two chapters are sufficient to make it clear that these remarkable resemblances between species belonging as a rule to widely different groups constitute a real phenomenon, and as such demand an explanation. One explanation, that in terms of the theory of mimicry, has already been outlined, and we may now turn to consider it in more detail. Some years ago Wallace[24], combating the suggestion that these instances of resemblance might be mere coincidences, laid down five conditions which he stated were applicable to all such cases, and rendered utterly inadequate any explanation other than in terms of natural selection. These five conditions are of historical interest and may also serve as a peg for sundry criticisms in connection with the mimicry theory. They are as follows: (1) That the imitative species occur in the same area and occupy the very same station as the imitated. (2) That the imitators are always the more defenceless. {51} (3) That the imitators are always less numerous in individuals. (4) That the imitators differ from the bulk of their allies. (5) That the imitation, however minute, is _external_ and _visible_ only, never extending to internal characters or to such as do not affect the external appearance. In offering certain criticisms of the mimicry explanation it will be convenient to do so in connection with these five conditions which Wallace regarded as constant for all cases of mimetic resemblance. (1) _That the imitative species occur in the same area and occupy the very same station as the imitated._ This on the whole is generally true. It is well shewn in some of the most striking cases such as those of the Old-World Papilios that mimic Danaines, or of the Dismorphias and their Ithomiine models. In many of these cases the range of neither model nor mimic is a very wide one, yet the mimic is found strictly inside the area inhabited by the model. _Papilio agestor_, for instance, is only found where _Caduga tytia_ occurs, nor is _P. mendax_ known outside the area frequented by _Euploea rhadamanthus_. Even more striking in this respect are some of the Ithomiine-Dismorphia resemblances in the New World. The Ithomiine models are as a rule very local though very abundant. Two hundred miles away the predominant Ithomiine often bears quite a distinct pattern, and when this is the case the mimicking _Dismorphia_ is generally changed in the same sense. {52} But though mimic and model may be found together in the same locality, they do not always occupy the same station in the sense that they fly together. According to Seitz[25] the Dismorphias themselves do not fly with the Ithomiines which they mimic. The occurrence of butterflies is largely conditioned by the occurrence of the plants on which the larva feeds, and this is especially true of the female, which, as has already been noticed, is more commonly mimetic than the male. The female of _Papilio polytes_, for instance, is found flying where are to be found the wild citronaceous plants on which its larva feeds. On the other hand, its so-called models, _Papilio hector_ and _P. aristolochiae_, are generally in the proximity of the Aristolochias on which their larvae feed. The two plants are not always found together, so that one frequently comes across areas where _P. polytes_ is very abundant while the models are scarce or absent. Though in the great majority of cases the imitator and the imitated occur in the same locality, this is not always so. The female of the Fritillary _Argynnis hyperbius_ (Pl. IV, fig. 3), for instance, is exceedingly difficult to distinguish from _Danais plexippus_ when flying, although when at rest the difference between the two is sufficiently obvious. Both insects are plentiful in Ceylon but inhabit different stations. The Danaid is a low-country insect, while the Fritillary is not found until several thousand feet up. The two species affect entirely different stations and hardly {53} come into contact with each other. Where one is plentiful the other is not found. It has been suggested that migratory birds may have come into play in such cases. The bird learns in the low country that _D. plexippus_ is unpleasant, and when it pays a visit to the hills it takes this experience with it and avoids those females of the Fritillary which recall the unpleasant Danaine. Migratory birds have also been appealed to in another case where the resembling species are even further removed from one another than in the last case. _Hypolimnas misippus_ is common and widely spread over Africa and Indo-Malaya, and the male (Pl. IV, fig. 8) bears a simple and conspicuous pattern--a large white spot bordered with purple on each of the very dark fore and hind wings. The same pattern occurs in the males of two other Nymphalines allied to _H. misippus_, viz. _Athyma punctata_ and _Limenitis albomaculata_. The two species, however, have a distribution quite distinct from that of _H. misippus_, being found in China. It has nevertheless been suggested by Professor Poulton[26] that the case may yet be one of mimicry. According to his explanation, _H. misippus_ is unpalatable, the well-known association of its female with _Danais chrysippus_ being an instance of Müllerian mimicry. Migratory birds did the rest. Having had experience of _H. misippus_ in the south, on their arrival in China they spared such specimens of _Athyma punctata_ and _Limenitis_ {54} _albomaculata_ as approached most nearly to _H. misippus_ in pattern, and so brought about the resemblance. The explanation is ingenious, but a simpler view will probably commend itself to most. Other cases are known in which two butterflies bear a close resemblance in pattern and yet are widely separated geographically. Several species of the S. American Vanessid genus _Adelpha_ are in colour scheme like the African _Planema poggei_ which serves as a model for more than one species. The little S. American _Phyciodes leucodesma_ would almost certainly be regarded either as a model for or a mimic of the African _Neptis nemetes_, did the two occur together. Nevertheless examples of close resemblance between butterflies which live in different parts of the world are relatively rare and serve to emphasise the fact that the great bulk of these resemblance cases are found associated in pairs or in little groups. (2) _That the imitators are always the more defenceless._ In the case of butterflies "defence" as a rule denotes a disagreeable flavour rendering its possessor distasteful to birds and perhaps to other would-be devourers. Feeding experiments with birds (cf. Chapter IX) suggest that certain groups of butterflies, notably the Danaines, Acraeines, Heliconines, Ithomiines and Pharmacophagus Papilios--groups from which models are generally drawn--are characterised by a disagreeable taste, while as a rule this is not true for the mimics. This distasteful quality is frequently accompanied by a more or less conspicuous type of coloration, {55} though this is by no means always so. Many Euploeas are sombre inconspicuous forms, and it is only some of the Ithomiines that sport the gay colours with which that group is generally associated. The members of the distasteful groups usually present certain other peculiarities. Their flight is slower, they are less wary, their bodies are far tougher, and they are more tenacious of life. The slow flight is regarded as an adaptation for exhibiting the warning coloration to the best advantage, but from the point of view of utility it is plausible to suggest that the insect would be better off if in addition to its warning coloration it possessed also the power of swift flight[27]. It is possible that the peculiar slowness of flight of these unpalatable groups is necessitated by the peculiar tough but elastic integument which may present an insufficiently firm and resistant skeletal basis for sharp powerful muscular contraction, and so render swift flight impossible. It is stated that the flight of the mimics is like that of the model, and in some cases this is undoubtedly true. But in a great many cases it certainly does not hold good. _Papilio clytia_ (Pl. I, figs. 7 and 8) is a strong swift flyer very unlike the Danaine and Euploeine which it is supposed to mimic. The flight of the female of _Hypolimnas misippus_ (Pl. IV, fig. 7) is quite distinct from that of _Danais chrysippus_, while the mimetic {56} forms of _P. polytes_ fly like the non-mimetic one, a mode of flight so different from that of the two models that there is no difficulty in distinguishing them many yards away. Swift flight must be reckoned as one of the chief modes of defence in a butterfly, and on this score the mimic is often better off than the model. And of course it must not be forgotten that where the mode of flight is distinct the protective value of the resemblance must be very much discounted. (3) _That the imitators are always less numerous in individuals._ In the majority of cases this is certainly true. Probably all the Old-World Papilios that mimic Danaines are scarcer, and frequently very much scarcer, than their models. This is very evident from a study of the more comprehensive priced catalogues of Lepidoptera. The mimic is generally a more expensive insect than the model, and not infrequently it costs as many pounds as the model does shillings. But the rule is not universal. _Papilio polytes_ is often much more common than either of its models. The remarkable Pierines, _Archonias tereas_ and _A. critias_ (Pl. XI, fig. 10) as a rule far outnumber the Pharmacophagus Swallow-tail which they mimic. Or again the Chalcosid moth _Callamesia pieridoides_[28] is a more abundant insect than the Bornean Pierine _Delias cathara_ which it closely resembles. It has sometimes been suggested in explanation {57} of the greater abundance of the mimic that in such cases we are concerned with Müllerian mimicry, that since both of the species concerned are distasteful there is not, strictly speaking, either a mimic or a model, and consequently the relative proportions have not the significance that they possess where the mimicry is of the simple Batesian type. It is, however, very doubtful whether such an explanation is of any value, for, as will appear later, there are grave objections to accepting the current theory as to the way in which a resemblance is established on Müllerian lines (cf. pp. 72-74). (4) _That the imitators differ from the bulk of their allies._ What importance we attach to this condition must depend upon our interpretation of the word "allies"--whether, for example, we use it for a small group of closely connected species, for a genus, for a group of genera, or in an even wider sense. Perhaps an example will serve to make the difficulty more clear. As already noticed, the S. American genus _Dismorphia_ belongs to the family of Pieridae or "whites." Also certain species of _Dismorphia_ bear a close resemblance to certain species of Ithomiines, a noteworthy example being _D. praxinoe_ and _Mechanitis saturata_ (Pl. X, figs. 3 and 7), in which the pattern, colour, and shape of the two species are all far removed from what is usually understood by a "white." It must not be forgotten, however, that these matters are generally discussed by European {58} naturalists who have grown up in a region where the majority of the "whites" are more or less white. For this reason the statement that _D. praxinoe_ differs from the bulk of its allies is likely to meet with general acceptance, especially as some of the species of the genus itself (e.g., _D. cretacea_, Pl. X, fig. 1) are regular whites in appearance. But when we come to look at the genus _Dismorphia_ as a whole the matter assumes another complexion. Seitz[29] recognises 75 species of which about a dozen are predominantly white. The rest present a wonderful diversity of colour and pattern. Black predominates on the fore wings, and the insect is frequently marked with gay patches of yellow, bright brown, scarlet, or blue. Forms which from their colour are clearly not mimics present nevertheless the general pattern and shape of other forms which bear a strong resemblance to some Ithomiine. Sometimes a change of colour in certain patches from blue or yellow to bright brown would make all the difference between a non-imitative and an imitative species. Moreover, the non-imitative forms frequently have the peculiar narrow wing, so unusual in a Pierine, which enhances the resemblance of the mimicking species to the Ithomiine model, and which to some extent occurs even in _D. cretacea_. Clearly we are not justified in saying that _D. praxinoe_ differs from the bulk of its allies, for inside the genus there are many non-imitative species which differ {59} from it in some particulars and are alike it in others. There is a distinct family resemblance among the bulk of the Dismorphias, including practically all the mimetic forms, and on the whole the resemblances between the imitative and the non-imitative forms are as noteworthy as the differences. Though not exhibited in so striking a fashion, the same is to a large extent true of a large proportion of the cases of mimicry. It is on the whole unusual to find cases where a single species departs widely from the pattern scheme of the other members of the genus and at the same time resembles an unrelated species. Two of the best instances are perhaps those of _Limenitis archippus_ (p. 49) and of the Pierid _Pareronia_ (p. 23). Of the total number of mimicry instances a high proportion is supplied by relatively few groups. In each region several main series of models and mimics run as it were parallel to one another. In Asia, for example, we have the Papilio-Danaine series where the colour-patterns of a series of Danaines, all nearly related, are closely paralleled by those of a section of the genus _Papilio_, and by those of the Satyrid genus _Elymnias_. In Africa there is a similar Papilio-Danaine series though of less extent. Africa has a group of models not found in Asia, and the Papilio-Danaine series is as it were curtailed by the Papilio-Planema series with which to some extent runs parallel the genus _Pseudacraea_. These phenomena of parallel series have been mentioned here as shewing that mimicry tends to run in certain groups and that in many cases at {60} any rate little meaning can be attached to the statement that the imitators differ from the bulk of their allies. The fifth of Wallace's conditions is clear and needs no discussion. It is evident that at any rate a large proportion of the instances of close resemblance do not fulfil all of the conditions laid down by Wallace. Nevertheless we should expect them to do so if the resemblance has been brought about by the cumulative effect of natural selection on small favourable variations. Clearly there is a _prima facie_ case for doubting whether we must of necessity ascribe all resemblance of the kind to natural selection, and in the next few chapters we shall discuss it in more detail from several points of view. * * * * * {61} CHAPTER VI "MIMICRY RINGS" Having reviewed briefly some of the most striking phenomena of what has been termed mimicry, we may now inquire whether there are good grounds for supposing that these resemblances have been brought about through the operation of natural selection or whether they are due to some other cause. If we propose to offer an explanation in terms of natural selection we are thereby committed to the view that these resemblances are of the nature of adaptation. For unless we grant this we cannot suppose that natural selection has had anything to do either with their origin or with their survival. Granting then for the present the adaptational nature of these mimetic resemblances, we may attempt to deduce from them what we can as to the mode of operation of natural selection. In doing so we shall bear in mind what may be called the two extreme views: viz. (_a_) that the resemblance has been brought about through the gradual accumulation of very numerous small variations in the right direction through the operation of natural selection, and (_b_) that the mimetic form came into being as a sudden sport or {62} mutation, and that natural selection is responsible merely for its survival and the elimination of the less favoured form from which it sprang. There is a serious difficulty in the way of accepting the former of these two views. If our two species, model and would-be mimic are, to begin with, markedly different in pattern, how can we suppose that a slight variation in the direction of the model on the part of the latter would be of any value to it? Take for example a well-known South American case--the resemblance between the yellow, black, and brown Ithomiine, _Mechanitis saturata_ (Pl. X, fig. 7) and the Pierine, _Dismorphia praxinoe_ (Pl. X, fig. 3). The latter belongs to the family of the "whites," and entomologists consider that in all probability its ancestral garb was white with a little black like the closely allied species _D. cretacea_ (Pl. X, fig. 1). Can we suppose that in such a case a small development of brown and black on the wings would be sufficient to recall the Ithomiine and so be of service to the _Dismorphia_ which possessed it? Such a relatively slight approach to the Ithomiine colouring is shewn by the males of certain South American "whites" belonging to the genus _Perrhybris_ (Pl. X, figs. 4 and 5). But the colour is confined to the under-surface and the butterflies possessing it could hardly be confused with a _Mechanitis_ more than their white relations which entirely lack such a patch of colour. If birds regarded white butterflies as edible it is difficult to suppose that they would be checked in their attacks {63} by a trifling patch of colour while the main ground of the insect was still white. But unless they avoided those with the small colour patch there would be an end of natural selection in so far as the patch was concerned, and it would have no opportunity of developing further through the operation of that factor. This is the difficulty of the initial variation which has been clearly recognised by most of the best known supporters of the theory of mimicry. Bates himself offered no suggestion as to the way in which such a form as a Pierid could be conceived of as beginning to resemble an Ithomiine[30]. Wallace supposed that the Ithomiines were to start with not so distinct from many of the edible forms as they are to-day, and that some of the Pierines inhabiting the same district happened to be sufficiently like some of the unpalatable forms to be mistaken for them occasionally[31]. The difficulty of the initial variation had also occurred to Darwin, and he discusses it in an interesting passage which is so important that we may quote it here in full: It should be observed that the process of imitation probably never commenced between forms widely dissimilar in colour. But starting with species already somewhat like each other, the closest resemblance, if beneficial, could readily be gained by the above means; and if the imitated form was subsequently and gradually {64} modified through any agency, the imitating form would be led along the same track, and thus be altered to almost any extent, so that it might ultimately assume an appearance or colouring wholly unlike that of the other members of the family to which it belonged. There is, however, some difficulty on this head, for it is necessary to suppose in some cases that ancient members belonging to several distinct groups, before they had diverged to their present extent, accidentally resembled a member of another and protected group in a sufficient degree to afford some slight protection; this having given the basis for the subsequent acquisition of the most perfect resemblance[32]. Both Darwin and Wallace recognised clearly this difficulty of the initial variations, and both suggested a means of getting over it on similar lines. Both supposed that in general colour and pattern the groups to which model and mimic belonged were far more alike originally than they are to-day. They were in fact so much alike that comparatively small variations in a favourable direction on the part of the mimic would lead to its being confused with the unpalatable model. Then as the model became more and more conspicuously coloured, as it developed a more and more striking pattern warning would-be enemies of its unpleasant taste, the mimic gradually kept pace with it through the operation of natural selection, in the shape of the discriminating enemy, eliminating those most unlike the model. The mimic travelled closely in the wake of the model, coaxed as it were by natural selection, till at last it was far removed in general appearance from the great majority of its near relations. {65} In this way was offered a comparatively simple method of getting over the difficulty of applying the principle of natural selection to the initial variations in a mimetic approach on the part of one species to another. But it did not escape Darwin's penetration that such an argument would not always be easy of application--that there might be cases where a given model was mimicked by members of several groups of widely differing ancestral pattern, and that in these cases it would be difficult to conceive of members of each of the several groups shewing simultaneous variations which would render them liable to be mistaken for the protected model. The difficulty may perhaps be best illustrated if we consider a definite case. It is a feature of mimetic resemblances among butterflies that a given species in a given locality may serve as a model for several other species belonging to unrelated groups. Generally such mimics belong to presumably palatable species, but other presumably unpalatable species may also exhibit a similar coloration and pattern. In this way is formed a combine to which the term "mimicry ring" has sometimes been applied. An excellent example of such a mimicry ring is afforded by certain species of butterflies in Ceylon, and is illustrated on Plate IV. It is made up in the first place of two species belonging to the presumably distasteful Danaine group, viz. _Danais chrysippus_ and _D. plexippus_. The latter is a rather darker insect but presents an unmistakable general likeness to _D. chrysippus_. Those who believe in {66} Müllerian mimicry would regard it as an excellent example of that phenomenon. For those who believe only in Batesian mimicry _D. plexippus_, being the scarcer insect, must be regarded as the mimic and _D. chrysippus_ as the model. In both of these species the sexes are similar, whereas in the other three members of the "ring" the female alone exhibits the resemblance. One of these three species is the common Nymphaline, _Hypolimnas misippus_, of which the female bears an extraordinary likeness to _D. chrysippus_ when set and pinned out on cork in the ordinary way. The male, however (Pl. IV, fig. 8), is an insect of totally different appearance. The upper surfaces of the wings are velvety black with a large white patch bordered with purple in the middle of each[33]. The "ring" is completed by the females of _Elymnias undularis_ and _Argynnis hyperbius_. The former of these belongs to the group of Satyrine butterflies and the female is usually regarded as a mimic of _D. plexippus_, which it is not unlike in so far as the upper surface of the wings is concerned. Here again the male is an insect of totally dissimilar appearance. Except for a border of lighter brown along the outer edges of the hind wings the upper surface is of a uniform deep purple-brown {67} all over (Pl. IV, fig. 6). In _Argynnis hyperbius_ the appearance is in general that of the Fritillary group to which it belongs. But in the female the outer portion of the fore wings exhibits much black pigment and is crossed by a broad white band similar to that found in the same position on the wing of _D. plexippus_ (Pl. IV, fig. 2). Of the five species constituting this little "mimicry ring" in Ceylon two, on the current theory of mimicry, are to be regarded as definitely unpalatable, one (_H. misippus_) as doubtfully so, while the Satyrine and the Fritillary are evidently examples of simple or Batesian mimicry. Now such examples as this of simultaneous mimicry in several species are of peculiar interest for us when we come to inquire more closely into the process by which the resemblances can be supposed to have been brought about. Take for example the case of _E. undularis_. The male is evidently an unprotected insect in so far as mimicry is concerned, while the female exhibits the general pattern and coloration characteristic of the warningly coloured and presumably distasteful species _D. plexippus_ or _D. chrysippus_. If we are to suppose this to have been brought about by the operation of natural selection it is clear that we must regard the colour and pattern of the male as the original colour and pattern of both sexes. For natural selection cannot be supposed to have operated in causing the male to pass from a protected to an unprotected condition, or even in causing him {68} to change one unprotected condition for another. Probably all adherents of the mimicry theory would be agreed in regarding the male of _Elymnias undularis_ as shewing the ancestral coloration of the species, and in looking upon the female as having been modified to her own advantage in the direction of _D. plexippus_. The question that we have to try to decide is how this has come about--whether by the accumulation of slight variations, or whether by a sudden change or mutation in the pattern and colour of the female by which she came to resemble closely the Danaine. It is clear that if _D. plexippus_ were what it is to-day before the mimetic approach on the part of _E. undularis_ began, small variations in the latter would have been of no service to it. The difference between the two species would have been far too great for individuals exhibiting slight variation in the direction of _D. plexippus_ to stand any chance of being confused with this species. And unless such confusion were possible natural selection could not work. There is, however, an immediate way out of the difficulty. We may suppose that the coloration of the male of the mimic, _E. undularis_, is not only the ancestral colour of its own species but also of the model. _D. plexippus_ on this supposition was very like _E. undularis_, of which both sexes were then similar to what the male is to-day. The pattern is, however, an inconspicuous one, and it can be imagined that it might be to the advantage of _D. plexippus_ to don a brighter garb for the advertisement of its unpleasant qualities. {69} Variations in the direction of a more conspicuous pattern would for that reason tend to be preserved by natural selection, until eventually was evolved through its means the well-marked pattern so characteristic of the model to-day. If in the meantime variations in the same direction occurred among the females of _E. undularis_ these would tend to be preserved through their resemblance to the developing warning pattern of the distasteful Danaine model. The development of model and mimic would proceed _pari passu_, but if the sexes of the mimic differ, as in this case, we must suppose the starting-point to have been the condition exhibited by the male of the mimicking species. But _Argynnis hyperbius_ is also a species in which the female mimics _D. plexippus_; and by using the same argument as that just detailed for _Elymnias undularis_ we can shew that the Danaine model, _D. plexippus_, must also have been like the male of _Argynnis hyperbius_. And if the resemblance of _A. hyperbius_ was developed subsequently to that of _E. undularis_, then both _D. plexippus_ and _E. undularis_ must at one time have been like the male of _A. hyperbius_, a proposition to which few entomologists are likely to assent. Further, since the female of _H. misippus_ also comes into the _plexippus-chrysippus_ combine we must suppose that these species must at some time or another have passed through a pattern stage like that of the _misippus_ male. It is scarcely necessary to pursue this argument {70} further, for even the most devoted adherents of the theory of mimicry as brought about by the operation of natural selection on small variations are hardly likely to subscribe to the phylogenetic consequences which it must entail in cases where a model is mimicked by the females of several species whose males are widely dissimilar in appearance. Even if we suppose the two Danaines to have been originally like the male of one of the three mimics, we must still suppose that the females of the other two originated as "sports," sufficiently near to Danaines to be confused with them. But if such sports can be produced suddenly by some mutational process not at present understood, why should not these sports be the females of the three mimicking species as we see them at present? Why need we suppose that there were intermediate stages between the mimicking female and the original hypothetical female which was like the male? If a sport occurred which was sufficiently similar to an unpalatable species to be confused with it, it is theoretically demonstrable that, although relatively scarce to start with, it would rapidly increase at the expense of the unprotected male-like female until the latter was eliminated. We shall, however, return in a later chapter (p. 96) to the argument by which this view can be supported. So far we have discussed what we called the two extreme views as to the way in which a mimetic resemblance may be supposed to have originated. Of the two that which assumes the resemblance to have {71} been brought about by a succession of slight variations must also assume that model and mimic were closely alike to start with, and this certainly cannot be true in many cases. On the other hand, there is so far no reason against the idea of supposing the resemblance to have originated suddenly except what to most minds will probably appear its inherent improbability. There are writers on these questions of mimicry who adopt a view more or less intermediate between those just discussed. They regard the resemblance as having arisen in the first place as a sport of some magnitude on the part of the mimic, rendering it sufficiently like the model to cause some confusion between the two. A rough-hewn resemblance is first brought about by a process of mutation. Natural selection is in this way given something to work on, and forthwith proceeds to polish up the resemblance until it becomes exceedingly close. Natural selection does not originate the likeness, but, as soon as a rough one has made its appearance, it comes into operation and works it up through intermediate stages into the finished portrait. It still plays some part in the formation of a mimetic resemblance though its rôle is now restricted to the putting on of the finishing touches. Those who take this view hold also that the continued action of natural selection is necessary in order to keep the likeness up to the mark. They suppose that if selection ceases the likeness gradually deteriorates owing to the coming into operation of a mysterious {72} process called regression. This idea involves certain conceptions as to the nature of variation which we shall discuss later. Though it is difficult to regard Batesian mimicry as produced by the accumulation of small variations through natural selection, it is perhaps rather more plausible to suppose that such a process may happen in connection with the numerous instances of Müllerian mimicry. For since the end result is theoretically to the advantage of both species instead of but one, it is possible to argue that the process would be simplified by their meeting one another halfway, as Müller[34] himself originally suggested. Variations on the part of each in the direction of the other would be favourably selected, the mimicry being reciprocal. Difficulties, however, begin to arise when we inquire into the way in which this unification of pattern may be conceived of as having come about. By no one have these difficulties been more forcibly presented than by Marshall[35] in an able paper published a few years ago, and perhaps the best way of appreciating them is to take a hypothetical case used by him as an illustration. Let us suppose that in the same area live two equally distasteful species A and _B_, each with a conspicuous though distinct warning pattern, and each sacrificing 1000 individuals yearly to the education of young {73} birds. Further let it be supposed that A is a common species of which there are 100,000 individuals in the given area, while _B_ is much rarer, and is represented by 5000. The toll exacted by young birds falls relatively more lightly upon A than upon _B_, for A loses only 1%, whereas _B_'s loss is 20%. Clearly if some members of _B_ varied so that they could be mistaken for A it would be greatly to their advantage, since they would pass from a population in which the destruction by young birds was 20% to one in which it would now be rather less than 1%. Moreover, as the proportion of _B_ resembling A gradually increased owing to this advantage, the losses suffered by those exhibiting the original _B_ pattern would be relatively heavier and heavier until the form was ultimately eliminated. In other words, it is theoretically conceivable that of two distasteful species with different patterns the rarer could be brought to resemble the more abundant. We may consider now what would happen in the converse case in which the more numerous species exhibited a variation owing to which it was confused with the rarer. Suppose that of the 100,000 individuals of A 10,000 shewed a variation which led to their being mistaken for _B_, so that there are 90,000 of the A pattern and 15,000 of the _B_ pattern of which 10,000 belong to species A. A will now lose 1000 out of the 90,000 having the A pattern, and 2/3 × 1000 out of the 10,000 of species A which exhibit the _B_ pattern. The toll of the birds will be 1/90 of those keeping the original A pattern, and 2/30 of those of species A which have {74} assumed the _B_ pattern. The mortality among the mimetic members of A is six times as great as among those which retain the type form. It is clear therefore that a variation of A which can be mistaken for _B_ is at a great disadvantage as compared with the type form[36], and consequently it must be supposed that the Müllerian factor, as the destruction due to experimental tasting by young birds is termed, cannot bring about a resemblance on the part of a more numerous to a less numerous species. Further, as Marshall goes on to shew, there can be no approach of one species to the other when the numbers are approximately equal. A condition essential for the establishing of a mimetic resemblance on Müllerian lines, no less than on Batesian, is that the less numerous species should take on the pattern of the more numerous. Consequently the argument brought forward in the earlier part of this chapter against the establishing of such a likeness by a long series of slight variations is equally valid for Müllerian mimicry[37]. * * * * * {75} CHAPTER VII THE CASE OF _PAPILIO POLYTES_ Many instances of mimicry are known to-day, but comparatively few of them have been studied in any detail. Yet a single carefully analysed case is worth dozens which are merely superficially recorded. In trying to arrive at some conception of the way in which the resemblance has come about we want to know the nature and extent of the likeness in the living as well as in the dead; the relative abundance of model and mimic; what are likely enemies and whether they could be supposed to select in the way required, whether the model is distasteful to them; whether intermediate forms occur among the mimics; how the various forms behave when bred together, etc., etc. Probably the form that from these many points of view has, up to the present, been studied with most care is that of the Swallow-tail, _Papilio polytes_. It is a common butterfly throughout the greater part of India and Ceylon, and closely allied forms, probably to be reckoned in the same species, reach eastwards through China as far as Hongkong. _P. polytes_ is one of those species which exhibit polymorphism in the female sex. Three distinct forms of female are known, of which one is like the male, while the other two are very different. Indeed {76} for many years they were regarded as distinct species, and given definite specific names. To Wallace belongs the credit of shewing that these three forms of female are all to be regarded as wives of the same type of male[38]. He shewed that there were no males corresponding to two of the females; also that the same one male form was always to be found wherever any of the females occurred. As the result of breeding experiments in more recent years Wallace's conclusions have been shewn to be perfectly sound. The male of _polytes_ (Pl. V, fig. 1) is a handsome blackish insect with a wing expanse of about four inches. With the exception of some yellowish-white spots along their outer margin the fore wings are entirely dark. Similar spots occur along the margin of the hind wing also, while across the middle runs a series of six yellowish-white patches producing the appearance of a broad light band. The thorax and abdomen are full black, though the black of the head is relieved by a few lighter yellowish scales. The under surface is much like the upper, the chief difference being a series of small and slightly reddish lunules running outside the light band near the margin of the hind wing (Pl. V, fig. 1 _a_). In some specimens these markings are almost absent. One form of female is almost exactly like the male (Pl. V, fig. 2), the one slight difference being that the lunules on the under surface of the hind wing are generally a trifle larger. For brevity she may be called the M form. The second form of female {77} differs in many respects from the male and the M female. Instead of being quite dark, the fore wings are marked by darker ribbed lines on a lighter ground[39] (Pl. V, fig. 3). The hind wings shew several marked differences from those of the male. Of the series of six patches forming the cross band the outermost has nearly disappeared, and the innermost has become smaller and reddish. The middle four, on the other hand, have become deeper, reaching up towards the insertion of the wing, and are pure white. A series of red lunules occurs on the upper surface outside the white band, and the yellowish-white marginal markings tend to become red. These differences are equally well marked on the under surface (Pl. V, fig. 3 _a_). The colour of the body, however, remains as in the male. From the resemblance shewn by this form to another species of Swallow-tail, _Papilio aristolochiae_ (Pl. V, fig. 5), we shall speak of it as the A form. The third form of female is again very distinct from the other two. The fore wings are dark but are broken by an irregular white band running across the middle (Pl. V, fig. 4), and there is also an irregular white patch nearer the tips of the wing. The hind wings, on the other hand, are characterised by having only red markings. The yellowish-white band of the male is much reduced and is entirely red, while the red lunules are much larger than in the A form. The under surface (Pl. V, fig. 4 _a_) corresponds closely with the {78} upper. The body remains black as in all the other forms. This type of female bears a resemblance to _Papilio hector_ (Pl. V, fig. 6), and for that reason we shall speak of it as the H form. It should be added that these three forms of female are quite indistinguishable in the larval and chrysalis stages. It was Wallace who first offered an explanation of this interesting case in terms of mimicry. According to this interpretation _P. polytes_ is a palatable form. The larva, which feeds on citronaceous plants, and the chrysalis are both inconspicuous in their natural surroundings. They may be regarded as protectively coloured, and consequently edible and liable to persecution. The original coloration is that of the male and the M female. From this the other two forms of female have diverged in the direction of greater instead of less conspicuousness, although the presumed edibility of the insect might have led us to think that a less conspicuous coloration would have been more to its advantage. But these two females resemble the two species _Papilio aristolochiae_ and _Papilio hector_, which, though placed in the same genus as _P. polytes_, belong to a very different section of it[40]. The larvae of these two species are conspicuously coloured black and red with spiny tubercles. They feed upon the poisonous _Aristolochia_ plants. For these reasons and also from the fact that the butterflies themselves are both conspicuous and plentiful it is inferred that they are unpalatable. In short, they are the models upon {79} which the two _polytes_ females that are unlike the male have been built up by natural selection. The suggestion of mimicry in this case is supported by the fact that there is a general correspondence between the areas of distribution of model and mimic. _P. hector_ is not found outside India and Ceylon, and the H female of _P. polytes_ is also confined to this area. _P. aristolochiae_, on the other hand, has a much wider range, almost as wide indeed as that of _P. polytes_ itself. Generally speaking the A female accompanies _P. aristolochiae_ wherever the latter species is found. Beyond the range of _P. aristolochiae_, in northern China, the M female alone is said to occur. On the other hand, as the matter comes to be more closely studied exceptions are beginning to turn up. The H female, for instance, is found on the lower slopes of the Himalayas, far north of the range of _P. hector_, and there are indications that a careful study of the distribution in China and Japan may prove of importance. Moreover, the investigation of a smaller area may also bring to light points of difficulty. In Ceylon, for example, _P. polytes_ is common up to several thousand feet, while _P. hector_ is rare at half the height to which _polytes_ ascends. Nevertheless the H form of female is relatively just as abundant up-country where _hector_ is rarely found as it is low down where _hector_ is plentiful[41]. On the other hand, _P. aristolochiae_ may be exceedingly abundant at altitudes where _hector_ is scarce. Yet the A form of _polytes_ is no more relatively abundant {80} here than elsewhere on the island. All over Ceylon, in fact, the relative proportions of the three forms of female appear to be the same, quite irrespective of the abundance or scarcity of either of the models. As, however, we shall have to return to this point later, we may leave it for the moment to consider other features of this case of _P. polytes_. In collections of insects from India or Ceylon it is not unusual to find specimens of the A form of female of _polytes_ placed with _P. aristolochiae_, and the H form with _P. hector_. When the insects are old and faded and pinned out on cork the mistake is a very natural one. But after all the enemies of _polytes_ do not hunt it in corked cabinets, and any estimation of resemblance to be of use to us must be based upon the living insects. Are the resemblances of the mimics to the models when alive so close that they might be expected to deceive such enemies[42] as prey upon them and have no difficulty in distinguishing the male form of _polytes_ from _P. aristolochiae_ or _P. hector_? To answer for a bird is a hazardous undertaking. We know so little of the bird's perceptive faculties whether of taste or sight. But on general grounds, from the specialization of their visual apparatus, it is probable that the sense of sight is keen, though whether the colour sense is the same as our own is doubtful[43]. On the other hand, the olfactory apparatus {81} is relatively poorly developed in birds, and from this we can only argue that the senses of smell and taste are not especially acute. Really we can do little more than to describe how these mimetic resemblances appear to our own senses, and to infer that they do not appear very different to the bird. If there is any difference in keenness of perception we shall probably not be far wrong in presuming that the advantage rests with the bird. After all if there is any truth in the theory of mimicry the bird has to depend largely upon its keenness of sight in making its living, at any rate if that living is to be a palatable one. If natural selection can bring about these close resemblances among butterflies it must certainly be supposed to be capable of bringing the bird's powers of vision to a high pitch of excellence. Returning now to the case of _P. polytes_, there is not the least doubt that to the ordinary man accustomed to use his eyes the A form of female is easily distinguishable from _P. aristolochiae_, as also is the H form from _P. hector_. The two models have a feature in common in which they both differ from their respective mimics. In both of them the body and head are largely of a brilliant scarlet, whereas neither of the mimics has a touch of red on the body. In the living insect when the body is swelled by its natural juices the effect is very striking[44]. It gives at once a "dangerous" look {82} to the insect when settled, even at a distance of several yards, and this although one may be perfectly familiar with its harmless nature. The mimics on the other hand with their sombre-coloured bodies never look otherwise than the inoffensive creatures that they are. The "dangerous" look due to the brilliant scarlet of the body and head of _hector_ and _aristolochiae_ is reinforced by the quality of the red on the markings of the wings. In both models it is a strong clamorous red suggestive of a powerful aniline dye, whereas such red as occurs in the mimics is a softer and totally distinct colour. The difference in quality is even more marked on the under than on the upper surface (Pl. V, figs. 3 _a_--6 _a_), and the net result is that when settled, with wings either expanded or closed, there is no possibility of an ordinarily observant man mistaking mimic for model in either case, even at a distance of several yards. It may, however, be argued that it is not when at rest but during flight that the mimetic resemblance protects the mimic from attack. Actually this can hardly be true, for the mode of flight constitutes one of the most striking differences between model and mimic. _P. hector_ and _P. aristolochiae_ fly much in the same way. They give one the impression of flying mainly with their fore wings, which vibrate rapidly, so that the course of the insect, though not swift, is on the whole sustained and even. The flight of all the different forms of _polytes_ is similar and quite distinct from that of the models. It is a strong but rather {83} heavy and lumbering up-and-down flight. One gets the impression that all the wing surface is being used instead of principally the fore wings as appears in _P. hector_ and _P. aristolochiae_. The difference is difficult to put into words, but owing to these peculiarities of flight the eye has no difficulty in distinguishing between model and mimic even at a distance of 40 to 50 yards. Moreover, colour need not enter into the matter at all. It is even easier to distinguish model from mimic when flying against a bright background, as for instance when the insect is between the observer and a sunlit sky, than it is to do so by reflected light. I have myself spent many days in doing little else but chasing _polytes_ at Trincomalee where it was flying in company with _P. hector_, but I was never once lured into chasing the model in mistake for the mimic. My experience was that whether at rest or flying the species are perfectly distinct, and I find it difficult to imagine that a bird whose living depended in part upon its ability to discriminate between the different forms would be likely to be misled. Certainly it would not be if its powers of discrimination were equal to those of an ordinary civilised man. If the bird were unable to distinguish between say the A form of female and _P. aristolochiae_ I think that it would be still less likely to distinguish between the same A form and the male or the M form of female. For my experience was that at a little distance one could easily confuse the A form of _polytes_ with the male. Except when one was quite close the red on the A form was apt to be lost, the {84} white markings on the hind wing were readily confused with those of the male, and one had to depend entirely on the lighter fore wing. Unless the bird were keener sighted than the man the A form would be more likely to be taken in mistake for its unprotected relative than avoided for its resemblance to the presumably unpalatable model. On the other hand, if the bird were sufficiently keen sighted never to confuse the A female with the male form its sight would be too keen to be imposed upon by such resemblance as exists between the A female and _P. aristolochiae_. These, however, are not the only criticisms of the theory of mimicry which the study of this species forces upon us. _Papilio polytes_ is one of the few mimetic species that has been bred, and in no other case of polymorphism is the relation between the different forms so clearly understood. For this result we are indebted mainly to the careful experiments of Mr J. C. F. Fryer, who recently devoted the best part of two years to breeding the different forms of this butterfly in Ceylon[45]. Fryer came to the conclusion that an explanation of this curious case is possible on ordinary Mendelian lines. At first sight the breeding results appear complicated, for any one of the three forms of female can behave in several different ways. For the sake of simplicity we may for the moment class together the A and H females as the mimetic females, the non-mimetic being represented by the M or male-like females. {85} The different kinds of families which each of the three females can produce may be tabulated as follows:-- ([alpha]) The M form may give either:-- (1) M only. (2) M and mimetics in about equal numbers. (3) Mimetics only. ([beta]) The A form may give either:-- (1) M and mimetics in about equal numbers. (2) M and mimetics in the ratio of about 1:3. (3) Mimetics only. ([gamma]) The H form may give either:-- (1) M and mimetics in about equal numbers. (2) M and mimetics in the ratio of about 1:3. (3) Mimetics only. The males are in all cases alike to look at but it must nevertheless be supposed that they differ in their transmitting powers. In fact the evidence all points to there being three different kinds of male corresponding to the three different kinds of female. But they cannot shew any difference outwardly because there is always present in the male a factor which inhibits the production of the mimetic pattern even though the factor for that pattern be present. Returning now to the records of the females it will be noticed that although the M form may breed true the mimetics never give the M form alone. Where they give the M form among their progeny they produce mimetics and non-mimetics either in the ratio 1:1 or of 3:1. This at once suggests that the {86} non-mimetic is recessive to the mimetic forms--that the mimetics contain a factor which does not occur in the non-mimetics. If this factor, which may be called X, be added to the constitution of a non-mimetic female it turns it into a mimetic. If X be added to a male such an individual, though incapable of itself exhibiting the mimetic pattern owing to the inhibitory factor always present in that sex, becomes capable of transmitting the mimetic factor to its offspring. Expressed in the usual Mendelian way the formulae for these different butterflies are as follows:-- M[F] = iixx | Iixx = [M] (1) Mimetic } = { iiXX | IiXX = [M] (2) [F][F] } { or iiXx | IiXx = [M] (3) where X stands for the mimetic factor and I for the factor which inhibits the action of X. All males are heterozygous for I, but during the segregation of characters at some stage in the formation of the families only the male-producing sperms come to contain the factor I. It is lacking in all the female-producing sperms formed by the male. [M] (1) does not contain the factor for the mimetic condition and gives only daughters of the M form when mated with an M[F]. [M] (2) on the other hand is homozygous for the factor X, and consequently all of his germ cells contain it. This is the male that gives nothing but mimetic daughters with whatever form of female he is bred. [M] (3) is heterozygous for X; that is to say, one half of his germ cells contain it, the other half not. With the M[F] he must give equal numbers {87} of offspring with and without X, _i.e._ half of his daughters will be mimetic and the other half non-mimetic. With a heterozygous mimetic female (iiXx), which is also producing germ cells with and without X in equal numbers, he may be expected to give the usual result, viz. dominants and recessives in the ratio 3:1; or in other words mimetic and non-mimetic females in the ratio 3:1. One of Fryer's experiments may be given here in illustration of the nature of the evidence upon which the above hypothesis depends. H[F](wild) H[F](wild) | | +--------+----------+ +--+------+----------+ | | | | | | 18[M][M] 10M[F][F] 7H[F][F] 26[M][M] 7M[F][F] 26H[F][F] | | +---------+ +------+ | | M[F] × [M] | +---------+ | | 7[M][M] 12H[F][F] | | +-----+ | | \ | | +---------+--------------+ | | \ | [M] × H[F] ------------- [M] × H[F] | | +---------+--+-----+ +---------+----------+ | | | | | | 14[M][M] 6H[F][F] 1M[F] 8[M][M] 10H[F][F] 2M[F][F] Families were reared from the two wild H females of whom nothing was known either as to ancestry or husband. The first family contained 10 M and 7 H females. Hence the original wild mother was probably iiXx and had mated with a male of the constitution {88} Iixx. The family from the second wild H female contained 26 H and 7 M females; _i.e._ the ratio in which these two forms appeared was not far from 3:1. Hence the wild female was probably iiXx and her husband IiXx. If this were so some of the 26 [M][M] should receive the X factor from both parents and consequently be IiXX in constitution. This was almost certainly so in the case of the single male in this brood tested by mating with an M female from the other brood. All of his 12 daughters were of the H form, as should have been the case had his constitution been IiXX. Supposing this to be so, all his offspring, of both sexes, must be heterozygous for X. Consequently any pair mated together should give both H and M females in the ratio of three of the former to one of the latter. In Mr Fryer's experiment two males and two females chosen at random were mated together. In the one case six H and one M female were produced, in the other ten H and two M females. As was expected both classes of female appeared, and the looked-for ratio of three H to one M was, in view of the smallness of the numbers, not departed from widely in either instance. In the experiments selected as an illustration, the mimetic females happen to be all of the H form. In other experiments, however, both the H form and the A form occurred. As the result of his experiments Mr Fryer came to the conclusion that here again the difference is one of a single hereditary factor. All mimetic females contain the X factor, but the H {89} females contain in addition a factor which we may call Y. The function of the Y factor is to carry the change made by the X factor a step further, and to turn the A form of female into the H form. Y is a modifier of X, but unless X is present Y can produce no effect. All the different individuals which are to be found among _P. polytes_ in Ceylon may be represented as follows:-- [M][M] | M[F][F] | A[F][F] | H[F][F] | | | | | IixxYY | iixxYY | -- | -- | IixxYy | iixxYy | -- | -- | Iixxyy | iixxyy | -- | -- | IiXxYY | -- | -- | iiXxYY | IiXxYy | -- | -- | iiXxYy | IiXxyy | -- | iiXxyy | -- | IiXXYY | -- | -- | iiXXYY | IiXXYy | -- | -- | iiXXYy | IiXXyy | -- | iiXXyy | -- | In this way is offered a simple explanation in terms of three Mendelian factors which serves at once to explain the various results of the breeding experiments, and the fact that intermediates between the different forms of female are not found. The only other experiments comparable with these on _P. polytes_ are some made by Jacobsen on _Papilio memnon_ in Java[46]. Here again there are three forms of female, one of which, _laomedon_, is something like the male, while the other two, _agenor_ and _achates_, are quite distinct. Of these three _achates_, unlike the male and the other two females, is tailed, and resembles {90} the species _Papilio coon_ which belongs to the same presumably distasteful group as _P. aristolochiae_. These experiments of Jacobsen's are not so complete as the series on _P. polytes_, but Professor de Meijere and Mr Fryer have both pointed out that they are capable of being interpreted on the same simple lines. Another instance of experimental breeding involving polymorphism and mimicry in the female sex is that of the African _Papilio dardanus_, but the case is here complicated by the greater number of female forms (cf. pp. 30-33). The data, too, are far more scanty than in the other two cases, but so far as they go there is nothing to preclude an explanation being eventually arrived at on similar lines[47]. And now we may consider briefly the bearing of these experiments on the theory of mimicry. Throughout the work no individuals intermediate between the three well-marked forms of _polytes_ were met with. There is no difference in appearance between the heterozygous and the homozygous mimetic insects, whether they belong to the A or to the H form. The factor X, whether inherited from both parents, or from one only, produces its full effect, and the same is also true of the action of the factor Y. Now the most generally accepted hypothesis as to the formation of these mimetic resemblances supposes that they have been brought about through the gradual operation of natural selection accumulating slight variations. {91} Professor Poulton, for example, a prominent exponent of this school, considers that the A form of female was first evolved gradually from the M form, and later on the H form came by degrees from the A form. If this be true we ought, by mingling the M germ plasm with the H germ plasm and by subsequently breeding from the insects produced, to get back our series of hypothetical intermediates, or at any rate some of them. We ought as it were to reverse the process by which the evolution of the different forms has taken place. But as is shewn by the experiment of Mr Fryer, which was quoted above, nothing of the sort happens. From experiments with cultivated plants such as primulas and sweet peas, we have learnt that this discontinuous form of inheritance which occurs in _P. polytes_ is the regular thing. Moreover, we have plenty of historical evidence that the new character which behaves in this way is one that has arisen suddenly without the formation of intermediate steps. The dwarf "Cupid" form of sweet pea, for instance, behaves in heredity towards the normal form as though the difference between them were a difference of a single factor. It is quite certain that the "Cupid" arose as a sudden sport from the normal without the intervention of anything in the way of intermediates. And there is every reason to suppose that the same is true for plenty of other characters involving colour and pattern as well as structure, both in the sweet pea, the primula, and other species. Since the forms of _polytes_ female behave in breeding like the various {92} forms of sweet pea and primula there is every reason to suppose that they _arose_ in the same way, that is to say, as sudden sports or mutations and not by the gradual accumulation of slight differences. But if we take this view, which is certainly most consonant with the evidence before us, we must assign to natural selection a different rôle from that which is generally ascribed to it. We cannot suppose that natural selection has played any part in the _formation_ of a mimetic likeness. The likeness turned up suddenly as a sport quite independently of natural selection. But although natural selection may have had nothing to do with its production, it may nevertheless have come into play in connection with the _conservation_ of the new form. If the new form possesses some advantage over the pre-existing one from which it sprang, is it not conceivable that natural selection will come into operation to render it the predominant form? To this question we shall try to find an answer in the next chapter. * * * * * {93} CHAPTER VIII THE CASE OF _PAPILIO POLYTES_ (_cont._) It was suggested in the last chapter that if a new variation arose as a sport--as a sudden hereditary variation--and if that variation were, through resemblance to a different and unpalatable species, to be more immune to the attacks of enemies than the normal form, it was conceivable that the newer mimetic sport would become established, and in time perhaps come to be the only form of the species. We may suppose, for example, that the A female of _P. polytes_ arose suddenly, and that owing to its likeness to the presumably distasteful _P. aristolochiae_ it became rapidly more numerous until in some localities it is the commonest or even the only form. However, before discussing the establishing of a mimetic form in this manner we must first deal with certain general results which may be expected to follow on a process of selection applied to members of a population presenting variations which are inherited on ordinary Mendelian lines. Let us suppose that we are dealing with the inheritance of a character which depends upon the presence of the genetic factor X; and let us also suppose that the heterozygous form () is indistinguishable {94} from the homozygous form () in appearance. In other words the character dependent upon X exhibits complete dominance. With regard to X then all the members of our population must belong to one or other of three classes. They may be homozygous (XX) for X, having received it from both parents, or they may be heterozygous (Xx) because they have received it from only one parent, or they may be devoid of X, _i.e._ pure recessives (xx). An interesting question arises as to the conditions under which a population containing these three kinds of individuals remains stable. By stability is meant that with the three kinds mating freely among themselves and being all equally fertile, there is no tendency for the relative proportions of the three classes to be disturbed from generation to generation. The question was looked into some years ago by G. H. Hardy, who shewed that if the mixed population consist of p XX individuals, 2q Xx individuals and r xx individuals, the population will be in stable equilibrium with regard to the relative proportions of these three classes so long as the equation pr = q^2 is satisfied[48]. Now let us suppose that in place of equality of conditions selection is exercised in favour of those individuals which exhibit the dominant character. It has been shewn by Mr Norton that even if the selection exercised were slight the result in the end would be that the recessive form would entirely disappear. The total time required for bringing this about would {95} depend upon two things, (1) the proportion of dominants existing in the population before the process of selection began, and (2) the intensity of the selection process itself. Suppose, for example, that we started with a population consisting of pure dominants, heterozygotes, and recessives in the ratio 1:4:4. Since these figures satisfy the equation pr = q^2, such a population mating at random within itself is in a state of stable equilibrium. Now let us suppose that the dominant form (including of course the heterozygotes) is endowed with a selection advantage over the recessives of 10%, or in other words that the relative proportion of the recessives who survive to breed is only 90% of the proportion of dominants that survive[49]. It is clear that the proportion of dominants must gradually increase and that of the recessives diminish. At what rate will this change in the population take place? Mr Norton has worked this out (see App. I) and has shewn that at the end of 12 generations the proportions of pure dominants, heterozygotes, and recessives will be 1:2:1. The population will have reached another position of equilibrium, but the proportion of recessives from being four-ninths of the {96} total is now reduced to one-quarter. After 18 more generations the proportions 4:4:1 are reached, the recessives being only one-ninth of the total; after 40 further generations of the process they become reduced to one-fortieth. In other words a selective advantage of 10% operating against the recessives will reduce their numbers in 70 generations from nearly one-half of the population to less than one-fortieth. With a less stringent selective rate the number of generations elapsing before this result is brought about will be larger. If, for example, the selective rate is diminished from 10% to 1% the number of generations necessary for bringing about the same change is nearly 700 instead of 70--roughly ten times as great. Even so, and one can hardly speak of a 1% selective rate as a stringent one, it is remarkable in how brief a space of time a form which is discriminated against, even lightly, is bound to disappear. Evolution, in so far as it consists of the supplanting of one form by another, may be a very much more rapid process than has hitherto been suspected, for natural selection, if appreciable, must be held to operate with extraordinary swiftness where it is given established variations with which to work. We may now consider the bearing of these theoretical deductions upon the case of _Papilio polytes_ in Ceylon. Here is a case of a population living and breeding together under the same conditions, a population in which there are three classes depending upon the presence or absence of two factors, X and Y, {97} exhibiting ordinary Mendelian inheritance. For the present we may consider one of these factors, X, which involves the proportion of mimetic to non-mimetic forms. It is generally agreed among observers who have studied this species that of the three forms of female the M form is distinctly the most common, while of the other two the H form is rather more numerous than the A form. The two dominant mimetic forms taken together, however, are rather more numerous than the recessive M form. The most recent observer who studied this question, Mr Fryer, captured 155 specimens in the wild state as larvae. When reared 66 turned out to be males, while of the females there were 49 of the two mimetic forms and 40 of the M form, the ratio of dominants to recessives being closely 5:4[50]. Now as has already been pointed out the ratio 5:4 of dominants and recessives is characteristic of a population exhibiting simple Mendelian inheritance when in a state of stable equilibrium. The natural deduction from Mr Fryer's figures is that with regard to the factor that differentiates the mimetic forms from the non-mimetic, the _polytes_ population is, for the moment at any rate, in a position of stable equilibrium. This may mean one of two things. Either the population is definitely in a state of equilibrium which has lasted for a period of time in the past {98} and may be expected to endure for a further period in the future, or else the population is in a condition of gradual change as regards the numerical proportion of mimetics and non-mimetics, progressing towards the elimination of the one or the other, the present state of equilibrium being merely transitory and accidental. In this connection a few scraps of historical evidence are of interest. Of the various forms of _P. polytes_ the A form of female was the first to be described in 1758, and not long after (1776) the H form was registered as a species under the name of _Papilio Eques Trojanus romulus_. Later on the female resembling the male found its way into the literature as _Papilio pammon_. From the fact that the mimetic forms were known before the non-mimetic, it is unlikely that they can have been scarce a century and a half ago. As _P. polytes_ certainly produces at least four broods a year in Ceylon this period of time represents something like 600 generations in the life of the species, and we have already seen that even if the mimetic forms have but a 1% advantage over the non-mimetic the proportion of the latter would decrease from nearly equality down to but 1 in 40 in about 700 generations. Actually for _P. polytes_ the decrease would not be so marked because the male is non-mimetic. Owing to this peculiar feature the rapidity of change in the proportion of the different forms is reduced to about one-half of what it would be if the males were also mimetic. Nevertheless the change from nearly equality to about one non-mimetic in 40 would have taken place {99} during the time _P. polytes_ has been known if a 2% selection advantage had operated during that period in favour of the mimetic. If there has been any appreciable selection going on during that time mimetics must have been far rarer when the species was first discovered, but the fact that both the mimetic forms made their way into collections before the non-mimetic tells distinctly against this supposition. Nor is there any reason to suppose that the non-mimetic form has been dwindling in numbers relatively to the mimetics during the last half century. Moore[51] in 1880 records an earlier observation of Wade's that "These three butterflies are very common, especially those of the first form; the second being perhaps least so." The first form alluded to is the M form, and the second is the A form, so that at the time Wade wrote the relative proportions of these three forms must have been very much what they are to-day. Even during half a century and with such a relatively weak selection rate as 2% in favour of the mimetics, the proportion of non-mimetics should drop from about 4:5 down to about 1:5. Therefore we must either infer that in respect of mimetic resemblances natural selection does not exist for _P. polytes_ in Ceylon, or else we must suppose its force to be so slight that in half a century certainly, and perhaps in a century and a half, it can produce no effect appreciable to the necessarily rough method of estimation employed. {100} It may, however, be argued that even an exceedingly low selection rate is able to bring about the elimination of one or other type provided that it acts for a sufficiently long time. This is perfectly true. A selective rate of .001% would reduce the proportion of recessives to dominants from 4:5 down to 1:40 in the course of about 1,400,000 generations where the mimetic resemblance is already established. Such a form of selection entails the death of but one additional non-mimetic in 100,000 in each generation. If, however, the mimetic resemblance is not fully established and the mimic bears only what supporters of the mimicry theory term a "rough" resemblance to the model, it is clear that it will have far less chance of being mistaken for the model. Its advantage as compared with the non-mimetic form will be very much less. Even supposing that the slight variations concerned are inherited, an intensity of selection which would produce a certain change in 1,400,000 generations where a mimetic resemblance is already established must be supposed to take an enormously greater time where an approach to a model has to take place from a "rough" resemblance. From the data as to the relative proportions of the polymorphic females of _P. polytes_ during the past and at present, and from the behaviour of their different forms in breeding, the following conclusions only can be drawn. Either natural selection, from the point of view of mimicry, is non-existent for this species in Ceylon, or else it is so slight as to be unable in half a {101} century to produce an appreciable diminution in the proportion of non-mimetic females. For even if the mimetic resemblance brings about but the survival of one additional protected form in 100 as compared with the unprotected, this means a marked diminution in the proportion of M females in 50 years--a diminution such as there are no grounds for supposing to have taken place. It has been argued that in populations exhibiting Mendelian heredity even a relatively low selection rate must bring about a rapid change in the constitution of a mixed population. Have we any grounds for supposing that populations of this sort can undergo such rapid changes? In cases where mimetic resemblances are involved we have no examples of the sort. But some interesting evidence as to the rate at which a population may change is to be gathered from the study of melanism in certain moths. It is well known that in some parts of England the common peppered moth, _Amphidasys betularia_ has been almost entirely supplanted by the darker melanic form _doubledayaria_. It first made its appearance near Manchester in 1850, and from that centre has been gradually spreading over northern England, the Midlands, and the south-eastern counties. At Huddersfield, for instance, fifty years ago only the type form _betularia_ existed; to-day there is nothing but _doubledayaria_. In Lancashire and Cheshire the type is now rare. On the continent, too, there is the same story to be told. The melanic form first appeared in Rhenish {102} Prussia in 1888; to-day it is much more abundant than the older type. There, too, it is spreading eastwards and southwards to Thuringia, to Saxony, to Silesia. What advantage this new dark form has over the older one we do not know[52]. Some advantage, however, it must have, otherwise it could hardly supplant _betularia_ in the way that it is doing. From our present standpoint two things are of interest in the case of the peppered moth--the rapidity with which the change in the nature of the population has taken place, and the fact that the two forms exhibit Mendelian heredity, _doubledayaria_ being dominant and _betularia_ recessive[53]. Moreover, mixed broods have been reared from wild females of both sorts, and so far as is known the two forms breed freely together where they co-exist. This case of the peppered moth shews how swiftly a change may come over a species[54]. It is not at all improbable that the establishing of a new variety at the expense of an older one in a relatively short space of time is continually going on, especially in tropical lands where {103} the conditions appear to be more favourable to exuberance of variation and where generations succeed one another in more rapid succession. At present, however, we are without data. A form reported by an old collector as common is now rare; a variety once regarded as a great prize is now easily to be found. Such to-day is the sort of information available. For the solution of our problem it is, of course, useless. The development of Mendelian studies has given us a method, rough perhaps but the best yet found, of testing for the presence, and of measuring the intensity, of natural selection. Much could be learned if some common form were chosen for investigation in which, as in _P. polytes_, there are both mimetic and non-mimetic forms. Large numbers should be caught at stated intervals, large enough to give trustworthy data as to the proportions of the different forms, mimetic or non-mimetic, that occurred in the population. Such a census of a polymorphic species, if done thoroughly, and done over a series of years at regular intervals, might be expected to give us the necessary data for deciding whether the relative proportion of the different forms was changing--whether there were definite grounds for supposing natural selection to be at work, and if so what was the rate at which it brought the change about. * * * * * {104} CHAPTER IX THE ENEMIES OF BUTTERFLIES The theory of mimicry demands that butterflies should have enemies, and further that those enemies should exercise a certain discrimination in their attacks. They must be sufficiently observant to notice the difference between the mimetic and the non-mimetic form; they must be sufficiently unobservant to confuse the mimetic form with the unpalatable model. And, of course, they must have enough sense of taste to dislike the unpalatable and to appreciate the palatable varieties. What these enemies are and whether they can be supposed to play the part required of them we may now go on to consider. Butterflies are destroyed in the imago state principally by three groups of enemies--predaceous insects, lizards, and birds. It is known that monkeys also devour butterflies to some extent, but such damage as they inflict is almost certainly small in comparison with that brought about by the three groups already mentioned. In view of the very different nature of these groups it will be convenient to consider them separately. {105} I. _Predaceous Insects._ Butterflies are known to be preyed upon by other insects of different orders, and a considerable number of observations have recently been gathered together from various sources and put on record by Professor Poulton[55]. These observations shew that butterflies may be devoured by mantids, dragon-flies, and blood-sucking flies of the families Empiidae and Asilidae. For mantids the records are scanty, but they have been observed to kill presumably distasteful forms as often as those which are considered palatable. An interesting set of experiments was made by G. A. K. Marshall on captive mantids in Africa[56]. Of the eleven individuals representing several species with which he experimented, some ate every butterfly offered, including the distasteful Danaines and Acraeines. Others, however, shewed some distaste of the Acraeines and would not devour them so freely as butterflies of other species. There are no grounds, however, for supposing that the mantids had any appreciation of the warning coloration of the Acraeines. Whether completely eaten or not the Acraeines were apparently sufficiently damaged to prevent their taking any further part in the propagation of their species. Warning coloration is not of much service to its possessor who has to be tasted and partially eaten before being eventually rejected. Even if some mantids shew distaste of certain unpalatable butterflies, that distaste is probably seldom {106} exercised with a gentleness sufficient to ensure that the butterfly reaps the reward of its disagreeable nature. And unless, of course, the butterfly is allowed to do so the enemy can play no part in the production or maintenance of a mimetic resemblance. What is true for mantids is probably also true for the other groups of predaceous insects. Dragon-flies and wasps have been recorded as attacking the distasteful as well as butterflies of unprotected groups. Among the most serious enemies of butterflies must probably be reckoned the blood-sucking Asilids. These powerful and ferocious flies seize butterflies on the wing with their strong claws and plunge their proboscis into the thorax. Apparently they inject some swift poison, for the butterfly is instantly paralysed, nor is there any sign of struggle. The Asilid flies off with its victim, sucking the juices as it goes. There can be no doubt in the mind of any one who has watched these creatures hawking butterflies that their natural gifts are such as to enable them to exercise discrimination in their food. Most insect life is at their mercy but they appear to exercise no choice, seizing and devouring the first flying thing that comes within easy reach. Certainly as regards butterflies palatability or the reverse makes no difference, and they are known to feed indiscriminately both upon the evil-flavoured and upon the good. Taking it all together the evidence is such that we cannot suppose predaceous insects to pay any attention to warning colours, and, therefore, we cannot regard them as playing any part in connection with mimetic resemblance. {107} II. _Lizards._ In those parts of the world where lizards of larger size are abundant there is plenty of evidence that certain species are very destructive to butterfly life. As might be expected this is especially true of forms which are either arboreal or semi-arboreal in habit. Among the reptiles of Ceylon, for example, are several species of the genus _Calotes_, of which two, _C. ophiomachus_ and _C. versicolor_, are particularly abundant. In appearance and habits they are not unlike chameleons though far more active in their movements. Like chameleons, too, they are able to change colour, and the fact that they can assume a brilliant scarlet hue about the head and neck has probably led to their popular name of "blood-suckers." It is not impossible that the assumption of this scarlet coloration may serve as a lure to bring insects within range. These lizards have often been observed to seize and devour butterflies. Moreover, it is a common thing to find butterflies with a large semi-circular patch bitten out of the hind wings, and there is little doubt but that such injuries have been inflicted by lizards. There is, however, no evidence to suggest that they exercise any discrimination in their choice of the butterflies which they attack. This is borne out by their behaviour towards various species offered to them, both when at liberty and when caged. In an ingenious series of experiments Col. Manders brought various butterflies within reach of a _Calotes_ by the help of a fishing-rod and a long line of fine silk, by this means simulating natural conditions as far as possible. {108} He found that the lizards ate the so-called distasteful forms such as _Danais chrysippus_, _Euploea core_, _Acraea violae_, and _Papilio hector_, as readily as the presumably more palatable forms[57]. In captivity, too, they will take any butterfly as readily as another. Experiments by Finn[58] and by the writer[59] proved that they ate Danaids, Euploeas, and _Papilio aristolochiae_ without any hesitation so long as the insects were alive and moving. When, too, a mixture of different species, some with and some without warning coloration, was given to them all were eaten, nor was there any discrimination evidenced in the order in which they were taken. The lizard simply took the first that came within reach and went on until the whole lot was devoured, wings and all. Some experiments by Miss Pritchett on the American lizard _Sceleporus floridanus_ point to the same conclusion[60]. She found that it took without hesitation any butterfly offered to it including the presumably distasteful models _Danais archippus_ and _Papilio philenor_ (cf. pp. 45 and 49). On the other hand, another species of lizard with which Miss Pritchett experimented, _Gerrhonotus infernalis_, refused all the butterflies offered to it, though it fed freely on Orthopterous insects as well as on spiders and scorpions. It seems clear from these various observations and {109} experiments that certain lizards devour butterflies freely, but that they do not exercise any discrimination in the species which they attack. All are caught and devoured indiscriminately, so that in spite of the fact that such lizards are among the most serious enemies of butterflies we cannot suppose them to play any part in establishing a mimetic resemblance. III. _Birds._ The relations which exist between butterflies and their bird enemies have for many years been the subject of keen discussion. It is generally recognised that if mimetic resemblances become established through the agency of discriminating enemies those enemies must be birds. Hence those interested in the question of mimicry have for some years past turned their attention to birds more than to the other enemies of butterflies. That many birds systematically feed on butterflies is a fact that does not admit of doubt. It is true that, as Mr Marshall points out in the valuable paper in which he has summarised the evidence[61], observations of birds eating butterflies are relatively scanty. Though, as he points out, this is equally true for other groups of insects besides butterflies, bird attacks on butterflies, owing to the conspicuous nature of the victim, are much more likely to attract attention than attacks on other groups. We are still without much information as to the extent to which birds destroy butterflies and as to whether they shew any decided preference for certain species over others. A careful examination of the contents of the {110} stomachs of large numbers of insectivorous birds in a tropical area would go some way towards deciding the matter, but at present such information is lacking. We have to rely upon the existing observations of birds attacking butterflies in the wild state, and upon certain feeding experiments made with captive birds. Observations on birds attacking butterflies where mimetic forms occur have been made almost entirely in certain parts of Africa, in India, and in Ceylon. For Africa, Marshall has collected some forty-six observations of which almost half are concerned with Pierines. The remainder include four instances of attacks on species of _Acraea_, a genus which on the mimicry theory must be regarded as among the most unpalatable of butterflies. The records from the Indo-Malayan region (principally India and Ceylon) are somewhat more numerous and here again more than one-third of them refer to Pierines. Among the others are records of the distasteful forms _Euploea core_, _E. rafflesii_, _Acraea violae_, and _Papilio hector_ being taken and devoured. There is one interesting record which seems to suggest that Swinhoe's Bee-Eater (_Melittophagus swinhoei_) may exercise that discrimination in the butterflies it attacks which is demanded on the mimicry theory. Lt.-Col. Bingham on one occasion in Burma noticed this species hawking butterflies. He records that they took _Papilio erithonius_, _P. sarpedon_, _Charaxes athamas_, _Cyrestis thyodamas_, and _Terias hecabe_, and probably also species of the genera _Prioneris_, _Hebomoia_ (Pierines), {111} _Junonia_ and _Precis_ (Vanessids). And he goes on to say: "I also particularly noticed that the birds never went for a _Danais_ or _Euploea_, or for _Papilio macareus_ and _P. xenocles_, which are mimics of Danais, though two or three species of _Danais_, four or five of _Euploea_, and the two above-mentioned mimicking _Papilios_ simply swarmed along the whole road[62]." Marshall also quotes a case of attack by a green bee-eater on a _Danais_ in which the butterfly was caught and subsequently rejected, after which it flew away. Little stress, however, can be laid upon this case in view of the more recent data brought together by Col. Manders and Mr Fryer. Discussing the attacks of birds on butterflies in Southern India and Ceylon, Col. Manders gives the following quotation[63] from a letter of Mr T. N. Hearsy, Indian Forest Service: "Coimbatore, 6. 6. 10.... I have frequently seen the common green bee-eater (_Merops viridis_) and the king-crow (_Buchanga atra_) take butterflies on the wing, the butterflies being _Catopsilia pyranthe_, _C. florella_, _Terias hecabe_ and _Papilio demoleus_. The bee-eater I have also seen taking _Danais chrysippus_ and _Danais septentrionis_, and I remember to have been struck with their taste for those latter...." Col. Manders also brings forward evidence for these Danaids and Euploeas being eaten by Drongos and by the paradise flycatcher. Still more recently an interesting contribution to the matter has been made by {112} Mr J. C. F. Fryer[64]. The Ashy Wood-swallow (_Artamus fuscus_) had been recorded on two occasions as having attacked _Euploea core_. Mr Fryer was fortunate in coming across this bird in the gardens at Peradeniya, near Kandy, at a time when _Euploea core_ and _Danais septentrionis_ were particularly abundant, and he watched a number of them systematically hawking these presumably unpalatable species. As he observes, "in Ceylon a resemblance to the genera _Danais_ and _Euploea_ is doubtfully of value; in fact in the neighbourhood of Wood-swallows it is a distinct danger." Fryer also noted that the mimetic forms of _P. polytes_ were taken as well as the non-mimetic. For tropical Central and South America, that other great region where mimetic forms are numerous, there are unfortunately hardly any records of butterflies attacked by birds. Bates stated that the Pierines were much persecuted by birds, and his statement is confirmed by Hahnel, but exact observations for this region are remarkably scanty. Belt observed a pair of birds bring butterflies and dragon-flies to their young, and noticed that they brought no Heliconii to the nest although these swarmed in the neighbourhood[65]. On the other hand, Mr W. Schaus[66], from an experience of many years spent in the forests of Central America, considers that the butterflies of this region are hardly, if ever, attacked by birds. {113} For North America Marshall records over 80 cases of birds attacking butterflies. Among them is an interesting record of a bird seizing and rejecting a specimen of _Anosia plexippus_ (= _Danais archippus_), one of the few Danaines found in this region. It must be admitted that the data at present available with regard to the attacks of birds upon butterflies under natural conditions are too meagre to allow of our coming to definite conclusions on the points at issue. It is safe to say that a number of species of birds have been known to attack butterflies--that a few out of the number feed upon butterflies systematically--that some of the most persistent bird enemies devour the presumably protected forms as freely as the unprotected--but that in a few instances there is some reason for supposing that the bird discriminates. Beyond this it is unsafe to go at present. In attempting to come to a decision as to the part played by birds in the destruction of butterflies an evident desideratum is a knowledge of the contents of the stomachs of freshly killed birds. Unfortunately few systematic observations of this nature exist. G. L. Bates[67], when collecting in the Southern Cameroons, noted the stomach contents of a considerable number of birds. The remains of beetles were recognised in 213 cases: Orthoptera in 177: ants in 57 (mostly in stomachs of birds of the genus _Dendromus_): other Hymenoptera in 8: coccids in 32: bugs in 19: white ants in 31: slugs and snails in 24: spiders in 85 {114} (mostly in Sunbirds): millipedes in 20; but in no single instance were the remains of butterflies found. More recently Bates' account has been criticized by Swynnerton[68] who comments on the difficulty of identifying butterfly remains as compared with those of beetles and grasshoppers. He states that the pellets ejected by captive birds after a meal of butterflies contain only fine debris which is very difficult to identify. Further, he found that of twenty small bird excreta collected in the forest no less than eighteen contained scales and small wing fragments of Lepidoptera. Some attention has been paid to the relation between birds and butterflies in the United States, and under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture a large number of birds' stomachs have been investigated. Careful examination of some 40,000 stomachs of birds shot in their natural habitats resulted in the discovery of butterfly remains in but four. It cannot, therefore, be supposed that birds play much part in connection with such mimetic resemblances as are found in North America (cf. pp. 45-49). Nevertheless, it is known that on occasion large numbers of butterflies may be destroyed by birds. An interesting case is described by Bryant[69] of an outbreak in North California of _Eugonia californica_, a close relative of the tortoiseshell. The butterfly was so abundant as to be a plague, and five species of birds took advantage of its great abundance to prey largely upon it. From {115} his examination of the stomachs Bryant came to the conclusion that some 30% of the food of these five species was composed of this butterfly. The stomachs of many other species were examined without ever encountering butterfly remains. Nor did field observations support the view that any species, other than the five specially noted, ever attacked these butterflies. The case is of interest in the present discussion as evidence that the identification of butterfly remains in the stomachs of birds is by no means so difficult as some observers suggest. Besides this evidence derived from observations upon birds in the wild state some data have been accumulated from the experimental feeding of birds in captivity. Of such experiments the most extensive are those of Finn[70] in South India. He experimented with a number of species of insectivorous birds belonging to different groups. Of these he found that some, among which may be mentioned the King-crow, Starling, and Liothrix[71], objected to Danaines, _Papilio aristolochiae_ and _Delias eucharis_, a presumably distasteful Pierine with bright red markings on the under surface of the hind wings (Pl. II, fig. 1). In some cases the bird refused these forms altogether, while in others they were eaten in the absence of more palatable forms. The different species of birds often differed in {116} their behaviour towards these three "nauseous" forms. The Hornbill, for example, refused the Danaines and _P. aristolochiae_ absolutely, but ate _Delias eucharis_. Some species again, notably the Bulbuls (_Molpastes_) and Mynahs, shewed little or no discrimination, but devoured the "protected" as readily as the "unprotected" forms. Finn also states that "_Papilio polytes_ was not very generally popular with birds, but much preferred to its model, _P. aristolochiae_." In many of Finn's experiments both model and mimic were given to the birds simultaneously so that they had a choice, and he says that "in several cases I saw the birds apparently deceived by mimicking butterflies. The Common Babbler was deceived by _Nepheronia hippia_[72] and Liothrix by _Hypolimnas misippus_. The latter bird saw through the disguise of the mimetic _Papilio polites_, which, however, was sufficient to deceive the Bhimraj and King-crow. I doubt if any bird was impressed by the mimetic appearance of the female _Elymnias undularis_" (cf. Pl. IV, fig. 5). Finn concluded from his experiments that on the whole they tended to support the theory of Bates and Wallace, though he admits that the unpalatable forms were commonly taken without the stimulus of actual hunger and generally without signs of dislike. Certainly it is as well to be cautious in drawing conclusions from experiments with captive birds. The King-crow, for instance, according to Finn shewed a marked dislike for Danaines in captivity; yet Manders records this {117} species as feeding upon Danaines under natural conditions (cf. p. 111). A few further experiments with the birds of this region were carried out by Manders[73] in Ceylon. The results are perhaps to be preferred to Finn's, as the birds were at liberty. Manders found that the Brown Shrike (_Lanius cristatus_) would take butterflies which were pinned to a paling. In this way it made off with the mimetic females of _Hypolimnas bolina_ and _H. misippus_, as well as with _Danais chrysippus_ and _Acraea violae_ which were successively offered to it. Evidently this species had no repugnance to unpalatable forms. Manders also found that a young Mynah allowed complete liberty in a large garden would eat such forms as _Acraea violae_ and _Papilio hector_. As the result of his experience Manders considers that the unpalatability of butterflies exhibiting warning coloration has been assumed on insufficient data, and he is further inclined to doubt whether future investigations will reveal any marked preference in those birds which are mainly instrumental in the destruction of butterflies. A few experiments on feeding birds with South African butterflies are recorded by Marshall. A young Kestrel (_Cerchneis naumanni_) was fed from time to time with various species of butterflies. In most cases the butterflies offered were eaten even when they were species of _Acraea_. On the other hand _Danais chrysippus_ was generally rejected after being partly {118} devoured. When first offered this unpalatable species was taken readily and it was only after it had been tasted that the bird rejected it. When offered on several subsequent occasions it was partly eaten each time, and the behaviour of the Kestrel did not suggest that it associated a disagreeable flavour even with this conspicuous pattern. Another young Kestrel (_Cerchneis rupicoloides_) was also used for experiment. At first it would not take butterflies and at no time did it shew any fondness for them. Indeed it is doubtful from the way in which they seem to have shaped at the insects whether either of these Kestrels had had any experience of butterflies before the experiments began. A Ground Hornbill with which Marshall also experimented ate various species, including _Acraea_, but, after crushing it, refused the only _Danais chrysippus_ offered. It is hardly likely that this large omnivorous bird operates as a selecting agent in cases of mimicry. In an interesting paper published recently McAtee[74] discusses the value of feeding experiments with animals in captivity as a means of indicating their preference for different articles of diet. After reviewing the various evidence brought forward he concludes that the food accepted or rejected by captive animals is very little guide to its preferences under natural conditions. He points out that a bird in captivity not infrequently rejects what is known to form a main staple of its diet in nature, and that conversely it may eagerly accept something which, in the wild state, it {119} would have no opportunity of obtaining. Great caution must, therefore, be exercised in the interpretation of feeding experiments made with birds in captivity. It appears to be generally assumed that colour perception in birds is similar to what it is among human beings, but some experiments made by Hess[75] render it very doubtful whether this is really the case. In one of these experiments a row of cooked white grains of rice was illuminated by the whole series of spectral colours from violet to deep red. Hens which had been previously kept in the dark so that their eyes were adapted to light of low intensity were then allowed to feed on the spectral rice. The grains illuminated by green, yellow, and red were quickly taken, but the very dark red, the violet, and the blue were left, presumably because the birds were unable to perceive them. Again, when the birds were given a patch of rice grains of which half was feebly illuminated by red light and the other half more strongly by blue light, they took the red but left the blue. Previous experiment had shewn that with ordinary white light the birds always started on the best illuminated grains. It seems reasonable to conclude, therefore, that in the red-blue experiment the feebly illuminated red grains were more visible than the far more strongly lighted blue ones. It might be objected that the birds had a prejudice against blue, but, as Hess points out, this is almost certainly not the case because they took grains {120} which were very strongly illuminated with blue. Results of a similar nature were also obtained from pigeons, and from a kestrel which was fed with pieces of meat lighted with different colours. On the whole these experiments of Hess convey a strong suggestion that the colour perceptions of birds may be quite different from our own, more especially where blue is concerned. Great caution is needed in discussing instances of mimicry in their relation to the bird, for we have no right to assume that the bird sees things as we do. On the other hand, it is a matter of much interest to find that in general blue plays relatively little part in cases of mimetic resemblance among butterflies; some combination of a dark tint with either red, white, brown, or yellow being far more common. It will probably be admitted by most people that the evidence, taken all together, is hardly sufficient for ascribing to birds that part in the establishing of a mimetic likeness which is required on the theory of mimicry. That birds destroy butterflies in considerable numbers is certainly true, but it is no less true that some of the most destructive birds appear to exercise no choice in the species of butterfly attacked. They simply take what comes first and is easiest to catch. It is probably for this reason that the Wood-swallow feeds chiefly on Euploeines and Danaines (cf. p. 112). It is probably for this reason also that such a large proportion of the records of attacks on butterflies under natural conditions refer to the Pierines; for owing to {121} their light colour it is probable that the "Whites" are more conspicuous and offer a better mark for a bird in pursuit than darker coloured species. _Mammals._ Apart from man it is clear that only such mammals as are of arboreal habits are likely to cause destruction among butterflies in the imago state. Apparently there are no records of any arboreal mammal, except monkeys, capturing butterflies in the wild state, nor is there much evidence available from feeding experiments. But such evidence as exists is of considerable interest. As the result of feeding butterflies of different sorts to an Indian Tree-shrew (_Tupaia ferruginea_) Finn[76] found that it shewed a strong dislike to Danaids and to _Papilio aristolochiae_ though it took readily _Papilio demoleus_, _Neptis kamarupa_, and _Catopsilia_ (a Pierine). It is fairly certain that if the Tree-shrew is an enemy of butterflies in the wild state it is a discriminating one. The other mammals with which experiments have been made are the common baboon, a monkey (_Cercopithecus pygerythrus_), and a mongoose (_Herpestes galera_)--all by Marshall[77] in South Africa. The mongoose experiments were few and inconclusive, nor is this a matter of much moment as it is unlikely that this mammal is a serious enemy of butterflies. The monkey ate various forms of _Precis_ (a Vanessid), after which it was given _Acraea halali_. This distasteful form was "accepted without suspicion, but when {122} the monkey put it into his mouth, he at once took it out again and looked at it with the utmost surprise for some seconds, and then threw it away. He would have nothing to do with an _Acraea caldarena_ which I then offered him[78]." The experiments with the baboons were more extensive. Two species of _Acraea_, _halali_ and _axina_, were recognised when first offered and refused untasted. _Danais chrysippus_, on the other hand, was tasted on being offered for the first time, and then rejected. This species was twice offered subsequently and tasted each time before being rejected. When offered the fourth time it was rejected at sight. The baboon evidently learned to associate an unpleasant taste with the _chrysippus_ pattern. At this stage it would have been interesting to have offered it some well-known mimic of _chrysippus_, such as the female of _Hypolimnas misippus_ or the _trophonius_ form of _Papilio dardanus_, but this experiment was unfortunately not made. Marshall did, however, offer it at the same time a specimen each of _Byblia ilithyia_ (a Vanessid) and of _Acraea axina_ to which it bears a general resemblance. The baboon took the former but neglected the latter altogether. The general resemblance between the two species was not sufficiently close to deceive it. These experiments with mammals, though few in number, are of unusual interest. Should they be substantiated by further work it is not impossible {123} that, as a factor in the establishing of a mimetic likeness, a stronger case may be made out for the monkey than the bird. The monkey apparently eats butterflies readily[79]: owing probably to a keener sense of smell it shews far less hesitation as to its likes and dislikes: its intelligence is such that one can easily imagine it exercising the necessary powers of discrimination; in short it is the ideal enemy for which advocates of the mimicry theory have been searching--if only it could fly. As things are its butterfly captures must be made when the insect is at rest, probably near sunrise and sunset, and this leads to a difficulty. Most butterflies rest with their wings closed. In many of the well-known cases of mimicry the pattern on the under surface of the mimic's wings which would meet the monkey's eye is quite different from that of its model. It is difficult in such cases to imagine the monkey operating as a factor in establishing a resemblance between the upper surfaces of the wings of the two unrelated species. On the other hand, some butterflies, {124} _e.g._ _Papilio polytes_, rest with wings outspread, and there are rare cases, such as that of _P. laglaizei_ (p. 27), where the most striking point about the resemblance is only to be appreciated when the insects are at rest with their wings closed. In such cases it is conceivable that the monkey may play a part in the elimination of the non-mimetic elements of a palatable species which at the same time possessed a mimetic form closely resembling another species disagreeable to the monkey's taste. As has been pointed out earlier (p. 96) even a slight persecution directed with adequate discrimination will in time bring about a marked result where the mimetic likeness is already in existence. It is not impossible therefore that the establishing of such a likeness may often be due more to the discrimination of the monkey than to the mobility of the bird. * * * * * {125} CHAPTER X MIMICRY AND VARIATION It is clear from the last few chapters that the theory of mimicry in butterflies with its interpretation of the building up of these likenesses by means of natural selection in the form of predaceous birds and other foes is open to destructive criticism from several points of view. The evidence from mimicry rings makes it almost certain that in some cases the resemblance must be founded on an initial variation of such magnitude that the mimic could straightway be confused with the model. Till the mimic can be mistaken for the model natural selection plays no part. The evidence from breeding suggests strongly that in certain cases (_e.g._ _Papilio polytes_) the likeness arose in the form in which we know it to-day. In such cases there is no reason for supposing that natural selection has had anything to do with the formation of the finished mimic. Considerations of this nature may be said to have destroyed the view, current until quite recently, that in the formation of a mimetic resemblance the exclusive agent was natural selection. During the past few years it has come to be admitted by the staunchest upholders of the theory of mimicry that natural {126} selection would not come into play until the would-be mimic was sufficiently like the model to be confused with it under natural conditions[80]. The part now often attributed to natural selection is to put a polish on the resemblance and to keep it up to the mark by weeding out those which do not reach the required standard. It is supposed that if natural selection ceases to operate the mimetic resemblance is gradually lost owing to the appearance of variations which are no longer weeded out. An interesting case has recently been brought forward by Carpenter[81] and explained on these lines: The Nymphaline _Pseudacraea eurytus_ is a polymorphic species found in Central Africa. In Uganda it occurs in several distinct forms which were originally supposed to be distinct species. Three of these forms bear a marked resemblance to three species of the Acraeine genus _Planema_. Mimic Model _Pseudacraea eurytus_ _Planema_ Form _hobleyi_[82] (Pl. VII, figs. 6, 7) _macarista_ (Pl. VII, fig. 2) _terra_ (Pl. VII, fig. 8) _tellus_ (Pl. VII, fig. 3) _obscura_ _paragea_ (Pl. VII, fig. 4) These different species occur round Victoria Nyanza and also on some of the islands in the lake. Some {127} interesting points are brought out by a comparison of the occurrence and variation of the species on the mainland with what is found on Bugalla Island in the Sesse Archipelago. On the mainland the Pseudacraeas are abundant but the Planemas even more so, outnumbering the former by about 5:2[83]. Moreover, it is rare to find individuals more or less intermediate between the three forms, though they are known to occur. On Bugalla Island, however, a different state of things is found. The Pseudacraeas are very abundant, whereas the Planemas, owing doubtless to the scarcity of their food plant, are relatively rare, and are very greatly outnumbered by the Pseudacraeas. At the same time the proportion of transitional forms among the Pseudacraeas is definitely higher than on the mainland. These facts are interpreted by Carpenter as follows:-- On the mainland where the models are abundant there is a vigorous action on the part of natural selection. The mimetic forms have a strong advantage and the non-mimetics have been gradually weeded out. But on the island, where the Pseudacraeas outnumber the models, the advantage obtained through mimicry is not so great. The so-called transitional forms are little, if at all, worse off than those closely resembling the scarce models, and consequently have as good a chance of surviving as any of the typical mimetic forms. On {128} the mainland, however, the enemies of _Pseudacraea_ are well acquainted with the _Planema_ models which are here common, and discriminate against individuals which are not close mimics of the Planemas. The result is that on the mainland transitional forms are scarcer than on the island. Natural selection maintains a high standard for the mimetic likeness on the mainland owing to the abundance of the model; but when the model is scarce the likeness ceases to be kept up to the mark strictly, and tends to become lost owing to the appearance of fresh variations which are no longer weeded out. Here it should be stated that the various Pseudacraeas form a population in which the different forms mate freely with one another. In the few breeding experiments that Dr Carpenter was able to make he found that _obscura_ could produce _terra_, and that _tirikensis_ was able to give _obscura_, the male in each case being, of course, unknown. Far too little work has as yet been done on the genetics of these various forms, and it would be rash to make assumptions as to the nature of the intermediates until the method of experimental breeding has been more extensively employed in analysing their constitution. Possibly it is not without significance that the abundance or scarcity of the _obscura_ form runs parallel with the abundance or scarcity of the intermediates. It suggests that the intermediates are heterozygous in some factor for which the typical _obscura_ is homozygous, and the fact that the intermediates are more numerous than {129} _obscura_ is what is to be looked for in a population mating at random. This case of the polymorphic _Pseudacraea eurytus_ is one of the greatest interest, but it would be hazardous to draw any far-reaching deductions from such facts as are known at present. When the genetics of the various typical forms and of the intermediates has been worked out it will be disappointing if it does not throw clear and important light on these problems of mimetic resemblance. As the result of modern experimental breeding work it is recognised that an intermediate form between two definite varieties may be so because it is heterozygous for a factor for which one variety is homozygous and which is lacking in the other--because it has received from only one parent what the two typical varieties receive from both parents or from neither. Its germ cells, however, are such as are produced by the two typical forms, and the intermediate cannot be regarded as a stage in the evolution of one variety from the other. In these cases of mimicry the existence of intermediate forms does not entail the deduction that they have played a part in the evolution of one pattern from another under the influence of a given model. It is quite possible that the new mimetic pattern appeared suddenly as a sport and that the intermediates arose when the new form bred with that which was already in existence. But before we are acquainted with the genetic relationships between the various forms, both types and intermediates, speculation as to their origin must remain comparatively worthless. {130} In this connection a few words on another source of variation may not be out of place. The patterns of butterflies are often very sensitive to changes in the conditions to which they are exposed during later larval and pupal life. Many moths and butterflies in temperate climates are double brooded. The eggs laid by the late summer brood hatch out, hibernate in the larval or pupal state, and emerge in the following spring. This spring brood produces the summer brood during the same year. In these cases it often happens that the two broods differ in appearance from one another, a phenomenon to which the term "Seasonal Dimorphism" has been applied. A well-marked instance is that of the little European Vanessid, _Araschnia levana_. The so-called _levana_ form which emerges in the spring is a small black and orange-brown butterfly (Pl. VI, fig. 10). From the eggs laid by this brood is produced another brood which emerges later on in the summer, and is, from its very different appearance, distinguished as the _prorsa_ form (Pl. VI, fig. 9). It is very much darker than the spring form and is characterised by white bands across the wings. The eggs laid by the _prorsa_ form give rise to the _levana_ form which emerges in the following spring. It has been shewn by various workers, and more especially by the extensive experiments of Merrifield[84], that the appearance of the _levana_ or the _prorsa_ form from any batch of eggs, whether laid by _prorsa_ or _levana_, is dependent upon the conditions of temperature under {131} which the later larval and early pupal stages are passed. By cooling appropriately at the right stage _levana_ can be made to produce _levana_ instead of the _prorsa_ which it normally produces under summer conditions. So also by appropriate warming _prorsa_ will give rise to _prorsa_. Moreover, if the conditions are properly adjusted an intermediate form _porima_ can be produced, a form which occurs occasionally under natural conditions. The pattern is, in short, a function of the temperature to which certain earlier sensitive stages in this species are submitted. What is true of _A. levana_ is true also of a number of other species. In some cases temperature is the factor that induces the variation. In other countries where the year is marked by wet and dry seasons instead of warm and cold ones moisture is the agent that brings about the change. In some of the South African butterflies of the genus _Precis_ the seasonal change may be even more conspicuous than in _A. levana_. In _Precis octavia_, for example, the ground colour of the wet season form is predominantly red, while in the dry season form of the same species the pattern is different, blue being the predominating colour (cf. Pl. VI, figs. 11 and 12). Such examples as these are sufficient to shew how sensitive many butterflies are to changes in the conditions of later larval and earlier pupal life. The variations brought about in this way are as a rule smaller than in the examples chosen, but in no case are they known to be inherited, and in no case consequently could variation of this nature play any part in {132} evolutionary change. Before any given variation can be claimed as a possible stage in the development of a mimetic likeness satisfactory evidence must be forthcoming that it is not of this nature, but that it is transmissible and independent of climatic and other conditions. Many species of butterflies, especially such as are found over a wide range, exhibit minor varieties which are characteristic of given localities. These minor varieties may be quite small. In _Danais chrysippus_, for example, African and Asiatic specimens can generally be distinguished. On examples from India a small spot is seen just below the bar on the fore wing and on the inner side of it. Eastwards towards China this spot tends to become larger and confluent with the white bar, giving rise to an L-shaped marking; westwards in Africa the spot tends to disappear altogether. The existence of such local races has been used as an argument for the hereditary transmission of very small variations--in the present instance the size of a small white spot[85]. For if it can be supposed that small differences of this nature are always transmitted, it becomes less difficult to imagine that a mimetic resemblance has been brought about by a long series of very small steps. But before this can be admitted it is necessary to shew by experiment that the size of this spot is independent of environmental conditions, both climatic and other. Apart from temperature and moisture it is not improbable that the formation of {133} pigment in the wings may depend in some degree upon the nature of the food. The larvae of _D. chrysippus_ feed upon various Asclepiads, and it is at any rate conceivable that the pigment formation, and consequently the details of pattern, may be in slight measure affected by the plant species upon which they have fed. The species of food plants are more likely to be different at the extremities of the range of a widely distributed form like _D. chrysippus_, and if they are really a factor in the pattern it is at the extremities that we should expect to find the most distinct forms[86]. Actually we do find this in _D. chrysippus_, though it does not, of course, follow that the cause suggested is the true one, or, if true, the only one. Of the nature of local races too little at present is known to enable us to lay down any generalization. We must first learn by experiment how far they remain constant when transported from their own environment and bred in the environment under which another distinct local race is living. The behaviour of the transported race under the altered conditions would help us in deciding whether any variation by which it is characterised had a definite hereditary basis or was merely a fluctuation dependent upon something in the conditions under which it had grown up. The decision as to whether it is hereditary or not must depend upon the {134} test of breeding, through which alone we can hope to arrive at a satisfactory verdict upon any given case. The particular geographical variation which has just been considered happens to be a small one. But it may happen that a geographical variety is much more distinct. Indeed it is not impossible that butterflies which are at present ranked as distinct species may prove eventually to be different forms of the same species. Especially is this likely to be true of many forms in South America, of which Bates long ago remarked "that the suspicion of many of the species being nothing more than local modifications of other forms has proved to be well founded." Since Bates' day more material has been forthcoming[87] and it has been shewn that certain colour schemes are characteristic of distinct geographical regions in South America where they may occur in species belonging to very different genera and families. In Central America, for example, the pattern common to many species is determined by horizontal and oblique black bands on a bright fulvous brown ground, with two broken yellow bars towards the tip of the fore wing. The general type is well shewn by _Mechanitis saturata_ and the female of _Dismorphia praxinoe_ (Pl. X, figs. 7 and 3). Belonging to this pattern group are a number of different species belonging to various families, including several Heliconines and Ithomiines, Pierids such as _Dismorphia_ and _Perrhybris_, Nymphalines of the genera _Eresia_ and {135} _Protogonius_, and other forms. In Eastern Brazil the predominant pattern is one characterised by a yellow band across the hind wing and a white or yellow apical fore wing marking (cf. Pl. XV, figs. 3 and 8). Here also, with the exception of the _Perrhybris_, all the various genera which figured in the last group are again represented. It is true that the members of this second group are regarded as belonging to different species from those of the first group, but as species here are made by the systematist chiefly, if not entirely, on the colour pattern this fact may not mean much. Passing now to Ega on the Upper Amazons the general ground colour is a deep chestnut purple and the apical area of the fore wings presents a much mottled appearance (cf. Pl. XV, figs. 4 and 9). In this group again we find represented the different genera found in the other groups, the only notable absentees being _Eresia_ and _Perrhybris_. Lastly in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia the general pattern scheme consists of orange-tawny markings on a black ground (cf. Pl. XV, figs. 5 and 10). This group differs somewhat in composition from the preceding in that it contains no Pierid and no Danaid. On the other hand its numbers have been strengthened by the accession of a _Papilio_, an _Acraea_, and two species of the Satyrid genus _Pedaliodes_. Certain writers have seen in the theory of mimicry the only explanation of these peculiar geographical pattern groups. The fashion is in each case set by the most abundant form, generally an Ithomiine of the genus _Melinaea_. The rest are mimics of this dominant species, either in the {136} Batesian or Müllerian sense. Batesian mimics are such genera as _Dismorphia_ and _Protogonius_, to which there are no reasons for attributing disagreeable properties. Of the nature of Müllerian mimics on the other hand are the various Heliconines and Ithomiines which enter into the combination. In each case the whole assemblage is a great "mimicry ring," of which the pattern is dictated by the Ithomiine that predominates in point of numbers. It is, however, very doubtful whether this can be accepted as a satisfactory explanation. The four groups which we have considered are all characterised by a peculiar and distinctive coloration, and in each case the pattern must on the theory of mimicry be regarded as a highly efficient warning pattern. One or other of these patterns must doubtless be looked upon as the most primitive. If so the question at once arises as to why a distasteful genus should change from one efficient warning pattern to another quite distinct one. If the newer pattern affords better protection we should expect it to have spread and eventually to have ousted the older one. That it has not done so must probably be attributed to the old pattern being as efficient as the new one. But if this is so we are left without grounds for assuming the change to have been brought about by natural selection through the agency of enemies to whom warning colours appeal. For natural selection can only bring about a change that is beneficial to the species. Hence we must suppose the change on the part of the dominant model to have been independent of natural selection by {137} enemies, and due to some condition or set of conditions of which we are ignorant. It is not inconceivable that the new colour scheme was associated with some physiological peculiarity which was advantageous to the species in its altered surroundings. If so natural selection may have favoured the new variety, not because of its colour scheme, but owing to the underlying physiological differences of which the pattern is but an outward sign. And if this could happen in one species there seems to be no reason why it should not happen in others. The weak point of the explanation on the mimicry hypothesis is that it offers no explanation of the change in the so-called dominant Ithomiine pattern as we pass from one region to another. Whatever the cause of this change may be there would appear to be nothing against it having also operated to produce similar changes in other unrelated species, in which case the mimicry hypothesis becomes superfluous. It is not unlikely that the establishing of these new forms was due to natural selection. If they were associated with physiological peculiarities better adapted for their environment it is reasonable to suppose that natural selection would favour their persistence as opposed to the older type until the latter was eliminated. But such action on the part of natural selection is quite distinct from that postulated on the mimicry hypothesis. On the one view the colour itself is selected because it is of direct advantage to its possessor; on the other view the colour pattern is associated with a certain physiological constitution which places the {138} butterflies possessing it at an advantage as compared with the rest[88]. It is, nevertheless, possible that mimicry may have played some part in connection with establishing the new colour pattern in some of these South American species. For if the new pattern had become established in the predominant distasteful species, and if some of the members of a palatable form (_e.g._ _Protogonius_) were to shew a variation similar to that already established in the distasteful species, and if further there be granted the existence of appropriate enemies, then it would be almost certain that the newer form in palatable species would eventually replace the older form. In such a case the part played by natural selection would be the preservation of a chance sport which happened to look like an unpalatable form. There is no reason for regarding the change as necessarily brought about by the gradual accumulation of a long series of very small variations through the operation of natural selection. * * * * * {139} CHAPTER XI CONCLUSION From the facts recorded in the preceding chapters it is clear that there are difficulties in the way of accepting the mimicry theory as an explanation of the remarkable resemblances which are often found between butterflies belonging to distinct groups. Of these difficulties two stand out beyond the rest, viz., the difficulty of finding the agent that shall exercise the appropriate powers of discrimination, and the difficulty of fitting in the theoretical process involving the incessant accumulation of minute variations with what is at present known of the facts of heredity. With regard to the former of these two difficulties we have seen that the supporters of the theory regard birds as the main selective agent. At the outset we are met with the fact that relatively few birds have been observed to prey habitually on butterflies, while some at any rate of those that do so shew no discrimination between what should be theoretically pleasant to eat and what should not be pleasant. Even if birds are the postulated enemies it must be further shewn that they exercise the postulated discrimination. It is required of them that they should do two things. {140} In the first place they must confuse an incipient or "rough" mimic with a model sufficiently often to give it an advantage over those which have not varied in the direction of the model. In other words, they must be easily taken in. Secondly, they are expected to bring about those marvellously close resemblances that sometimes occur by confusing the exact mimicking pattern with the model, while at the same time eliminating those which vary ever so little from it. In other words, they must be endowed with most remarkably acute powers of discrimination. Clearly one cannot ask the same enemy to play both parts. If, therefore, birds help to bring about the resemblance we must suppose that it is done by different species--that there are some which do the rough work, others which do the smoothing, and others again which put on the final polish and keep it up to the mark. This is, of course, a possibility, but before it can be accepted as a probability some evidence must be forthcoming in its favour. But even if the difficulty of the appropriate enemy be passed over, and it be granted that a mimetic resemblance can be built up through a number of small separate steps, which have become separately established through the agency of separate species of birds with various but distinct discriminating powers, we are left face to face with an even more serious physiological difficulty. For why is it that when the end form which is supposed to have resulted from this process is crossed back with the original form all {141} the intermediate steps do not reappear? Why is it that when the altered germplasm is mingled with the original germplasm the various postulated stages between them are not reformed? For in various cases where we know the course of evolution this does occur. The pale pink sweet-pea has come from the wild purple by a series of definite steps, and when it is crossed back with the wild form the resulting plants give the series of stages that have occurred in the evolution of the pink. So also when the orange rabbit is crossed with the wild grey form and the offspring are inbred there are reproduced the black, the tortoiseshell, and the chocolate, forms which are stages in the evolution of the orange from the wild grey. If then, to take an example, the "aristolochiae" form of _Papilio polytes_ has been derived from the male-like form by a series of steps, why do we not get these steps reproduced after the germplasms of the two forms have been mingled? From the standpoint of modern genetic work the inference is that these postulated intermediate steps have never existed--that the one form of _polytes_ female came directly from the other, and was not built up gradually through a series of stages by the selective agency of birds or any other discriminating enemy. These two objections, viz. the difficulty of finding the appropriate enemy, and the non-appearance of intermediates when the extreme forms are crossed, may, perhaps, be said to constitute the main objections to the current theory of mimicry. Others such as {142} the relative scarcity of mimicry in the male sex and the existence of cases of polymorphism among females of a species which cannot possibly be explained on mimetic lines have already been mentioned. But while the main objections remain it is hardly necessary to insist upon these others. Looked at critically in the light of what we now know about heredity and variation the mimicry hypothesis is an unsatisfactory explanation of the way in which these remarkable resemblances between different species of butterflies have been brought about. Sometimes this is admitted by those who nevertheless embrace the theory with a mild aloofness. For they argue that even though it does not explain all the facts no other theory explains so many. Others have sought an explanation in what has sometimes been termed the hypothesis of external causes, regarding these resemblances as brought about by similar conditions of soil and climate, and so forth. It is not inconceivable that certain types of colour and pattern may be the expression of deep-seated physiological differences, which place their possessors at an advantage as compared with the rest of the species. Were this so it is but reasonable to suppose that they would become established through the agency of natural selection. But it is difficult, if not impossible, to regard this as a satisfactory solution, if for no other reason than that it offers no explanation of polymorphism. For example, each of the three forms of _polytes_ female holds its own and all must, therefore, be regarded as equally well adapted to the circumstances under which {143} they live. They are so distinct in colour that it is difficult on this hypothesis to suppose that they are all on the same footing in respect to their environment. Yet if one is better off than the others, how is it that these still exist? Those who have examined long series of these cases of resemblance among butterflies find it hard to believe that there is not some connection between them apart from climatic influence. One feels that they are too numerous and too striking to be all explained away as mere coincidences engendered by like conditions. Nor is it improbable that natural selection in the form of the discriminating enemy may have played a part in connection with them, though a different one from that advocated on the current theory of mimicry. If we assume that sudden and readily appreciable variations of the nature of "sports" turn up from time to time, and if these variations happen to resemble a form protected by distastefulness so closely that the two can be confused by an enemy which has learned to avoid the latter, then there would appear to be good grounds for the mimicking sport becoming established as the type form of the species. For it has already been seen that a rare sport is not swamped by intercrossing with the normal form, but that on the contrary if it possess even a slight advantage, it must rapidly displace the form from which it sprang (cf. Chap. VIII). On this view natural selection in the form of the discriminating enemy will have played its part, but now with a difference. Instead of building up a {144} mimetic likeness bit by bit it will merely have conserved and rendered numerically preponderant a likeness which had turned up quite independently. The function of natural selection in respect of a mimetic likeness lies not in its formation but in its conservation. It does not bring about the likeness, neither does it accentuate it: it brings about the survival of those forms which happen to shew the likeness. Why variations on the part of one species should bear a strong resemblance to other, and often distantly related, species is another question altogether. Even a superficial survey of the facts makes it evident that cases of mimicry tend to run in series--that a closely related series of mimics, though often of very different pattern and colour, tends to resemble a closely related series of models. In Asia we have the Cosmodesmus Papilios mimicking a series of Danaines, while the true Papilios (cf. Appendix II) tend to resemble a series of the less conspicuous members of the Pharmacophagus group. In the same region the various species of _Elymnias_ form a series resembling a series of Danaines. In Africa there stands out the Cosmodesmus group again mimicking a Danaine series, and in part also an Acraeine series. Overlapping the Acraeines again are various forms of the Nymphaline genus _Pseudacraea_. It is also of interest that in _Danais chrysippus_ and _Acraea encedon_ the Danaine and Acraeine series overlap (cf. Pl. IX). Similar phenomena occur also in South America, where closely parallel series of colour patterns are exhibited by several {145} Ithomiines, by _Heliconius_, _Lycorea_, _Dismorphia_, and other genera (cf. p. 39). On the other hand such mimetic resemblances as are shewn by the South American Swallow-tails of the Papilio and Cosmodesmus groups are almost all with the Pharmacophagus group, and almost all of the red-black kind (cf. p. 43). On the whole it may be stated that the majority of cases of mimicry fall into one or other of such series as the above. If we select a case of mimicry at random we shall generally find that there are at least several close allies of the mimic resembling several close allies of the model. Isolated cases such as the resemblance between _Pareronia_ and _Danais_ (p. 23), between _Archonias_ and a Pharmacophagus Papilio (p. 43), or the extraordinary instance of _Papilio laglaizei_ and _Alcidis agathyrsus_, must be regarded as exceptional. We have before us then a number of groups of butterflies each with a series of different colour patterns. In each group a portion of the series overlaps a portion of the series belonging to another more or less distantly related group. In the light of recent discoveries connected with heredity and variation the natural interpretation to such a set of phenomena would be somewhat as follows: Each group of Lepidoptera, such as those just discussed, contains, spread out among its various members, a number of hereditary factors for the determination of colour pattern. Within the group differences of pattern depend upon the presence or absence of this or that factor, the variety of pattern being the result of the many possible permutations and {146} combinations of these colour factors. Within the limits of each group is found a definite number of these factors--more in one group, less in another. But some factors may be common to two or more groups, in which case some of the permutations of the factors would be similar in the groups and would result in identical or nearly identical pattern. To take a simple example in illustration, let us suppose that a given group, ([alpha]), contains the eight factors A-H. Since any species in the group may exhibit any combination of one or more of these factors it follows that a considerable number of different forms are possible. Now suppose that another group, ([beta]), distinguished from ([alpha]) by definite structural features, also contains eight factors within the group, and that these factors are F-M, F, G, and H being common to both ([alpha]) and ([beta]). Any combination therefore in ([alpha]) lacking the factors A-E will be paralleled by any combination in ([beta]) lacking the factors I-M. For in both cases we should be dealing only with the factors F, G, and H, which are common to each group. So again a third group might have some factors in common with ([alpha]) and some with ([beta]), and so on for other groups. In this way certain of the series of colour patterns found in ([beta]) would overlap certain of those in ([alpha]), while others of the groups ([beta]) and ([alpha]) might overlap those found in different groups again. The striking resemblances not infrequently found between species belonging to quite distinct groups would on this view depend upon the hereditary factors for pattern and colour being limited {147} in number, so that the same assortment might not infrequently be brought together even though the group whose members exhibited the resemblance might, owing to structural differences, be placed in different families. We know from recent experimental work that something of the sort is to be found in the coat colours of different rodents. Agouti, black, chocolate, blue-agouti, blue, and fawn form a series of colours common to the rabbit, the mouse, and the guinea-pig. These colours are related to each other in the same way in these different beasts. In the rat, on the other hand, there occur of this range of colours only the agouti and the black. Each of these species again has certain colour patterns which are peculiar to itself, such as the "English" type in the rabbit, the tricolor pattern in the guinea-pig, or the "hooded" variety in the rat. The total range of colour and pattern is somewhat different for each species, but a few are common to them all. Moreover, there are others which are common to the mouse and the rabbit but are not found in the guinea-pig, and others again which may occur in the rabbit and the guinea-pig but have not been met with in the other two. In certain features the rabbit might be said to "mimic" the mouse, and in other features the guinea-pig. It is not, of course, suggested that the case of the butterflies is so simple as that of the rodents, but so far as we can see at present there would seem to be no reason why the explanation should not be sought along the same lines. {148} On this view the various colour patterns found among butterflies depend primarily upon definite hereditary factors of which the number is by no means enormous. Many of these factors are common to several or many different groups, and a similar aggregate of colour factors, whether in an Ithomiine, a Pierid, or a Papilio, results in a similar colour scheme. The likeness may be close without being exact because the total effect is dependent in some degree on the size and relative frequency of the scales and other structural features. In so far as pattern goes _Hypolimnas dubius_ and _Amauris echeria_ (Pl. VIII, figs. 7 and 8) are exceedingly close. But inspection at once reveals a difference in the quality of the scaling, giving to the _Hypolimnas_, where the black and yellow meet, a softness or even raggedness of outline, which is distinct from the sharper and more clear-cut borders of the _Amauris_. It is not unreasonable to suppose that these species carry identical factors for colour pattern, and that the differences by which the eye distinguishes them are dependent upon the minuter structural differences such as occur in the scaling. So the eye would distinguish between a pattern printed in identical colours on a piece of cretonne and a piece of glazed calico. Though pattern and colour were the same the difference in material would yield a somewhat different effect. On the view suggested the occurrence of mimetic resemblances is the expression of the fact that colour pattern is dependent upon definite hereditary factors of which the total number is by no means very great. {149} As many of the factors are common to various groups of butterflies it is to be expected that certain of the colour patterns exhibited by one group should be paralleled by certain of those found in another group. That cases of resemblance should tend to run in parallel series in different groups is also to be expected, for in some groups the number of factors in common is likely to be greater than in other groups. In consonance with this view is the fact that where polymorphism occurs among the females of a mimicking species the models, though often widely different in appearance, are, as a rule, closely related. Some of the Asiatic Papilios, for instance, resemble Danaines, while others resemble Pharmacophagus Papilios. But although the polymorphism exhibited by the females of a given species may be very marked, we do not find one of them resembling a Danaine and another a Pharmacophagus Swallow-tail. The models of a polymorphic mimic are almost always closely related species[89]. In discussing the problems of mimicry more attention is naturally paid to groups which exhibit the phenomenon than to those which either do not do so, or else only do so to a very limited extent. Yet the latter may be of considerable interest. Among the Pieridae of the Old World the phenomenon of mimicry is very rare. _Pareronia_ and _Aporia agathon_ conform {150} closely to the common Danaid type represented by _Danais vulgaris_ and other species, but apart from these none of the many Pierids in Asia resemble any of the recognised models. Africa is apparently destitute of Pierids which mimic species belonging to other groups. Yet no group of butterflies is more persecuted by birds. Of all the instances of bird attacks collected together by Marshall[90] more than one-third are instances of attacks upon this group alone. If birds are the agents by which mimetic likenesses are built up through the cumulative selection of small variations, how can the rarity or absence of mimetic Pierids in the Old World be accounted for? For the species of Pierids, like the species of other families, shew considerable variation, and if this process of selection were really at work one would expect to find many more Pierid mimics in these regions than actually occur. It is true that the white, yellow, and red pigments found in Pierids differ from those of other butterflies in being composed either of uric acid or of some substance closely allied to that body[91]. These substances are generally found between the two layers of chitin, of which the scale is composed, whereas the black pigment is intimately associated with the chitin of the scale itself. What is perhaps the principal factor in the formation of a mimetic likeness is the distribution of the black pigment with reference to the lighter pigments; and although the latter are chemically distinct {151} in the Pierids as compared with other butterflies, there would seem to be no reason why the same factors governing the distribution of black should not be common to members of different groups. A distribution of black pigment similar to that found in a model and its mimic may occur also in a non-mimetic ally of the mimic. _Dismorphia astynome_, for example, resembles the Ithomiine _Mechanitis lysimnia_ (Pl. XV, fig. 8) both in the distribution of black as well as of yellow and bright brown pigments. A similar distribution of the black pigment is also found in _Dismorphia avonia_, but the yellow and bright brown of the other two species is here replaced with white. By a slight though definite alteration in chemical composition this white pigment could be changed into bright brown and yellow with the result that _D. avonia_ would closely resemble _D. astynome_ in its colour scheme and would in this way also become a mimic of _Mechanitis lysimnia_. Another good instance is that of the females of _Perrhybris demophile_ and _P. lorena_, the former being black and white, whereas in the latter the white is replaced by yellow and bright brown, giving the insect a typical Ithomiine appearance[92]. Here again a definite small change in the composition of the pigment laid down in the scales would result in the establishing of a mimetic likeness where there would otherwise be not even a suggestion of it. It is in accordance with what we know to-day of variation {152} that such a change should appear suddenly, complete from the start. And if so there is no difficulty in supposing that it might be of some advantage to its possessor through the resemblance to an unpalatable form. Even were the advantage but a slight one it is clear from previous discussion (p. 96) that the new variety would more or less rapidly replace the form from which it had sprung. With the continued operation of natural selection the new form would entirely supplant the original one, but it is not impossible that in some cases the selecting agent may be removed before this result has been achieved. In this event the proportions of the new and the old form would fall into a condition of equilibrium as in _P. polytes_ in Ceylon, until some other selective agent arose to disturb the balance. On this view natural selection is a real factor in connection with mimicry, but its function is to conserve and render preponderant an already existing likeness, not to build up that likeness through the accumulation of small variations, as is so generally assumed. Recent researches in heredity and variation all point to this restriction of the scope of natural selection. Hitherto an argument in favour of the older view has been that derived from the study of adaptation--of an apparent purpose, which, at first sight, appears to be behind the manner in which animals fit into their surroundings. For many the explanation of this apparent purpose has been found in the process of natural selection operating gradually upon small variations, accumulating some and rejecting {153} others, working as it were upon a plastic organism, moulding it little by little to a more and more perfect adaptation to its surroundings. On this view adaptation is easy to understand. The simplicity of the explanation is in itself attractive. But when the facts come to be examined critically it is evident that there are grave, if not insuperable, difficulties in the way of its acceptance. To outline some of these has been the object of the present essay. Though suggestions have been made as to the lines along which an explanation may eventually be sought it is not pretended that the evidence is yet strong enough to justify more than suggestions. Few cases of mimicry have as yet been studied in any detail, and until this has been done many of the points at issue must remain undecided. Nevertheless, the facts, so far as we at present know them, tell definitely against the views generally held as to the part played by natural selection in the process of evolution. * * * * * {154} APPENDIX I For the table on p. 155 I am indebted to the kindness of Mr H. T. J. Norton of Trinity College, Cambridge. It affords an easy means of estimating the change brought about through selection with regard to a given hereditary factor in a population of mixed nature mating at random. It must be supposed that the character depending upon the given factor shews complete dominance, so that there is no visible distinction between the homozygous and the heterozygous forms. The three sets of figures in the left-hand column indicate different positions of equilibrium in a population consisting of homozygous dominants, heterozygous dominants, and recessives. The remaining columns indicate the number of generations in which a population will pass from one position of equilibrium to another, under a given intensity of selection. The intensity of selection is indicated by the fractions 100/50, 100/75, etc. Thus 100/75 means that where the chances of the favoured new variety of surviving to produce offspring are 100, those of the older variety against which selection is operating are as 75; there is a 25% selection rate in favour of the new form. The working of the table may perhaps be best explained by a couple of simple examples. In a population in equilibrium consisting of homozygous dominants, heterozygous dominants and recessives the last named class comprises 2.8% of the total: assuming that a 10% selection rate now operates in its favour as opposed to the two classes of dominants--in how many generations will the recessive come to constitute one-quarter of the population? The answer is to be looked for in column B (since the favoured variety is recessive) under the fraction 100/90. The recessive passes from 2.8% to 11.1% of the population in 36 generations, and from 11.1% to 25% in a further 16 generations--_i.e._ under a 10% selection rate in its favour the proportion of the recessive rises from 2.8% to 25% in 52 generations. {155} A: Where the new variety is dominant +-----------+-----------+----------+------------------------------------+ | | | | Number of generations taken | |Percentage |Percentage |Percentage| to pass from one position | |of total |of total |of total | to another as indicated | |population |population |population| in the percentages of different | |formed by |formed by |formed by | individuals in left-hand column. | |old variety|the hybrids|the new +--------+--------+--------+---------+ | | |variety | 100/50 | 100/75 | 100/90 | 100/99 | +-----------+-----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+---------+ | 99.9 | .09 | .000 | | | | | | 98.0 | 1.96 | .008 | 4 | 10 | 28 | 300 | | 90.7 | 9.0 | .03 | 2 | 5 | 15 | 165 | | 69.0 | 27.7 | 2.8 | 2 | 4 | 14 | 153 | | 44.4 | 44.4 | 11.1 | 2 | 4 | 12 | 121 | | 25. | 50. | 25. | 2 | 4 | 12 | 119 | | 11.1 | 44.4 | 44.4 | 4 | 8 | 18 | 171 | | 2.8 | 27.7 | 69.0 | 10 | 17 | 40 | 393 | | .03 | 9.0 | 90.7 | 36 | 68 | 166 | 1632 | | .008 | 1.96 | 98.0 | 170 | 333 | 827 | 8243 | | .000 | .09 | 99.9 | 3840 | 7653 | 19,111 | 191,002 | +-----------+-----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+---------+ B: Where the new variety is recessive +-----------+-----------+----------+------------------------------------+ | | | | Number of generations taken | |Percentage |Percentage |Percentage| to pass from one position | |of total |of total |of total | to another as indicated | |population |population |population| in the percentages of different | |formed by |formed by |formed by | individuals in left-hand column. | |old variety|the hybrids|the new +--------+--------+--------+---------+ | | |variety | 100/50 | 100/75 | 100/90 | 100/99 | +-----------+-----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+---------+ | 99.9 | .09 | .000 | | | | | | 98.0 | 1.96 | .008 | 1920 | 5740 | 17,200 | 189,092 | | 90.7 | 9.0 | .03 | 85 | 250 | 744 | 8,160 | | 69.0 | 27.7 | 2.8 | 18 | 51 | 149 | 1,615 | | 44.4 | 44.4 | 11.1 | 5 | 13 | 36 | 389 | | 25. | 50. | 25. | 2 | 6 | 16 | 169 | | 11.1 | 44.4 | 44.4 | 2 | 4 | 11 | 118 | | 2.8 | 27.7 | 69.0 | 2 | 4 | 11 | 120 | | .03 | 9.0 | 90.7 | 2 | 6 | 14 | 152 | | .008 | 1.96 | 98.0 | 2 | 6 | 16 | 165 | | .000 | .09 | 99.9 | 4 | 10 | 28 | 299 | +-----------+-----------+----------+--------+--------+--------+---------+ {156} If the favoured variety is dominant it must be borne in mind that it can be either homozygous or heterozygous--that for these purposes it is represented in the left-hand column by the hybrids as well as by the homozygous dominant. In a population in equilibrium which contains about 2% of a dominant form, the great bulk of these dominants will be heterozygous, and the relative proportion of recessives, heterozygous, and homozygous dominants is given in the second line of the left-hand column. Let us suppose now that we want to know what will be the percentage of dominants after 1000 generations if they form 2% of the population to start with, and if, during this period, they have been favoured with a 1% selection advantage. After 165 generations the proportion of recessives is 90.7, so that the proportion of dominants has risen to over 9%; after 153 further generations the percentage of dominants becomes 27.7 + 2.8 = 30.5; after 739 generations it is 88.8%, and after 1122 generations it is 69.0 + 27.7 = 96.7. Hence the answer to our question will be between 89% and 97%, but nearer to the latter figure than the former. Mr Norton has informed me that the figures in the table are accurate to within about 5%. * * * * * {157} APPENDIX II The genus _Papilio_ is a large and heterogeneous collection. It was pointed out by Haase[93] that it falls into three distinct sections, of which one--the Pharmacophagus section--provides those members which serve as models in mimicry; while in the other two sections are found mimics, either of Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails, or of models belonging to other groups. Though Haase's terms have not yet come into general use with systematists, there is little doubt that the genus _Papilio_ as it now stands must eventually be broken up on these lines. To say that one species of _Papilio_ mimics another is therefore somewhat misleading; for the differences between the Pharmacophagus group and the other two are such as to constitute at any rate generic distinction in other groups. For convenience of reference a table has been added in which the various Papilios mentioned in the text have been assigned to their appropriate sections, and referred to their respective models. {158} Pharmacophagus Papilio Cosmodesmus (POISON-EATERS) (FLUTED SWALLOW-TAILS) (KITE SWALLOW-TAILS) Antennae without Antennae without Antennae scaled scales. scales. on upper side. Outer ventral row Outer ventral row As in Papilio. of spines of tarsi of spines of tarsi not separated separated from from the dorsal the dorsal spines spines by a spineless by a spineless longitudinal longitudinal depression. depression. Larva covered with Larva either smooth Larva with third short hairs--with or with hard thoracic segment fleshy tubercles spiny tubercles. enlarged but no Third and fourth (known only in spines. thoracic segments a few species). enlarged. Pupa with row of Pupa wrinkled--generally Pupa short with well-marked with long four-sided humps on each short dorsal thoracic horn. side of abdomen. horn. Humps if present very short. Larva feeds on Larva does not feed As in Papilio. _Aristolochia_. on _Aristolochia_. Abdominal margin Abdominal margin of hind wing of hind wing curved downwards bent over in [M], forming and with scent a kind of groove. organ in fold No scent organ. so formed. {159} LIST OF PAPILIONINE MIMICS ----------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------------- PHARMACOPHAGUS | PAPILIO | COSMODESMUS | (MODEL) | (MIMIC) | (MIMIC) | (MODELS) ----------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------------- ORIENTAL |_agestor_ | |_Caduga tytia_ |_clytia_ | |_Danais septentrionis_ | " var. | | | _dissimilis_| |_Euploea core_ |_mendax_ | | " _rhadamanthus_ |_paradoxus_ | | " _mulciber_ _hector_ |_polytes_ [F] | | _aristolochiae_ | " [F] | | _coon_ |_memnon_ [F] | | _polyxenus_ |_bootes_ | | |_laglaizei_ | |_Alcidis agathyrsus_ | |_delesserti_ |_Ideopsis daos_ | |_macareus_ |_Danais septentrionis_ | |_xenocles_ | " " AFRICAN |_dardanus_ [F] | |_Danais chrysippus_ | " [F] | |_Amauris niavius_ | " [F] | | " _echeria_ |_echerioides_ [F]| | " _psyttalea_ |_cynorta_ [F] | |_Planema epaea_ |_rex_ | |_Melinda formosa_ | |_ridleyanus_ |_Acraea egina_ | |_leonidas_ |_Danais petiverana_ | |_brasidas_ |_Amauris hyalites_ AMERICAN _hahneli_(mimic)| | |_Methona confusa_ |_zagreus_ | |} various Heliconinae |_bachus_ | |} and Ithomiinae |_euterpinus_ | |_Heliconius melpomene_ | |_pausanias_ | " _sulphurea_ various species |_hippason_, etc. |_lysithous_ | | | etc. | _philenor_ |_troilus_ | | |_turnus_ [F] | | |_asterius_ [F] | | * * * * * {160} PLATE I ORIENTAL BUTTERFLIES 1. _Pareronia ceylonica_ [F] } (Pieridae) 2. " " [M] } 3. _Danais septentrionis_ (Danainae) 4. _Papilio xenocles_ (Papilionidae) 5. _Hypolimnas bolina_ [M] } (Nymphalinae) 6. " " [F] } 7. _Papilio clytia_ var. _dissimilis_ } (Papilionidae) 8. " " var. _lankeswara_ } 9. _Elymnias singhala_ (Satyrinae) 10. _Euploea core_ (Danainae) [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE II ORIENTAL BUTTERFLIES 1. _Delias eucharis_ (Pieridae) 2. _Caduga tytia_ (Danainae) 3. _Papilio agestor_ (Papilionidae) 4. _Euploea mulciber_ [M] } (Danainae) 5. " " [F] } 6. _Elymnias malelas_ [M] } (Satyrinae) 7. " " [F] } 8. _Euploea rhadamanthus_ (Danainae) 9. _Papilio mendax_ (Papilionidae) [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE III ORIENTAL MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES The three upper figures are those of moths, and the three lower ones are those of butterflies. 1. _Alcidis agathyrsus_ (New Guinea) 2. _Papilio laglaizei_ " " The moth is here supposed to serve as a model for the far rarer Papilio. 3. _Cyclosia hestinioides_ 4. _Ideopsis daos_ The butterfly is very common and must be regarded as the model, the rarer moth as the mimic. 5. _Epicopeia polydora_ (Assam) 6. _Papilio bootes_ " Both of these species are to be regarded as mimics of the abundant Pharmacophagus Papilio, _P. polyxenus_, which is very like _P. bootes_ in appearance. [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE IV ORIENTAL BUTTERFLIES 1. _Danais chrysippus_ [M] } (Danainae) 2. " _plexippus_ [F] } 3. _Argynnis hyperbius_ [F] } (Nymphalinae) 4. " " [M] } 5. _Elymnias undularis_ [F] } (Satyrinae) 6. " " [M] } 7. _Hypolimnas misippus_ [F] } (Nymphalinae) 8. " " [M] } The two Danaids together with the females of the other three species form a "mimicry ring." For explanation see text, pp. 65-69. [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE V ORIENTAL BUTTERFLIES 1. _Papilio polytes_ [M] 2. " " [F], var. _cyrus_ (M form) 3. " " [F], var. _polytes_ (A form) 4. " " [F], var. _romulus_ (H form) 5. " _aristolochiae_ 6. " _hector_ The specimens figured on this plate were taken in Ceylon where they are all plentiful. Figures 1_a_--6_a_ represent the under surfaces of the hind wings belonging to specimens 1--6. [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE VI AFRICAN BUTTERFLIES (except _A. levana_, Figs. 8--10, which is European) 1. _Danais petiverana_ (Danainae) 2. _Papilio leonidas_ (Papilionidae) 3. _Amauris hyalites_ (Danainae) 4. _Papilio leonidas_ var. _brasidas_ (Papilionidae) 5. _Pseudacraea boisduvali_ (Nymphalinae) 6. _Papilio ridleyanus_ (Papilionidae) 7. _Acraea egina_ (Acraeinae) 8. _Araschnia levana_ var. _porima_ 9. " " var. _prorsa_ 10. " " 11. _Precis octavia_ var. _sesamus_ 12. " " var. _natalensis_ [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE VII TROPICAL AFRICAN BUTTERFLIES 1. _Planema macarista_ [M] (Acraeinae) 2. " " [F] " 3. " _tellus_ " 4. " _paragea_ " 5. " _epaea_ " 6. _Pseudacraea hobleyi_ [M] (Nymphalinae) 7. " " [F] " 8. " _terra_ " 9. _Elymnias phegea_ [F] (Satyrinae) 10. _Papilio cynorta_ [F] (Papilionidae) (NOTE. _Pseudacraea hobleyi_ and _P. terra_ (Figs. 6--8) were at one time regarded as separate species. More recently they have been shewn to be forms of the polymorphic species, _Pseudacraea eurytus_.) [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE VIII AFRICAN BUTTERFLIES 1. _Papilio dardanus_ [M] 2. " " [F], var. _trophonius_ 3. " " [F], var. _hippocoon_ 4. " " [F], var. _cenea_ 5. _Danais chrysippus_ (Danainae) 6. _Amauris niavius_ " 7. " _echeria_ " 8. _Hypolimnas dubius_ var. _mima_ (Nymphalinae) 9. " " var. _wahlbergi_ " [Illustration] * * * * * [Illustration] _Danais chrysippus_ a. Typical form b. _Alcippus_ form c. _Dorippus_ form _Acraea encedon_ d. Typical form e. _Alcippina_ form f. _Daira_ form _Hypolimnas misippus_ [F] g. Typical form h. _Alcippoides_ form i. _Inaria_ form (After Aurivillius) * * * * * PLATE X SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES 1. _Dismorphia cretacea_ [M] (Pieridae) 2. " _praxinoe_ [M] " 3. " " [F] " 4. _Perrhybris malenka_ [M] " 5. " " [M] (under surface) " 6. " " [F] " 7. _Mechanitis saturata_ (Ithomiinae) 8. _Papilio zagreus_ (Papilionidae) 9. _Protogonius tithoreides_ (Nymphalinae) 10. _Tithorea pseudonyma_ (Ithomiinae) (NOTE. The figure of the _Mechanitis_ (Fig. 7) is taken from a rather worn specimen. The quality of the orange brown is better shewn by the specimen illustrated in Fig. 7 on Plate XV.) [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE XI SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES 1. _Heliconius sulphurea_ (Heliconinae) 2. _Papilio pausanias_ (Papilionidae) 3. _Heliconius telesiphe_ (Heliconinae) 4. _Colaenis telesiphe_ (Nymphalinae) 5. _Heliconius melpomene_ (Heliconinae) 6. _Pereute charops_ [F] (Pieridae) 7. " " [M] " 8. _Papilio osyris_ [M] (Papilionidae) 9. " " [F] " 10. _Archonias critias_ [F] (Pieridae) [Illustration] * * * * * [Illustration] PLATE XII SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES _Methona confusa_ (Ithomiinae) _Dismorphia orise_ (Pierinae) _Ituna phenarete_ (Danainae) _Castnia sp._ (Heterocera) * * * * * [Illustration] PLATE XIII MODELS 1. _Papilio nephalion_ 2. " _chamissonia_ 3. " _perrhebus_ MIMICS 4. _Papilio lysithous_ var. _lysithous_ 5. " " var. _rurik_ 6. " " var. _pomponius_ (For further details of this case see Jordan, _I^{er} Congr. Internat. d'Entomologie_, Bruxelles, 1911, p. 396.) * * * * * [Illustration] PLATE XIV 1. _Methona confusa_, ×90 (Ithomiinae) 2. _Dismorphia orise_, ×150 (Pierinae) 3. _Thyridia themisto_, ×90 (Ithomiinae) 4. _Ituna ilione_, ×90 (Danainae) 5. _Castnia sp._, ×60 (Moth) Microphotographs of the scales of various Lepidoptera in the S. American "Transparency group." For explanation see text, pp. 39-42. * * * * * PLATE XV CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES Illustrating the closely parallel series of patterns occurring in the two distinct groups Heliconinae and Ithomiinae. 1. _Heliconius mirus_ 2. " _telchinia_ 3. " _eucrate_ 4. " _pardalinus_ 5. " _splendens_ 6. _Mechanitis elisa_ 7. " _saturata_ 8. " _lysimnia_ 9. " _egaensis_ 10. " _methona_ [Illustration] * * * * * PLATE XVI NORTH AMERICAN BUTTERFLIES 1. _Papilio philenor_ (Papilionidae) 2. " _troilus_ " 3. _Argynnis diana_ [F] (Nymphalinae) 4. _Limenitis arthemis_ " 5. " _astyanax_ " 6. " _archippus_ " 7. " _floridensis_ (= _eros_) " 8. _Danais archippus_ (Danainae) 9. " _berenice_ " [Illustration] * * * * * {183} INDEX _References to the plates are given in thicker type_ _Acraea_, taken by kestrel, 118; _A. axina_, 122; _A. caldarena_, 122; _A. egina_, 34, VI. 7; _A. encedon_, patterns of different forms in relation to those of _Danais chrysippus_, 29, 144; typical form of, IX. D; _alcippina_ form of, IX. E; _daira_ form of, IX. F; _A. halali_, 122; _A. violae_, 33 note; eaten by lizards, 108; attacked by birds, 110, 117 Acraeinae, as models for African butterflies, 33 Adaptation and Natural Selection, 61 _Adelpha_, 54 African butterflies, mimicry among, 28-36 _Alcidis agathyrsus_, 27, 145, III. 1 _Aletis helcita_, 36 _Amauris echeria_, 30, 148, VIII. 7; _A. hyalites_, 30, VI. 2; _A. niavius_, 30, VIII. 6 _Amphidasys betularia_, rapidity of increase in melanic sport of, 101 _Anosia plexippus_ (= _Danais archippus_), 113 _Anthomysa_, 41 _Aporia agathon_, 149 _Araschnia levana_, seasonal dimorphism in, 130; typical form, VI. 10; _prorsa_ form, VI. 9; _porima_ form, VI. 8 _Archonias_, 43, 56, 145; _A. critias_, XI. 10 _Argynnis diana_, 47, XVI. 3; _A. hyperbius_, 29; as mimic of _Danais plexippus_, 52; in mimicry ring, 66, IV. 3, 4 _Artamus fuscus_, 112 Asilid flies, as enemies of butterflies, 106 _Athyma punctata_, 53 Bates, G. L., on contents of birds' stomachs, 113 Bates, H. W., on mimicry, 9; on resemblances between unpalatable forms, 14; on initial variation in mimetic resemblance, 63; on S. American Pierines attacked by birds, 112 Bateson, 3 _Belenois_, 36 Bingham, on birds eating butterflies, 110 Birds, as enemies of butterflies, 109; stomach contents of, 113; feeding experiments with, 115; colour perception in, 119 Bowater, on _Amphidasys betularia_, 102, 137 note Breeding experiments, with _Hypolimnas dubius_, 30; with _Papilio polytes_, 84; with _Papilio memnon_, 89; with _Papilio dardanus_, 90; with _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 128 Bryant, on birds eating butterflies, 114 _Buchanga atra_, 111 _Byblia ilithyia_, 122 {184} _Caduga tytia_, 24, 51, II. 2 _Callamesia pieridoides_, 56 _Calotes ophiomachus_, 107; _C. versicolor_, 107 Carpenter, on intermediates in _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 126; on breeding experiments with _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 128 _Castnia_, as mimic, 39, XII. 4; scales of, 41, XV. 5 _Catopsilia_, 121; _C. florella_, 111; _C. pyranthe_, 111 _Cerchneis rupicoloides_, 118; _C. naumanni_, 117 _Cercopithecus pygerythrus_, 121 _Charaxes athamas_, 110 _Citronophila similis_, 35 Classification of butterflies, 18-21 _Colaenis telesiphe_, 38, XI. 4 _Cyclosia hestinioides_, III. 3 _Cymatophora or_, establishment of melanic sport in, 102 note _Cyrestis thyodamas_, 110 Danainae, characteristics of, 22; as models for Oriental butterflies,23; as models for African butterflies, 28 _Danais_, 111, 145; _D. archippus_, 48; eaten by lizard, 108; rejected by bird, 113, XVI. 8; _D. berenice_, 48, XVI. 9; _D. chrysippus_, 23, 28; flight of, 55; in mimicry ring, 65; eaten by lizards, 108; eaten by Bee-eater, 111; eaten by Brown Shrike, 117; rejected by Kestrel, 118; rejected by baboon, 122; local variation in, 132; patterns overlapping with those of _Acraea encedon_, 144; _alcippus_ form, IX. B; _dorippus_ form, IX. C; typical form, IV. 1, VIII. 5; _D. plexippus_, as model for _Argynnis hyperbius_, 52; in mimicry ring, 65; eaten by Liothrix, 115 note, IV. 2; _D. petiverana_, 29, VI. 1; _D. septentrionis_, 23, 111, 112, I. 3; _D. vulgaris_, 150 Darwin, on natural selection, 1; on adaptation, 5; on initial variation in mimetic resemblance, 63; on a difficulty of the mimicry theory, 65 Defence in butterflies, 54 _Delias cathara_, 56; _D. eucharis_, 28, 115, 116, II. 1 de Meijere, on breeding _Papilio memnon_, 89 de Vries, 3 _Dismorphia_, as mimics of Ithomiinae, 38, 42; restricted range of many forms, 51; diversity of pattern in genus, 58; as Batesian mimics, 135; patterns parallel with those of Ithomiinae, 145; _D. astynome_, 151; _D. avonia_, 151; _D. cretacea_, 5, 8, 62, X. 1; _D. orise_, as mimic, 39, XII. 2; scales of, 40, XIV. 2; _D. praxinoe_, as mimic, 57, 62, X. 2, 3; as member of mimicry ring, 134 Distasteful groups, characteristics of, 55 Eltringham, 17 note, 32 note, 36 note _Elymnias_, patterns in genus compared with those of Danaidae, 59, 144; _E. malelas_, 24, II. 6, 7; _E. phegea_, 35, VII. 9; _E. singhala_, 25, I. 9; _E. undularis_, in mimicry ring, 66, 115 note, 116, IV. 5, 6 _Epicopeia polydora_, 27, III. 5 Equilibrium, conditions of in mixed population, 93 _Eresia_, 134, 135 _Eugonia californica_, 114 _Euphaedra ruspina_, 36 _Euploea core_, 25, 108, 110, 112, I. 10; _E. mulciber_, 24, 51, II. 4, 5; _E. rhadamanthus_, 24, 51, II. 8; _E. rafflesii_, 110 Euploeinae, characteristics of, 22; as models for Oriental butterflies, 24; in relation to birds, 111, 112, 115 note {185} _Euripus halitherses_, 24 Feeding experiments, with Mantids, 105; with lizards, 107; with birds, 115; with mammals, 121 Finn, on feeding experiments with lizards, 108; on feeding experiments with Indian birds, 115; on feeding experiments with a Tree-shrew, 121 Flight, different in model and mimic, 55; difference of in _Papilio polytes_ and its models, 82 Fryer, on breeding _Papilio polytes_, 84; on relative abundance of females of_ Papilio polytes_ in Ceylon, 97; on birds eating "unpalatable" butterflies, 112 _Gerrhonotus infernalis_, 108 Haase, on mimicry, 16; on classification of Papilionidae, 25 Hahnel, on S. American Pierines attacked by birds, 112 Hardy, on conditions of equilibrium in a mixed population, 94 Hearsy, on birds eating butterflies, 111 _Hebomoia_, 110 Heliconinae, as models for S. American butterflies, 38 _Heliconius_, 145; _H. eucrate_, XV. 3; _H. melpomene_, as model, 42, 43, XI. 5; _H. mirus_, XV. 1; _H. pardalinus_, XV. 4; _H. splendens_, XV. 5; _H. sulphurea_, 43, XI. 1; _H. telchinia_, XV. 2; _H. telesiphe_, XI. 3 _Herpestes galera_, 121 Hess, on colour perception in birds, 119 Hopkins, on pigment of Pierids, 150 _Hypolimnas dubius_, polymorphism in, 30; as mimic of Danaines,30, VII. 8, 9; breeding experiments with, 30; var. _mima_ compared with model, 148; patterns of in relation to models, 149; _H. bolina_, 25, 117, I. 5, 6; _H. misippus_, 25, 29, as model, 53; flight of, 55; in mimicry ring, 66, 116; eaten by Brown Shrike, 117; _alcippoides_ form, IX. H; _inaria_ form, IX. I; typical form, IV. 7, 8, IX. G _Ideopsis daos_, III. 4 Initial variation, difficulty of, 63 Insect enemies of butterflies, 105 Intermediates, between different forms of _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 128; in relation to mimicry,129, 140 Ithomiinae, characteristics of, 10; as models for S. American butterflies, 38 _Ituna_, 39; _I. ilione_, 40, XIV. 4; _I. phenarete_, XII. 3 Jacobsen, experiments with _Papilio memnon_, 89 Jordan, 40 note _Junonia_, 111 _Lanius cristatus_, 117 _Limenitis albomaculata_, 53; _L. archippus_, 49, 59, XVI. 6; _L. arthemis_, 47, 49, XVI. 4; _L. astyanax_, 47, XVI. 5; _L. floridensis (= eros)_, 49, XVI. 7; _L. proserpina_, 47 Lizards, as enemies of butterflies, 107 Local varieties, in connection with mimicry, 132 Lycaenidae, as mimics in Africa, 35 _Lycorea_, 145 McAtee, on feeding experiments with birds, 118 Mammals, as enemies of butterflies, 121 Manders, on feeding experiments with lizards, 107; with birds, 117 {186} Mantids, as enemies of butterflies, 105 Marshall, on Müllerian mimicry, 72; on feeding experiments with Mantids, 105; on birds as enemies of butterflies, 107; on feeding experiments with S. African birds, 117; with monkeys, 121; on birds attacking Pierids, 150 _Mechanitis egaensis_, XV. 9; _M. elisa_, XV. 6; _M. lysimnia_, 151, XV. 8; _M. methona_, XV. 10; _M. saturata_, as model for _Dismorphia praxinoe_, 57, 62; as member of mimicry ring, 134, XV. 7 Melanic sports in moths, 101 _Melinaea_, 135 _Melinda formosa_, App. II _Melittophagus swinhoei_, 110 _Merops viridis_, 111 Merrifield, on seasonal dimorphism, 130 _Methona confusa_, XII. 1, XIV. 1 Migratory birds, suggested influence on mimicry of, 53 _Mimacraea_, 35 Mimetic resemblance, as induced through gradual slight changes, 64 Mimic, occupying same station as model, 51; occupying station apart from model, 53; scarcer than model, 56; pattern of in relation to allies, 57 Mimicry, Wallace's conditions of, 50; Batesian, 9; Müllerian, 14 Mimicry rings, 65; in S. American butterflies, 134; and natural selection, 136 Mimicry theory, difficulties of, 139 Monkeys, as enemies of butterflies, 121 Moths, mimicry in, 27, 36 Moulton, on S. American mimicry rings, 134 Müller, 14, 72 Müllerian mimicry, 53, 57, 66; difficulties of, 72 Mutation, see Sports _Mylothris_, 36 Natural selection and mimicry, 10-12, 61, 92, 152 Neal, on monkeys as enemies of butterflies, 123 _Nepheronia (= Pareronia) hippia_, 116 _Neptis imitans_, 24; _N. nemetes_, 54; _N. kamarupa_, 121 North American butterflies, mimicry among, 45 Norton, on rapidity of changes in mixed populations through natural selection, 94, App. I Oriental butterflies, mimicry among, 23 Overlapping in patterns of different groups of butterflies, 144 _Papilio aristolochiae_, as model for female of _P. polytes_, 13, 26, 52, 77; range of, 79; likeness to _P. polytes_, 80; characteristics of, 81; flight of, 82; eaten by lizards, 108; rejected by certain birds, 115, 116; disliked by Tree-shrew, 121, V. 5, 5A; _P. agestor_, 24, 51, II. 3; _P. asterius_, 46; _P. bachus_, App. II; _P. bootes_, 27, III. 6; _P. brasidas_, 29, VI. 4; _P. chamissonia_, 44, XIII. 2; _P. clytia_, 23, 25, 55, I. 7, 8; _P. coon_, 26, 89; _P. cynorta_, 35, 36, VII. 10; _P. dardanus_, investigated by Trimen, 14; mimicry in, 30; breeding experiments with, 90; polymorphic forms of in relation to models, 149 note; var. _humbloti_, 32; var. _meriones_, 32; [F] _cenea_, 31, VIII. 4; [F] _dionysus_, 31, 33; [F] _hippocoon_, 31, VIII. 3; [F] _niavioides_, 32, 33; [F] _planemoides_, 31; [F] _ruspina_, 33; [F] _trimeni_, 31, 32, 33; {187} [F] _trophonius_, 31, 122, VIII. 2; _P. delesserti_, App. II; _P. demoleus_, 111, 121; _P. echerioides_, App. II; _P. erithonius_, 110; _P. euterpinus_, 42, 43; _P. glaucus_, 45; var. _turnus_, 46; _P. hahneli_, 39; _P. hector_, model for female of _P. polytes_, 13, 52, 78; range of, 79; characteristics of, 81; flight of, 82; eaten by lizards, 108; eaten by birds, 110, 117, V. 6, 6A; _P. hippason_, App. II; _P. laglaizei_, 27, 124, III. 2; _P. leonidas_, 29, VI. 3; _P. lysithous_, polymorphism in, 44; [F] _lysithous_, XIII. 4; [F] _rurik_, XIII. 5; [F] _pomponius_, XIII. 6; _P. macareus_, 23, 111; _P. memnon_, 26, 89; _P. mendax_, 24, 51, II. 9; _P. nephalion_, 44, XIII. 1; _P. osyris_, XI. 8, 9; _P. paradoxus_, 25; _P. pausanias_, 43, XI. 2; _P. perrhebus_, 44, XIII. 3; _P. philenor_, as model, 45; taken by lizard, 108, XVI. 1; _P. polytes_, polymorphism in females of, 13, 75; mimic of Pharmacophagus Papilio, 26; habits of, 52, 124; often more abundant than models, 56; description of, 76-78; relative abundance of models in Ceylon, 79; breeding experiments with, 84; equilibrium among females of in Ceylon, 96; relative abundance of three forms of female of in Ceylon, 97; historical notes on abundance of forms of female in Ceylon, 98; origin of forms of female in, 125, 141; relation of polymorphic forms to models in, 149 note; preyed on by Wood-Swallow, 112; feeding experiments with, 116, V. 1-4, 1A-4A; _P. polyxenus_, 27; _P. rex_, App. II; _P. ridleyanus_, 34, 36, VI. 6; _P. sarpedon_, 110; _P. troilus_, 45, XVI. 2; _P. xenocles_, 23, 111, I. 4; _P. zagreus_, 43, X. 8 Papilionidae, as mimics of Oriental models, 23-25; of African models, 29, 30, 35; of S. American models, 43; of N. American models, 45 Parallel patterns, in different butterfly groups, 144 _Pareronia_, 145, 149; _P. ceylanica_, 23, 59, 116 note, I. 1, 2 Pattern and physiological properties, possible connection between, 137 Patterns, overlapping series of in different groups of butterflies, 145 _Pedaliodes_, 135 _Pereute charops_, 42, XI. 6, 7 _Pericopis_, 39 _Perrhybris_, as mimics of Ithomiines, coloration of male in _P. malenka_, 62; as members of mimicry rings, 134, 135; _P. demophile_, 151; _P. lorena_, 151; _P. malenka_, X. 4, 5, 6 Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails, characteristics of, 22, App. II; as models for Oriental butterflies, 25; absence of in Africa, 35; as models in S. America, 43; as models in N. America, 45 _Phrissura_, 36 _Phyciodes_, 38, 54 Physiological properties, possible connection of with pattern, 137 Pieridae, as models for Oriental butterflies, 28; mimicry in African, 36; mimicry in S. American, 43; frequency of bird attacks on, 150 _Planema epaea_, 35, VII. 5; _P. macarista_, sexual difference in, 34, VII. 1, 2; mimicked by _Elymnias phegea_, 35; by _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 126; _P. poggei_, as model for _planemoides_ female of _Papilio dardanus_, 31; _P. paragea_, 126, VII. 4; _P. tellus_, 126, VII. 3 {188} Poison-eaters, see Pharmacophagus Swallow-tails Polymorphism, in females of mimicking species, 13; among females of _P. dardanus_, 30; among females of _P. polytes_, 75 Population, conditions of equilibrium in mixed, 93 Poulton, 17; on N. American mimetic butterflies, 45; on the "Transparency group," 41; on mimicry through agency of migratory birds, 53; on _Hypolimnas misippus_, 66 note; on the relation between mimetic forms of _P. polytes_, 90; on predaceous insects, 105; on relative proportion of different forms of _Pseudacraea eurytus_, 127; on local variation in _D. chrysippus_, 132 _Precis_, 111, 122, 131; _P. octavia_, seasonal dimorphism in, 131, VI. 11, 12 _Prioneris_, 110; _P. sita_, 28 Pritchett, feeding experiments with lizards, 108 Protective resemblance, 8 _Protogonius_, as mimics of Ithomiines, 38; as members of mimicry rings, 134, 135, 138; _P. tithoreides_, X. 9 _Pseudacraea_, 59, 144; _P. boisduvali_, 34, VI. 5; _P. eurytus_, relative proportion of different forms in, 127; polymorphism of in relation to model, 149 note; var. _hobleyi_ as mimic of _Planema macarista_, 35, 127, VII. 6, 7; var. _terra_, as mimic of _Planema tellus_, 126, VII. 8; var. _obscura_ as mimic of _Planema paragea_, 126 Ray, on adaptation, 4, 6 Rodents, bearing on mimicry of recent genetic work with, 147 Satyrinae, transparency in S. American, 42 _Sceleporus floridanus_, 108 Schaus, on birds as enemies of butterflies, 112 Seasonal dimorphism, 130 Seitz, 44, 52, 58 Shelford, 56 note S. American butterflies, mimicry among, 38 Sports, as foundation of mimetic resemblances, 70, 91, 143 Sweet-peas, experiments on, 91 Swynnerton, on contents of stomachs of birds, 114 _Telipna sanguinea_, 36 _Terias brigitta_, 35; _T. hecabe_, 110 _Thyridia_, 40, XIV. 3 _Tithorea pseudonyma_, X. 10 "Transparency group," in S. 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THE WANDERINGS OF ANIMALS. By HANS GADOW, F.R.S. With 17 maps. THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. By T. A. COWARD. With 4 maps. HEREDITY IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT RESEARCH. By L. DONCASTER, Sc.D. With 12 figures. THE COMING OF EVOLUTION. By JOHN W. JUDD, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. With 4 plates. A list of the eighty-six volumes now ready will be sent on application. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS C. F. Clay, Manager: Fetter Lane, London * * * * * NOTES [1] _The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation_, London, 1691. [2] Ray gives the case of an elephant "that was observed always when he slept to keep his trunk so close to the ground, that nothing but Air could get in between them," and explains it as an adaptation in habit to prevent the mice from crawling into its lungs--"a strange sagacity and Providence in this Animal, or else an admirable instinct." [3] _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. 23, 1862. [4] _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. 25, 1866. [5] _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. 26, 1870. [6] In attributing this quality to the butterflies in question I am merely stating what is held by the supporters of the mimicry theory. I know of scarcely any evidence either for or against the supposition. [7] It is assumed that the intelligence of the birds is such that they can learn a pattern after a single disagreeable experience of it. [8] _Untersuchungen über die Mimikry_, 1893. [9] The African mimetic butterflies have been recently monographed by Eltringham in a large and beautifully illustrated work--_African Mimetic Butterflies_, Oxford, 1910. [10] Omitting the Hesperidae which hardly enter into questions of mimicry. [11] The classification adopted is that used by Dr Sharp in the "Cambridge Natural History," _Insects_, vol. 2, 1901. [12] Cf. Shelford, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1902. [13] _African Mimetic Butterflies_, Oxford, 1910. [14] These African species of _Hypolimnas_ are frequently referred to the genus _Euralia_. [15] Corresponding to the _dorippus_ form of _D. chrysippus_ (cf. Pl. IX) there is a rare form of _trophonius_ known as _dorippoides_. [16] These two forms are figured on Plate 10 of Eltringham's _African Mimetic Butterflies_. [17] _Acraea violae_, the only representative of the group in S. India and Ceylon, is nevertheless a very abundant insect. It cannot, however, be said that it is definitely mimicked by any other species in this region. [18] Coloured figures of these and of the other African species referred to may be found in Eltringham's work on _African Mimetic Butterflies_. [19] These descriptions are taken from preserved specimens which I owe for the most part to the kindness of Dr Jordan. I have not had an opportunity of examining fresh ones. [20] This is more marked in _Castnia_ than in _Anthomysa_. It appears to be a peculiarity of many members of the genus _Castnia_ that the scales do not lie so tight as generally in moths. Owing to this, some of the large whole-coloured species have a somewhat fluffy look. [21] Cf. Poulton, _Essays on Evolution_, 1908, pp. 264-6. [22] Cf. Poulton, _Darwin and the 'Origin,'_ 1909, pp. 177-186. [23] The N. American members of this genus are often referred to as _Basilarchia_. [24] _Darwinism_, 1890 (1st Edition 1889), p. 264. [25] _Macrolepidoptera of the World._ _Fauna Americana_, p. 98. [26] _Essays on Evolution_, 1908, p. 381. [27] These "unpalatable" butterflies are sometimes extensively preyed upon by insectivorous birds, when they fall an easier prey owing to their slowness (cf. p. 112). [28] See Shelford, PROC. ZOOL. SOC. 1902, p. 260. A coloured figure of both species is given in the paper. [29] _Macrolepidoptera of the World._ _Fauna Americana_, pp. 98-104, Plates 28-30. [30] "In what way our _Leptalis_ (= _Dismorphia_) originally acquired the general form and colour of Ithomiae I must leave undiscovered." _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. 23, 1862, p. 513. [31] _Darwinism_, 1890, pp. 242-244. [32] _Origin of Species_, 6th Edition, 1891, p. 354. [33] _H. misippus_ was at one time regarded as a clear case of Batesian mimicry. But in view of its plentifulness, of the fact that it may be abundant outside the area inhabited by its model, and of the ease with which it can establish itself in parts remote from its original habitat, _e.g._ S. America, it has come to be regarded by certain supporters of the mimicry theory as a Müllerian mimic. Cf. Poulton, _Essays on Evolution_, 1908, pp. 215-217. [34] An English translation of Müller's paper is given by Meldola, _Proc. Ent. Soc._, 1879, p. xx. [35] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1908, p. 93. [36] Provided of course that the type form remains in the majority. If the variation occurred simultaneously in more than 50% of A the advantage would naturally be with the variation. [37] It is possible to imagine an exceptional case though most unlikely that it would occur. Suppose for example that there were a number of distasteful species, say 20, all of different patterns, and suppose that in all of them a particular variation occurred simultaneously; then if the total shewing that variation from among the 20 species were greater than the number of any one of the species, all of the 20 species would come to take on the form of the new variation. In this way it is imaginable that the new pattern would gradually engulf all the old ones. [38] _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. 24, 1866. [39] These darker ribs are also present in the male and M female but are obscured owing to the generally deeper colour. [40] See Appendix II, p. 158. [41] _Spolia Zeylanica_, 1910. [42] We shall take it for the present that, from the point of view of mimicry, birds are the main enemies of butterflies (cf. Chap. IX). [43] See later, p. 119. [44] The specimens figured on Pl. V were dried in papers when taken. The body is consequently much compressed and the characteristic scarlet of _P. hector_ and _P. aristolochiae_ is largely hidden. [45] _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society_, vol. 204, 1913. [46] _Tijdschr. voor Entomologie_, vol. 53, 1909. A more accessible account is given by de Meijere, _Zeit. f. indukt. Abstamm. u. Vererbungslehre_, vol. 3, 1910. [47] For further information see Poulton, _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._ 1909, and various notes in _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._ subsequent to this date. [48] _Science_, July, 1908. [49] If for example there were 5000 dominants and 4000 recessives, and if only half of the population survives to mate, then we should be left with 2500 dominants and 2000 recessives as parents of the next generation. But if there were also a 10% selective disadvantage working against the recessives, their numbers would be further reduced from 2000 to 1800 and the proportion of dominants to recessives would be changed from 5:4 to 25:18. [50] As these larvae were for the most part found simply over a considerable time it follows that they are the offspring of different females and represent the relative proportions of the three forms in the general population. [51] _The Lepidoptera of Ceylon_, 1880. [52] From the experience of breeders it would appear that the melanic form is somewhat hardier, at any rate in captivity. [53] Intermediates may also occur in some strains (cf. Bowater, _Journal of Genetics_, vol. 3, no. 4, 1914). [54] An interesting case of a similar nature has recently been published by Hasebroek (_Die Umschau_, 1913, p. 1020). A melanic form of the moth, _Cymatophora or_, suddenly appeared near Hamburg in 1904. This new form, to which the name _albingensis_ was given, rapidly became the predominant one. In 1911-1912 over 90% of the moths reared from caterpillars taken in the open were of the _albingensis_ form; nor were any intermediates found between it and the typical form. Some experiments were also made which shew that the _albingensis_ form behaves as a dominant to the original type form. [55] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1907._ [56] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1902._ [57] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1911. [58] _Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. 65, 1897. [59] _Spolia Zeylanica_, 1910. [60] _Biological Bulletin_, vol. 5, 1903. [61] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._ 1909. [62] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._ 1902. [63] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._ 1911. [64] _Proc. Zool. Soc. 1913._ [65] _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 1874, p. 316. [66] _I^{er} Congr. Internat, d'Entomologie_, Bruxelles, 1911. [67] _Ibis_, 1911. [68] _Ibis_, 1912. [69] _The Condor_, vol. 13, 1911, pp. 195-208. [70] _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. 64, 1895, and vol. 66, 1897. [71] Nevertheless a Liothrix is recorded as eating _Danais plexippus_ and a _Euploea_ even though two male specimens of the palatable _Elymnias undularis_ were in the cage. [72] A form closely resembling _P. ceylonica_ figured on Pl. I, fig. 1. [73] _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1911._ [74] _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1912. [75] C. Hess, _Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie_ (herausgegeben von H. Winterstein), Bd. 4, 1912, p. 563. [76] _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. 66^2, 1898. [77] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._ 1902. [78] Marshall, _loc. cit._ p. 379. [79] In this connection may be quoted a letter from Capt. N. V. Neal near Lagos to Mr W. A. Lamborn which was recently published in the _Proceedings of the Entomological Society_. "You have asked me about monkeys eating butterflies. This is very common, as every native will tell you. I have seen it myself. The monkey runs along a path, sees some butterflies fluttering round some filth, goes very quietly, and seizes one by the wings, puts the solid part (body) into his mouth, then pulls the wings off. The poor butterfly goes down like any oyster.... The dog-faced baboon and the large brown monkey with a very long tail, which seems to be the most common species in this colony, are great butterfly-eaters. The little spider-monkey also considers a butterfly a treat, and prefers one to a spider." [80] Cf. E. B. Poulton in _Bedrock_ for Oct. 1913, p. 301. [81] _Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1914._ [82] In the female _hobleyi_, with rare exceptions, the orange of the male is replaced by white, and it has received the name _tirikensis_. The female of _P. macarista_ also shews white in place of the orange of the male. [83] Cf. Poulton, E. B., _I^{er} Congr. Internat. d'Entomol._, Bruxelles 1911. This proportion is founded on several hundreds caught at random. Observers are agreed that _Pseudacraea_ is both a warier insect and a stronger flyer than the various Planemas which it resembles. [84] _I^{er} Congr. Internat. d'Entom._, Bruxelles 1911. [85] Cf. Poulton, _Bedrock_, Oct. 1913, p. 300. [86] The size of the white spot may shew much variation in specimens from the same region. I have seen African specimens in which it is large, while in the Ceylon specimen figured on Plate IV it is as small as in the typical African specimen shewn on Plate VIII. [87] See Moulton, J. C., _Trans. Ent. Soc. London_, 1909. [88] In this connection it is of interest that a recent observer with considerable breeding experience finds that the dark _doubledayaria_ variety of the Peppered Moth is more hardy than the typical form (cf. p. 101). The swift success of the dark variety led some to regard it as better protected against bird enemies. It is, however, not unlikely that the deeper pigmentation is associated with some physiological difference which makes for greater hardiness. See Bowater, _Journal of Genetics_, vol. 3, 1914. [89] As examples may be mentioned _P. polytes_, _Hypolimnas misippus_, _H. dubius_, and _Pseudacraea hobleyi_. With the exception of the _planemoides_ form it is true also for _P. dardanus_, the most polymorphic of them all. [90] _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1909._ [91] Cf. F. G. Hopkins, _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1895._ [92] Coloured representations of these two species will be found on Pl. 20 of Seitz, _Macrolepidoptera of the World, Fauna Americana_. [93] _Untersuchungen über die Mimikry_, 1893. 
37009	----	[Illustration: _From a drawing by S. Shimotori_ _See page 120_ THE REGAL FRITILLARY, FEMALE] _LITTLE NATURE LIBRARY_ ======================= BUTTERFLIES WORTH KNOWING BY CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc. AUTHOR OF _Seeing Nature First_, _Nature Biographies_, _Ten New England Blossoms_, _The Flower Beautiful_, _etc._ [Illustration: "Fructus Quam Folia"] _Illustrated by Forty-eight Plates Thirty-two in Color_ PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY FOR NELSON DOUBLEDAY, INC. 1922 _Copyright, 1917, by_ DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY _All rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the Scandinavian_ PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. PREFACE In this little book an attempt has been made to discuss the more abundant and widely distributed butterflies of eastern North America from the point of view of their life histories and their relations to their surroundings. In so doing I have of course availed myself of the written records of a host of students of butterflies, without whose labors no such volume would be possible. Among these two names stand out preëminent--William H. Edwards and Samuel H. Scudder. Each was the author of a sumptuous work on American butterflies to which all later students must refer, both for information and for inspiration. Many others, however, have made notable contributions to our literature of these ethereal creatures. Every seeker after a knowledge of butterflies will soon find himself indebted to the writings of such investigators as the Comstocks, Denton, Dickerson, Dyar, Fernald, Fiske, Fletcher, French, Hancock, Holland, Howard, Longstaff, Newcomb, Riley, Skinner, Wright, and many others. I am glad to express my obligations to all of these for the assistance their records have given in the preparation of this book. While a vast amount of knowledge of butterflies has already been discovered there is still more to be learned concerning them, and throughout these pages I have attempted to indicate the more important opportunities awaiting investigation. The day of the field naturalist has come again and the butterflies are well worthy of careful observations by many interested students. The illustrations in the book require a word of credit. The eleven color plates of adult butterflies with wings spread have been made direct from a set of the remarkable transfers which Mr. Sherman F. Denton has been preparing for the last quarter-century, this particular set having been prepared especially for this book. Transfers of this sort were used as insets in Mr. Denton's work on the "Moths and Butterflies of the United States," published in a limited edition by J. B. Millet Company, Boston. The other plates not reproduced from photographs are from drawings by Miss Mary E. Walker or Mr. W. I. Beecroft. In case the photographs are not of my own taking, credit is given beneath each. Two of my photographs have already appeared in "Seeing Nature First" and are here used by permission of its publishers, J. B. Lippincott Company. C. M. W. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, Lowell, Mass. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v LIST OF COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS xi LIST OF OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS xiii PART I INTRODUCTION BUTTERFLY TRANSFORMATIONS 5 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 13 THE SCENTS OF BUTTERFLIES 15 BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS 16 HIBERNATION OR WINTER LETHARGY 17 AESTIVATION OR SUMMER LETHARGY 21 FEIGNING DEATH IN BUTTERFLIES 22 COLORATION OF BUTTERFLIES 24 SELECTIVE COLOR SENSE IN BUTTERFLIES 32 WARNING COLORATION AND MIMICRY 33 HELIOTROPISM IN BUTTERFLIES 35 PARASITIC ENEMIES OF BUTTERFLIES 40 REARING BUTTERFLIES FROM CATERPILLARS 43 PHOTOGRAPHING BUTTERFLIES 47 BUTTERFLY COLLECTIONS 49 PART II THE TRUE BUTTERFLIES--SUPERFAMILY _Papilionoidea_ 55 PARNASSIANS (_Parnassiinae_) 56 SWALLOWTAILS (_Papilionidae_) 57 Black Swallowtail; Giant Swallowtail; Blue Swallowtail; Green-clouded Swallowtail; Tiger Swallowtail; Palamedes Swallowtail; Short-tailed Papilio; Zebra Swallowtail; Synopsis of the Swallowtails WHITES, ORANGE-TIPS, AND YELLOWS (_Pieridae_) 82 The Tribe of the Whites: White or Imported Cabbage Butterfly; Gray-veined White; Checkered White; Great Southern White; Synopsis of the Whites 83 The Tribe of the Orange-tips: Falcate Orange-tip; Olympian Orange-tip; Synopsis of the Orange-tips 92 The Tribe of the Yellows: Brimstone or Cloudless Sulphur; Dog's-head; Clouded Sulphur; Orange Sulphur; Pink-edged Sulphur; Black-bordered Yellow; Little Sulphur; Dainty Sulphur; Synopsis of the Yellows 97 NYMPHS (_Nymphalidae_) 111 The Tribe of the Fritillaries: Gulf Fritillary; Variegated Fritillary; Diana Fritillary; Regal Fritillary; Great Spangled Fritillary; Silver-spot Fritillary; Mountain Silver-spot; White Mountain Fritillary; Meadow Fritillary; Silver-bordered Fritillary; Synopsis of the Fritillaries 115 The Tribe of the Crescent-spots: Baltimore Checker-spot; Harris's Checker-spot; Silver Crescent; Pearl Crescent; Synopsis of the Crescent-spots 135 The Tribe of the Angle-wings: Violet-tip; Hop-merchant or Comma; Gray Comma; Green Comma; Red Admiral or Nettle Butterfly; Painted Beauty; Painted Lady or Cosmopolite; Mourning-cloak; American tortoise-shell; White J Butterfly or Compton Tortoise; Buckeye; Synopsis of the Angle-wings (I. Polygonias--II. Vanessids) 150 The Tribe of the Sovereigns: Viceroy; Banded Purple; Red-spotted Purple; Vicereine; Synopsis of the Sovereigns 192 The Tribe of the Emperors: Goatweed Emperor; Gray Emperor; Tawny Emperor; Synopsis of the Emperors 207 MEADOWS-BROWNS OR SATYRS (_Agapetidae_) 214 Common Wood Nymph or Grayling; Southern Wood Nymph; Pearly Eye; Eyed Brown; White Mountain Butterfly; Arctic Satyr; Little Wood Satyr; Other Meadow-browns; Synopsis of Meadow-browns HELICONIANS (_Heliconidae_) 229 Zebra Butterfly MILKWEED BUTTERFLIES (_Lymnadidae_) 232 Monarch; Queen SNOUT BUTTERFLIES OR LONG-BEAKS (_Libytheidae_) 236 Snout Butterfly METAL-MARKS (_Riodinidae_) 239 Small Metal-mark; Large Metal-mark GOSSAMER-WINGS (_Lycaenidae_) 240 The Tribe of the Hair-streaks: Great Purple Hair-streak; Gray Hair-streak; Banded Hair-streak; Striped Hair-streak; Acadian Hair-streak; Olive Hair-streak; Synopsis of the Hair-streaks 242 The Tribe of the Coppers: Wanderer; American Copper; Synopsis of the Coppers 252 The Tribe of the Blues: Spring Azure; Scudder's Blue; Tailed Blue; Silvery Blue: Synopsis of the Blues 258 PART III THE SKIPPER BUTTERFLIES--SUPERFAMILY _Hesperioidea_ 266 GIANT SKIPPERS (_Megathymidae_) 267 Yucca-borer Skipper COMMON SKIPPERS (_Hesperiidae_) 268 The Tribe of the Larger Skippers: Silver-spotted Skipper; Long-tailed Skipper; Juvenal's Dusky-wing; Sleepy Dusky-wing; Persius's Dusky-wing; Sooty Wing 269 The Tribe of the Smaller Skippers: Tawny-edged Skipper; Roadside Skipper; Least Skipper 278 LIST OF COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE VICEROY BUTTERFLIES VISITING STRAWBERRIES (_On Cover_) THE REGAL FRITILLARY _Frontispiece_ THE CAROLINA LOCUST 33 THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 48 THE CYNTHIA MOTH 49 GIANT SWALLOWTAILS 64 THE BLUE SWALLOWTAIL 65 TWO OF THE SWALLOWTAILS: PALAMEDES AND GIANT 66 THE GREEN-CLOUDED SWALLOWTAIL 67 CATERPILLARS OF THE GREEN-CLOUDED SWALLOWTAIL 80 THE TIGER SWALLOWTAIL 96 IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 97 CLOUDED SULPHUR BUTTERFLY 112 THE ZEBRA SWALLOWTAIL: SUMMER FORM 112-113 THE ZEBRA SWALLOWTAIL VISITING PAPAW BLOSSOMS 112-113 SOME OF THE TRIBE OF YELLOWS 113 SILVER-SPOT FRITILLARY AND GULF FRITILLARY 128 GULF FRITILLARY, SILVER-BORDERED FRITILLARY, AND BALTIMORE CHECKER-SPOT 129 THE HOP MERCHANT 144 THREE ANGLE-WINGS (AMERICAN TORTOISE-SHELL, RED ADMIRAL, VIOLET-TIP): UPPER SURFACE 160-161 THREE ANGLE-WINGS (AMERICAN TORTOISE-SHELL, RED ADMIRAL, VIOLET-TIP): LOWER SURFACE 160-161 THE PAINTED BEAUTY 161 THREE MORE ANGLE-WINGS: BUCKEYE, PAINTED BEAUTY, COSMOPOLITE 176 THE MOURNING-CLOAK 177 SOME COMMON SKIPPERS 192 THE STAGES OF THE VICEROY 193 BANDED PURPLE, RED-SPOTTED PURPLE, AND BLUE-EYED GRAYLING 208 THREE EMPEROR BUTTERFLIES 209 THE ZEBRA BUTTERFLY 224 MONARCH BUTTERFLY, CRYSALIS AND CATERPILLAR 241 SPRING AZURE, FALCATE ORANGE-TIP, BRONZE COPPER, AND GREAT PURPLE HAIR-STREAK 256 SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER 273 LIST OF OTHER PLATES PAGE SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY JUST OUT OF CHRYSALIS 16 TIGER SWALLOWTAIL; HAMMOCK CATERPILLAR 17 BUTTERFLY FEIGNING DEATH; BUTTERFLY IN HIBERNATING POSITION 32 MONARCH BUTTERFLY: CHANGE FROM CATERPILLAR TO CHRYSALIS 32-33 MONARCH BUTTERFLY: CHANGE FROM CHRYSALIS TO ADULT 32-33 MIGRATION OF MONARCH BUTTERFLIES 48-49 THE IMPROVED OPEN VIVARIUM 48-49 BLACK SWALLOWTAIL VISITING THISTLE 64-65 IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY, MAGNIFIED 64-65 IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY; BLUE-EYED GRAYLING 81 FOUR-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES: VICEROY AND MOURNING-CLOAK 145 MONARCH BUTTERFLY RESTING; FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPH OF MONARCHS IN MIGRATION 160 PHOTOGRAPHS OF A PET MONARCH BUTTERFLY 225 THE SNOUT BUTTERFLY; THE GIANT SWALLOWTAIL 240 STAGES OF THE GRAY HAIR-STREAK 257 THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER 272 BUTTERFLIES WORTH KNOWING BUTTERFLIES PART I INTRODUCTION In popular esteem the butterflies among the insects are what the birds are among the higher animals--the most attractive and beautiful members of the great group to which they belong. They are primarily day fliers and are remarkable for the delicacy and beauty of their membranous wings, covered with myriads of tiny scales that overlap one another like the shingles on a house and show an infinite variety of hue through the coloring of the scales and their arrangement upon the translucent membrane running between the wing veins. It is this characteristic structure of the wings that gives to the great order of butterflies and moths its name Lepidoptera, meaning scale-winged. In the general structure of the body, the butterflies resemble other insects. There are three chief divisions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears the principal sense organs; the thorax, the organs of locomotion; and the abdomen, the organs of reproduction. By examining a butterfly's head through a lens it is easy to see the principal appendages which it bears. Projecting forward from the middle of the top is a pair of long feelers or antennae. Each of these consists of short joints which in general may be divided into three groups: first, a few large joints at the base connecting the feeler with the head; second, many rather small joints which make up the principal length; third, several larger joints which make up the outer part or "club" of the antennæ. In the case of the Skippers, there are in addition a number of small joints coming to a sharp point at the end of the club. Just below the insertion of the antennae on each side of the head are the large compound eyes, which are almost hemispherical. With a powerful glass, one can see the honeycomb-like facets, of which there are thousands, making up each eye. Just below the eyes there are two hairy projections, called the palpi, between which is the coiled tongue or sucking tube. (_See plate, page 64-65._) [Illustration: Butterfly Antennae, magnified. (From Holland)] Anatomically the thorax is divided into three parts--the prothorax, the mesathorax, and the metathorax; but the lines of division between these parts are not easily seen without denuding the skin of its hairy covering. The prothorax bears the first pair of legs. The mesathorax bears the front pair of wings and the second pair of legs. The metathorax bears the hind pair of wings and the third pair of legs. In many butterflies, the first pair of legs are so reduced in size that they are not used in walking. The abdomen is composed of eight or nine distinct rings or segments, most of which have two spiracles or breathing pores, one on each side. It also bears upon the end of the body the ovipositor of the female or the clasping organs of the male. BUTTERFLY TRANSFORMATIONS The butterflies furnish the best known examples of insect transformations. The change from the egg to the caterpillar or larva, from the caterpillar to the pupa or chrysalis, and from the chrysalis to the butterfly or imago is doubtless the most generally known fact concerning the life histories of insects. It is a typical example of what are called complete transformations as distinguished from the manner of growth of grasshoppers, crickets, and many other insects in which the young that hatches from the egg bears a general resemblance to the adult and in which there is no quiet chrysalis stage when the little creature is unable to eat or to move about. [Illustration: Egg of Baltimore Butterfly, much magnified. (From Holland)] _The Growth of the Caterpillars_ Caterpillars are like snakes in at least one respect: in order to provide for their increase in size they shed their skins. When a caterpillar hatches from the egg it is a tiny creature with a soft skin over most of its body but with rather a firm covering for its head. While we might fancy that there could be a considerable increase in size provided for by the stretching of the soft skin it is easy to see that the hard covering of the head will not admit of this. So the story of the growth of a caterpillar may be told in this way: A butterfly lays an egg upon a leaf. Some days later the egg hatches into a larva, which is the technical name for the second stage of an insect's life. In the case of the butterfly we call this larva a caterpillar. The little caterpillar is likely to take its first meal by eating the empty egg shell. This is a curious habit, and a really satisfactory explanation of it seems not to have been made. Its next meal is likely to be taken from the green tissues of the leaf, commonly the green outer surface only being eaten at this time. The future meals are also taken from the leaf, more and more being eaten as the larva gets older. After a few days of this feeding upon the leaf tissues the little caterpillar becomes so crowded within the skin with which it was born that it is necessary to have a larger one. So a new skin begins to form beneath the first one. Consequently the latter splits open in a straight line part way down the middle of the back just behind the head. Then the new head covering is withdrawn from the old one and the caterpillar wriggles its way out of the split skin and finds itself clothed in a new one. At first all of the tissues of the new skin are soft and pliable and they easily take on a larger size as the body of the caterpillar expands. A little later these tissues become hardened and no further expansion is possible. This process of skin-shedding is called moulting. The cast skin is often called the exuviae. The period of the caterpillar's life between the hatching from the egg and this moult is often called a stage or instar--that is, the caterpillar up to the time of this moult is living in the first caterpillar stage or instar. During the actual moulting the caterpillar is quite active in freeing itself from the exuviae. But as soon as it is free it is likely to rest quietly for some hours while the tissues of the new skin are hardening. Then it begins feeding upon the leaf again and continues taking its meals at more or less regular intervals for several days. By that time it will again have reached its limit of growth within this second skin and the process of moulting must be repeated. It takes place in the same way as before and the caterpillar enters upon the third instar of its larval life. This process of feeding and moulting is continued for several weeks, the number of moults being usually four. During the later stages the increase in size is more marked each time the skin is shed, until the caterpillar finally reaches its full growth as a larva and is ready for the wonderful change to the quiet chrysalis in which all its caterpillar organs are to be transformed into the very different organs of the butterfly. In the case of butterfly larvae one of the most interesting features of the growth of the caterpillar is that of the remarkable changes in colors and patterns of marking which the caterpillar undergoes. One who had not followed these changes would often be at a loss to recognize caterpillars of slightly differing sizes as belonging to the same species. These changes commonly show a remarkable adaptation to the conditions of life, and generally tend to the concealment of the caterpillar upon its food plant. The stages of growth of the green-clouded swallowtail caterpillar are illustrated on plate opposite page 80. Before each moult the caterpillar is likely to spin a silken web upon the leaf surface. It then entangles its claws in the web to hold itself in place while the skin is cast. (_See plate, page 17._) _The Change to the Chrysalis_ (_See plate, pages 32-33._) A week or ten days after the last moult of its caterpillar growth the larva commonly becomes full fed and ready to change to the chrysalis state. The details of the way in which this is accomplished vary greatly with different butterflies, as will be noted in the stories of many species later in this book. In general, however, the caterpillar provides a web of silk which it spins against some surface where the chrysalis will be secure and in this web it entangles its hind legs. Sometimes there is the additional protection of a loop of silk over the front end of the body. After the legs have become entangled the caterpillar hangs downward until the skin splits open along the median line of the back and gradually shrinks upward until it is almost free, showing as it comes off a curious creature which has some of the characteristic features of a chrysalis. It is seldom at this stage of the same shape as the chrysalis. When the caterpillar's skin is nearly off this chrysalis-like object usually wriggles its body quickly in a manner to entangle a curious set of hooks attached to the upper end in the web of silken thread. This hook-like projection is called the cremaster, and it serves a very important purpose in holding the chrysalis in position. [Illustration: Swallowtail Chrysalis, showing (_b_) the loop of silk over thorax. (After Riley)] As soon as the cremaster is entangled in the web the cast skin usually falls off and for a very short period the creature hanging seems to be neither caterpillar nor chrysalis. It is in fact in a transition stage between the two, and it very soon shortens up and takes on the definite form of the chrysalis, the outer tissues hardening into the characteristic chrysalis skin. From the fact that this chrysalis skin shows many of the characteristic features of the future butterfly it is evident that the change from the caterpillar to the butterfly really began during the life of the larva. The nature of the process by which this change takes place has long been a puzzle to scientists. For the making of a butterfly is one of the most wonderful phenomena in the outer world, and it has challenged the attention of many acute observers. Some two centuries ago the great Dutch naturalist, Swammerdam, studied very carefully the development of many insects, especially the butterfly. He found that if he placed in boiling water a caterpillar that was ready to pupate or become a chrysalis, the outer skin could easily be removed, revealing beneath the immature butterfly with well-developed legs and antennae. From these observations he was led to believe that the process of growth was simply a process of unfolding; that is, as Professor Packard has expressed it, "That the form of the larva, pupa, and imago preëxisted in the egg and even in the ovary; and that the insects in these stages were distinct animals, contained one inside the other, like a nest of boxes or a series of envelopes one within the other." This was called the incasement theory and it was held to be correct by naturalists for nearly a century. It was discredited, however, about a hundred years ago, but not until another fifty years had passed was it definitely replaced by another and much more convincing theory propounded by Weismann. According to Weismann's theory, which is now well-established, the process of development internally is a much more continuous one than the external changes would indicate. So far as the latter are concerned we simply say that a caterpillar changes to a chrysalis and a chrysalis to a butterfly, the transition in each case requiring but a very short time. Internally, however, it has been going on almost continuously from the early life of the caterpillar. The various organs of the butterfly arise from certain germinal disks or "imaginal" buds, the word "imaginal" in this case being an adjective form of imago, so that the imaginal buds are really simply buds for the starting of growth of the various organs of the imago or adult. As the caterpillars approach the chrysalis period these imaginal buds rapidly develop into the various organs of the butterfly. This process is helped along by the breaking down of many of the tissues of the larva, this broken-down tissue being then utilized for the production of the new organs. About the time the chrysalis is formed this breaking-down process becomes very general, so that the newly formed chrysalis seems largely a mass of creamy material which is soon used to build up the various parts of the butterfly through the growth of the imaginal buds. _The Change to the Butterfly_ (_See plate, pages 32-33._) There is probably no phenomenon in the world of living creatures which has attracted more attention than the change of the chrysalis into the butterfly. It is not strange that this is so. We see upon a tree or shrub or wall an inert, apparently lifeless object, having no definite form with which we can compare it with other things, having neither eyes nor ears nor wings nor legs--an object apparently of as little interest as a lifeless piece of rock. A few minutes later we behold it again and note with astonishment that this apparently inanimate being has been suddenly transformed into the most ethereal of the creatures of earth, with an exquisite beauty that cannot fail to attract admiration, with wings of most delicate structure for flying through the air, with eyes of a thousand facets, with organs of smell that baffle the ingenuity of man to explain, with vibrant antennae, and a slender tongue adapted to feeding upon the nectar of flowers--the most ambrosial of natural food. So it is not strange that this emergence of a butterfly has long been the theme both of poets and theologians and that it attracts the admiring attention of childhood, youth, and age. Fortunately, this change from chrysalis to butterfly may readily be observed by any one who will take a little trouble to rear the caterpillars or to watch chrysalids found outdoors. The precise method of eclosion, as we call this new kind of "hatching," varies somewhat with different species but in general the process is similar in all. Those chrysalids which have a light colored outer skin are especially desirable if we would watch this process. One can see through the semi-transparent membrane the developing butterfly within, until finally, just before it is ready to break out, the markings of the wings and body show distinctly. If at this time the chrysalis is placed in the sunshine it is likely to come out at once, so that you can observe it readily. It usually breaks apart over the head and the newly released legs quickly grasp hold of the empty skin as well as of the support to which it is attached. It then hangs downward with a very large abdomen and with the wings more or less crumpled up, but decidedly larger than when they were confined within the chrysalis. The wings, however, soon begin to lengthen as they are stretched out, probably through the filling of the space by the body juices. Commonly, the hind pair of wings become full size before the front ones. In a short time the wings attain their full size, the abdomen becomes smaller, through the discharge of a liquid called meconium, and the butterfly is likely to walk a few steps to a better position where it will rest quietly for an hour or two while body and wing tissues harden. After this it is likely to fly away to lead the free life of a butterfly. (_See plate, page 16._) These changes from larva to chrysalis and from chrysalis to adult in the case of the Monarch Butterfly are illustrated on the plates opposite pages 32-33. A little study of these photographs from life will help greatly to an understanding of the process. Some very interesting observations have been made by Mr. J. Alston Moffat upon the method of the expansion of the wings. In summarizing his investigations he writes: "When a wing is fully expanded, and for an hour or two after, the membranes can be easily separated. Entrance for a pin-point between them is to be found at the base of the wing where the subcostal and median nervures come close together. The membranes are united at the costal and inner edges, which have to be cut to get them apart; but they are free at the outer angle. At that time the nervures are in two parts, half in one membrane and half in the other, and open in the centre. The fluid which has been stored up in the pupa enters the winglet at the opening referred to, expanding the membranes as it passes along between them, and the nervures at the same time, and when it has extended to every portion of the wing, then it is fully expanded. The expanding fluid is of a gummy consistency, and as it dries, cements the membranes together, also the edges of the half-nervures, and produces the hollow tubes with which we are so familiar." BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS The butterflies and moths both belong to the great order of scale-winged insects--the Lepidoptera. They are distinguished, however, by certain general characteristics, which hold true for the most part in both groups. The butterflies fly by day; the moths fly by night. All of the higher butterflies go into the chrysalis state without making a silken cocoon, while most of the higher moths make such a cocoon. The bodies of the butterflies are usually slender, while those of the larger moths are stout. The antennae of the butterflies are generally slender and commonly enlarged at the tip into a miniature club. The antennae of the larger moths are commonly feathery or are long and slender, tapering gradually toward the tip. [Illustration: Butterfly wing scales, magnified. (From Holland)] The characteristic features that distinguish a moth from a butterfly are well illustrated in the plate opposite page 49, which shows one of the largest and most beautiful moths in the world. It is the Cynthia moth. As may be seen, the newly emerged moth is resting upon the silken cocoon in which it spent its period as a pupa or chrysalis. This cocoon was attached by the caterpillar to the twig from which it hangs at the time it spun the cocoon. The feathered antennae, the hairy legs, the thick thorax, and large abdomen--all show very clearly in this side view of the moth. As will be seen, the wings are large and very suggestive of those of a butterfly and have the characteristic eye-spots toward the tip and the crescent marks in the middle, which are so often found on the wings of the larger moths. Some of these large moths on cloudy days occasionally fly during daylight and, by the uninitiated, they are often mistaken for large butterflies. One who will notice their structure, however, will readily see the characteristic features of the moth. In the caterpillar stage, there are no hard and fast differences between the larvae of butterflies and those of the higher moths. In each case, the insect consists of a worm-like body, having a small head provided with biting jaws and simple eyes or ocelli. Back of the head are the three rings of the thorax, each of which bears a pair of jointed legs. Back of these three rings there are a considerable number of other body rings making up the abdomen, on the middle of which there are commonly four or five pairs of fleshy prolegs, not jointed but furnished at the tip with fine claws. At the hind end of the body there is another pair of prolegs similar in structure. THE SCENTS OF BUTTERFLIES Many students of American butterflies have occasionally mentioned the fact that certain species seem to give off a distinct scent which has frequently been spoken of as a pleasing fragrance, suggesting sandalwood or some other aromatic odor. The general subject as exemplified by butterflies of other lands has been studied for many years by Fritz Müller; and certain English entomologists have paid considerable attention to it. A translation of the Müller publications and an excellent summary of our present knowledge of the subject is published in Dr. Longstaff's book on butterfly hunting. The odors given off by butterflies are divided into two principal kinds, namely: first, those which are repulsive to the senses of man, and evidently for the purpose of protecting the butterflies from birds and other vertebrate enemies--these are found in both sexes; second, those which are evidently for the purpose of sexual attraction and confined to the male butterflies--these scents are usually attractive to the senses of man. [Illustration: Androconia from wings of male butterflies] The aromatic scents of the second group are generally produced by means of certain scales or hairs of many curious forms, which are scattered over the surface of the wings or are placed within certain special pockets, generally near the borders of the wings. These scales or hairs are called androconia. Some of them much magnified are represented in the picture above. Our knowledge of the scents given off by American butterflies is very fragmentary, and it is highly desirable that many more observations should be made upon the subject. If collectors generally would make careful notes, both in the field and upon the freshly killed butterflies at home, we ought soon to be able greatly to extend our knowledge. By holding the butterfly with a pair of forceps, one can often determine whether the fragrance is emitted. It is often helpful also to brush the hairs or tufts where the androconia are attached, using a small, dry camel's hair brush for the purpose. BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS Migration seems to be a general instinct in the animal world, developed when a species becomes enormously abundant. At such times this instinct apparently overcomes all others and the creatures move on regardless of obstacles and conditions that may mean certain death to the vast majority. Such migrations among mammals have often been recorded, one of the most notable examples being that of the little lemmings which migrate at periodical intervals in a way which has often been described. Among the insects such migrations have been frequently noticed, and the phenomenon has apparently been observed oftener among the butterflies than in any other group. Entomological literature during the last hundred years contains a great many records of enormous flights of butterflies over long distances, extending even from Africa into Europe or from one part of America to another far remote. As such migration is likely to happen whenever a species becomes extremely abundant it probably is Nature's way of providing for an extended food supply for the succeeding generations. That it results in the death of the great majority of the migrants is doubtless true, but it must lead to vast experiments in extending the geographic area inhabited by these species. Numerous examples of such migrating swarms will be found in the pages of this little book. (_See plates, pages 17,48-49, 160._) [Illustration: _Photographed from life by A. H. Verrill_ _See page 12_ SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY JUST OUT OF ITS CHRYSALIS. THE CHRYSALIS SKIN BELOW] [Illustration: _See page 72_ TIGER SWALLOWTAIL] [Illustration: _Photographed from life_ _See page 7_ THE HAMMOCK CATERPILLAR ON ITS HAMMOCK] The migrations thus considered are only exceptional occurrences. There is, however, a regularly recurring annual migration on the part of some butterflies which is also a phenomenon of extraordinary interest. The most notable example is that of the Monarch which apparently follows the birds southward every autumn and comes northward again in spring. There is much evidence to indicate that in some slight degree other butterflies have a similar habit, although the present observations are inadequate to determine to what extent this habit has become fixed in most of these species. HIBERNATION OR WINTER LETHARGY The ways in which butterflies spend the winter are always of peculiar interest to the naturalist. Here are creatures with four distinct stages of existence, each of which has the possibility of carrying the species through the season of cold. It is necessary to learn for each insect which stage has been chosen for the purpose, and if possible to find the reasons for the choice. As a rule the related members of a group are likely to hibernate in a similar stage. Thus most of the Swallowtails pass the winter as chrysalids while practically all the Angle-wings pass the winter as adults. This rule, however, has many exceptions, for one will often find closely related species which differ in the stage of hibernation. As one would expect, the conditions of hibernation vary greatly with the latitude. In the severe climate of the far north the conditions are likely to be more uniform than in the South where the milder climate permits greater variation to the insect. In some cases where a butterfly hibernates in only one stage in Canada it may pass the winter in two or more stages in Alabama or Florida. In many other orders of insects the egg is a favorite stage for hibernation. Even in the closely related moths it is often chosen by many species, but comparatively few butterflies pass the winter in the egg stage. The little Bronze Copper may serve as one example of this limited group. The conditions as to hibernation by the larvae of butterflies are very different from those of the egg. It has been estimated that probably half of all our species pass the winter in some stage of caterpillar growth. This varies all the way from the newly hatched caterpillar which hibernates without tasting food to the fully grown caterpillar which hibernates full fed and changes to a chrysalis in spring without eating anything at that time. A large proportion, however, feed both in fall and spring, going through the winter when approximately half grown. The Graylings and the Fritillaries are typical examples of butterflies which hibernate as newly hatched larvae. The eggs are laid in autumn upon or near the food plants and the caterpillars gnaw their way out of the shells and seek seclusion at once, finding such shelter as they may in the materials on the soil surface. In spring they begin to feed as soon as the weather permits and complete their growth from then on. The half-grown caterpillars may hibernate either as free creatures under boards, stones, or in the turfy grass, or they may be protected by special shelters which they have provided for themselves in their earlier life. In the case of the latter each may have a shelter of its own or there may be a common shelter for a colony of caterpillars. Among the examples of those hibernating in miscellaneous situations without special protection the caterpillars of the Tawny Emperor, the Gray Emperor, the Pearl Crescent, and some of the Graylings are examples. Among those which hibernate in individual shelters the Sovereigns, among which our common Viceroy is most familiar, are good examples. Among those which hibernate in a tent woven by the whole colony for the whole colony the Baltimore or Phaeton butterfly is perhaps the best example. The caterpillars that hibernate when full grown may be grouped in a way somewhat similar to those which are half grown. Many species simply find such shelter as they may at or near the soil surface. The Clouded Sulphur is a good example of these. Others pass the winter in individual shelters made from a leaf or blade. Several of the larger Skippers are good examples of this condition. So far as I know none of our species pass the winter in colonial shelters when full grown. It would be natural to suppose that the great majority of butterflies would be likely to hibernate in the chrysalis state. Here is a quiet stage in which the insect is unable to move about or to take any food, in which it seems entirely dormant and as a rule is fairly well hidden from the view of enemies. We find, however, that only a rather small proportion of our butterflies has chosen this stage for survival through the winter. The most conspicuous examples are the Swallowtails, nearly all of which hibernate in the chrysalis stage. Other examples are the various Whites, the Orange-tips, and isolated species like the Wanderer, and the Spring Azure and the American Copper. Practically all the butterflies that pass the winter as chrysalids have a silken loop running around near the middle of the body which helps to hold them securely through the long winter months. Apparently none of those chrysalids which hang straight downward are able to survive the winter. An adult butterfly seems a fragile creature to endure the long cold months of arctic regions. Yet many of our most beautiful species habitually hibernate as adults, finding shelter in such situations as hollow trees, the crevices in rocks, the openings beneath loose bark or even the outer bark on the under side of a large branch. It is significant that most of the adult-wintering Angle-wings are northern rather than southern species, some of them being found in arctic regions practically around the world. One of the few southern forms that hibernates as an adult is the Goatweed Emperor. These examples are all cases of true hibernation in a lethargic condition. There are certain butterflies, however, which pass the winter as adults that remain active during this period. Obviously this is impossible in latitudes where the winter is severe, and it involves migration to a warmer climate. The one notable illustration of this is the Monarch butterfly which apparently flies southward to the Gulf states at least and there remains until spring, when individuals come north again. The southward migration may be begun in Canada when the butterflies gather together in enormous flocks that remind one of the gathering of the clans with the migrating birds. This is one of the least understood of insect activities but it has been observed so often and over so long a period of years that there seems to be no questioning the general habit. Like everything else in relation to living things there are numerous variations in the prevailing modes of hibernation. In the case of many species one can find combinations of two or more stages in which the winter is passed. Probably if we could observe with sufficient care we might be able to find somewhere examples of almost any conceivable double combination--as egg with larva or chrysalis or adult--the insect hibernating in two of these stages. Many examples are known in which both chrysalis and adult of the same species pass the winter and also of those in which young and well-grown larvae pass the winter. As one would expect, the conditions as to such combinations are likely to be more variable in southern than in northern regions. Notwithstanding all the attention which has been paid to butterfly life-histories there is still some uncertainty in regard to the hibernation of many of our species. One of the most interesting series of observations which a young naturalist could undertake would be to learn positively how each species of butterfly in his locality passes the winter. AESTIVATION OR SUMMER LETHARGY In some species of butterflies there is a special adaptation to passing through the hottest part of the summer season in a state of lethargy which is suggestive of the torpor of the hibernating period. This phase of butterfly existence has not been extensively studied and there are indications that it exists more generally than has been commonly supposed. It has been noticed even in northern New England that some of the Angle-wings seek shelter and become lethargic during August. Apparently this is an adaptation to single broodedness, helping to carry the species through the year without the exhaustion incident to the continued activity of the butterfly. In more southern regions, especially in the hot, dry climates where vegetation withers in midsummer, it is well known that some caterpillars become lethargic, remaining inactive until the fall rains start vegetation into growth. The Orange-sulphur butterfly is a good example of this. This summer lethargy offers excellent opportunity for careful study. Any observer who finds a butterfly hidden away in summer under boards, the bark of a tree, or in a stone pile should look carefully to see what species it is and how the butterfly behaves. Such observations should be sent to the entomological journals in order that our knowledge of the subject may be increased. FEIGNING DEATH The fact has long been noticed that various butterflies have the habit at times of feigning death and dropping to the ground where they may lie motionless for a considerable period. This habit is most easily observed in some of the Angle-wings, especially those which hibernate as adults. Those species have the under surfaces of their wings colored in various bark-picturing patterns and apparently live through the winter to some extent, resting beneath the bark of large branches or upon the trunks of trees. Many of them also secrete themselves in hollow trees or beneath loose bark or in board piles or stone walls. It is probable, however, that during the long ages when these insects were adapting themselves to their life conditions, before man interfered with the natural order and furnished various more or less artificial places for hibernation, these butterflies rested more generally upon the under side of branches than they do now. Even in warm weather when one of these butterflies is suddenly disturbed it is likely to fold its legs upon its body and drop to the ground, allowing itself to be handled without showing any signs of life. This habit is doubtless of value, especially during hibernation or possibly during the summer lethargy or aestivation, the latter a habit which may be more general among these butterflies than is now supposed. As the insect lies motionless upon the ground it is very likely to blend so thoroughly with its surroundings that it becomes concealed, and any bird which had startled it from the branch above would have difficulty in finding it. Some very interesting observations have been made upon the death-feigning instincts of various other insects, especially the beetles. But no one so far as I know has yet made an extended study of the subject in relation to our American butterflies. It is an excellent field for investigation and offers unusual opportunities for photographic records. One of the pictures opposite page 32 shows a photograph which I took of a Mourning Cloak as it was thus playing 'possum. This species exhibits the instinct to a marked degree. COLORATION The caterpillars of butterflies and moths form a large part of the food of insect-eating birds. These caterpillars are especially adapted for such a purpose and in the economy of nature they play a very important part in keeping alive the feathered tribes. During the long ages through which both birds and insects have been developing side by side, there have been many remarkable inter-relations established which tend on the one hand to prevent the birds from exterminating the insects and on the other to prevent the insects from causing the birds to starve. The most important of these, so far as the caterpillars are concerned, are the various devices by which these insects protect themselves from attack, by hiding away where birds are not likely to find them, by clothing their bodies with spiny hairs, by other methods of rendering themselves distasteful, or by various phases of concealing coloration. On the whole, the examples of the latter are not so numerous or so easily found in the case of the larvae of butterflies as in those of moths. Perhaps the basal principle of concealing coloration is the law of counter-shading, first partially announced by Prof. E. B. Poulton, and later much more elaborately worked out by Mr. Abbott H. Thayer, and discussed at length by Mr. Gerald H. Thayer in his remarkable volume, "Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom." The law of counter-shading is tersely stated in these words: "Animals are painted by nature darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light and _vice versa_." As this law works out on most animals that live on or near the ground, the upper part of the body exposed to the direct light from above is dark; and the under part, shut off from the upper light and receiving only the small reflection from below, is enough lighter to make the appearance of the creature in its natural environment of a uniform tone from back to breast. Nearly all caterpillars illustrate this law of counter-shading. If they are in the habit of feeding or resting with their feet downward the back will be darker and the under side lighter, but if they are in the habit of feeding or resting in the opposite position these color tones will be reversed. One can find examples of such conditions almost any summer's day by a little searching of trees or shrubs. This law of counter-shading, however, is really only the basis for the coloration of caterpillars or other animals. It tends, chiefly, to make the creature appear as a flat plane when seen from the side, and may be said in a way to prepare the canvas upon which Nature paints her more distinctive pictures. A great many examples of color markings that tend to conceal the caterpillar amid its natural surroundings may be found by any one who will study the subject and it offers one of the most interesting fields for investigation. The chapter on caterpillars in the above-mentioned book by Mr. Thayer should serve as a starting point for any one taking up the subject. Butterflies differ from caterpillars and from most other animals in the fact that their coloring is chiefly shown upon the flat surfaces of the wings. Consequently, there is less opportunity for the various phases of counter-shading which is so commonly shown in the larger caterpillars. The bodies of nearly all butterflies do exhibit this phenomenon, but these bodies are relatively so small that counter-shading plays but a little part in the general display. Upon the outstretched membranes of the butterflies' wings Nature through the long ages of development has painted a great variety of pictures. Those which tend to protect the insect by concealment amid its surroundings are most commonly spread on the under surface of the wings. Especially is this true in the case of those species which pass the winter as adults or which have the habit of resting upon the bark of trees, the sides of rocks, or the surface of the ground. We here find some of the most interesting examples of obliterative coloring that occur in nature. Some butterflies have taken on the look of tree bark, others the sombre appearance of weathered rocks, while still others are painted with the images of flowerets and their stems. _Dazzling and Eclipsing Colors_ Many of the butterflies, especially the Angle-wings, which are marked on the under surface in various protective colors, are admirable examples of that phase of animal coloring which is spoken of as _dazzling coloration_. This is apparently one of the most important protective devices to be found in Nature and the validity of it is now generally conceded by naturalists. One phase of it, which may be called eclipsing coloration, seems to have been first definitely formulated by the late Lord Walsingham, a famous English entomologist who enunciated it in an address as president of the Entomological Society of London. The most significant paragraphs in that address were these: "My attention was lately drawn to a passage in Herbert Spencer's 'Essay on the Morals of Trade.' He writes: 'As when tasting different foods or wines the palate is disabled by something strongly flavored from appreciating the more delicate flavor of another thing afterward taken, so with the other organs of sense a temporary disability follows an excessive stimulation. This holds not only with the eyes in judging of colors, but also with the fingers in judging of texture.' "Here, I think, we have an explanation of the principle on which protection is undoubtedly afforded to certain insects by the possession of bright coloring on such parts of their wings or bodies as can be instantly covered and concealed at will. It is an undoubted fact, and one which must have been observed by nearly all collectors of insects abroad, and perhaps also in our own country, that it is more easy to follow with the eye the rapid movements of a more conspicuous insect soberly and uniformly colored than those of an insect capable of changing in an instant the appearance it presents. The eye, having once fixed itself upon an object of a certain form and color, conveys to the mind a corresponding impression, and, if that impression is suddenly found to be unreliable, the instruction which the mind conveys to the eye becomes also unreliable, and the rapidity with which the impression and consequent instruction can be changed cannot always compete successfully with the rapid transformation effected by the insect in its effort to escape." Lord Walsingham then goes on to suggest that this intermittent play of bright colors probably has as confusing effect upon birds and other predaceous vertebrates as upon man; and that on this hypothesis such colors can be accounted for more satisfactorily than upon any other yet suggested. Since then the significance of this theory has been repeatedly pointed out by Professor Poulton, Mr. Abbott H. Thayer, and various other authorities upon animal coloring. The terms _dazzling_ and _eclipsing_ have been applied to the phenomenon. Shortly after Lord Walsingham propounded this theory I called attention [A] to its fitness in explaining some of the most interesting color phases shown by American insects, notably the moths and locusts which have brilliantly colored under wings and protectively colored upper wings. [A] _Popular Science Monthly_, 1898, "A Game of Hide and Seek." Reprinted in the _Insect World_, 1899. The animals of the north show numberless color phases of interest. One of the most curious of these is exhibited by several families of insects in which the outer wings are protectively colored in dull hues and the under wings brightly colored. For example, there are many species of moths belonging to the genus Catocala found throughout the United States. These are insects of good size, the larger ones measuring three inches in expanse of wings, and the majority of them being at least two thirds that size. Most of them live during the day on the bark of trees, with their front wings folded together over the back. The colors and markings of these wings, as well as of the rest of the exposed portions of the body, are such as to assimilate closely with the bark of the tree upon which the insect rests. In such a situation it requires a sharp eye to detect the presence of the moth, which, unless disturbed, flies only at night, remaining all day exposed to the attacks of many enemies. Probably the most important of these are the birds, especially species like the woodpeckers, which are constantly exploring all portions of the trunks of trees. The chief beauty of these Catocalas, as they are seen spread out in the museum cabinet, lies in the fact that the hind wings, which, when the moth is at rest in life, are concealed by the front ones, are brightly colored in contrasting hues of black, red, and white in various brilliant combinations. These colors, in connection with the soft and blended tones of the front wings, make a very handsome insect. It is easy to see that when one of these Underwing Moths is driven to flight by a woodpecker or other bark-searching bird it would show during its rapid, irregular flight the bright colors of the under wings which would be instantly hidden upon alighting and the very different coloring of the upper wings blending with the bark would be substituted. Consequently, the bird would be very likely to be baffled in its pursuit. _Coloration of Locusts_ On the rocky hills and sandy plains of New England there are several species of grasshoppers or locusts that also illustrate these principles. If you walk along a strip of sandy land in summer, you start to flight certain locusts which soon alight, and when searched for will be found closely to assimilate in color the sand upon which they rest. On a neighboring granite-ribbed hill you will find few if any of this species of locust, but instead there occur two or three quite different species, which when at rest closely resemble the lichen-covered rocks. This resemblance is very striking, and is found in all stages of the insect's existence. If now you go to a lowland meadow, still another color phase will be found to prevail--the green grass is swarming with the so-called "long-horned" grasshoppers, which are green throughout with linear bodies, and long, slender legs and antennae. Each of these three groups of insects is adapted to its particular habitat. All are constantly persecuted by birds, and have been so persecuted for unnumbered ages in the past. In every generation the individuals have varied, some toward closer resemblance to environment, others in an opposite direction. The more conspicuous insects have been constantly taken, and the least conspicuous as constantly left to reproduce. Were the three groups to change places to-day, the green grasshoppers from the meadows going to sandy surfaces, the sand-colored locusts going to rocky hills, and the "mossbacks" from the hills to the lowland meadows, each would become conspicuous, and the birds would have such a feast as is seldom spread before them. The species living on sand and rocks are often "flushed" by birds. Those which flew but a few feet would be likely to be captured by the pursuing bird; those which flew farther would stand a better chance of escaping. Similarly, those which flew slowly and in a straight line would be more likely to be caught than those which flew rapidly and took a zigzag course. As a consequence of the selection thus brought about through the elimination of those which flew slowly along the straight and narrow way that led to death, you will find that most locusts living in exposed situations when startled fly some distance in a rapid, zigzag manner. But still another element of safety has been introduced by some species of these locusts through the adoption of the color tactics of the Catocala moths. The under wings of the common Carolina locust--the species most abundant along the highway--are black, bordered with yellowish white. The base of the hind wings of a related species living on the Western plains is bluish, while in the large coral-winged locust of the Eastern states the hind wings are red, bordered with black. In nearly all of the species of these locusts frequenting open localities where they are liable to disturbance by birds or other animals, the hind wings exhibit contrasting colors in flight. Most of them also fly in a zigzag line, and alight in a most erratic manner. Many times I have had difficulty in determining the exact landfall of one of these peculiar creatures, and I believe Lord Walsingham's suggestion is well exemplified in them. (_See page 33._) The most famous example of a combination of this dazzling coloring of the upper wing surface with a definite protective coloring of the under wing surface is the Kallima butterfly which is illustrated in almost every book dealing with animal coloration. The under wing surface bears a striking resemblance to a leaf and the hind wings project to form a tail which looks like the petiole of the leaf, and there is also a mark running across the wings which mimics the midrib. When the butterfly is flying the brilliant colors of the upper surface are visible, but when it alights these are instantly replaced by the sombre tone of the under surface, so that apparently the insect completely disappears and in its place there is only a leaf attached to a branch in a most natural position. In Dr. Longstaff's book there is an illustration of another tropical butterfly, _Eronia cleodora_, which resembles on its under surface a yellow disease-stricken leaf but on its upper surface gives a brilliant combination of black and white. This insect alights upon the leaves which it resembles and is a striking example of both dazzling and mimicking coloration. Many of our own butterflies, notably the Angle-wings, are excellent examples of a similar combination. In flight they reveal conspicuous colors which are instantly hidden upon alighting and then one only sees the bark-like or dead leaf-like under surface as may be seen in the plate opposite pages 160-161. The iridescence upon the upper wing surface of many butterflies, whose under wing surface is colored in concealing tones, is doubtless also of great use to the insect in a similar way. There is a splendid opportunity here for some observer to study this phase of butterfly activity and to get photographs of the insects amid their natural surroundings. In their book upon "Concealing Coloration" the Messrs. Thayer have called attention to many interesting phases of dazzling coloration. They show that bright marks like the eye-spots or ocelli, which form so prominent a feature on the wing surfaces of many butterflies, really helped to conceal the insect amid its natural surroundings, by drawing the eye away from the outlines of wings and body so that the latter tend to disappear. Their discussion of this subject opens up another vast field for outdoor observations of absorbing interest, in which there is great need for many active workers. [Illustration: _See page 23_ BUTTERFLY FEIGNING DEATH, HANGING TO BARK BY ONE FOOT] [Illustration: _See page 17_ BUTTERFLY IN HIBERNATING POSITION] [Illustration: Caterpillar feeding upon leaf of milkweed Caterpillar hung up for the change to the chrysalis The transition stage The Chrysalis THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY: CHANGE FROM CATERPILLAR TO CHRYSALIS. Photographs from life. (_See pages 8-10, 233_)] [Illustration: Chrysalis showing butterfly ready to emerge The empty chrysalis Butterfly just out of chrysalis Side view a little later THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY: THE CHANGE FROM CHRYSALIS TO ADULT. Photographs from life (_See pages 10-13, 235_)] [Illustration: _See page 30_ THE CAROLINA LOCUST Above, with wings expanded as in flight] SELECTIVE COLOR SENSE One who collects the Underwing moths soon discovers that the light colored species which resemble the bark of birch trees are likely to be found upon the trunks of those trees, and that the dark colored kinds which resemble the bark of maple trees are likely to be found upon the trunks of these. Obviously, were this not true the protective coloring would avail but little and it is evident that these moths are able to select a background which is of advantage in helping to conceal them. There is much evidence to show that in a similar way the butterflies are able by means of a well-developed color sense to select the places where they alight. One of the most notable examples is that of a South American species, _Peridromia feronia_. This is a silvery gray butterfly which alights head downward upon the bark of certain palm trees that have silvery gray stems and remains there with its wings fully expanded so that it utilizes the background in much the same way that the Underwing moths do. "When disturbed they will return to the same tree again and again." One who will observe the habits of our Angle-wings and other butterflies which have obliterative coloring of the under wing surface can easily learn that these insects select rather carefully the places where they alight. It will be found that as a rule each species utilizes a background that blends with its own coloring. It is probable that this habit is much more common in other groups of butterflies than has been realized. Much evidence of this sort has been collected regarding the butterflies of Europe and other countries, as well as near our own borders in America. WARNING COLORATION AND MIMICRY The colors of a great many animals, including a considerable percentage of American butterflies and their larvae, have been commonly explained by the theory of _warning colors_. According to this theory animals which were for any reason not edible by birds and mammals have developed various striking combinations of color such as black and yellow, red and black, or black and white, in order to advertise to their foes their inedible qualities. This theory has been very generally accepted by naturalists and will be found expounded at length in many books published during the last quarter century. The whole subject of the validity of warning coloration has recently been brought up for reconsideration by the illuminating investigations of Mr. Abbott H. Thayer and discussed at length in the book upon "Concealing Coloration" already mentioned. In an appendix to this book dated 1908 Mr. Thayer states that he no longer holds the belief that "there must somewhere be warning colors." He has convincingly shown that a large proportion of the animals which were supposed to be examples of this theory are really illustrations of concealing coloration. But there yet remain various facts which have been conclusively proven that apparently require the theory of warning colors to explain them. Here is another field in which there is a real need for much careful investigation under conditions that are rigidly scientific. Along with the theory of warning coloration the theory of _mimicry_ has been propounded. According to this if a butterfly in a given region shows warning coloration, having developed such coloration because it is distasteful to birds and mammals, it may be mimicked by another butterfly in the same region belonging to another group, the latter butterfly being edible, but benefiting by its resemblance to the distasteful species, because birds or mammals mistake it for the latter and do not attempt to catch it. The most notable example of such mimicry in North America is that of the Monarch butterfly, which is supposed to be the distasteful species, and the Viceroy butterfly, which is supposed to mimic it. Several other instances of mimicry are found among our own butterflies, while in South America, Africa, and Asia there are numberless examples. HELIOTROPISM It has long been known that the green surfaces of plants respond to the stimulus of the sun's rays in a most remarkable manner. This response has commonly been called _heliotropism_ and it has been carefully studied by botanists all over the habitable world. More recently, the fact has been observed that many animals respond in certain definite ways to the stimulus of direct sunshine and the same term has been applied in this case. Very little attention has been given to the subject of heliotropism until within a few recent years. But the observations which have been made by Parker, Longstaff, Dixey, and others open up a most interesting field for further observation. An admirable summary of our present knowledge of the subject has been published by Dr. Longstaff in his book "Butterfly Hunting in Many Lands." One of the earliest observations upon this subject was that published in my book "Nature Biographies" which appeared in June, 1901, concerning the habit in the Mourning Cloak: "On a spring-like day early in November (the 8th) I came across one of these butterflies basking in the sunshine upon the ties of a railway track. It rested with its wings wide open. On being disturbed, it would fly a short distance and then alight, and I was interested to notice that after alighting it would always turn about until the hind end of its body pointed in the direction of the sun, so that the sun's rays struck its wings and body nearly at right angles. I repeatedly observed this habit of getting into the position in which the most benefit from the sunshine was received, and it is of interest as showing the extreme delicacy of perception toward the warmth of sunshine which these creatures possess." A little later, some very elaborate observations were made upon this habit of the Mourning Cloak by Prof. G. H. Parker of Harvard University. Professor Parker noticed that during the warm spells in winter the butterflies came out of their hiding places and after alighting, always placed themselves with their heads away from the direction of the sun and their bodies lying nearly at right angles to the sun's rays. By experiment, he found that they adjusted themselves to this position as soon as they were fully exposed to direct sunshine, even if at the time of alighting they were in a shadow. He found that this movement was a reflex action through the eyes, for when the eyes were blinded no such adjustment took place. He called it _negative heliotropism_. Dr. Longstaff uses the term _orientation_ for this adjustment of the butterfly to the sun's rays and he finds it is a very general habit, especially with the Angle-wings, for the butterfly thus to orient itself after alighting, in such a way that the hind end of the body points toward the sun. This occurs not only with those species which keep their wings spread open when they alight but also with those in which the wings are closed together and held in a vertical position on alighting. Various explanations of this phenomenon have been offered but apparently none of them are yet generally accepted. Were the habit confined to butterflies like the Mourning Cloak, it would seem easy to prove that a main advantage was found in the benefit derived from the heat rays of the sun. Were it confined to those species which always fold their wings on alighting, it would seem easy to believe that it was a device for reducing the shadow cast by the insect to its lowest terms. It has also been suggested that the habit is for the purpose of revealing to the fullest extent the markings of the butterfly. Evidently there is here an ample field for further investigation before definite conclusions are reached. LIST AND SHADOW OBSERVATIONS Another field for most interesting studies upon the habits of living butterflies has been opened up by the very interesting discussion of _list and shadow_ in Colonel G. B. Longstaff's fascinating book, "Butterfly Hunting in Many Lands." He there summarizes his numerous observations upon butterflies in various localities which he has seen to lean over at a decided angle when they alight. He defines "_List_" as "an attitude resulting from the rotation of the insect about its longitudinal axis, as heliotropism results from a rotation about an imaginary vertical axis at right angles to this." The name is adapted from the sailors' term applied to a vessel leaning to one side or another in a storm. Apparently this interesting habit was first called to the attention of European entomologists by an observation of Colonel C. T. Bingham made in 1878, but not published until long afterward. The observation was this: "The _Melanitis_ was there among dead leaves, its wings folded and looking for all the world a dead, dry leaf itself. With regard to Melanitis, I have not seen it recorded anywhere that the species of this genus when disturbed fly a little way, drop suddenly into the undergrowth with closed wings, and invariably lie a little askew and slanting, which still more increases their likeness to a dead leaf casually fallen to the ground." Long before this was printed, however, a similar habit had been observed by Scudder in the case of our White Mountain butterfly (_Oenis semidea_). But this species is so exceptional in its habitat that the habit seems to have been considered a special adaptation to the wind-swept mountain top. The possibility of its being at all general among the butterflies in lowlands seems to have been overlooked. The observations recorded by Longstaff relate chiefly to various members of the Satyrid group. For example, a common Grayling, _Satyrus semele_, was watched many times as it settled on the ground. As a rule three motions are gone through in regular sequence: the wings are brought together over the back; the forewings are drawn between the hind wings; the whole is thrown over to right or left to the extent of thirty, forty, or even fifty degrees. This habit, of course, is of advantage to the insect. It seems possible that the advantage might be explained in either of two ways: first, the leaning over on the ground among grasses and fallen leaves might help to render the disguising coloration of the insect more effective, the large ocelli serving to draw the eye away from the outline of body and wing; second, the listing of the butterfly toward the sun tends to reduce the shadow and to hide it beneath the wings. There is no doubt that when a Grayling butterfly lights upon the ground in strong sunshine the shadow it casts is more conspicuous than the insect itself and the hiding of this might be of distinct advantage in helping it to escape observation. It is significant that in England the butterflies observed appear to lean over more frequently in sunshine than in shade. An observation of Mr. E. G. Waddilove, reported by Colonel Longstaff, is interesting in this connection: "A Grayling settled on a patch of bare black peat earth, shut up its wings vertically, and crawled at once some two yards to the edge of the patch to where some fir-needles, a cone or two, and a few brittle twigs were lying, and then becoming stationary threw itself over at an angle of some forty-five degrees square to the sun. It thus became quite indistinguishable from its surroundings." Apparently, some of the Angle-wings may have the same habit, for in Barrett's "Lepidoptera of the British Islands," there is a note in regard to _Grapta C-album_ to the effect that it is fond of sunning itself in roads, on warm walls, or on the ground upon dead leaves in sheltered valleys. "Here, if the sun becomes overclouded, it will sometimes close its wings and almost lie down, in such a manner that to distinguish its brown and green marbled under side from the dead leaves is almost impossible." Here is a most fascinating opportunity for American observers to determine definitely the facts in regard to our numerous species of butterflies that may show this habit. An observer with a reflex type of camera might easily be able to get pictures that would be of great value in helping to determine the principal facts in regard to the subject. Our common Graylings and numerous species of Angle-wings are so abundant and easily observed that they offer splendid opportunities to any one who will undertake a serious study of the subject. PARASITIC ENEMIES All three of the earlier stages of butterflies--egg, larva, and chrysalis--are subject to attack by various parasitic insects which develop at the expense of the host. Such parasites are probably the most important check upon the increase of butterflies, and along with birds, mammals, and bacterial diseases, they help to keep up that balance of nature which in the long run maintains a surprising uniformity in the numbers of each kind of butterfly. For the most part these insect parasites are small four-winged flies, although many of them are two-winged flies. In either case the life stages show a series of changes much like those of the butterflies themselves. Each parasite exists first as an egg, second as a larva, third as a pupa, and fourth as an adult fly. The larval stage, however, is simply that of a footless grub which lives within the body of its victim absorbing its life blood and gradually killing it. The parasites of butterfly eggs are legion. They are tiny flies whose life-story in briefest summary is this: The butterfly lays an egg. The parasite fly finds this egg soon after it is laid, and pierces the shell with her tiny, sharply pointed ovipositor and deposits inside of the shell her own microscopic egg. This egg within the egg soon hatches into a curious little larva that develops at the expense of the contents of the butterfly egg shell, and soon absorbs the whole of them. The parasite larva now changes to a pupa which a little later changes again to an adult fly like the one that laid the parasite egg in the beginning. Of course the butterfly egg never hatches into a caterpillar. One of the most interesting questions in regard to these egg parasites is this: How does the tiny parasitic fly find the newly laid egg? One would think that the proverbial search for a needle in a haymow would be an easy task compared with that of a fly about as large as the head of a pin finding a butterfly egg of similar size upon some part of one of the millions of leaves upon the trees and shrubs in field and forest. Yet the search is successful, as every one who has tried to get caterpillars from eggs found out of doors will testify. On a later page in this book, in connection with the story of the life of the Mourning Cloak butterfly, I have recorded some observations upon the little parasite which seemed to have been riding around upon the body of the butterfly waiting for her to lay her eggs. For one parasite upon the eggs of butterflies, there probably are dozens that attack the caterpillars. A large proportion of the butterfly larvae brought in from outdoors, especially those which are half-grown or more, will yield not butterflies but parasites. This is the experience of practically every one who attempts to rear these insects, and it emphasizes the value of the advice that in order to get fine specimens, it is desirable to rear them from eggs laid by butterflies beneath netting or in cages. The life-histories of the parasites that attack caterpillars vary greatly. The simplest are those of the large Ichneumon flies: The mother fly lays an egg beneath the skin of the caterpillar. The egg hatches into a larva that absorbs the fatty parts of the body of the caterpillar, gradually growing larger and larger until at last it reaches a length of possibly an inch. By this time it is likely to have absorbed so large a part of the inside of the caterpillar that the latter dies. The parasite larva now changes to a pupa, either inside or outside the skin of the caterpillar, and a little later changes again to an adult Ichneumon fly. [Illustration: Tachinid Parasite: _a_, fly; _b_, puparium, magnified.] In the case just given, one egg only was deposited within the skin of the caterpillar. In many others, however, a large number of eggs may be so deposited by a single fly. A special group of Ichneumon flies, called the Microgasters, contains many parasites that have this peculiarity. The Microgaster larvae on coming forth from the caterpillar have the habit of spinning tiny cocoons within which they change to pupae. By collecting some cabbage worms which are nearly full grown, and keeping them in a glass jar one can generally get a considerable number of these Microgaster cocoons and rear the flies from them. Another group of caterpillar parasites is still more minute. They are called the Chalcid flies. Their life-histories are full of interest, and might easily furnish opportunity for a long lifetime of study and experiment. One is likely to get hundreds of these Chalcid flies from a single caterpillar. Another interesting group of parasites is that of the two-winged Tachina flies (_see cut on this page_). The life-story of some of these is comparatively simple: a buzzing fly, looking much like a large housefly, lays a small whitish egg upon the skin of a caterpillar. This egg is glued tightly and is large enough to be readily seen by the unaided eye. It hatches into a tiny larva that eats its way through the part of the shell glued to the caterpillar's skin, and through the latter at the same time. So the newly hatched Tachina larva finds itself in the body of its caterpillar host. It lives there, absorbing the fatty juices around it until at last it either kills or stupefies its unfortunate victim. It has then become full grown as a larva, and its last larval skin hardens into a brown pupa-case within which the little creature changes into a pupa. It may or may not have burrowed through the skin of the caterpillar before this happened. A little later the pupa changes to a Tachina fly which breaks apart the pupa-case and flies out into the world. It has lately been found, however, that many Tachinids have much more complicated life-histories than this. I have already discussed some of the more important of these in my book entitled, "Seeing Nature First" (_pages 150-158_). One can frequently rear parasites from the chrysalids of butterflies, but in many cases it is probable that these began their parasitic development in the caterpillars, which were able to change to chrysalids before being killed. In some cases, however, the chrysalids seem to be attacked, especially by certain Ichneumon flies. REARING BUTTERFLIES FROM CATERPILLARS There are few things in the world more interesting to watch than the wonderful changes which a moth or butterfly goes through in the course of its life. You find on a tree or shrub a worm-like caterpillar. You take it in charge, placing it in a box or jar where you can provide leaves for its food and soon it either spins around itself a silken shroud, thus hiding from your sight, or else it simply seems to change to a lifeless object without eyes or wings or legs, unable to move about and motionless, save for a slight wriggle when you touch it. Yet if you keep the shroud or the mummy-like object for two or three weeks you are likely to see a beautiful moth come from the shroud or a glorious butterfly break out of the mummy case. (_See plate, page 49._) So you can get the realest kind of moving pictures by simply bringing in the caterpillars that are easily found in garden, field, and wood. To collect these caterpillars it is only necessary to be provided with a pair of sharp eyes and an empty coffee can or some other form of tin box. Go out into the garden or along the borders of the woods. Look carefully. If you see places where leaves have been eaten, search the leaves near by and you are likely to find one or more of the caterpillars that caused the injury. Transfer them to the box and take them home with a few leaves of the food plant. There place them in some form of vivarium, which simply means a box or cage in which you can keep living creatures. The most satisfactory cages for rearing caterpillars are those which are open above so that there is not even a glass plate between the observer and the insect. This kind of vivarium is easily made by using a band of some sticky substance like the tree tanglefoot with which trees are commonly banded, or a strip of sticky fly paper. Any wide shallow box may be used by simply placing an inch-wide band of the sticky material around the vertical sides near the top. The caterpillars will be free to move all over the open box but they cannot cross the band to escape. Fresh leaves are easily placed in the open box and the withered ones removed. The same plan may be adopted with wide glass jars, like the ordinary battery jar. Choose a rather large one and smear the inner side near the top with a band of sticky material. The caterpillars are thus prevented from crawling out, but they are open to observation at all times. (_See plate, pages 48-49._) In the case of the caterpillars that change to butterflies no soil need be placed in the bottom of the jar as these will attach their chrysalids to the sides or to a stick or board which may easily be put in. In the case of many caterpillars that change to moths, however, it is desirable to place about two inches of soil in the bottom of the jar. Then if the caterpillars are not cocoon spinners they can burrow into the soil when they are ready to change to pupae. Instead of applying the sticky material directly to the glass a strip of sticky fly paper may be glued to it. As a rule the butterfly caterpillar easiest to find lives upon cabbages. Go into the garden and you are likely to see a dozen green caterpillars upon as many cabbage plants. Bring in several of the larger ones and place them in a vivarium with some fresh cabbage leaves. In a few days some of them will be likely to fasten themselves to the vertical sides of the vivarium and shed the caterpillar skin. Each thus becomes a chrysalis. About ten days later this chrysalis skin will break open and a white Cabbage butterfly will come out. So your caterpillar goes through the four different stages of insect life. It was first an egg laid upon the leaf by a butterfly; the egg hatched into the caterpillar or larva; the larva changed to the chrysalis; the chrysalis changed to the butterfly or adult insect. One of the most satisfactory ways to rear the caterpillars of butterflies is to get the females to lay their eggs upon the food plant. In the case of many species this is not difficult. The simplest way is to enclose the mother butterfly in a small gauze bag tied over the branch of the food plant. If she has eggs ready to deposit she is very likely to lay them under these conditions. After they are laid the mother butterfly may be allowed to escape, but it is well to replace the gauze protection as a safeguard against many sorts of enemies which may destroy the eggs or the young caterpillars that hatch from them. Another way is to enclose the butterflies with a twig of the food plant in a glass jar, sealing it tight to prevent the leaves from wilting. The butterfly is likely after she has quieted down to lay her eggs upon the leaves. According to William G. Wright, who speaks from his long experience with the butterflies of the West Coast, these genera will lay their eggs on anything: Parnassius, Argynnis, Euptoieta, Neonympha, and all members of the family Satyridae. In these cases one can get the eggs by simply enclosing the butterflies in glass jars or gauze nets without even the leaves of the food plant. William H. Edwards found in his long experience that one can get the eggs of practically all butterflies in confinement, provided only the insects are sufficiently mature so that the eggs are ready to be laid. He found that the cause of failure to get eggs from many of the Fritillaries early in the season was that the eggs were not mature and that from the same kinds of butterflies with which he failed early in the summer he got plenty of eggs in September. There is here a rich field for observation and experiment for every naturalist who wishes to take up the study of butterflies. He can be sure of the parentage of the caterpillars and can trace them from the very moment of egg-laying through all their wonderful changes until they become butterflies again. PHOTOGRAPHING BUTTERFLIES There is a famous old saying that to make hare stew it is first necessary to catch your hare. So if one wishes to make perfect pictures of butterflies it is first necessary to get the caterpillars. For though caterpillars are not butterflies they are butterflies in the making and they will show you most interesting stages in nature's manufacture of these dainty and exquisite creatures. This is not, however, the chief reason why the photographer should get them. He will wish to make perfect pictures and in order to do this he must have not only perfect specimens but living butterflies which are willing to look pleasant while he makes comparatively long exposures under conditions of light that he can control. If you catch a butterfly outdoors and bring it in you will be likely to find that it is by no means a docile subject. The sunlight shining through the nearest window will be a call which you cannot counteract and your butterfly will constantly respond to it in a most vexing manner. So you must catch the butterfly young and take advantage of a brief but docile period in their lives when they are willing to pose before your camera in quite a remarkable manner. This is the period just after the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis when its wings are fully developed but before the tissues have hardened and the muscles in the thorax are strong enough for flight. At this time the butterfly is perfect, every scale is in its place and every spot of color is at its best, and it will rest quietly upon a flower, leaf, or twig while you adjust the camera and expose the plate. From one such specimen one can get many pictures upon different flowers and with different angles of view. (_See plates, pages 160, 225._) In order to make admirable photographs of living butterflies it is by no means necessary to have a regular photographic studio. If one has a room lighted from the north or east one can arrange for exposure near the window, using cardboard reflectors to make the light more even from both sides. In such a situation one soon learns the exposure periods required and can easily get many beautiful photographs. A collection of prints of the butterflies of one's locality would be one of the most interesting photographic exhibits that an amateur could select. It is comparatively easy to get rather full sets showing the life-histories of several of our larger species and such sets are of course of especial interest. In the case of those caterpillars which make nests upon the food plant, like the Painted Beauty larva which remains for weeks feeding upon the leaves of the common wild everlasting, the taking of the pictures of the different stages is comparatively easy. One can keep the plant with the stem in water, and get the caterpillar to change to the chrysalis, and emerge as the butterfly, in the nest made from the flower heads and the upper leaves. [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 59_ THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL Caterpillar, chrysalis and butterfly] [Illustration: Two hundred Monarchs resting on one dead limb] [Illustration: _Photographed by Craig S. Thomas_ _See pp. 16, 235_ "When a stick was thrown into the tree the air was full of Monarchs" A MIGRATION OF MONARCH BUTTERFLIES] [Illustration: _See page 45_ THE IMPROVED OPEN VIVARIUM] [Illustration: _From a photograph from life by A. H. Verrill._ _See page 14_ THE CYNTHIA MOTH AND THE COCOON FROM WHICH IT CAME] BUTTERFLY COLLECTIONS There are few groups in Nature which offer such advantages to the collector as that of the butterflies. They are easily obtained, easily preserved, and retain their beauty for a long period even under exposure to strong light. They offer opportunities for serious study in which one cannot only review the facts which others have already discovered, but also hope to contribute something of value to the sum of human knowledge. The mistake most commonly made by beginners with butterflies, as with other collections, is to undertake too much. Instead of starting on the hopeless task of making a collection of the butterflies of the world, it is much better to start with the intention of making a collection of those of one's own town. In the latter case one can hope soon to attain the desired end and then, if one wishes, it is a simple matter to reach out and make a collection of the butterflies of the state or even of the particular region in which the state is located. The natural limitations for a collection in New England is to make a collection of New England butterflies. There is a splendid example of such a collection on exhibition in the museum of the Boston Society of Natural History. This contains representatives of practically every kind that has been collected in New England, and yet there are less than a hundred species in all. So it is apparent that a local collection should be attainable by any enthusiastic student and the very fact that the number of species is limited adds interest and satisfaction to the pursuit. The main value of any collection of objects lies in the point of view of the collector. The most natural point of view for a beginner is that of the local fauna, as indicated in the previous paragraph. Such a collection best serves as a basis for a study of the subject but it may well lead to a broader field through some special phase of scientific interest. Thus while it would be hopeless for most persons to attempt a collection of the butterflies of the world it would be entirely reasonable for one to start a collection of all the species in the world of any given genus or tribe, and such a set of specimens would soon come to possess decided scientific value. Or, instead of the point of view of generic or family relationship, one could take the point of view of special geographical distribution. Thus a collection of all the butterflies found within a certain number of degrees of the North Pole showing the circumpolar butterfly fauna would have great scientific interest. There are also various other points of view which could be followed in making a collection. There are already in many of the museums of the world collections of butterflies which illustrate the various phases of true mimicry--the resemblance of one species to another in the same region. This is a field in which one could spend a lifetime of endeavor, and secure results of great value to the world of science. An easier problem for most collectors in the United States would be a collection made from the point of view of resemblance to environment, including such examples as the Angle-wings that show a bark-like set of marks on the under surface. Yet another point of view would be that of hibernation, the making of a collection of all butterflies that hibernate as adults. These are only a few suggestions. There are many other phases of butterfly life which could be utilized as the basis for interesting collections. The important thing is to have a definite object in view and to make the collection a basis for a real study of the subject, so that the collector will not only be growing intellectually but will also be making a real contribution to our scientific knowledge. _Collecting Apparatus_ To collect and preserve butterflies in proper condition for study, certain apparatus is necessary. Perhaps the first essential is the collecting net for catching butterflies in the field. The simplest way to obtain this is to buy it of the dealers in entomological supplies. Nets in considerable variety and at various prices are offered in the catalogues of these firms. One can make, however, a net at home with little difficulty. One need only obtain an iron wire about one fifth of an inch in diameter and bend it into a circular ring a foot or fifteen inches wide, leaving the ends projecting at right angles to the circle and having a blacksmith weld them together so as to form a spur about four inches long. Now thrust this spur into some convenient handle, such as a broomstick, and sew over the wire circle a bag of mosquito netting, Swiss muslin, or some similar fabric. It is better that this material be green or black rather than white. After the butterflies are caught, they must be killed, so some form of killing bottle is necessary. Most collectors use a cyanide bottle, in which the fumes of cyanide of potassium kill the insects. One of the best ways to make this is to place in a wide-mouthed bottle two or three lumps of cyanide of potassium, approximately an inch across. Over this place some fine sawdust and on top of the sawdust, pour liquid plaster of paris carefully so that it will harden into a layer about half an inch thick. Allow the plaster to become thoroughly dry, then insert the stopper into the bottle and it will be ready for use. It is better to use a ground glass stopper so that the bottle will always be air tight. The sawdust is often omitted, the plaster of paris being poured directly over the cyanide. The special advantage of the sawdust is that it tends to absorb the cyanide in case it liquefies, as it often does in damp weather. As this cyanide is a deadly poison, it is better to let a druggist prepare the bottle or else to buy it already prepared of the dealers in such supplies. [Illustration: Butterfly Envelopes. Fold first on line _AB_; then on _AD_ and _CB_; then on _BF_ and _EA_. (From Holland).] After the specimens have been killed in the cyanide bottle, some method of keeping them is necessary. The simplest way is to preserve them with their wings closed together in pieces of paper folded over into triangles as indicated on the accompanying diagrams. Such specimens may be kept for an indefinite time and if one wishes to mount them later, it is only necessary to place them for a few hours in a relaxing jar, which is simply a closed vessel with enough water in the bottom to saturate the air with moisture. A great advantage of keeping the specimens in these paper covers is that they require so little room and are easily stored away in tin cans or boxes where they are safe from dust and destroying enemies. [Illustration: Setting Board with Butterfly in place. (From Holland)] Those butterflies which are to be preserved in the ordinary way, in drawers or cabinets, must be spread out and held in position while the body is drying so that the wings will remain expanded. For this purpose, some form of a setting board is necessary. These may be bought of dealers or made at home. One of the simplest kinds consists of two thin strips of pine board, a foot or more long, nailed to end pieces with a space between the two boards wide enough to accommodate the bodies of the butterflies. Beneath this open space, a piece of thin cork is tacked. The pin on which the butterfly is fastened is pushed through the cork until the wings of the insect are level with the boards. The wings are then brought forward with a needle point until they are in the desired position and they are then held in place by pieces of glass or by bits of cardboard fastened down by pins. The butterflies must be left in this position until thoroughly dry. [Illustration: Drying Box for Setting Boards. (After Riley)] Special insect pins should be used for butterflies. These are longer than common pins and have rounded heads. They are offered for sale by entomological dealers. Instead of pinning the insects and preserving them in cabinets, one may keep them in the Riker mounts, which have the advantage of being sealed so that there is no chance for dust or museum pests to reach the specimens. If one wishes to collect extensively, one will need a considerable number of setting boards and it will be worth while to prepare for them a special drying box like that shown in the picture above. PART II THE TRUE BUTTERFLIES SUPERFAMILY _Papilionoidea_ The great suborder of butterflies is commonly separated into two principal groups called superfamilies. One of these includes all of the higher butterflies and is named _Papilionoidea_. The other includes the lower Skipper butterflies and is named the _Hesperioidea_. The former are characterized by small bodies and relatively large wings, straight clubbed antennae, and the fact that the caterpillars do not make cocoons when preparing for the chrysalis state. The most authoritative classifications of butterfly families are based upon the peculiarities of wing venation and are admirably discussed in such books as Holland's "Butterfly Book" and Comstock's "How to Know the Butterflies." Without attempting to go into the technical details of structure it will suffice here to give the list of families which compose the superfamily _Papilionoidea_: The Parnassians. _Parnassiidae._ The Swallowtails. _Papilionidae._ The Whites, Orange-tips, and Yellows. _Pieridae._ The Nymphs. _Nymphalidae._ The Satyrs or Meadow-browns. _Agapetidae._ The Heliconians. _Heliconidae._ The Milkweed Butterflies. _Lymnadidae._ The Long-beaks. _Libytheidae._ The Metal-marks. _Riodinidae._ The Gossamer-wings. _Lycaenidae._ It must not be thought that such a list necessarily indicates the degrees of development of the respective families, for this is not true. It is simply a linear arrangement adopted for convenience by leading authorities, notably Dr. Harrison G. Dyar in his standard "Catalog of American Lepidoptera." THE PARNASSIAN BUTTERFLIES FAMILY _Parnassiidae_ It is perhaps a bit unfortunate that the group of butterflies, which is commonly chosen to head the list of families, is one that is rarely seen by most collectors. The Parnassians are butterflies of the far north or of high elevations in the mountains. The four species credited to North America have been collected in Alaska and the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains, so there is very little probability of any of them being found in the Eastern states. While, structurally, these butterflies have a close affinity with the Swallowtails, one would never suspect it from their general appearance. Their bodies are large and all of the wings well rounded, so that there is more of the suggestion of a large moth than of the Swallowtail. The coloring is also more moth-like than with most butterflies, the wings being very light colored and nearly transparent, with markings of gray and brown, arranged in dots and splashes. All our species belong to the genus Parnassius. The caterpillars show their affinity with those of the Swallowtails by having the curious scent organs or osmateria just back of the head. They feed upon such alpine plants as stonecrop and saxifrage and are well adapted by their structure and habits to the bleak surroundings of the mountain tops. As a typical example of the environment in which these butterflies live, we may take the alpine valleys of such mountain regions as Pike's Peak. Prof. M. J. Elrod has described a visit where, at an altitude of 11,500 feet in the month of August, _Parnassius smintheus_ was flying by thousands, and the earlier stages were so abundant that a water ditch had the surface covered as far as one could see with the dead or dying caterpillars. In such situations, where ice forms at night, and snow frequently falls by day, these butterflies develop apparently in greater numbers than almost any of our other species are known to do in warmer regions. THE SWALLOWTAILS FAMILY _Papilionidae_ This is probably the most distinctive family of all our familiar butterflies. Its members are characterized by being on the whole the largest butterflies in our region and by having the hind wings prolonged into curious tail-like projections, suggestive of those of a swallow. In general, the basal color of the wings is blackish though this is commonly marked in various striking ways with yellow, green, or blue, while the margins of the wings are commonly adorned with red or orange spots. These butterflies are also characterized by certain peculiarities in the branching of the wing veins which will be found pictured in more technical works. The caterpillars of these butterflies have the characteristic form pictured on the plate of the Swallowtails opposite page _80_. When full grown they are large, fairly smooth-bodied worms, showing at most on the surface sparse fine hairs or fleshy threadlike projections. Their most characteristic feature is found in the scent organs called _osmateria_ situated in the back just behind the head. These are thrust out, generally, when the caterpillar is disturbed and appear as orange Y- or V-shaped organs from which an offensive odor is commonly given off. They are supposed to serve the purpose of preventing injury by enemies, possibly birds, monkeys, and other vertebrates. Structurally, they are like long tubular pockets that can be turned inside out. When the pocket is in place it is getting a pocketful of odors. When it is inverted it lets these odors free. On this account Professor Comstock has aptly called these caterpillars "the polecats of the insect world." When ready to pupate, these Papilio caterpillars spin a web of silk upon some more or less flattened surface and a loop of silk near by. They entangle their hind legs in the former and keep their heads through the latter so the loop supports the body a little behind the head. Then they change to chrysalids which are held in place by these sets of silken threads. The chrysalids are rather large and angular and generally take on colors approximating their surroundings. They vary so much in different species that one familiar with them can recognize the chrysalis and know the kind of butterfly it will produce. =The Black Swallowtail= _Papilio polyxenes_ While the Black Swallowtail is not so large as some other members of the group, it is probably the best known to most people. It is found throughout many months of the year in practically all parts of North America south of Canada, and has the habit of flying freely about fields and gardens in search of flowers from which to suck its nectar food, and of plants on which to deposit its eggs. The female butterflies have a remarkable ability in selecting only members of the great family Umbelliferae for this purpose. In consequence the caterpillars are generally to be found feeding upon carrots, parsnips, parsley, and various wild species belonging to this order. (_See plates, pages 48 and 64-65._) The eggs of the Black Swallowtail are laid one in a place upon the leaves of the food plant. Each egg is a small, yellowish, smooth, and ovoid object. It may often be found by watching the butterflies as they fly low in search of umbelliferous plants, and seeing one stop for a minute or so while she lays the egg. About ten days after the egg is laid it hatches into a small black caterpillar marked in a characteristic fashion with a blotch of white in the middle of the body which is suggestive of a saddle. The caterpillar immediately begins to feed upon the green substance of the leaf, continuing thus about a week before the first moult. At this time it does not change much in appearance, still being a spiny creature blackish in color and marked by the curious white saddle. A little later it moults again, retaining its original coloring. At each moult, of course, it gets larger and feeds more freely upon the celery or other plant on which it may happen to be. When the caterpillar becomes about half grown it takes on a very different appearance from that of its early life. The skin is smooth rather than spiny, and the general colors are green, black, and yellow. The ground color of the skin is green, which is marked with black cross-bands along the middle of each body ring. On these bands there are many large dots of orange yellow, the whole coloring giving the insect a very striking appearance, especially when it is placed by itself against a plain background. When they finally become full grown in this larva state, these caterpillars are almost two inches long. The larvae of the Black Swallowtail have certain characteristics in which they differ from many other caterpillars. After each moult they do not devour their cast skins, which happens in the case of many of their relatives. When feeding, as well as when resting, they remain exposed upon the leaf and seem never to attempt to conceal themselves, as is the habit with a large proportion of caterpillars. It is probable that this instinct for remaining exposed to view bears some relation to the curious means of protection possessed by this as well as other Swallowtail caterpillars. When disturbed one of these larvae will push out from just back of the head the strange-looking, orange-yellow Y-shaped organ which gives off a very disagreeable odor. These osmateria organs are generally believed to be defensive against the attack of birds and various other enemies, although they seem not to be effective against insect parasites. The full-grown caterpillars are likely to leave their food plants when ready to change to the chrysalis state. They wander in various directions until suitable shelter is found. A piece of board, a fence post, or possibly the bark of a tree will answer for this purpose. Here the caterpillar spins a mat of silk in which to entangle its hind legs and a short distance away near the front end of the body it spins a loop of silk attaching the ends to the support. These serve to hold the chrysalis in place during this helpless period. After the loop is made the caterpillar keeps its head through it so that the loop holds the insect in position a short distance back of the head. It is now ready to moult its last caterpillar skin and become a chrysalis. One who has watched hundreds of these caterpillars go through this change, Miss Mary C. Dickerson, describes the process in these words: "In this final moult the chrysalis has to work very hard. The bulk of the body is again slipped forward in the loosened caterpillar skin, so that this becomes tensely stretched over the anterior end, and very much wrinkled at the posterior end. The skin splits back of the head and is forced back by its own taut condition and by the efforts of the chrysalis, until only the extreme posterior end of the chrysalis is within it. Then the chrysalis withdraws this posterior end with its many very tiny hooks, from the skin on the dorsal side, and, reaching around, securely fastens the hooks into the button of silk. Then the old skin is removed both from its fastening to the chrysalis and from its attachment in the button of silk." A short time after the caterpillar's skin has thus been cast off the chrysalis takes on a brownish color which as is so often the case is likely to vary somewhat according to the tint of the surrounding surfaces. This is doubtless a protective device and helps the insect to escape attack by birds during the long period of exposure. For this butterfly passes through the winter only in the chrysalis condition, and the larva which went into the chrysalis in September does not come out as a butterfly until the following May or June. There are, however, two broods of the butterflies in the North and at least three in the South. As the adults live for about two months and there is considerable variation in the periods of their development it happens that one can find these Black Swallowtail butterflies upon the wing almost any time in warm weather, either North or South. =The Giant Swallowtail= _Papilio thoas_ The largest of our North American butterflies is a magnificent insect with a wing expanse of some four inches and with a rich coloring of black and yellow more or less suffused with greenish or bluish iridescence that gives it a striking beauty as it flies leisurely about from flower to flower or stops to lay an egg upon some bush or tree. The tails are long and expanded toward the tip, their prevailing color being black with a broad splash of yellow near the end. In a general way we may say that the upper wing surface is black marked with two bands of orange-yellow, while the under surface is yellow marked with two bands of black. (_See plate, page 64._) The Giant Swallowtail is a tropical species which is abundant throughout the Southern states and during recent years seems to have been gradually extending its northern range. It is now commonly found as far north as forty-two degrees latitude, from Nebraska eastward. In New England it is occasionally taken in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and even in Maine, but its appearance in this region is exceptional. In the orange-growing regions of the Southern states the caterpillars of this butterfly feed freely upon the leaves of citrus fruits and they are often called "orange puppies" or "orange dogs." Probably their curious appearance and their habit of resting for long periods upon leaf or twig gave rise to this name. In the region indicated the life-history of the insect may be summarized thus: The mother butterfly deposits the eggs singly upon the young growth of orange or other citrus fruit trees, generally near the tips of leaves or branches. About a week later each egg hatches into a caterpillar that feeds upon the young leaves, resting upon the lower surface when not eating. After a few days of this feeding the caterpillar becomes too large for the skin with which it was born and it moults, coming forth with a new skin which soon hardens so that it can begin feeding again. A week or so later it moults for the second time, and continues these processes of feeding and moulting until full grown, which is perhaps a month from the time of hatching from the egg. At first the caterpillars eat only the succulent young leaves and branches, but as they grow larger they feed more freely upon the older foliage. They are very voracious and when abundant may often do much damage especially to young trees. When ready to change to the chrysalis each caterpillar attaches itself by silken threads to the bark of the trunk or branch of the tree. Here it changes to a chrysalis which takes on a color so similar to that of the bark that the insect is surprisingly difficult to discover. A fortnight or so later it changes again into a fully developed butterfly that sallies forth in search of the nectar of flowers. (_See plate, page 240._) These "orange dogs," like the caterpillars of other Swallowtail butterflies, have curious yellow scent organs which, when the caterpillar is disturbed, protrude from the upper surface just behind the head. These give forth a very disagreeable odor which is believed to serve the purpose of repelling birds and possibly other enemies. It has been noticed that these caterpillars are not molested by birds although they are attacked by various insect enemies. Each mother butterfly is known to be able to deposit four or five hundred eggs and it has been suggested that the injuries of the caterpillars may be checked by shooting the butterfly upon the wing with cartridges loaded with small bird shot. In the South there are several broods in a season. The life-history of this species in more northern regions differs in the choice of the food plant and the number of broods. It feeds upon various members of the rue family, including common rue and prickly ash, as well as upon certain poplars and probably other trees. It is two brooded and apparently winters as a chrysalis. The butterflies of the first brood come from the chrysalis about the last of May and are found on the wing during June. Those of the second brood come from the chrysalis about the last of July and are found on the wing during August and September. The length of time required from the laying of the egg to the emergence of the butterfly varies greatly with the locality and the temperature. It commonly extends over a period of four or five weeks. [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 62_ GIANT SWALLOWTAILS Visiting blossoming branches of the orange tree. (Reduced)] [Illustration: _See page 59_ BLACK SWALLOWTAIL VISITING THISTLE, SHOWING THE TONGUE PARTIALLY UNCOILED] [Illustration: _Photographed from life_ _See page 83_ IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY (A good deal magnified)] [Illustration: _See page 65_ THE BLUE SWALLOWTAIL Upper surface above; lower surface below] =The Blue Swallowtail= _Laertias philenor_ The Blue Swallowtail is said to have closer affinity with the splendid butterflies of the tropics than most of our other Papilios. The sheen of metallic color upon its wings is certainly suggestive of the broad expanse of similar colorings in the gorgeous butterflies from South America. This species is easily recognized by the general blackness of the front wings and the basal parts of the hind ones as seen from above, about two thirds of the area of the latter being overlaid with blue-green scales that give the metallic lustre characteristic of the species. Near the outer border of the basal half of the front wings there is a row of about five rather indistinct whitish spots, this row being continued more distinctly on the hind wings. On the under surface the white spots of the front wings are more pronounced than on the upper, while each hind wing is brilliantly marked with about seven large orange spots, part of them fringed on one or both sides with a distinct margin of white. The extreme side borders of all four wings are distinctly marked with white crescents and the fringes on the tails as well as more or less of the darker fringes of the hind wings are of a beautiful purple color. In the males each hind wing has along the inner border a slender, pocket-like depression which is said to be the seat of the scent organs. (_See plate, page 65._) This splendid butterfly is a southern species. It is found from the Carolinas to California, being at times extremely abundant in certain localities over this great region. It seldom occurs as far north as New England and in a general way east of the Rocky Mountains its northern limit approximates that of forty-three degrees of latitude. It varies considerably in size and differs greatly in abundance in different localities and different seasons. [Illustration: Caterpillar of the Blue Swallowtail. (After Riley)] Probably the commonest food plant of the caterpillars is the Dutchman's Pipe or Aristolochia, which is frequently planted as an ornamental vine for porch adornment. It also feeds upon wild ginger or Asarum and probably upon other plants. A dozen or more eggs are laid upon a leaf by the mother butterfly, usually in a cluster or grouped near together. They hatch a week or so later into small brownish caterpillars which remain together for awhile in little groups that feed side by side upon the leaf, beginning at the margin and working toward the centre. As they become larger they feed more freely and gradually disperse so that each forages for himself. As they approach maturity their appetites become voracious and their presence is often shown by the defoliated condition of the branches. They have back of the head the osmateria or scent organs which are commonly found in the other caterpillars of this genus, but the odor emitted by them is likely to be less pronounced than usual. [Illustration: TWO OF THE SWALLOWTAILS (Three fourths natural size) The Palamedes (_see page 76_) The Giant (_see page 62_)] [Illustration: _See page 67_ THE GREEN-CLOUDED SWALLOWTAIL Upper surface above; lower surface below] When full grown the caterpillars find such shelter as they may and each spins a bit of silken web and a silken loop which hold it while it changes to the chrysalis. This chrysalis is very likely to take on the colors of the immediate surroundings and thus be rather difficult to see. If the egg was laid by one of the spring or early summer butterflies, the chrysalis will soon change to a butterfly which will appear toward midsummer and which may lay eggs for another brood of caterpillars. These caterpillars mature to chrysalids the same season and some of them are believed to change into butterflies in autumn, these butterflies hibernating through the winter; while others are believed to remain unchanged through the winter and disclose the butterfly the following spring. This is an exceptional condition for the Swallowtails and it is worth while to make careful observations along its northern limits to learn more definitely the facts as to the winter condition. =The Green-clouded Swallowtail= _Papilio troilus_ This beautiful butterfly is essentially a southern species and is found over a wide range of territory from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic Ocean. It occurs as far north as New Hampshire and Vermont and has even been reported from Alberta, Canada. It is easily recognized by the blue-green clouding of the upper surface of the wings, the general color being velvety black with distinctive rows of yellow spots along the margins of the front wing. These spots are present also on the hind wing where they are almost changed to blue because overlaid with a general cloudiness of this color. On the under surface of the hind wings there are two rows of orange-brown spots, the inner row being nearly crescent-shaped and the outer row oblong. In the living insect the tail projections on the hind wings are usually twisted into a vertical plane at right angles to the plane of the wings. The caterpillars of this species feed upon the leaves of sassafras and spice bush. The distribution of the butterfly appears to be closely related to the distribution of these plants. As is the case with so many of our Swallowtail butterflies, the Green-clouded Swallowtail passes through the winter in the chrysalis stage. Late in spring the butterflies emerge and soon afterward lay their eggs singly upon the leaves of sassafras or spice bush. The eggs soon hatch into lead-colored caterpillars, largely covered with spiny warts. Each caterpillar cleverly makes a protecting nest by eating out a narrow strip in the leaf which frees a flap along the margin that is turned back upon the leaf, making a case in which the larva lives. It spins a silken carpet on one side of the case and rests upon this carpet when at home. During its feeding periods it goes outside and eats the tissues of the other parts of the same leaf. It continues to occupy this first nest for a week or more by which time the rest of the leaf is likely to be pretty well consumed. Having passed the first moult and thus become larger and having practically eaten itself out of its first house and home the caterpillar now crawls to a larger leaf where it proceeds to make a more enduring structure. In this case it does not need to bite a channel along one side of the midrib as it did before, but instead it begins to spin silken threads transversely across the upper surface in such a way as to fold over the border of the leaf and make a tubular chamber in which it has plenty of room to move about. It uses this as its home for some time thereafter, wandering out at evening to feed upon neighboring leaves as its hunger necessitates. In this way it continues to feed and grow for a week or two. Then it finds it necessary to construct still another home, which it does by bringing together the opposite sides of a leaf, taking care to have a door-like opening at the base of the blade next the leaf stalk. This third home serves it to the end of its larval existence. It goes in and out as necessary, remaining concealed when it casts its skin and until the body tissues harden afterward. Apparently it devours the cast skin and thrusts the hard covering of the head out of the nest. Consequently these little homes are clean and sanitary and serve admirably their protecting purpose. The full-grown caterpillars have the curious appearance of those of the other Swallowtails. The third ring behind the head is greatly swollen, making, with the rings directly in front of it, a characteristic picture suggesting a grotesque face with large eye-like spots at the top. The general color is green, darker above than below, and there are six rows of blue dots along the body. (_See plate, page 80._) When ready to change to the chrysalis, the caterpillars desert their leafy homes and on a twig or board or stone each spins a bit of silken webbing and a silken loop. They now change to chrysalids which are likely to resemble the color of the background and which are somewhat smoother than many of the Swallowtail chrysalids. About two weeks later the butterflies emerge. _The Eclosion of the Butterfly_ The transformation of a chrysalis into a butterfly is always one of extraordinary interest. Comparatively few definite descriptions of this process have been given by careful observers. One of the best of these is that written by Mr. Scudder in connection with the emergence of this butterfly, and it is so accurate and complete that it seems worth while to quote it at length: "The butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis early in the day," writes Mr. Scudder, "and the first signs of the immediate change are strong forward and backward movements of the chrysalis at intervals of a few seconds; perhaps the third or fourth attempt will be successful, when a click may be heard at the distance of several feet; but all the subsequent movements are absolutely noiseless, though rapid; at intervals of three or four seconds, spasmodic movements similar to the first carry on the process; first the split continues along the thorax; then it runs down either side between the legs and wings, ultimately to the tips of the antennae. As this progresses, the actions become more strenuous and more frequently repeated; with eager efforts the butterfly pushes forward its half-detached head; now an antenna springs from its case, at once assuming its natural attitude; the other soon follows, and then the wings are partially drawn from their sheaths, and while in this position seem to be used as levers or arms to aid in withdrawing the rest of the body; next the legs appear, seize the upper part of the chrysalis skin, and speedily withdraw the whole body. It is now a curious-looking object, the wings wrinkled and bloated, and, although the whole process of escape lasts little more than half a minute, already twice the size of the sheaths they lately occupied. The insect crawls upward until it finds a secure resting place, and there remains until ready for flight; each half of the tongue, drawn independently from its receptacle, is rolled in a separate spiral, and now while the wings are gradually expanding the insect applies all its energies to uniting their two parts, incessantly rolls and unrolls them, and beginning simultaneously at the base, gradually fits them together by their interlocking joints; in about fifteen minutes all but the tips are perfectly united; these require nearly fifteen minutes more, and are not fairly interlocked until the wings are fully expanded, nearly a full half hour after the escape from the chrysalis; the wings, however, are still tender, and generally require two hours to stiffen. When at last the insect ventures upon flight, it is not with an uncertain flutter, but boldly and steadily, as if long accustomed to the action." The butterflies of this second brood of the season are likely to begin to appear early in August, continuing to become more abundant throughout that month. These lay eggs upon the same food plant and the caterpillars grow to maturity in the same way as those of the first brood. They become full grown during September or October, and then change to chrysalids which remain dormant until the following spring. The species thus has two broods each year and passes the winter only in the chrysalis state. These beautiful butterflies are likely to be found in the sort of situations where the food plants of the larvae are growing. Open groves, the borders of woods, and the margins of streams or marshes are the places where one is most likely to find spice bush and sassafras. These are the places to look for these butterflies which one may often see in graceful flight near the ground, pausing now and then to seek a sassafras leaf or to sip the nectar from a flower. =The Tiger Swallowtail= _Papilio glaucus_ One of the many things that make a study of the life-histories of butterflies of great interest is the variations in the development of many of the species. One who follows the simplest life-story of a butterfly and sees the egg change to larva and the larva change in size and form and color with each successive moult and then change again into the seemingly inert chrysalis, from which there finally comes the winged butterfly--unlike the egg, unlike the larva, unlike the chrysalis--a creature of perfect beauty, wonderfully adapted to living freely in the air and sipping ambrosial nectar from the flowers--one who follows these changes with awakened vision can scarcely fail to have a sense of wonder as to the laws that govern such intricate phenomena. But the marvel is still more pronounced in the case of those butterflies which have two or more forms arising from the same lot of eggs in a way which science has as yet not adequately explained. The splendid Tiger Swallowtail is an example of this dimorphism which is of especial interest because of the fact that the extra form is confined to one sex and to only a part of the geographical area over which the butterfly is found. The species occurs over a very large part of the North American continent, being found from ocean to ocean and from Canada to Florida. In the region north of approximately the fortieth degree of latitude there is but one form of the insect--the familiar yellow-and-black striped butterfly which every one has seen visiting the lilac blossoms in May or June. South of this, however, part of the females take on an entirely different appearance, being almost wholly black with the hind wings touched with lines of blue and bordered with crescents of yellow and orange. The curious thing about it is that a certain mother butterfly may lay a dozen eggs part of which will develop into the usual yellow form and the rest into the black form, both lots being of the same sex. This black form is so entirely distinct in appearance that the two were originally described as separate species, and they were long considered such, until breeding experiments determined the precise condition. (_See plate, page 17._) This species is of interest also for another reason. The caterpillars during their later life are remarkable examples of that curious resemblance to the head of a serpent which is thought to have a real protective value in frightening away attacking birds and possibly other enemies. The rings of the body just back of the head are much swollen and on the top of the swollen part there are two large circular marks which bear a striking resemblance to eyes. When the insect is at rest it withdraws its head and holds up the front of the body in such a way as certainly to suggest at the first glance that one is looking at the head of a small snake, an impression which is likely to be enhanced when the caterpillar pushes out the curious yellow scent organs from the ring near the top of the head, these organs taking on the forked appearance of a snake's tongue. Obviously it is exceedingly difficult to get definite observations under natural conditions to determine whether these seeming resemblances are really of value to the caterpillar in frightening away birds or other enemies. About the only direct evidence which I have come across upon this point is found in this paragraph by Dr. J. L. Hancock: "When I recall the first sight of this larva, the impression gained of it was a most curious one. The forward mask-like face was remarkably startling. This mask, bearing eye-like spots and the light transverse ridge, gave it an aspect which might easily be mistaken for real eyes and a mouth. This contrivance is only a false face in no way connected with the real eyes and mouth. One might imagine the shock that a bird, or other predaceous enemy, would experience when looking upon this grinning mask. This is in reality the effect produced, for I have seen small birds so alarmed that they lost their appetite and curiosity for these larvae after a brief glance at them. It is certain that these singular markings have the effect of terrifying their bird enemies."[B] [B] "Nature Sketches in Temperate America," p. 146. The yearly cycle of the Tiger Swallowtail is much like that of the related species. It passes the winter as a chrysalis, the butterflies coming forth just about the time that the lilacs bloom. They remain upon the wing for a few weeks and deposit their eggs upon a great variety of trees and shrubs, for the food plants of the larvae are unusually varied and include tulip trees, birches, wild cherries, apples, poplars, ash, and several other common trees or shrubs. These eggs soon hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the leaves and make for themselves resting places by spinning a web of silk transversely across the surface of the leaf. They remain upon these silken webs when not feeding and in later life are likely to cause the leaf on which the web is made to curl into a partial tube. When fully developed they change to chrysalids which give forth the summer brood of butterflies in July and August. These in turn lay eggs for the caterpillars which change to chrysalids in autumn and remain in that condition until the following spring. =The Short-tailed Papilio= _Papilio brevicauda_ Were one enough of a magician to make one butterfly over into another it would be comparatively easy to take a Black Swallowtail and transform it into this species. One would only need to trim off the long tails so that they project very slightly from the angles of the hind wings and to change the yellow spots to orange. He would thus accomplish what Nature through the long ages seems to have accomplished in a limited northern area in Newfoundland and around the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for the Short-tailed Papilio is confined chiefly to this region, where it lives a life very similar to that of the Black Swallowtail. The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of various members of the parsley family and is said to have learned to warm itself during the middle of the day by resting upon stones and gravel which have absorbed the sun's heat rays. Presumably there is but one brood a year and the insect hibernates as a chrysalis. =The Palamedes Swallowtail= _Papilio palamedes_ If the magician who had succeeded in converting a Black Swallowtail into the Short-tailed Papilio wished to try his hand on making a Palamedes Swallowtail he could not do better than to use again the same black butterfly. He would only need to make it about one half larger, retaining practically all its color markings and the outline of its wings and tail. For this species bears a remarkable resemblance to the Black Swallowtail, seeming to be a giant variety induced by the warmth of the southern climate where it lives, and possibly by the more generous supply of the magnolia and sassafras leaves upon which the caterpillars feed. This species is distinctly a southern form occurring as far west as the Mississippi River throughout the more Southern states. As one would expect in the long seasons and warm climate of this region there are several broods each year and the caterpillars often hibernate as well as the chrysalids. The adult butterflies are lovers of the sun and are said to roost at night upon the tops of live oak and palmetto trees. =The Zebra Swallowtail= _Iphiclides ajax_ Most of our Swallowtail butterflies are so distinctive in form and colors that they are easily distinguished from one another, but the Zebra species is so different from all the rest that when it is once seen it is likely always to be remembered. The striking combination of green and black stripes with very long tails, set off by beautiful crescents of blue and of red, at once distinguishes this fine butterfly in any of its varying forms. Three distinct forms of this species occur, namely: _Marcellus_, the early spring form, small in size with short tails, that show white only on the tips; _Telamonides_, the late spring form, somewhat larger, with tails a little longer and showing more white on the outer half; _Ajax_, the summer form, decidedly larger with tails very long. It would be a comparatively simple matter to understand these forms if they were simply seasonal variations, with three broods, each form succeeding the other as the season advances. But this is far from being the case. We have instead the most complicated and confusing series of conditions imaginable--conditions for which no one has yet given satisfactory explanations. To make a fairly clear statement of what happens, suppose we assume that we start with twenty over-wintering chrysalids. In April ten of these disclose their butterflies which are Marcellus, the early spring form. In May the other ten disclose their butterflies which are Telamonides, the late spring form. We thus have these two forms, appearing successively in spring from the same set of over-wintering chrysalids. After flying about for a short time the Marcellus or early spring Swallowtails lay eggs upon the leaves of papaw trees or bushes. These eggs soon hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the leaves and grow rather rapidly. A little more than a month later they mature into butterflies which are Ajax, the summer form. In a similar way the Telamonides or late spring butterflies lay eggs soon after they appear, also upon papaw leaves, and these eggs in about a month mature into Ajax, the summer form. So we have Ajax, the summer form, developing directly from both the early spring or Marcellus and the late spring or Telamonides butterflies. These Ajax butterflies in their turn lay eggs for caterpillar young. These soon mature into a brood of butterflies which are of this same Ajax form. There may be successive broods through the summer, practically all of them being this same Ajax summer form. The last brood of caterpillars, however, change to chrysalids which do not disclose the butterflies until the following spring. And then the first that come out are the Marcellus form and the last the Telamonides form. So we may have these two forms maturing from the same brood of autumn caterpillars. This seems a sufficiently complicated life-history to suit the most persistent solver of puzzle problems, but there is an additional factor which adds much to the possible confusion of the broods. In each brood of caterpillars from the earliest to the latest there are a certain number of chrysalids which remain dormant through the remainder of the season and the following winter, maturing into butterflies the next spring. Consequently at the end of every winter there are a miscellaneous lot of chrysalids which represent every brood of caterpillars that lived the previous season, and all of these develop into either Marcellus or Telamonides butterflies. Such a condition of affairs certainly represents what an old New Englander would be likely to call a "mixed-up mess," and it is difficult for science to find rhyme or reason to explain it. It speaks eloquently for the perseverance of W. H. Edwards that he was able with infinite patience through years of study and experiment to untangle this intricate web of butterfly existence. While the preferred food plant of this species is papaw, the caterpillars are also known to feed upon the spice bush and upland huckleberry. When full grown these caterpillars are about two inches long and of a general pea-green color, banded transversely with yellow and black, and having an especially conspicuous band of this sort on the third ring behind the head. The scent organs are protruded when the larva is disturbed and emit an offensive odor. The chrysalids are green or brown according to the surroundings. The Zebra Swallowtail is a southern butterfly found as far west as Texas and the Rocky Mountains and having its northern limits in a zone ranging approximately from Massachusetts to Nebraska. It is especially abundant in the Southern states east of the Mississippi River. Mr. S. F. Denton found this species abundant in southern Ohio where the females laid their eggs upon the small papaw bushes. They selected the leaves of these bushes for sleeping quarters, "clinging to the under side of the leaves where early in the morning they might be taken with the fingers." _Other Swallowtails_ Several other Swallowtail butterflies are found within the limits of the United States, especially in the Far West and along the southern boundaries. Some of these occasionally migrate east or north so that they are collected in the Central states. Thus _Papilio daunus_, _P. oregonia_, and _P. zolicoan_ are all found in the "List of Nebraska Butterflies," published by Mr. H. G. Barber, and the same species have been taken in other states in or near the Mississippi Valley. These and various others are described and pictured in Dr. Holland's excellent "Butterfly Book." _Synopsis of the Swallowtails_ _Tiger Swallowtail_: _Yellow form_ (_Papilio glaucus turnus_). Expanse 3 1/2 to 5 inches. Upper surface of wings bright yellow with each black margin marked with a row of yellow spots. Both sexes throughout its range. _Black form_ (_Papilio glaucus glaucus_). Black all over with blue markings on outer half of hind wings and row of straw-yellow crescents on borders of same. Females only, and only south of about latitude 40 degrees. _Giant Swallowtail_ (_Papilio thoas_ or _Papilio cresphontes_). Expanse 4 to 5 1/2 inches. Upper surface black with two bands of yellow starting at the inner margin of the hind wings and coming together as a row of yellow spots at the outer angles of each front wing. A yellow spot on each black tail. Under surface yellow. _Zebra Swallowtail_. Expanse 3 to 3 1/2 inches. Easily known by the stripes of green upon black and the long, slender tails. The different forms vary in size and in the length of the tails. Scientific names are: Early Spring Form, _Iphiclides ajax marcellus_; Late Spring Form, _I. ajax telamonides_; Summer Form, _I. ajax ajax_. [Illustration: _From a photograph from life by A. H. Verrill_ _See pages 7, 67_ CATERPILLARS OF THE GREEN-CLOUDED SWALLOWTAIL In various stages of growth] [Illustration: _Photographed from life_ _See page 83_ IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY] [Illustration: _Photographed from life_ _See page 215_ BLUE-EYED GRAYLING VISITING JOE PYE WEED (Magnified)] _Green-clouded Swallowtail_ (_Papilio troilus_). Expanse 3 1/2 to 4 inches. Black with about seven yellowish spots on outer margin of each front wing and eight marginal spots on each hind wing, those at the ends of row orange, the rest yellowish or bluish. Outer half of hind wings clouded with greenish blue. Under surface black with two distinct rows of yellowish spots on front wings and two rows of orange spots on hind wings. _Blue Swallowtail_ (_Laertias philenor_, often called _Papilio philenor_). Expanse about 4 inches. Black or brownish black with most of hind wings showing a bluish green iridescence. A row of marginal spots on each hind wing, more or less distinct on the front wings. Outer fringe with broad white markings interrupted by black ones. Under surface of each hind wing with seven large orange spots, some with partial borders of white. _Black Swallowtail_ (_Papilio polyxenes_ or _Papilio asterias_). Expanse about 3 inches. Black with two conspicuous rows of yellow spots on outer half of wings, more distinct in males. On hind wings rows of blue spots or splashes between the yellow ones. Orange-red circle with black centre at inner angle of each hind wing. Under surface with markings more distinct and more orange-yellow. _Short-tailed Swallowtail_ (_Papilio brevicauda_). Much like the Black Swallowtail but generally smaller, with very short tails, and with the yellow markings more or less changed to orange. Confined to the limited region of Newfoundland and the lands bordering the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. _Palamedes Swallowtail_ (_Papilio palamedes_). Expanse 4 to 4 1/2 inches. Much like the Black Swallowtail but considerably larger. A curved yellow line on the head back of each eye. Found only in the South. THE WHITES, ORANGE-TIPS, AND YELLOWS FAMILY _Pieridae_ The most familiar and abundant American butterflies are classified together under the family name _Pieridae_, or the Pierids. Three groups or tribes of them are popularly known as the Whites, the Orange-tips, and the Yellows. Our two commonest butterflies, the White or Imported Cabbage Butterfly and the Sulphur Yellow Butterfly, are typical representatives of this family. Most of the rest, like these, are of moderate size with rounded wings which are more or less marked with black. There are six well-developed legs and the caterpillars of practically all the species are cylindrical greenish worms which under a lens are seen to be covered with short hairs. When the caterpillars are ready to change to chrysalids they spin a web of silk upon the supporting surface and just back of it, a loop of silk that serves to hold the chrysalis in place and keep it from swaying back and forth. The chrysalids are characterized by having a pointed projection on the front of the head, the rest of the body being more or less angular. Notwithstanding their close general resemblance to their food plants, the caterpillars of this family suffer from attack by various enemies. Birds find many of them, not only eating them themselves but also using them freely for feeding the nestlings. Parasitic insects also take a heavy toll from these caterpillars. This attack of enemies is doubtless a chief reason why many of the common species are not much more destructive. THE TRIBE OF THE WHITES Three white butterflies of approximately the same size are found widely distributed over the United States. The most abundant species is the White or Imported Cabbage butterfly. The next in abundance is probably the Checkered White, and the rarest in most localities is the Gray-veined White which is a northern form. =The White or Imported Cabbage Butterfly= _Pieris rapae_ There is probably no butterfly which one can generally find so easily in its early stages as the White or Imported Cabbage butterfly which is found practically wherever cabbages are grown and is generally so abundant that caterpillars and chrysalids are readily discovered. In the Northern states the insect passes through the winter within the chrysalis, coming forth rather early in spring as the familiar white butterfly with black dots upon the wings and blackish front angles of the fore wings. (_See plates, pages 64-65 and 81._) The butterflies that thus appear in spring flit freely about over fields, meadows, and gardens, sipping the nectar of various early flowers through their long, coiled tongues and stopping occasionally to alight upon the leaf of a cabbage or other plant of the mustard family to deposit the small, pale yellow eggs which remain attached by a sort of glue. The adult butterflies continue their leisurely life for a fortnight or more, thus extending the laying of the eggs over a considerable period. About a week after being deposited the egg hatches into a tiny green caterpillar that begins feeding upon the tender surface of the cabbage leaf. It is commonly called the cabbage worm and it is doubtless the most generally destructive insect affecting this crop. It continues to feed for several days before the first moult, after which it becomes decidedly larger and begins to eat again more voraciously than before. It undergoes several successive moults during the next two or three weeks before it becomes full grown as a caterpillar. Unlike most butterfly larvae it has changed very little in its general appearance during its growth. It is always of a pale green color, strikingly like the glaucous green of the cabbage leaf, a fact which doubtless helps to conceal it from the eager eyes of birds and other animals. When the caterpillar is thus full fed it is likely to leave its food plant and find shelter elsewhere. Sometimes it will stop on the lower surface of the outer leaves, but more commonly it will find a piece of board, an overhanging stone, a fence-post, or the side of a building, where it will prepare for the change to the chrysalis. It will do this by spinning a silken thread upon the surface in which to entangle its hind legs and a loop of silk near by with which to hold its body. When these preparations are completed the insect will cast its last caterpillar skin, emerging as a grayish or brownish chrysalis, the color usually varying with the color of the surrounding surface. A week or more later the chrysalis skin bursts open and the white butterfly emerges to expand and dry its wings before it flies away for its leisurely life. There are two or more broods each season, the number varying with the latitude. There is a decided variation in the length of time required for the completion of the cycle from egg to butterfly. In hot weather the insect may mature in about three weeks while in cooler weather it may require as much as five weeks. _Its Introduction and Dispersal_ While it is well known that a large proportion of our most destructive insects have been imported from Europe, it is only in comparatively few cases that man has been able to make careful records of the times and places where the insects were introduced and to follow the spread of the pest from these original centres. The Imported Cabbage butterfly is one of the few species of which this is true. This insect has been known for centuries in Europe, where it feeds freely upon the leaves of cabbages and turnips. So far as known it was first introduced into North America about 1860, when it appeared in Quebec. Eight years later it was again introduced into the region of New York City. From these two points the insect spread gradually in various directions until in 1871 it covered the whole of New England and various parts of New York and New Jersey. From then on it spread even more rapidly and was evidently accidentally introduced into various parts of the country which became new centres of distribution. Of course it would be very easy for this to happen through the shipment of cabbages from one part of the country to another. Within thirty years of the time of its first introduction it had become a serious pest over practically all the United States and Canada. The introduction and spread of such a pest is of interest in itself, but in this case there is to be noted the additional fact that the presence of this foreigner has practically led to the extinction of two native species of butterflies, both closely related to each other and to the invader and both feeding upon the same plants. An almost pure white butterfly--the Gray-veined White--was formerly exceedingly abundant in many of the Northern states, while farther south there was another species, the Checkered White, which was also abundant. Both of these have now so completely disappeared that in some localities they are almost never seen, while their imported relative has become perhaps the most abundant of all American butterflies. =The Gray-veined White= _Pieris napi_ One would naturally suppose that when a butterfly was reduced to the greatest possible simplicity in its coloring there would be little chance for the development of geographical or seasonal varieties. But he would only have to study a large collection of specimens of this species, taken at different seasons and in different regions, to find his supposition at fault. Here is a butterfly which is essentially a slender black-bodied creature with four white wings scarcely touched with color, and yet we are told that there are eleven varieties in the United States so distinct that they have received scientific names, not to mention various others which have been found in Europe. This is indeed a remarkable showing and it is a striking illustration of the infinite variations which Nature can produce with the most limited materials. To me the seasonal variations of a butterfly are always of greater interest than those which are geographical. We know that in the case of a great many animals, from insects to mammals, the different conditions of climate and physical environment found in different regions produce variations of many sorts. So it does not seem especially strange that in Alaska there should be a different form of a certain butterfly than is found in Virginia. But that in the same locality there should be two or more forms of a butterfly existing under identical conditions as to climate and environment is not so easily explained. In the case of the Gray-veined White we collect in early spring in New England, or other Northern states, a lot of chrysalids. We keep them until the butterflies come forth and we find even here two distinct forms, one smaller and more delicate than the other, with both surfaces of the wings pure white: scientists call this form, _virginiensis_; the other larger with the under surface of the wings slightly tinted with yellow: scientists call this form _oleracea_. The first named has but one brood a year while the second lays eggs which develop into caterpillars that produce butterflies of still a _third_ form, in which the upper surface of the wings is pure white with a slightly greater expanse: scientists call this form _cruciferarum_. These three varieties occur in Eastern regions and may be found in the same localities, and differ considerably from various geographical varieties found in the Far West. The caterpillar of the Gray-veined White is a bit smaller than those of the nearly related forms, and in color is green with no distinct longitudinal markings, but with many fine dots of black over the surface. The cylindrical body is covered with a fine down. When feeding upon cabbage it is more likely to attack the outer than the inner leaves, and so even when abundant it is less troublesome to gardeners than the imported species. It is now, however, so rare that it seems to feed chiefly upon wild cruciferous plants and is more likely to be found along the borders of open woods than in gardens and fields. The winter is passed in the chrysalis state. =The Checkered White= _Pontia protodice_ Some years ago the Checkered White was commonly called the Southern Cabbage Butterfly but the general distribution of the imported species has had the same effect upon its abundance in the South that it has had upon the Gray-veined White in the North. Consequently, it is now much less abundant than formerly, even in the Southern states where it is most at home. There are two fairly distinct forms: the spring form and the summer form. The latter is practically of the same size as the Imported Cabbage Butterfly: the males have the hind wings nearly white above and the fore wings with a few black dots or spots upon their outer halves. The females are much more definitely marked, having the upper surface of both pairs of wings marked in black or brownish black in such a way as to enclose a large number of white diamonds. The spring form is decidedly smaller and the markings are much less distinct than in the summer form. The seasonal history of this species is comparatively simple. In winter the chrysalids are found. From these chrysalids in early spring the small butterflies of the spring form come forth. These lay eggs upon various cruciferous plants which hatch into greenish caterpillars that eat the leaves and soon mature so far as their caterpillar stage is concerned. They are then about an inch long, with downy cylindric bodies more or less marked with rather pale yellow stripes, touched here and there with purplish green or dotted slightly with fine black dots. These caterpillars now attach themselves by means of a button of silk and a silken loop to some support like a piece of board, the side of a stone, or almost any available shelter. Each casts its larval skin and appears as a grayish chrysalis from which probably a fortnight later the summer form of the butterfly emerges. There are commonly two broods of this summer form, making three sets of butterflies for the entire season. The caterpillars of the second summer brood of butterflies go into the chrysalis stage in autumn to remain throughout the winter. Some very interesting observations upon the sleeping habits of this butterfly have been made in St. Louis by Mr. and Mrs. Phil Rau. The insects were found abundantly resting upon the seed heads of white snakeroot. Early in October, when a warm south wind was blowing, the great majority of the butterflies slept horizontally with their heads toward the wind. At other seasons and in other places, many of them were found in a vertical position but practically all had their bodies toward the wind prevailing at the time. The observers were unable to ascertain definitely whether the insects thus oriented themselves at the time of alighting, so that their wings presented the least resistance to the force of the wind, or whether this was a mechanical result of the breezes. =The Great Southern White= _Pontia monuste_ There used to be in the Northern states before the advent of the Imported Cabbage butterfly a familiar white butterfly which then laid its eggs upon cabbages in much the same way that the imported pest now does. One who has seen this northern Gray-veined White and then sees the Great Southern White will be likely to think of the latter as a larger edition of the former, for in the males of the southern species the wings are practically white save for a narrow dusky border at the outer angle of the front pair, although in the female this dusky margin is wider and the hind wings show a series of dusky triangles near the margin. There is also a curious black marking suggestive of a crescent on each front wing near the middle of the front border, which helps to make the appearance of this butterfly very distinct from that of any other. Although this species is at times so abundant that it swarms in great flocks and although it has been known for many years, its life-history seems not to have been carefully worked out since it was first described by Abbott more than a century ago. The caterpillars feed upon cruciferous plants and when full grown are about an inch and a half long, of a general yellow color, more or less striped with purple lines. The species is distinctly tropical extending northward into our Southern states. Dr. G. B. Longstaff reports this species as abundant in Jamaica where he found that the clubs of the antennae of the living insects showed a beautiful turquoise blue color, although another observer described them as bright green with a tinge of blue. This is an interesting color variation for a member of this group. In the tropics also there are two forms, one belonging to the dry season and one to the wet season. _Synopsis of the Whites_ _Imported Cabbage Butterfly_ (_Pieris rapae_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white with a black marginal dash on the front outer angle of the front wing. One round black spot on each of the four wings in the male. Two round spots on each of the front wings in the female and one round spot on each of the hind wings. Under surface of hind wings yellowish white; spots on front wings in same position as on upper surface. A spring form (_immaculata_) is smaller and the black spots are almost obsolete. _Gray-veined White_ (_Pieris napi_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white with only a darker marginal splash next the body. Under surface white with gray veins. _Checkered White_ (_Pontia protodice_ or _Pieris protodice_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white, strongly marked especially in the female with dark grayish brown on both pairs of wings. Along the outer margins these marks are so arranged as to enclose white diamond spots. Male with front wings only lightly marked and hind wings scarcely marked at all. Under surface much like upper, with a slight yellowish tinge in female. _Great Southern White_ (_Pontia monuste_ or _Pieris phileta_.) Expanse 2 1/2 inches. General color white with a narrow black margin around apical angle of front wings. These margins are wider in the female, in which sex there is a series of marginal spots on the hind wings. Easily known by its large size. THE TRIBE OF THE ORANGE-TIPS When one sees a gossamer-winged butterfly flitting from flower to flower on a bright June day it seems one of the most ethereal of earth's visions. One could readily fancy that the whole sight--flowers, butterflies, and all--might easily vanish into thin air. So it is something of a shock to hear scientists talk about fossil butterflies and to realize that these fragile creatures have been living generation after generation for untold millions of years. A realization of this fact, however, helps us to understand the many wonderful ways in which butterflies in all stages of their existence have become adapted to the conditions of their lives. There is perhaps no group of butterflies whose beauty seems more fragile than that of the Orange-tips. These are delicate creatures, with slender bodies and almost gauzy wings, of a size somewhat smaller than our common white and yellow butterflies. Perhaps the most remarkable feature is the marking of the wings, the upper sides of the front pair having an orange patch near the apex and the under sides having a background of delicate whitish or yellowish green, lined and spotted with darker coloring in a very characteristic way. This peculiar marking is so significant that it has been called "flower picturing." To understand the reason for its existence one has only to watch the butterflies in their native haunts. He will find them flitting from blossom to blossom among the plants of the mustard family--the _Cruciferae_. This is one of the most characteristic families in the plant world: the foliage for the most part is small and delicate and the flowers have a characteristic four-petaled structure, being practically always of small size and generally toned in whites or yellows. When an Orange-tip is at rest upon these blossoms it merges so completely into the background that it disappears from view. Should a bird chase one of these insects through the air it would see chiefly the orange tips which are so marked upon the upper side of the wing, and when the butterfly closed its wings and lighted among the flowers the orange color would instantly disappear and there would be only an almost invisible surface against the background of flower and leaf. The adaptations of these Orange-tips to the conditions of their lives are by no means confined to this remarkable resemblance to the flowery background. In the case of some species the whole yearly cycle has been adapted to correspond to the yearly history of the cruciferous food plant. As is well known many species of the mustard family spring up early in the season, put forth their blossoms which quickly develop into fruits and then die down, the species being carried through until the next year by the dormant seeds. In a similar way the Orange-tips feed as caterpillars upon the host plant through the spring, completing their growth before the plant dies and then changing to chrysalids which remain dormant through summer, fall, and winter and come forth as butterflies early the following spring. The insect has thus adapted itself in a most remarkable manner to the yearly history of its plant host. =The Falcate Orange-tip= _Synchloe genutia_ The Falcate Orange-tip is about the only member of this tribe generally distributed east of the Rocky Mountains. This is a beautiful insect which is sparingly found even as far north as New England. It is more abundant throughout the Southern states, occurring south at least as far as Texas. It appears to be a good illustration of the adaptation of its development to that of its food plants. The eggs are laid upon leaves or stems of such spring-flowering _Cruciferae_ as rock cress (_Arabis_), and hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium_). On hatching the caterpillars feed upon stems, leaves, flowers, and even seed pods of these plants, becoming mature in a few weeks and changing to chrysalids under the protection of such shelter as they can find. In the Northern states these chrysalids remain unchanged until the following spring when the butterflies emerge and are found upon the wing for a few weeks in May and early June. In some southern regions at least the species is evidently double-brooded, as Dr. Holland reports that he has taken the butterflies in late autumn in the western portion of North Carolina. [Illustration: Egg of _Synchloe genutia_, magnified 20 diameters. (From Holland)] This Falcate Orange-tip is one of the daintiest and most exquisite of northern butterflies. It is a prize which any collector will find joy in possessing. It is easily recognized by its general white color, which in the female is relieved only by a distinct black mark on the upper surface of the front wings and a row of marginal markings upon all the wings. The male is slightly smaller and is at once known by the orange blotch on the outer angle of the upper surface of the front wing. This outer angle projects into a distinct point which gives the species its name Falcate. (_See plate, page 256._) Dr. J. L. Hancock has described in a most interesting manner the way in which this Orange-tip loses itself among the flowers of rock cress. In northern Indiana he found this butterfly abundant in April at the time of the blossoming of _Arabis lyrata_. The butterflies would be flying about, easily seen in the air. Then they would suddenly disappear and could be found only after the most careful search. They had simply lit upon the flower heads, when the flower picturing of the under surface of the wings blended perfectly with the appearance of the clustered flower. "The green markings of the under side of the wing," writes Dr. Hancock, "are so arranged as to divide the ground color into patches of white, which blend with or simulate perfectly the petals of the clustered flowers. The eyes of the butterfly are delicate pale green and the antennae are whitish, all of which adds to the effectiveness of the blend. The flowers of _Arabis_ have white petals with the centre yellowish green, as is also the calyx. There is a shade of pink outside the base of the petals. All in all, the adaptation of insect to flower here displayed is one of rare exquisiteness."[C] [C] "Nature Sketches in Temperate America", p. 83. Dr. Hancock found that the butterflies were able to cling on the flowers during strong winds very persistently, so that even when a storm blew across the sand dunes they were likely to remain in position. They also have the instinct to rest very quietly after they have lit upon the clustered flower heads. =The Olympian Orange-tip= _Synchloe olympia_ In various parts of the Southern states there is at least one other Orange-tip butterfly which is found occasionally in connection with the Falcate Orange-tip. It was named Olympia many years ago by William H. Edwards. It is a delicate white species marked with black and yellow very lightly both above and below, the yellow showing only on the under side of the hind wings and that part of the front wing which is exposed when the insect is at rest. Strictly speaking, this is not an Orange-tip because the orange color is lacking in both sexes. This is rather a rare species which occurs occasionally from the Atlantic states to the Great Plains south of a line drawn from northern Maryland to northern Missouri. Like its allies the larvae feed upon various cruciferous plants, the hedge mustard being one of these and the adults visit the flowers of the same family. They doubtless have habits similar to those of the Falcate Orange-tip, and the extreme delicacy of color must render them practically invisible when resting upon the small white flowers of most crucifers. [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 72_ THE TIGER SWALLOWTAIL (Reduced)] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 83_ THE IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterflies] Most of the Orange-tip butterflies are found on the Pacific Slope, ranging from Alaska southward, several of them being especially abundant in the western mountain regions. About eight species are recognized as belonging to our fauna, some of which have several well-marked varieties. _Synopsis of the Orange-tips_ _Falcate Orange-tip_ (_Synchloe genutia_, _Anthocaris genutia_ or _Euchloe genutia_). Expanse 1 2/5 inches. Tips of front wings projecting in a hooked angle. Orange blotch on upper surface near tip in male, absent in female. _Olympian Orange-tip_ (_Synchloe olympia_, _Euchloe olympia_ or _Anthocaris olympia_). Expanse 1 1/2 inches. Wings white above in both sexes with greenish black markings at base of all wings and along front margin of front wings, especially at apex. No orange patch. THE TRIBE OF THE YELLOWS A large proportion of our most abundant and conspicuous butterflies belong to the Tribe of the Yellows. Sometimes it is called the Tribe of the Red-horns because the antennae of the living insects are so often red. These insects vary in size from the large Brimstones or Cloudless Sulphurs, expanding three inches, to the delicate little Dainty Sulphur, expanding scarcely an inch. The distinctive characteristics of the tribe are found in the very gradual enlargement of the joints of the antennae that form the club, and the stout palpi, the last joints of each of the latter being short. =The Brimstone or Cloudless Sulphur= _Callidrayas eubule_ Practically all northern butterflies are variously marked in different colors, while the butterflies of tropical regions are commonly tinted in monotone, though often showing a splendid iridescence. One with very little experience can tell the look of a tropical butterfly and would be likely to say at once that the Cloudless Sulphur is one of these. The upper surface of the wings of the male is a clear plain sulphur with merely the narrowest possible fringe of brown around the margin made only by the colored marginal scales. The under surface is lighter and sparsely dotted in brown. In the females the marginal brown takes on the shape of a series of small crescents and there is a single round brown eye-spot just in front of the middle of each front wing. While the Cloudless Sulphur is without doubt essentially a tropical species it has an extraordinary geographical range. It is extremely abundant in Mexico, Cuba, and the tropical zone in South America. It extends south even to northern Patagonia and north to New England, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. Presumably in the tropics this species breeds continuously, one generation following another in regular succession unless interrupted by drought or other natural phenomena. In our Southern states there is more or less interruption by the winter season, so that it is commonly considered to have only two broods, the butterflies hibernating. Farther north there is probably only one brood in summer, and perhaps not even that in the extreme limit of its range. For there is pretty good evidence that the specimens seen in the Northern states are migrants from the south, coming singly or in scattered flocks in early summer, and if they lay eggs the butterflies of the new generation return south in autumn. But the precise conditions are not well known and need careful observations in various localities. The life-story of a generation of these butterflies is much like that of the other Yellows. The eggs are laid, one in a place, on the leaflets of various species of wild senna (_Cassia_) and soon hatch into cylindrical caterpillars that devour the tender leaflets. In a few weeks the caterpillars mature and change to curious and characteristic chrysalids. The head projects in the shape of a cone and the back is so concave as to give the side view of the chrysalis a very striking appearance. Like so many of the Yellows this butterfly is sun-loving and social in its habits. Great numbers flock together, their large size and bright coloring rendering them very conspicuous. They often alight on the ground to sip moisture when they have been likened to beds of yellow crocuses. They also fly long distances in flocks that attract much attention. It is likely that the northward distribution takes place in summer through such migrating hosts. _Other Sulphur Butterflies_ The Large Orange Sulphur is a closely related butterfly of about the same size, in which the coloring is uniformly orange-yellow instead of lemon-yellow. It also belongs to the tropics, occurring in our extreme Southern states and ranging occasionally as far north as Nebraska. The Red-barred Sulphur is another splendid butterfly, somewhat larger than the Brimstone, which is easily distinguished by the broad reddish bar across the upper surface of the front wings. It is tropical but migrates rarely even as far north as Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin. =The Dog's-head Butterfly= _Meganostoma caesonia_ The Dog's-head butterfly furnishes one of the most remarkable examples of accidental resemblance in wing markings that can be found in the whole order of scale-winged insects. It is comparable with the skull and crossbones on the back of the death's-head moth. In the butterfly the middle of the front wings has a broad band of yellow against a black margin on each side and the yellow outlines make an excellent silhouette of the profile of a poodle with a large black eye-spot in exactly the proper place. The females are less brightly colored than the males but they still show the dog's-head silhouette. This is a southern species, which occasionally strays as far north as New York City, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The larvae feed on species of Amorpha and are believed to be three-brooded in southern regions where the butterfly occurs. The California Dog's-head is even more beautiful than the southern species. It is remarkable for its pink and purple iridescence--a characteristic which is not common in the butterflies of the Yellow and the White Tribes. The silhouette of the Dog's-head is less perfect than in the more eastern species, and the yellow color tones are more tinged with orange. The female is strikingly different, the wings being plain pale yellowish buff marked only with a round blackish eye-spot near the middle of each front wing and the barest suggestion of a dark line around the extreme margin. =The Clouded Sulphur= _Eurymus philodice_ It is an interesting fact that the butterfly which one is most likely to find in fields and along roadsides during practically all the weeks of summer has seldom if ever been noted as a destructive insect. The Clouded Sulphur is probably the commonest species in its group. There may be times when the White Cabbage butterfly or other forms are more abundant, but the Clouded Sulphur retains its place season after season, with comparatively little noticeable variation in its numbers. This is doubtless an illustration of an insect which has established such relations with its food plants and its various insect and other enemies that it remains in a fairly stable equilibrium--an example of what is often called the balance of nature. The Clouded Sulphur is about the only medium-sized yellow butterfly generally found in the Northeastern states. The adults may be seen from spring until autumn. They lay eggs upon clover and other plants. These eggs hatch into small green caterpillars that feed upon the leaves and are protectively colored so they are comparatively seldom seen. When the food plant is disturbed they drop to the ground, crawling up again upon stems and leaves when the disturbance is over. These caterpillars moult several times during their growth. When full grown they find such shelter as they are able and each spins a silken web over part of the surface. It then fastens its hind legs into this web and later spins a loop near the front end of the body. It pushes itself beneath this loop and waits for several hours before the skin breaks open along the back and is gradually shuffled off revealing the chrysalis in position. A week or two later the fully developed butterfly emerges from the chrysalis. These yellow butterflies lend a distinctive charm to our summer landscapes. They are constantly to be seen fluttering from place to place, lightly visiting flowers of many kinds from which they suck the nectar, and gathering in great colonies by roadside pools where they seem to sip the moisture. There are many references to this insect in the writings of New England authors. It evidently was an especial favorite of James Russell Lowell who has often referred to it in passages like this: "Those old days when the balancing of a yellow butterfly over a thistle bloom was spiritual food and lodging for a whole forenoon." =The Orange Sulphur= _Eurymus eurytheme_ Were one able to take a Clouded Sulphur butterfly and change the yellow to a deep orange color he could easily make a specimen that would pass for the present species. The resemblance is very remarkable and shows the close affinity between these two beautiful insects. Like so many others of this group the Orange Sulphur is essentially a tropical species. In the eastern United States it is rarely found north of latitude forty degrees, but south of that it becomes increasingly abundant as one approaches the tropics. It occurs from the Carolinas to Texas, and over the great range in which it lives it takes on many different forms and habits. It is one of the most remarkable examples of variation in coloring exhibited by any of the butterflies. Nearly a dozen species names have been given to its various disguises, all of which are now recognized as synonyms. In the more northern regions where it is found, only one of these forms usually occurs, but in other places bright yellow and pale white varieties are found. The life-history of this butterfly along latitude forty degrees is very similar to that of the Clouded Sulphur. There seem to be usually two broods and the caterpillars live upon leguminous plants, especially alfalfa, buffalo clovers, wild senna, and other species of Trifolium and Cassia. Apparently also it hibernates in both the caterpillar and the butterfly stages. In the extreme Southwest--as on the plains of Texas--the vegetation dries up completely in summer so that there is no succulent leafage for the caterpillars to live upon. In such cases the insect must aestivate rather than hibernate. This species apparently succeeds in doing this by having the caterpillars go into a more or less lethargic condition in which they pass the summer. The adult butterflies utterly disappear in June and are not seen again until early in autumn when the autumn rains have started the growth of vegetation anew. The insects then make up for lost time and produce several broods in rapid succession. In the Imperial Valley of California this butterfly is a serious pest to alfalfa growers. It continues to reproduce throughout a very long season, one brood following another from March until December, and in mild winters there seems sometimes to be practically no cessation of its activities. Mr. V. L. Wildermuth found that the development of a generation in breeding cages in this valley varied from twenty-two to forty-four days, the latter in cool, the former in hot weather. The stages in the first and the third broods in spring varied thus: Egg, first six days, third four days; larva, first thirty days, third twelve days; chrysalis, first eight days, third five days. In this case the first generation extended from March 15 to April 30 and the third from May 28 to June 20. After the fourth brood of butterflies there was such an overlapping of the various stages that it was impossible to distinguish the broods. =The Pink-edged Sulphur= _Eurymus interior_ This beautiful butterfly was first made known to the world of science by Louis Agassiz, the great naturalist who did so much to arouse a scientific interest among Americans. He found it on a famous expedition to the northern shores of Lake Superior, which not only served to bring to light many interesting phases of geological history but also laid the foundation for the copper mining industry which has since become so important in that region. The butterfly thus brought to light has been found to be a characteristic northern species, occupying a rather narrow belt nearly along the fiftieth degree of latitude and extending west almost to the Pacific Coast. The species is occasionally taken as far south as the White Mountains and there are indications that in this region there are two broods a year. The male butterflies are known at once by a beautiful pink edge on all the margins; they bear otherwise a close resemblance to our common Sulphur Yellow. The females are much lighter in color, often having no black markings on the upper surface of the hind wings. =The Black-bordered Yellow= _Eurema nicippe_ This is essentially a tropical butterfly which has spread out over most of our Southern states where it is abundant and widely distributed. It adds a distinct touch of color and life to many landscapes when the butterflies swarm by thousands upon clover blossoms and other low vegetation. The eggs are laid upon the leaves of clover and more especially upon some common species of Cassia, such as wild senna. Each egg soon hatches into a small greenish cylindrical worm, colored and striped in such a way that as it rests upon the leaf it is easily overlooked. This larva develops rapidly and soon becomes about an inch and a quarter long, being rather slender and fairly smooth. It now spins a bit of silk upon a twig or some similar support and also the frailest sort of a silken loop to pass around its back. It now entangles its hind feet in the bit of silk and soon casts off its last caterpillar skin, emerging as a curious looking chrysalis about three quarters of an inch long with a remarkable pointed projection on the front of the head. When seen through a hand lens this pointed projection and the well-developed characteristic wing sheaths give the chrysalis a remarkable resemblance to some of the twig hoppers or Membracids. The colors vary considerably with the surroundings but are commonly toned in various shades of green and yellow brown. A little later each chrysalis breaks open to disclose one of the beautiful butterflies. The conditions under which this butterfly lives at the limit of its northern range are not well determined. It is probable that many of those seen here have flown from considerably farther south, and that these migrants lay eggs from which a brood of butterflies develops, these native born appearing late in summer. Presumably the latter hibernate, but whether they can do this successfully under the rigorous conditions of our northern winters has never been determined. In fact, Scudder wrote some years ago that no caterpillars had ever been found in New England. Here is an interesting opportunity for some young observer to make a real contribution to science. =The Little Sulphur= _Eurema lisa_ Were one to imagine a Clouded Sulphur butterfly reduced to half its usual size and built with a corresponding delicacy of structure, one would have a pretty good idea of the beautiful little creature called by the above name. I well remember in my college days taking what was probably the first of these butterflies ever collected in the region of our Michigan college. It was a prize that very likely had wandered north from Indiana but which served to add much glory to the little collection in which I took such pride, for this is essentially a southern species. In many regions of the South it is so abundant that it can be taken by any one. It ranges from coast to coast and extends south into the tropics. In the eastern region it is found from southern Wisconsin to southern New England, occurring sparingly and locally in various places along the line thus indicated. The food plant of the species is chiefly wild senna or other kinds of Cassia. The mother butterflies deposit the eggs singly on leaves or stems, generally on the small leaflets of the compound leaf. Less than a week later each egg hatches into a cylindrical greenish caterpillar that feeds upon the leaflets in a characteristic fashion. Instead of devouring the blade from the margin inward it gnaws narrow strips between the smaller veins. When not feeding, the caterpillars protect themselves from observation by birds or other enemies by resting motionless along the stem of the leaflet or else along the midrib on the under side. As is well known the leaflets of Cassia, like other leguminous plants, close at night. It is probably on this account that these caterpillars feed chiefly by day. The general green color of the skin and the straight stripe along the side help to make this caterpillar very inconspicuous when it is at rest. When full grown the caterpillar reaches a length of three quarters of an inch. It now finds some bit of shelter on which it spins a bit of flat web and a silken loop to hold it in place as it becomes a chrysalis. It then changes and remains quiescent for ten days or more when it emerges as the dainty butterfly. Notwithstanding its abundance and its successive broods its life-history is none too completely worked out. There is still opportunity for careful observations upon the way in which it passes the winter in various parts of its range. While in the South it apparently hibernates as an adult, this fact is not certain in the more northern localities. Notwithstanding its diminutive size this butterfly has been known to swarm in such enormous numbers as to seem a veritable cloud. The most notable record of this has been quoted by Scudder in connection with a swarm that invaded the Bermuda Islands, in 1874, on the first day of October. It was described in these words: "Early in the morning several persons living on the north side of the main island perceived, as they thought, a cloud coming over from the northwest, which drew nearer and nearer to the shore, on reaching which it divided into two parts, one of which went eastward and the other westward, gradually falling upon the land. They were not long in ascertaining that what they had taken for a cloud was an immense concourse of small yellow butterflies, which flitted about all the open grassy patches in a lazy manner, as if fatigued after their long voyage over the deep. Fishermen out near the reefs, some few miles to the north of the islands very early that morning, stated that numbers of these insects fell upon their boats, literally covering them." As is the case with so many of the related yellow butterflies there is an albino variety of this species. It has been given the variety name _alba_ although it is really a pale yellow rather than a true albino form. =The Dainty Sulphur= _Nathalis iole_ While the Little Sulphur butterfly seems about as delicate a creature as one could ask to see, it loses that distinction when it is compared with the still smaller Dainty Sulphur. The latter expands scarcely an inch when its wings are stretched apart, and its slender body and antennae help to give the suggestion of extreme delicacy. There is more marking of black upon the sulphur-yellow wings than is the case with the larger form, the upper portion of the front wings showing only a broad yellow band upon a background of darker color. The under wings are nearly all yellow. _Synopsis of the Yellows_ _Brimstone_ or _Cloudless Sulphur_ (_Callidryas eubule_ or _Catopsilia eubule_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Upper surface of male clear, light, sulphur yellow. Female with a brown spot in front of middle of each front wing and a narrow brown margin on all the wings. Under surface deeper yellow with sparsely scattered brownish dots. _Red-barred Sulphur_ (_Callidryas philea_ or _Catopsilia philea_). Expanse 3 inches. Easily known by the reddish orange bars on the sulphur-yellow wings. _Large Orange Sulphur_ (_Callidryas agarithe_ or _Catopsilia agarithe_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Distinguished at once by its uniform orange-yellow color. _Dog's-head Butterfly_ (_Zerene caesonia_, _Colias caesonia_ or _Meganostoma caesonia_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Upper surface yellow with black inner and outer borders on front wings and black outer border on hind wings. The black and yellow of each front wing so combined as to make a distinct dog's head with black eye. _Clouded Sulphur_ (_Eurymus philodice_ or _Colias philodice_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface sulphur yellow with blackish borders, the yellow brighter in the male than in the female. Male with line between yellow and black distinct, a black spot just in front of the middle of each front wing and an orange spot near the middle of each hind wing. Under surface of male deeper yellow, with spots as on the upper surface but without black margin, and with a row of sub-marginal brownish dots on each wing. Female with upper surface more generally suffused between marginal mark and the yellow part with more or less duskiness both above and below. Spots on each wing much as in male. In the white form of the female (_pallidice_) the yellow is replaced by white. _Pink-edged Sulphur_ (_Eurymus interior_). At once distinguishable from _philodice_ by the narrow pink edge of all the wings, showing both from above and from below, slightly smaller as a rule. _Orange Sulphur_ (_Eurymus eurytheme_ or _Colias eurytheme_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Much like Clouded Sulphur in markings except that prevailing color-tone is orange yellow. _Black-bordered Sulphur_ (_Eurema nicippe_, _Xanthidia nicippe_ or _Terias nicippe_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface of wings bright orange with a small black dash in front of the middle of each front wing and a broad black border on all the wings. In the females the borders are interrupted at the rear. Under surface slightly brownish yellow, minutely striated and clouded when exposed when the butterfly alights. _Little Sulphur_ (_Eurema euterpe_, _Eurema lisa_, _Xanthidia lisa_ or _Terias lisa_). Expanse 1 inch. Easily known by its small size and delicate structure. Upper surface of wings yellow with distinct black borders. Under surface yellow with indistinct spots. _Dainty Sulphur_ (_Nathalis iole_). Expanse 1 inch. Easily known by its small size and narrow yellow wings with black bars across the outer angles and black bands across the back border of the front wings and the front border of the hind wings. THE NYMPHS FAMILY _Nymphalidae_ A large proportion of our most familiar butterflies belongs to this family. The Fritillaries, the Angle-wings, the Sovereigns, and the Emperors are tribes in which practically all the species are of medium or large size. The Crescent-spots include a few which are rather small. The combinations of characters by which the Nymph family is distinguished are these: Front legs dwarfed into lappets; scaly antennae; veins of fore wings not swollen at base; wings of normal shape, not much longer than wide. Larvae cylindrical, but varying greatly in form, color, and skin coverings. Chrysalids angular in most species, in others rounded. The stories of the lives of the many members of this family vary considerably, as one would expect from their variety and numbers. We may take, however, the life of the familiar Antiopa or Mourning Cloak as typical of the group. Briefly summarized, its story may thus be told: During sunny days in spring one may often see a beautiful purple-back butterfly, having a cream-colored border along the outer margin of its wings, flying leisurely about, in the vicinity of woods and in the open fields. This insect is called the Antiopa or Mourning Cloak; it is represented natural size in plate opposite page 145. It has passed the winter in this adult condition, having found shelter in some retreat where it is not directly exposed to the storm and stress of the weather. When the leaves of the elm, willow, and poplar trees are nearly expanded, these butterflies deposit their eggs upon the twigs. These eggs are laid in clusters encircling the twigs, there being twenty or more in each cluster. In the act of oviposition, the butterfly keeps her wings spread out, moving the body and abdomen about as the placing of the eggs necessitates. About two weeks after the clusters of eggs are thus laid upon the twigs of the food plant, they hatch into small blackish caterpillars, each emerging from the egg shell through a small hole that it eats out of the upper surface. They thus enter upon the second stage in their life-history--the larva or caterpillar stage. As soon as hatched, they crawl to the nearest leaf upon which they range themselves side by side, with their heads toward the margin of the leaf. They feed in this position, nibbling at the green surface of the leaf-blade and leaving the network of veins untouched. [Illustration: _See page 76_ THE ZEBRA SWALLOWTAIL Summer form: upper surface, above; under surface, below] [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See Page 101_ THE CLOUDED SULPHUR BUTTERFLY Caterpillar and butterfly on red clover plant. (Reduced)] [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 76_ ZEBRA SWALLOWTAILS Visiting blossoming branches of the pawpaw tree. (Reduced)] [Illustration: _See pages 97-115_ SOME OF THE TRIBE OF YELLOWS upper surfaces at left; under surfaces at right (1) The Black-bordered Yellow--male; (2) the Clouded Sulphur--male; (3) the Orange Sulphur--female; (4) the Dog's-head--male] These caterpillars continue to feed in this manner for about a week, remaining side by side when feeding, and marching in processions from one leaf to another as the food supply is exhausted. Wherever they go, each spins a silken thread on the surface traversed, so that the combination of all the threads makes a sort of carpet that serves as a foothold for the caterpillars. At the end of the week they moult or cast their skins, a process in which the skin of each larva splits open along the back, and the larva crawls out covered with a new skin that had been formed beneath the old one. This new skin stretches somewhat after the caterpillar emerges, so that the insect is able to increase considerably in size. At the period of moulting, the caterpillars remain quiet for a short time, but they soon become active again and begin feeding with increased voracity. [Illustration: Eggs of Mourning-Cloak, laid in a cluster on a twig. (From Holland).] During the next three weeks, this moulting process is repeated three times, the caterpillars becoming larger each time, and leaving their cast skins upon the denuded twigs. They soon scatter more or less over neighboring leaves, but remain in closely associated colonies. As they increase in size, they eat more and more of the leaf substance; when half grown, they devour all but the midrib and the side veins; but when they get larger, only the midribs are left. The carpet web that they form becomes more conspicuous as the caterpillars become full grown. They then leave the tree or shrub on which they have been feeding, and scatter about, seeking some sheltered situation. Having found this--perhaps beneath a stump or along the under side of a fence--each caterpillar spins a web of silk along the surface. It then entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs in the silken web, and lets its body hang vertically with the head end curved upward. It remains in this position some hours before the skin along the back just behind the head splits apart and is gradually wriggled upward, until finally it is all removed and there hangs in place of the caterpillar a peculiar object having no definite form. But it rapidly assumes a definite form--that of the chrysalis--which is grayish brown, different specimens varying somewhat in shade. In this quiet chrysalis, the insect is apparently almost as inert as a mummy. If you touch it it will wriggle a little, but otherwise it hangs there mute and helpless. On the inside, however, the tissues are being made over in such a wonderful way that, in about two weeks, from the mummy case into which the caterpillar entered there comes a beautiful butterfly. When this butterfly first breaks through the mummy shell, its wings are very small, although its body, antennae, and legs are well developed. By means of the latter, it clings to the empty chrysalis, while its wings expand. At first these wings are short, but as soon as the insect takes a position in which the wings hang downward, they begin to expand, and soon reach full length, but are more or less crumpled longitudinally, and the front wings are not so wide as the hind ones, hanging limply inside the latter. After the butterfly has thus reached its full form and size, it crawls from the chrysalis to some neighboring support, where it rests quietly for half an hour or more. During the latter part of this time it exercises its unused muscles by slowly opening and closing its wings, until it finally flies away. THE TRIBE OF THE FRITILLARIES This is one of the most distinctive tribes of the family of Nymphs. The clubs of the antennae are about twice as long as broad and curiously spoon-shaped. The palpi are large and bushy, with the last joint very short. Most of the species are rather large and practically all are beautifully mottled in various tones of brown, red, black, and silvery gray. A large proportion of our midsummer butterflies are members of this tribe. =The Gulf Fritillary= _Agraulis vanillae_ In tropical America there is a genus of butterflies called Agraulis. These are fairly large insects, approximating the size of the Viceroy, which show most beautiful colors in the tropical sunshine. One member of this genus has come north to our Southern states, and is occasionally found as far up as Virginia and southern Illinois, extending below this from ocean to ocean. It reveals on its upper surface the most exquisite tints of iridescent purples and browns, suggesting by its form and color as thus seen a tropical species. The lower wing surface, when the wings are closed in their natural position, shows only a spangled effect of silver-white and brown, which is very suggestive of the under surface of our northern Spangled Fritillaries. So this beautiful species may fittingly be called the Gulf Fritillary, carrying over from the north some of its peculiar beauty and connecting with the equally distinctive beauty of the tropical south. Like so many other southern butterflies the eggs of this species are laid upon the leaves of passion vines. The caterpillars develop very rapidly and when matured are yellowish or brownish yellow, striped with darker lines along the back and sides. There are black branching spines, arranged in rows beginning on the head and running backward on the body. The whole cycle of life from egg to butterfly may take place within the short period of a month and one brood succeeds another in so irregular and rapid a fashion that it is difficult to determine definitely the number of broods in a season. =The Variegated Fritillary= _Euptoieta claudia_ There is something in the appearance of the upper surface of this butterfly that suggests the other Fritillaries on the one hand and the Emperors on the other. The coloring and marking is a bit like the former and the shape of the wings like the latter. The general color is a golden brown with darker markings arranged in bands and eye-spots in a rather complicated pattern. The under surface, so far as it is exposed when the butterfly is at rest, is a beautiful marbled combination of gray and brown which is probably distinctly obliterative in the haunts of these insects. The front wings have the outer margin concave in the middle, giving a special prominence to the shape of each front outer angle. This butterfly is a southern rather than a northern species, but it is found occasionally from Montana to Massachusetts and southward to Arizona, Mexico, and Florida. Even in northern Indiana it is very seldom found and is considered rare in the southern part of that state. Around Buffalo, New York, it is also rare and is not common in the vicinity of New York City. In the more Southern states, however, it is abundant and extends well through the continent of South America. There is considerable evidence to indicate that this butterfly hibernates as an adult. In the more southern regions it probably also hibernates in other stages, especially the chrysalis and the larva. In regions where it is double-brooded, as it appears to be in the latitude of New York City, the seasonal history seems to run something like this: the partly grown caterpillars which have passed the winter in shelter at the surface of the soil feed upon the leaves of violets and certain other plants. They change to chrysalids, probably in May, and emerge as butterflies in June. These butterflies lay eggs for a summer brood of caterpillars which may feed upon the leaves of violets, May apples, portulaca, and stonecrop. They grow into cylindrical worms of a general reddish yellow color, marked by longitudinal stripes of brown upon the sides and a row of whitish dots upon the back. They become matured in time to disclose the butterflies of the second brood in August and September. Presumably these butterflies lay eggs that develop into caterpillars which hibernate when partially grown. Farther south there are probably three broods a year and hibernation may take place in various stages. There is good opportunity for careful work in determining the life-history of the species in different latitudes. The butterfly is found in much the same situations as the other Fritillaries, flying over meadows and along the borders of woods. =The Diana Fritillary= _Argynnis diana_ This magnificent butterfly differs from the other Fritillaries in the fact that the females are so unlike the males that only a skilled naturalist would even guess that they are related. Both sexes are rather rare and are found only in a comparatively narrow range extending from West Virginia to Missouri, northward to Ohio and Indiana, and southward to Georgia and Arkansas. This species was first described by Cramer a long time ago from specimens of the male sex. It was later described by Say and other writers all of whom saw only the males. The other sex was first recognized by William H. Edwards, whose account of its discovery as given in his splendid work on the Butterflies of North America is worth quoting: "No mention is made of the female by any author," wrote Mr. Edwards, "and it seems to have been unknown till its discovery by me in 1864 in Kanawha County, West Virginia. On the 20th August, I saw, for the first time, a male hovering about the flowers of the iron-weed (_Vernonia fasciculata_), and succeeded in taking it. Two days afterwards, in same vicinity, while breaking my way through a dense thicket of the same weed, hoping to find another Diana, I came suddenly upon a large black and blue butterfly feeding so quietly as to allow me to stand near it some seconds and watch its motions. It seemed to be a new species of Limenitis, allied to Ursula, which it resembled in color. But on taking it, I saw it was a female Argynnis, and the general pattern of the under wing left little doubt of its affinity to the Diana male, despite its total difference in color and of upper surface. Subsequent captures confirmed this conjecture, and out of the large number that have since been taken the males have been of the known type and the females black, with no tendency in either to vary in the direction of the other. "When my attention was called to the species I found it not very uncommon, always upon or near the iron-weed, which is very abundant and grows in rank luxuriance upon the rich bottom lands of the Kanawha River, frequently reaching a height from eight to ten feet and in August covered by heads of purple flowers that possess a remarkable attraction for most butterflies. Both sexes are conspicuous, the males from the strong contrast of color and the females from their great size and the habit of alighting on the topmost flower and resting with wings erect and motionless. It is an exceedingly alert and wary species, differing in this from our other Argynnids. At the slightest alarm it will fly high into the woods near which, upon the narrow bottoms or river slopes, it is invariably found. It is a true southern species, sensitive to cold, not to be looked for in the cooler part of the morning but flying down from the forest when the sun is well up. From eleven to three o'clock is its feeding time." The life-history of this fine butterfly is similar to that of the lesser Fritillaries. The butterflies appear from midsummer onward, the males preceding the females, and the eggs are laid on or near violets in August or September. The larvae hibernate and mature early the following summer. As they approach the chrysalis stage they are rather large velvety black caterpillars with brown heads and rows of fleshy barbed spines that show an orange tint at their bases. There is thus but one generation each year. =The Regal Fritillary= _Argynnís idalia_ The Regal Fritillary, fresh from the chrysalis, still showing the marvelous sheen of its iridescence, furnishes one of the most beautiful exhibitions of color in the world of nature. Over the whole wing surface there are tiny scales that reflect the sunlight in an almost dazzling manner, giving a distinct purplish tone especially to the hind wings. The Regal Fritillary is one of the largest butterflies of the distinctive group to which it belongs. The wings expand some three inches and the rather thick body is more than an inch long. The general ground color of the wings is brown, with distinct markings of blackish which in the hind wings almost obscure the brown. On each of the latter as seen from above there is a distinct row of cream-colored spots across the middle, duplicated by a similar row of brown spots near the margin. The under surface of both pairs of wings is much lighter and thickly mottled all over with light cream-colored spots of a large size and more or less triangular shape. (_See frontispiece._) Like the other Argynnids, the Regal Fritillary is single-brooded during the year and it has a rather remarkable longevity in each stage of its life. The newly hatched caterpillars go into hibernation and live through the winter without feeding, finding shelter at the surface of the ground, especially beneath the leaves of violets which form their chosen food plants. When the snow has disappeared and the warmth of the spring sun brings them out of their winter lethargy these tiny caterpillars feed upon the violet leaves and grow slowly for several weeks. They then change to chrysalids, the time for doing this varying considerably with the individual and doubtless with the warmth of the situation in which each is living. The length of time spent in the chrysalis varies also, but in general it seems to be less for those which develop into male butterflies than for the females. It is a curious fact that the former may be found for nearly two weeks before any of the latter appear. The first butterflies of this species are usually disclosed from the chrysalis late in June or early in July. They continue to come forth for several weeks, apparently until nearly the middle of August. They lead a leisurely life, visiting freely the flowers of goldenrod, iron-weed, boneset, Joe Pye weed, and especially swamp milkweed. They are most likely to be found in lowlands and along the borders of swamps where these favorite flowers are growing. It evidently requires some time for the eggs to develop within the ovaries, for the butterfly cannot begin laying these until the latter part of August. They apparently are normally deposited on the under side of violet leaves, although so far as I know no butterfly has been seen thus laying her eggs. It would be an interesting point for some young observer to determine. Even the eggs take a long time to develop, not hatching for three or four weeks after they are laid. When they do hatch the tiny caterpillars seem not to eat at all but to go directly into hibernation. These butterflies are to be found in their preferred habitats almost any time during July, August, and September. Apparently many of them live as adults for nearly three months so that whether we consider the egg, the larva, the chrysalis, or the adult we have in this species an unusual duration of life. This is doubtless an adaptation to the fact that the species must get through the year with only one brood. This unity of habit with no such variations as occur in many butterflies with a wider range north and south is apparently correlated with the distribution of this butterfly. It is found in a belt of territory running from New England and the Atlantic states westward at least to Nebraska along a line which approximates the annual isotherm of fifty degrees Fahrenheit. =The Great Spangled Fritillary= _Argynnis cybele_ To one who wanders much in the woods and open fields there are few summer scenes more characteristic of the season than that of a group of milkweeds in full flower, surrounded by a host of brown butterflies busily sucking the nectar from the curious pink blossoms. There are likely to be several species of these winged creatures, but in many regions of America the largest and most conspicuous will generally be the Great Spangled Fritillary. This butterfly is easily recognized by its large size and its combination of two colors of brown, with whitish or silverish spots scattered over the lower surface of the wings. The life-history of this insect is of peculiar interest on account of the way in which it passes the winter. The mother butterfly remains upon the wing through many weeks in summer, so that toward the end of August or early September a large proportion of the specimens have a decidedly frayed appearance. They are patiently waiting for the season of the year when they can deposit their eggs, apparently knowing by instinct that this must not be done until early autumn. When the proper season arrives they lay their eggs upon the leaves or stems of wild violets, apparently without much reference to the particular species. Sometimes they have been reported simply to drop the eggs loosely upon the violet plant with no attempt to fasten them in place. Having thus deposited the eggs the mother butterflies soon die. It would not seem strange if these eggs remained unhatched until the following spring, but the fact is that the eggs hatch very soon into small caterpillars that eat off part of the shells in order to escape and sometimes eat also part of the shell remaining after they have emerged. Various good observers have apparently established the fact that these tiny caterpillars eat nothing else before winter sets in. It seems curious indeed that they should not nibble at the leaves or stems of the violet plants in order to be slightly prepared for the long fast that awaits them before they will find food upon the young buds the following spring. The case is somewhat similar to that of the common tent caterpillar which becomes a fully formed caterpillar within the egg shell before the end of autumn, but remains unhatched until the following spring. In the present case the caterpillar hibernates outside of the egg shell rather than within it. When at last the warm sunshine of spring starts the violets into new growth the tiny caterpillars begin feeding upon the succulent tissues. They nibble away day after day for a week or more before they become so large that they have to cast their skin for the first time. They then feed again and continue this process of feeding and moulting until early in summer. They are likely to hide themselves during daylight and have the reputation of being difficult to rear under artificial conditions. The full-grown caterpillar wanders along the surface of the ground in search of suitable shelter for the chrysalis period. When it comes to a large stone with sides projecting more or less horizontally or a log lying upon the ground or even a large piece of loose bark it is likely to stop and change to the pupa or chrysalis. In this condition it is dark brown in color and well covered with thickened tubercles, especially along the back of the abdomen. About a fortnight later the chrysalis breaks open and the fully developed butterfly comes forth. It rests quietly for a time while its wings expand and the tissues harden and then sallies forth for its long period of flight; for this insect is single-brooded in the Northern states at least and the butterflies that thus mature late in June or early in July are likely to remain alive until early in September. So they have a comparatively long life for a butterfly that does not hibernate as an adult. =The Silver-spot Fritillary= _Argynnis aphrodite_ Our brown Fritillaries are seldom found without several species mingling together. This is not strange, for they have similar habits throughout their entire lives. So when you see a bevy of butterflies collected around the midsummer blossoms of the milkweed, you are pretty sure to find that the Great Spangled Fritillary is associated with the Silver-spot and probably one or two other related forms. The Silver-spot is generally decidedly smaller than the one first named and the surest way to be certain of it is to look on the under side of the hind wing and see whether there is a broad band of buff between the two outer rows of silver spots. If this band has disappeared or is nearly all taken up by the brown ground-color of the wing, you may be pretty sure we have the Silver-spot Fritillary. When one has firmly fixed in mind the life cycle of one of these butterflies, one has a model after which to fashion the rest, for our several species are remarkably alike in this respect. The Silver-spots are on the wing for several weeks in summer. During the latter part of this time the females lay eggs upon violet leaves. These eggs shortly hatch into caterpillars that go directly into hibernation, taking no food before winter sets in. The following spring they feed upon violet leaves and mature in time to change to chrysalids and emerge as butterflies in early summer. There is but one brood a year and the species is widely distributed over southern Canada and the Northern states. It extends south to Virginia and Pennsylvania and west to Nebraska, Montana, and Washington. =The Mountain Silver-spot= _Argynnis atlantis_ If one were able to take a Silver-spot Fritillary and reduce its size about one third he would have a wonderfully good imitation of the present species. Except for the size, about the only difference in the markings is found in the blackish border along the margins of the Mountain Silver-spot which is not present in the other species. The buff sub-marginal border line on the under surface of the wings between the rows of silver spots is also wider in the mountain species. The distribution of this butterfly justifies its name. It is preëminently a northern species, being especially abundant in the White Mountains of New Hampshire and ranging northward far into Canada and west through British America as far as the Mackenzie River. A pair of these butterflies were captured by Merritt Carey on July 16, 1903, on the summit of Mount Tha-on-tha, in the Nahanni Mountains, at an altitude of 2,500 feet. The southern limit of its distribution approximates the isotherm of forty-five degrees. It extends southward in mountainous regions through New York and Pennsylvania and is found in Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa. It also occurs in the Rocky Mountain region of Colorado. The various species of Argynnis show a remarkable uniformity in their life-history. Like the others, this butterfly is single-brooded, laying the eggs on or near violets late in summer, the eggs hatching into larvae that take no food until the following spring. They then feed upon the violet leaves, become mature, and change to chrysalids in time for the butterflies to emerge in June in New Hampshire. These butterflies remain upon the wing for several weeks. They usually appear a week or two earlier than Aphrodite or Cybele in regions where all three species are found. It is worth while for the collector to take a hint from this fact and do his Silver-spot collecting early. For after the other species appear it is not so easy to tell which is Atlantis when the butterflies are on the wing. It is most likely to be found in open places in the woods, apparently preferring such situations to the broad expanse of fields and meadows. =The White Mountain Fritillary= _Argynnis montinus_ This is distinctly a mountain butterfly, known to be found only near the top of Mount Washington and other neighboring parts of the White Mountains. It generally occurs between the altitudes of four thousand and fifty-five hundred feet. It is doubtless closely related to a somewhat similar form found farther north and west, but its isolation from them is complete. Apparently it is single-brooded and very little is known of the early stages. The butterflies visit the flowers of goldenrod and those of the alpine sand-wort which are abundant in the sub-alpine home of this species. This variety is interesting as a living souvenir of the day when New England was buried beneath the ice-sheet. =The Meadow Fritillary= _Brenthis bellona_ The fact of variation is one of the most universal things in nature. No two animals are exactly alike and every plant differs from every other plant. That this is true of the structure of living things is easily observed but it is not so well known, because not so easily observed, that most species of animals differ also in the precise phases of their growth. We know that the variation in form and color has brought about the remarkable adaptations to surroundings which we call mimicry and protective coloration. A little consideration will make it evident that the variation of different individuals in periods of growth must have led also to the adaptation of the life stages to the conditions of the changing seasons. This is particularly true in the great majority of insects which show remarkable adaptations in their various broods to the seasonal conditions of the localities where they live. From this point of view the attractive little Meadow Fritillary is of especial interest. We are indebted to the studies of S. H. Scudder for our knowledge of the remarkable variations in its growth. These are so complicated that in order to make plain the varying conditions it seems necessary to separate the broods in a somewhat hypothetical manner. [Illustration: THE SILVER-SPOT FRITILLARY Upper and lower surfaces (_see page 125_) THE GULF FRITILLARY Lower Surface (_see page 115_)] [Illustration: THE GULF FRITILLARY (_see page 115_) THE SILVER-BORDERED FRITILLARY Upper and under surfaces (_see page 131_) THE BALTIMORE CHECKER-SPOT Upper and under surfaces (_see page 135_)] We will begin with what we shall call Group A: The butterflies are on the wing in May and early June. They have just come from the chrysalis and continue living for three or four weeks before they deposit eggs, this time being required in order that the eggs may develop in the ovaries of the butterflies. These eggs hatch in about a week and the caterpillars become full grown a month later. They then change to chrysalids in which condition they remain another week, thus requiring five or six weeks for the newly laid eggs to mature into butterflies. Supposing the eggs were laid the first week in June, the butterflies of this second brood would appear about the middle of July. The eggs in the ovaries of some of these butterflies also require several weeks before they are ready to be laid, so that it may be about the tenth of August when this happens. These hatch and mature to chrysalids during the next six weeks, the butterflies of this brood emerging about the middle of September. These in turn lay eggs at once apparently, no extended period being required for their development before they are laid. The eggs hatch during the latter part of September and the young caterpillars feed upon the violet leaves for two or three weeks, moulting perhaps twice and becoming approximately half grown. They now stop feeding and go into a lethargic condition in which they hibernate. Then in spring they awaken and feed again upon the violet leaves for a short time, becoming mature and changing to chrysalids sufficiently early to emerge as butterflies late in May. In this hypothetical group we have a fairly normal condition of a three-brooded butterfly hibernating in the stage of the half-grown larva and requiring some weeks for the development of the eggs in the ovaries of the butterflies in the case of the first two broods but not of the third. In another group, which we may designate as B, the conditions may be similar except that the butterflies lay their eggs very soon after coming from the chrysalis in the case of all three broods. Obviously there would be a tendency here for hastening the earliness of the broods so that the hibernating caterpillars might either become larger or might go into the hibernating condition earlier than those of Group A. In Group C, the variation takes place in the larvae rather than in the butterflies. These may go on in the normal way up to the time the caterpillars of the summer brood become half grown. Then they become lethargic, ceasing to feed and to all appearances going into hibernation. They remain in this condition until the following spring when they come forth from their winter's sleep and feed upon the violets in precisely the same way as the caterpillars of the third brood of Groups A and B. In Group D we have another interesting variation of the larvae. These are the same as C up to the time of becoming lethargic, that is, the larvae of the summer or second brood become lethargic at the same time as those of Group C but instead of continuing in this condition until the following spring they remain in lethargy only three or four weeks, then they wake up (having apparently then changed their caterpillar minds) and begin to feed, soon maturing and changing to chrysalids from which butterflies emerge late in September or early in October. The result is that these butterflies lay eggs so late that the cold nights come on apace and the little caterpillars apparently take no food at all but go into hibernation immediately. In consequence these must eat for a longer period the following spring, so that the butterflies into which they mature will be likely not to appear until well along in June. It is probable that even this rather elaborate statement does not do justice to all the variations in the development of this little butterfly. But perhaps enough has been said to help us to understand something of the way in which such insects are able to adapt their life habits to the conditions of their environment. It is easy to see that if conditions should so change as to give any one of these groups a decided advantage over the others, the tendency would be for the other groups to disappear and for the group of favored habits to survive. The Meadow Fritillary is common in Canada and the Northern states east of the Rocky Mountains. It is found especially in lowland meadows and along the borders of swamps, the very situations chosen by the food plants of the larva, the blue and the white violets. The butterflies may be often seen sipping nectar from the various species of mint and related plants found in such situations. It is commonly associated with the Silver-bordered Fritillary, from which it is easily distinguished because it has no silver spots upon its wings. =The Silver-bordered Fritillary= _Brenthis myrina_ This attractive little butterfly bears a close general resemblance to the Meadow Fritillary, from which it differs chiefly by the continuous row of silver spots along the border of the under side of both pairs of wings. It is found in the same localities as the other and its life-history is very similar. The present species is widely distributed in North America, being found as far west as the upper Mississippi Valley and the Rocky Mountains, and southward as far as the Carolinas. In New England and the Atlantic states it is one of the commonest of the smaller butterflies. Beginning with the butterflies which are seen in the fields and meadows in September, the yearly cycle of this insect may be summarized in this way: the eggs laid in September hatch in a few days into tiny caterpillars, some of which become lethargic at once, while others begin feeding upon the violet leaves and continue thus to feed until they are about half grown. These then also become lethargic and find shelter just above the soil surface where they remain until the following spring. They then begin to feed again upon the violet leaves and at about the same time the other caterpillars which became dormant as soon as hatched, also waken and feed upon these leaves. Naturally those which were half grown at the beginning of spring are likely to mature and change to chrysalids two or three weeks earlier than those which were so small at the beginning of the season. Consequently the fresh butterflies will be found from late in May to the latter part of June. Presumably those which first appeared have developed from the larger caterpillars and the later ones from the smaller caterpillars. The butterflies of this first brood of the season lay their eggs upon the violet leaves, generally upon the upper surface of the blade, but occasionally upon the stems or upon near-by grasses. These eggs hatch in about a week into caterpillars that mature during the next three or four weeks, coming forth as a second brood of butterflies late in July or early in August. These in like manner lay their eggs and develop into a third brood which matures as butterflies in September. These lay eggs that hatch into the caterpillars which live through the winter. There are thus three broods of butterflies during the year and it is probable that there is the same remarkable variation in the habits of the different broods that have been found in the ease of the Meadow Fritillary. _Synopsis of the Fritillaries_ _Gulf Fritillary_ (_Agraulis vanillae_). Expanse 2 3/4 inches. Apex of each front wing produced into a distinct angle. Upper surface of all wings reddish brown, marked with black spots and an interrupted black border, the border on the hind wings enclosing round red-brown spots. Under surface, so far as it shows when insect is at rest, nearly covered with large silver-white spots. Found only in the more Southern states. _Variegated Fritillary_ (_Euptoieta claudia_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Apex of each front wing produced into a distinct angle. Upper surface of all wings fulvous brown, thickly marked with buff and brownish black. A sub-marginal row of black dots on each of the wings, outside of which is a row of buff crescents on the blackish border. Under surface, as it shows when the butterfly is at rest, beautifully marbled in creamy browns and deeper browns. No distinct silver spots in either surface. _Diana Fritillary_ (_Argynnis diana_). _Male._ Expanse 3 1/2 inches. Apex of fore wings rounded. Upper surface of all wings, with a little more than basal half, solid brownish black and the rest of the surface orange-brown, marked with darker brown round spots and vein lines. Under surface light buff, marked with black, with silver crescents and spots on hind wings. _Female._ Expanse 4 inches. Upper surface of all wings blackish with bluish or greenish iridescence, and marginal third marked with blue spots and stripes. These are more prominent on the hind wings. Under surface slaty brown with prominent silver crescents on the hind wings. _Idalia or Regal Fritillary_ (_Argynnis idalia_). _Male._ Expanse 3 inches. Front wings fulvous brown with black spots and markings. Hind wings black except at base with a row of fulvous brown sub-marginal spots and an inner row of whitish or bluish white spots. _Female._ Expanse 3 1/2 inches. Similar to male except for larger size and the fact that the two rows of spots on the hind wings are yellowish brown. _Great Spangled Fritillary_ (_Argynnis cybele_). Expanse 3 1/4 inches. General color of wings fulvous brown with black markings on upper surface and black and silver markings on under surface. The yellow band between the rows of silver spots on hind wings is broad. There is a distinct narrow fulvous stripe on the upper side of the hind wing just inside the outer margin, and a similar stripe along the margin of the front wing, more or less interrupted by the veins. _Silver-spot Fritillary_ (_Argynnis aphrodite_). Expanse 3 inches. Similar to the Great Spangled but a little smaller, and with the buff yellow band between the rows of silver spots on the lower surface much narrower and almost disappearing at the rear. _Mountain Silver-spot_ (_Argynnis atlantis_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Known by its smaller size and the black marginal border stripe on all the wings, with no brown line dividing this stripe. _Silver-bordered Fritillary_ (_Brenthis myrina_). Expanse 1 3/4 inches. Known by its small size and a marginal row of silver spots on the under side of each of the wings, and with many other silver spots scattered over the under surface of the hind wings. _Meadow Fritillary_ (_Brenthis bellona_). Expanse 2 inches. Easily known by the absence of silver spots on all the wings. The wings are long in proportion to their width. THE TRIBE OF THE CRESCENT-SPOTS The members of this tribe have the following combinations of characters: scaly antennae, with a short stout club some three times as long as broad, and a pair of slender palpi in which the terminal joint is only about half as long as the middle one. There may or may not be a slight ridge running lengthwise of the naked part of the antennal club. Although more than fifty distinct species belonging to this tribe have been found in North America, very few of these are distributed through the eastern part. Only four are so abundant and widely distributed that they need be treated of here. =Baltimore Checker-spot= _Euphydryas phaeton_ To the naturalist those islands in the seas which are remote from the mainland have long been of especial interest. The life upon them is likely to show the results of many generations of living under unique conditions. The plants and animals are generally distinctive, many of the species having characteristics which differentiate them markedly from those upon the mainland. They show in a thousand ways the effect of isolation and so are of especial value when one attempts to determine the results of unusual conditions upon living things. In a somewhat similar way the peat bogs or sphagnum swamps which occur here and there over a large part of North America are of especial interest, because in a way they are biological islands in which the conditions of a long past age are preserved until the present. These nearly always occur in a little valley surrounded on all sides by hills. Here the water has collected originally into a pond or lake, which has been gradually filling up through the growth of peat mosses and a special set of other plants that develop in such situations. One can still find many stages in the process. In some bogs the surface will be practically covered, although the water beneath may still be so abundant that the matted moss quakes as one walks over it. Sometimes such bogs are really dangerous because the walker may drop through to the water beneath. In most of the bogs, however, the little lake is nearly filled but shows the surface over a small area. The conditions in these peat bogs have changed little since civilization began. They are relics of an earlier era which have come down to us as types of conditions that once existed very generally. The plant life is unique and consists almost entirely of forms which are found practically nowhere else. There are comparatively few animals living in these peat bogs and all of these are likely to be of especial interest. Among the insects none is more remarkable than the Baltimore Checker-spot butterfly which has several peculiarities that differentiate it from the other members of the group. It seems to have come down to us unchanged from a far remote past and to be living its tranquil life to-day in precisely the same manner as during the time when the mammoth and the mastodon were likely to invade its haunts. The Baltimore is probably the most local in its distribution of any of the butterflies found throughout Canada and the Northern states. It is to be looked for only in peat bogs and swamps, and it has a remarkable unity in its life-history whether it be found in northern Canada or as far south as West Virginia. The butterfly itself is rather large, measuring a little more than two inches across its expanded wings and being colored with an unusual combination of fulvous and yellow upon a black background. It is present as a rule only from about the first of June to the middle of July. The eggs, in bunches of from one hundred to four hundred, are laid upon the leaves of the plant commonly called snake-head or turtle-head (_Chelone glabra_). They do not hatch for nearly three weeks; then the little caterpillars emerge together and usually each eats a little of the empty egg shell. They are then likely to form a thin web over the under surface of the leaf beneath which they remain as a small company feeding upon the succulent green tissue. A little later they are likely to begin the construction of a miniature nest by spinning a silken web over the young leaves at the top of the plant. From this time on this silken nest serves as their home, and they utilize it almost as effectively as do our familiar American tent caterpillars the nest which they make in the forks of the wild cherry tree. The Baltimore caterpillars often wander more or less from their tent-like home but they generally come back to feed as well as to moult. If the nest is injured by wind or rain, all the caterpillars turn out to repair it and as the need for new food supplies arises they also unite to enlarge the tent. This habit of working together for the common good is very suggestive of the similar habits of the American tent caterpillars. Doors for going in and out are left in the tent during its construction. The tent thus made is likely to be deserted after the first moult and a new and larger one constructed on another part of the plant. Two or perhaps three such nests may be made from the time the caterpillar hatches until after the second moult. The last nest made is very likely to be upon some neighboring bushy plant or at least to include some branches of such a plant if the bulk of the nest is made upon snake-head. For after the third moult the caterpillars stop feeding and become more or less quiet, thus beginning a nine months' fast, during which they are simply to wait until the return of spring. This fast may be begun any time from the middle of August until early in September, and even when brought indoors the caterpillars cannot be induced to eat. It is evidently the way in which the species has bridged over the winter during the thousands of generations of its existence, and the instinct is so firmly fixed that it cannot be changed. Even in West Virginia, where the caterpillars would have plenty of time during the summer to mature as butterflies that would bring forth another generation of caterpillars that might pass the winter, the condition is the same as in the far northern regions. So within the shelter of the silken nest these Baltimore caterpillars remain from the middle of August until May. Then when the spring sunshine has sufficiently warmed their cool retreats they come forth and feed greedily upon the young leaves. They now soon make up for lost time and complete their growth as caterpillars very quickly. When full fed they wander about in all directions, each hunting its own shelter before becoming a chrysalis. Having found a twig or branch that suits their purpose each hangs downward and changes to a brownish yellow chrysalis, more or less marked with black. It remains in this condition for about a fortnight, when it comes forth as the Baltimore butterfly which thus appears again about the first of June. These butterflies seem to have some of the characteristics of their unique surroundings. There are very few flowers in the peat bogs and it is significant that the butterflies instead of flitting from flower to flower, as do most of our familiar species, fly rather in a slow and lazy fashion from leaf to leaf, lighting upon the foliage or frequently upon the surface of the moss or ground. They seem lethargic and have little of the animation which we usually associate with the name butterfly. In my mind the Baltimore is associated with the White Mountain butterfly as a survivor of a former geologic period. The latter was developed under colder conditions and now survives only on a few isolated mountain peaks; but the former has survived wherever the peat bog has held its sway during the long ages that the surrounding landscape has been taking on its present-day condition. Many things in the life of the Baltimore point to its primitive condition: the laying of the eggs in loose clusters, the long lethargy of the caterpillars, the limited flight of the butterflies--all indicate a creature with habits firmly fixed by long ages of development in a definite environment. No collector should feel sure that the Baltimore is not to be one of his trophies until he has visited in June every peat bog or sphagnum swamp in his locality. One may search years without finding it, and then come across a dozen in a single day. I well remember the interest with which I first found this species on the margin of a great swamp in Michigan when I was eager for every new butterfly to add to my collection. I had never seen it alive before and the thrill with which the first specimen was captured can be realized only by those remembering similar experiences. =Harris's Checker-spot= _Cinclidia harrisii_ This little butterfly so closely resembles the Pearl Crescent and the Silver Crescent that on the wing it is easily mistaken for them. It really looks more like them than it does the Baltimore Checker-spot, which is considerably larger and darker colored than the present species. This is essentially a northern form occurring only in a narrow strip of country east of Minnesota and Wisconsin, running on the north through southern Canada and on the south through Michigan, New York, and Massachusetts. This insect is one of the best-known botanists among all the butterflies. In the very difficult group of asters which has caused endless confusion to human botanists these insects seem always able to select the one species--_Aster umbellatus_. It has been repeatedly found that the caterpillars would starve rather than eat the leaves of other kinds of asters, and so far as known they have never been found feeding outdoors upon any other. These butterflies appear along roadsides and in open fields about the middle of June. They are often very abundant and are much more generally distributed than the Baltimore Checker-spot. A few weeks later the females lay their eggs upon the aster leaves, the eggs being deposited in clusters of twenty or more on the under side of the leaf. Early in July the little caterpillars come forth and remain together in colonies as they feed upon the green tissues of the leaves. Each is able to spin a silken thread so that wherever they go they weave a web and they soon protect themselves with a slight silken shelter, which is suggestive of the nests made by the Baltimore caterpillar. They continue to live in this manner for several weeks in July and August, growing rather gradually and becoming approximately half grown before the frosts of autumn. Unlike the Baltimore caterpillars they now desert their nests and find shelter at or near the surface of the ground. Here they hibernate, to come forth the following spring and feed again upon the new growth of the aster plants, often doing considerable damage by denuding the young shoots of their leaves. They become full grown in time to change to chrysalids so that the butterflies may emerge in June. =The Silver Crescent= _Charidryas nycteis_ While this species has not the broad distribution for which the Pearl Crescent is notable it occurs over a large part of the United States. Its distribution is bounded broadly by a line running from southern Canada north of Maine to a point in southern Canada north of Montana, whence it runs south through Wyoming and Utah to the corner of Arizona, and thence east through New Mexico and Texas to Ohio and West Virginia, extending south near the coast to North Carolina. It thus includes a broad belt of territory occupying fully one half of the area of the United States. Throughout this vast area the Silver Crescent is often a purely local species, occurring abundantly during its brief season in some favorable locality but seldom being seen in other places near by. In the north it is single-brooded, the butterflies appearing on the wing during June and commonly disappearing early in July. Late in June the females lay their eggs in clusters of a hundred or less on the under surface of the leaves of various composite plants, notably sunflowers, asters, and a common species of Actinomeris. A week or more later these hatch into little caterpillars that feed together in colonies upon the green tissues of the leaf, taking only the succulent parenchyma and leaving the network of veins. As one leaf is thus denuded they migrate to another, in this way passing from leaf to leaf for several weeks in summer. They continue to feed until about half grown when they desert the food plant and find shelter at the soil surface. Here they become lethargic and hibernate until the following spring. They then arouse again and feed upon the tender leaves of the new growth, continuing to eat and grow for a few weeks before they become mature as caterpillars and change to chrysalids. A little later the chrysalids disclose the butterflies which as already indicated appear in June. In more southern regions the life-story of the species is not so simple. There is at least a partial second brood and it is probable that in many localities the species is both single-brooded and double-brooded. In such a case some of the caterpillars go into hibernation probably about midsummer, remaining quiescent through the later weeks of summer and all the weeks of fall and winter, while others would mature to chrysalids and butterflies in summer, and the butterflies would lay eggs for a second brood of larvae which would hibernate when partially grown. There are opportunities for careful observers to do good work upon the life-history of this species in many parts of its range. =The Pearl Crescent= _Phyciodes tharos_ Some years ago Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, the most notable student of New England butterflies, wrote a delightful essay with the title "Butterflies as Botanists." From his long experience in rearing the eggs of these insects he concluded that the egg-laying females know in a most remarkable way the precise kinds of leaves upon which to oviposit. He educed many illustrations in proof of the fact and quoted a remark of Asa Gray, the most eminent of American botanists, that is worth repeating. At that time Scudder had reason to believe that the Pearl Crescent laid its eggs exclusively upon the New England aster. Now the asters as a group have been a source of much trouble to the botanists who have attempted to classify them as to species and variety. The various forms are so similar to one another that different authorities have not agreed as to the limitations of the species. So when Gray was told that this little butterfly was able always to distinguish and select for her egg-laying a single species of this vexing tribe he replied: "If your butterfly selects only that, it is a better botanist than most of us." While later observers have found that this beautiful little insect is not so exclusive in its choice of a food plant as was formerly believed, it serves to illustrate the fact that a large proportion of the caterpillars of this group have a very narrow range of food plants. In nearly every case where the food is thus restricted the insect feeds only upon species which are closely related to one another, generally falling within a single genus according to the classification of the botanists. There has been much discussion in regard to the way in which the mother butterfly knows the particular species which she chooses for oviposition. Experiments apparently have shown that she is not dependent upon the sense of sight but rather upon the sense of smell, which as is well known is much more highly developed in insects than in the higher animals. I suppose it is not very strange that a creature which has fed from infancy upon leaves with a certain taste and odor should in its later life respond only to that particular odor and should neglect all others. In a way the butterfly itself is a product of the plant and it probably is not necessary to assume that each butterfly differentiates the odors of all kinds of plants but only that she responds to the fragrance of the one with which she has been particularly associated. [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 153_ THE HOP MERCHANT Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterflies. (Reduced)] [Illustration: Mourning-Cloak _See pages 112, 171_] [Illustration: The Viceroy visiting wild carrot flowers _See page 195_ EXAMPLES OF FOUR-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES SHOWING USE OF THE FOUR LEGS (Photographed from life)] This idea may suggest to various observers an interesting point of view. When you see a butterfly flying leisurely from plant to plant and alighting upon the leaves rather than the blossom, you may be pretty sure that she is bent upon egg-laying. Now watch her to see if she goes at once to the particular kind of leaves she finally selects or does she stop momentarily upon neighboring plants, apparently trying to find the one from which the fragrance emanates until at last she reaches it. Such observations have only rarely been recorded and if carefully made, notes being taken on the spot, they would have decided scientific value. _Abundance and Distribution_ Few butterflies are more abundant or more widely distributed throughout North America than the beautiful little Pearl Crescent. It occurs over practically the whole of the United States and Canada and is found from early in spring until late in autumn. It is a rather small species with a wing expanse of only about an inch and a quarter, the upper surface of the wings being that tone of reddish brown called fulvous, more or less marked with black wavy lines and dots. The under surface is similar in color, with a small silver crescent near the outer margin of each hind wing. These butterflies are not very active creatures, although they are commonly found in meadows and pastures along brooks and by the borders of open woods. Instead of laying their eggs singly as do so many of the more active butterflies, they lay them in clusters, often of a hundred or more, one layer of eggs being placed above the other upon the aster leaf. In at least one case observed, the caterpillars hatch from the layer farthest away from the leaf surface before those of the layer next the leaf surface emerge. This is an interesting provision, for were the latter to come out first they would be likely to disarrange the unhatched eggs. The caterpillars appear about a week after the eggs are laid and remain together in crowded colonies that feed upon the upper surface of the aster leaf. At first they eat only the green tissue, leaving the bare veins, although they are not careful to denude the entire surface of the leaf as so many other caterpillars do. As one leaf is exhausted they pass to another near by, continuing thus to feed in companies for a few weeks. Their general color is blackish, although the black is relieved with yellow dots along the back and a band of a similar color on each side. Unlike the larger social caterpillars of the Mourning Cloak and other butterflies these larvae do not spin any threads as they crawl from place to place, so there is absolutely no nest made upon the aster leaf. This may possibly be correlated with the fact that these caterpillars are sluggish creatures and when disturbed drop quickly to the soil beneath. When the caterpillars are full grown, they fall or crawl to the ground and scatter more or less in search of shelter. Each attaches itself to any protection it may have found and changes to a grayish or brownish chrysalis more or less angular. It remains in this condition for a period that varies greatly with the weather conditions, averaging about two weeks. There are two distinct forms of these butterflies which vary so greatly that they were once considered separate species. They are now known, however, to be only seasonal variations. In New England two broods of the insect occur, one in spring, the other in summer. The spring form is called technically _Phyciodes tharos tharos_. In this form the under surface of the hind wings is very distinctly marked with blackish spots. The summer form is called _Phyciodes tharos morpheus_. It is noticeably larger than the spring form and it has very few markings on the under surface of the hind wings. _The Yearly History_ As it occurs in New England the yearly history of this little butterfly runs something like this. The spring form of the adult appears in May and lays eggs upon the aster leaves. These eggs hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the aster leaves for several weeks and then change to chrysalids, remaining in the latter stage ten days or two weeks. They then come from the chrysalids in the form of the summer butterflies which begin to appear about the middle of July and continue to emerge for at least a month. These lay eggs upon the aster leaves again and the little caterpillars that hatch from them feed for a few weeks or until about the last of September. They are then only partially grown, but they make no attempt to complete their transformation at this time. Instead they drop to the ground and go into hibernation, remaining in this condition until early the following spring. They then begin feeding again and complete their development in time to emerge as the spring form of the butterfly in May. Some very interesting experiments by William H. Edwards have shown that the smaller, darker spring form of the butterfly is due to cold. He placed upon ice chrysalids that would normally produce the summer form and found that the specimens so treated produced the spring form. This butterfly is one of the best known examples of the variation in the yearly cycle due to differences in latitude. This is readily shown by a brief summary of its life-history, from north to south. In the far northern climate of Labrador there is but one brood a year and the butterflies belong to what I have been calling the spring form. The butterflies appear on the wing in early summer, lay their eggs upon the aster leaves, and die. The eggs hatch into caterpillars that feed for several weeks, then become dormant and remain in such shelters as they can find until the following spring. They then change to chrysalids to emerge as butterflies a little later. There is thus but one brood a year and the only form of the butterfly is the small, darker colored variety. As far south as southern Canada there is a slight variation in this yearly cycle. The spring form of the butterflies appears in May and lays eggs. The eggs hatch into caterpillars; part of these caterpillars mature within a few weeks, change to chrysalids, and come out in July or August as the larger summer form of the butterfly, which in turn lays eggs for the caterpillars that are to winter over in a dormant condition and mature the following season. But the significant fact is that not all of the caterpillars which thus have hatched in spring go through this cycle. Part of them become dormant when partially grown and continue dormant through summer, autumn, and winter, just as they did in Labrador. Then in spring they develop into the spring form of the butterfly, along with the caterpillars that have hatched from the eggs laid in summer. There is thus what is called an overlapping of the broods. Farther south, in southern New England, the life-history is more definitely two-brooded each year, as already described in an earlier paragraph. Still farther south, in the region of the Virginias, it is definitely three-brooded, there being at least two summer broods during the year. How is it that the instinct to become lethargic lies dormant in the summer broods of caterpillars and shows itself only in the autumn brood? Is it perhaps due to a reaction to the colder nights of the later season? If so, possibly one could get interesting light upon the subject by experimenting with placing the summer caterpillars temporarily in an ice chest. _Synopsis of the Crescent-spots_ _Baltimore Checker-spot_ (_Euphydryas phaeton_ or _Melitaea phaeton_). Expanse 1 3/4 inches. General color purplish black with the upper surface marked thus: a marginal row of red-brown spots between the veins; two rows of creamy yellow spots inside of the row just mentioned; two or three small red and two or three small white spots near front border of each front wing. Under surface checkered in red-brown and creamy yellow on a blackish background. _Harris's Checker-spot_ (_Cinclidia harrisii_ or _Melitaea harrisii_). Expanse 1 3/4 inches. This species bears a close general resemblance to the Silver Crescent. It may be distinguished by the fact that the middle joint of each palpus is of uniform size from end to end instead of tapering toward its outer end. The tibial joint of the first pair of legs of the male butterfly is very thick. The upper wing surface is so marked with black that the tawny red coloring shows only in the middle. _Silver Crescent_ (_Charidryas nycteis_, _Melitaea nycteis_ or _Phyciodes nycteis_). Expanse 1 3/4 inches. This species may be known from Harris's Checker-spot by the fact that the middle joint of each palpus tapers from the middle to the tip and that the tibia of each front leg in the male is slender rather than stout. On the lower surface of the wings there is a narrow yellowish marginal line. _Pearl Crescent_ (_Phyciodes tharos_ or _Melitaea tharos_). Expanse 1 1/2 inches. General color much lighter than either of the preceding. Terminal joint of each palpus less than a third as long as the middle joint. THE TRIBE OF THE ANGLE-WINGS The special characteristic that distinguishes the members of this important group from the other Nymphs is the fact that on that portion of the club of each antenna which has not hairs there are three longitudinal ridges. The tribe includes a large number of our most familiar butterflies. Nearly all of them are rather large, with bright attractive colors. They fly freely along roadsides and in orchards, fields, and meadows so they are commonly seen by every one. =The Violet-tip= _Polygonia interrogationis_ The Violet-tip is one of the largest of the Angle-wings, as well as one of the most beautiful of all our species. It has a wonderful violet iridescence which is especially marked on the projecting tip of the hind wing. On fresh specimens, however, it may be seen practically all over both surfaces of the wings and in bright sunlight gives them a sheen of remarkable beauty. The expanded wings measure nearly two and a half inches, the upper surface being marked with dark brown upon a ground of orange-brown. The under surface has a bark-like effect in brownish gray brought about by rather indefinite markings of varying tone. The most characteristic feature is a distinct silver semicolon on the middle of the under surface of each hind wing. This marking closely resembles the Greek interrogation point and so the species was given the specific name _interrogationis_ by Fabricius early in the history of science. It has since often been called the interrogation butterfly as a translation of its Latin name, but in as much as the marking on the wings is not at all like the English interrogation point, this has led to considerable confusion and people have considered it a misnomer. It has also been called the Semicolon butterfly which is correct enough so far as this most characteristic feature is concerned; but it leads to confusion in connection with the Latin name. The recent practice seems the better, which is to call it the Violet-tip butterfly. _Life-history_ The life-history of this butterfly is much like that of the related species. Briefly summarized, this is its story: The adult butterflies, more or less worn and faded from their long hibernation, appear in fields and pastures in May. They fly for several weeks sipping nectar from many kinds of spring flowers. The females search for the leaves of the elm, hop, nettle, false nettle, and perhaps other related plants on which they deposit their ribbed eggs either singly or in small groups, it often happening that one egg will be laid directly on top of another. About a week later the eggs hatch into small spinose caterpillars which begin feeding upon the leaves near by. They continue to feed and grow rather rapidly until they become full size. Each then fastens a bit of pink silk to the stem of the plant or some other support, in which it entangles its hind legs and hangs downward to become a chrysalis which is remarkable for its numerous protuberances and the beautiful silvery and golden spots along the middle of the back. Within these chrysalids the change from larva to butterfly takes place, usually in less than two weeks, so that this new brood of adults appears on the wing early in July. Eggs are laid by these for a second brood of caterpillars that feed upon the host plants in the same way as the others, and mature as butterflies late in August or early in September. These butterflies visit the fall flowers and suck the juices of fallen fruits, until the cold weather of autumn warns them to seek shelter for the winter. They now find crevices within the bark of trees or places in hollow logs or stone piles or other similar situations, where they close their wings together, so that only the bark-like under surface shows, and remain quiet for long periods. They hibernate in this way, coming forth again the following season to start the cycle for the new year. In regions where hops are grown commercially the chrysalids of these butterflies are often called "hop merchants." There is a quaint fancy that the price of the crop varies with the lustre of the golden spots upon the chrysalids. When these stand out conspicuously, according to this fancy, the hops are to sell high--bringing much gold to the owners. When these are inconspicuous the hops are to sell at a low price, with a corresponding diminution in the returns. But this fancy does not apply at all to the chrysalids when they are nearly ready to disclose the butterfly, for at this time they lose their metallic lustre. =The Hop Merchant or Comma= _Polygonia comma_ There are two species of butterflies which commonly lay their eggs upon the hop and which resemble each other so closely in their earlier stages that they are frequently confused by ordinary observers. One is the Violet-tip or Semicolon and the other is the one which has long been called the Comma. The chrysalids of both are marked in silver and gold and the variation in the golden lustre has led hop growers to deduce from them the probable price of hops. On this account the chrysalids are commonly called Hop Merchants and the name has been transferred to the butterflies themselves. (_See plate, page 144._) The Comma is easily distinguished by the conspicuous silver mark in the middle of the under side of each hind wing. This bears a striking resemblance to a comma, hence the name. The butterflies are somewhat smaller than the Violet-tips and show to a remarkable degree the angularity in the borders of the wings. The under side is cleverly marked in imitation of the bark of trees, which is doubtless of much benefit to the species in eluding observation during the long months from October until April, when the butterflies are hibernating in such concealed shelter as each happens to find. The crevices beneath loose bark, the openings in fallen logs and hollow trees, the interspaces in stone piles, as well as the interior of buildings, all serve this purpose. Like the other over-wintering butterflies, the specimens that come forth in spring are commonly faded and more or less frayed from their long wait since bursting forth from the chrysalis. They may often be seen sunning themselves on bright days in April and May, resting upon stones or logs in sheltered spots with their wings fully expanded to receive the greatest benefit from the rays of sunshine. [Illustration: Eggs laid in string-like clusters on the under side of leaf. Magnified. (From Holland)] When spring has sufficiently advanced for the leaves of the elm and the hop to be fairly well developed, the mother butterflies lay their eggs in a curious and characteristic fashion. Under a lens these eggs look like tiny barrels with vertical ribs. They are deposited in columns, the egg first extruded being attached to the leaf, generally the under surface, and those which follow are placed one upon the other sometimes to the number of six or eight, the group thus making a miniature column. Now if the egg which was first laid should hatch before the others, when the little caterpillar came out it would be very likely to cause the others to fall off and when they hatched they would find themselves in what would be to them an impenetrable forest of weeds and grasses from which there would be small chance to escape to reach the elm or hop leaves. To avoid this calamity we find an interesting adaptation. The egg at the end of the column hatches first, although it was necessarily the one laid last. The tiny caterpillar eats its way out of the shell and crawls over the other eggs to the leaf. Then the others hatch in succession. The eggs thus deposited by the hibernating butterflies are likely to be laid late in May or even early in June. They hatch into caterpillars less than a week later and these caterpillars feed for about a month, when they change to the characteristic chrysalids in which they commonly remain for a week or ten days. They then emerge as the summer brood of butterflies, most of them in New England appearing during July. These remain upon the wing for several weeks, the females laying their eggs upon the elm and hop leaves. These in turn soon hatch into caterpillars that change to chrysalids in August and emerge as butterflies late that month or during September. This autumn brood of butterflies is quite abundant for a time but soon seeks the seclusion of winter quarters to remain until the following April. There are thus two distinct broods during the year in the Northern states while as far south as West Virginia there are likely to be three broods. These caterpillars at first simply eat small holes in the green substance of the leaf, but as they become larger each takes up its abode on the under surface of a single leaf and makes a sheltered tent in somewhat the same fashion that the Painted Lady does upon the nettle leaf. The caterpillar eats out more or less of the base of the blade on each side of the midrib, thus weakening the edges so that they can be fastened in a tent-like manner by silken threads. This serves as a resting place from which it sallies forth to feed, commonly only toward the tip of the leaf. As a result it often eats itself out of house and home and has to crawl to another leaf and construct a new shelter. While the Comma is generally spoken of as a characteristic northern species it has a very wide range, being found from New England to Texas and from the Northwestern states to the Carolinas. It is one of those species which have two distinct forms of coloring. The winter form has been given the variety name _harrisii_. The butterflies of this brood are decidedly lighter in color than those of the summer brood to which the variety name _dryas_ has been given. The latter was originally described as a distinct species by W. H. Edwards. _The Change to the Chrysalis_ The manner in which a larva changes to a chrysalis is second in interest only to that in which a chrysalis changes to a butterfly. There are not a great many careful descriptions by competent observers of this process in print. One of the best of these is that by W. H. Edwards in his splendid work on "The Butterflies of North America," in which he describes the transformation of the Comma caterpillar. It is as follows: "When about to transform, the caterpillar selects a convenient place on the under side of a projecting rock, or of a fence rail, or of a weather board of the house, or the midrib of a hop leaf, and having spun a little button of pale red silk fixes the hooks of its hind legs therein and hangs suspended, head downward, in the shape of a fishhook and remains immovable for the space of twenty-four hours, no change being perceptible except in the color of the skin, which becomes partly transparent and loses its dark color owing to its gradual parting from the chrysalis within. Suddenly, and to a looker-on without any premonitory symptom, a rent takes place in the skin at the back of the head, just wide enough to allow the passage of the chrysalis, the head of which at once emerges. By a rapid contraction and expansion of the folds of the abdomen the larva draws the skin upward, successively discovering the parts of the fully formed chrysalid until at last, and in scarcely more than one minute of time, the entire skin is gathered about the hind feet. It now bends itself violently to disengage the end of the chrysalis, which is long, pointed, and hard, furnished with several little hooks, meanwhile retaining its hold of the skin by the folds of its abdomen until after a severe effort, convulsively reaching out and feeling in all directions for the object of its search, it touches the button of silk and at once grasps it with its hooks and fixes them in it securely. Then by a twisting motion it manages to disengage the loose skin which falls to the ground and the chrysalis rests. The whole process is most interesting to witness and excites renewed wonder with every repetition at the ingenuity of the means employed and the delicacy of the instinct displayed. How to strip off the skin and much more the legs by which the creature is suspended without losing its hold, and at the same time to securely fasten the chrysalis, is a problem that would seem impossible to solve; and yet this little insect accomplishes it unerringly when to fail would be certain destruction. And not this species only, but the larvae of all butterflies which form suspended chrysalids, embracing the whole of the great family of Nymphalidae, that is, a large proportion of all the existing species of butterflies, undergo a similar transformation. "The chrysalis is now green in color, soft and indefensible, susceptible to the slightest injury, and for a few moments the several parts of the future butterfly may be seen and readily separated; the wings folded close and enveloping the thorax, the antennae, and proboscis stretched at length along the back; but very speedily a complete casing is formed by the exuding from parts of the body of a viscous fluid, which binds together the tender parts and covers the whole with a coating like varnish. This soon hardens and the chrysalis is ready to take its chance against injury." =The Gray Comma= _Polygonia progne_ This butterfly is rather darker colored, especially on its under side, than the one last discussed. The silver marking takes on a little more definitely the form of an L than a comma, and the under surface of the wings is darkened by many blackish threadlike lines running across the veins. When at rest with wings closed these butterflies are very easily overlooked. Except for a difference in the food plants of the caterpillar, the life-history of the Gray Comma is very similar to that of the other Comma. The butterflies hibernate, and in spring lay eggs singly on the leaves of currants, gooseberries, and related plants. The eggs soon hatch into caterpillars that feed upon these leaves but do not make any suggestion of a nest. They grow slowly and change into angular chrysalids which disclose the summer brood of butterflies in July. These lay eggs for another brood of caterpillars which mature into butterflies in August and September. These generally go into hibernation before the middle of October, sometimes choosing simply the under side of a branch where their dark coloring, so near like that of the bark, is likely to cause them to be overlooked by their numerous enemies. =The Green Comma= _Polygonia faunus_ The Angle-wings exhibit interesting variations in the geographical distribution of the species. Some are characteristic members of the Canadian fauna, others of the Alleghanian fauna. Some of those which are characteristic of the former are scattered south well into the latter, but the Green Comma is distinctively a northern species--being found abundantly in the great regions traversed by the trappers of the Hudson Bay Company and occurring south as far as northern New England, being very rare as far south as northern Massachusetts. It is abundant on the higher slopes of the White Mountains. As one might expect from the short seasons of the far northern regions in which this butterfly lives, there is only one brood each year. In consequence the adult butterflies live a long time. Coming from the chrysalis generally the first weeks in August, they remain upon the wing a month or more before they go into hibernation. They come from their winter quarters in May and commonly continue alive until late in June. Thus it is evident that many of these butterflies must live at least ten months as adults, an extraordinary longevity for one of these frail creatures. The caterpillars are known to feed upon the foliage of several kinds of plants. These include alder, currant, gooseberry, willow, and black birch, the last two named apparently being those most often chosen. Mr. S. H. Scudder called attention to the fact that these butterflies are able to make a slight clicking noise as they start into flight. He described his experience in these words: "Starting up a pair just at my feet on the Mt. Washington carriage road one day, I stopped abruptly to see whether they would settle again. After flying a few yards away to escape the cause of their disturbance, one turned back and dashed straight at my face, turning only when within three or four inches of my nose, and then suddenly whisked off with a distinct click as it did so, snapping its fingers, as it were, in my very face. There was no sort of doubt about this click, though if it had not been made so close at hand it would probably not have been heard. But other butterflies in the tropics have long been known to emit sounds like this, which can be heard at a considerable distance; others, including some of our own butterflies, are known to produce a rustling sound by the rubbing of one wing upon another; and movements of one sort and another have been so often observed, as of the opposite rubbing of the erect wings in most Lycaenids, and the tremulous agitation of the wings in many different sorts when excited, as to leave little doubt that sounds made by themselves and for the advantage of warning their brethren play a not unimportant part in the lives of butterflies." [Illustration: _See page 233_ MONARCH BUTTERFLY IN RESTING POSITION] [Illustration: _Photograph by Miss J. Brooks_ _See pages 17, 232_ FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPH OF MONARCH OR MILKWEED BUTTERFLIES IN MIGRATION] [Illustration: THREE ANGLE-WINGS: UPPER SURFACE The American Tortoise-shell (_see page 182_) The Red Admiral (_see page 160_) The Violet-tip (_see page 150_)] [Illustration: THREE-ANGLE WINGS: LOWER SURFACE The American Tortoise-shell (_see page 182_) The Red Admiral (_see page 160_) The Violet-tip (_see page 150_)] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 163_ THE PAINTED BEAUTY Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly] =The Red Admiral or Nettle Butterfly= _Vanessa atalanta_ Among the weedy plants which have been intimately associated with mankind ever since his slow upward progress in civilization began, the nettle has probably played almost as important a part as the thistle. While it lacks the winged seeds of the latter it is even more effectually protected from the attacks of vertebrate enemies on account of its irritating hairs. At any rate, nettles of various kind are widely distributed over the earth's surface, and consequently it is not surprising that the Nettle Butterfly or Red Admiral should be almost as cosmopolitan as the Thistle butterfly. The two species are closely related in structure and habits and the life-history of the one is very similar to that of the other. About the middle of May one may see in open fields and along sunny highways these Red Admirals flitting from flower to flower, or stopping occasionally upon green leaves in search of opportunities to lay their eggs. Should you observe them closely you might notice that some of them seemed frayed and worn while others seemed perfectly bright and fresh. _The Life-story_ Late in May and early in June these butterflies deposit their eggs upon the leaves of the nettles. As a rule only one or a few eggs are laid on a leaf, but when the butterflies are abundant many leaves upon the plant may become infested. About a week later the egg hatches into a larva, which is likely to eat more or less of the empty shell before crawling up the stem of the plant to the unfolding buds at the top. Here it makes its first nest by webbing together the still closed upper surface of a leaf not yet unfolded. It is thus able to furnish itself with protection from weather and enemies, as well as an abundant supply of succulent food. It remains in this first home about a week, then it casts its skin, still within its protection, and stays until it has recovered after the process. It now migrates to another larger, expanded leaf where it very cleverly proceeds to construct its second nest. In order to do this it weakens the midrib at the base of the leaf by biting nearly through it. Then it cuts a hole in the blade of the leaf at the base in such a way that the margins are made to droop, so that they can be fastened together with silk to form a little tent. We thus have a tent-like nest hanging down from the stem of the leaf on the under side of which the caterpillar will find shelter, while near at hand is the green tissue of the inner surface of the leaf waiting to be eaten. This improvised tent serves as the home during this second stage of the caterpillar. Here also the second moult commonly takes place, after which the caterpillar migrates to a new leaf and constructs its third nest. The rest of the story of the caterpillar's life consists of similar chapters. After each moult a new tent is formed and even the chrysalis is often hung within the last one. The eggs which were laid late in May develop into butterflies during July. These in turn lay eggs for the second brood of caterpillars most of which develop into butterflies late in August or early in September, but some of which apparently remain in the chrysalis stage unchanged throughout the winter, and mature as butterflies about the middle of the following May. This is the explanation of the fact mentioned at the beginning of this discussion that one can find late in spring and early in summer some butterflies which seem worn and frayed while others seem perfectly fresh. They are all the progeny of the midsummer brood of the previous summer, but some of them have been living as full-grown butterflies through eight long months of tempestuous weather, while others have just been disclosed from the protecting walls of the chrysalis. The world-wide distribution of this butterfly is shown in the statement that it occurs throughout Europe, and in North America from Newfoundland to Cuba and Guatemala. It is a safe guess that it is found in practically all localities where nettles grow. It is not alone the association between a butterfly caterpillar and its host plant which has been brought about during the long ages through which one generation has been succeeding another, but there have been also many developments of similar associations between the caterpillars and their parasitic enemies. The Red Admiral is a good example of such a development. During its long growth as a species it has been exposed to attack by vast numbers of tiny foes which live at the expense of other insects. Several of these foes have found in the bodies of the caterpillars good opportunities for growth, so that now the Red Admiral, as a species, has to reckon with many enemies among these tiny parasites. The interaction between caterpillar host and uninvited parasitic guest has much to do with the great irregularity in the numbers of the butterflies. It is simply another example of that complicated struggle for existence, by means of which nature keeps ever a fairly even balance of her myriad forces. =The Painted Beauty= _Vanessa huntera_ One of the most interesting phases of the study of butterflies is to learn how often they take advantage in their life-history of any peculiarity of the food plant which has a protective value. The Painted Beauty is an excellent illustration of this. The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of the common Everlasting or Gnaphalium. This is an abundant and widely distributed plant, found along roadsides and in fields and pastures. It is notable for the woolly covering on stems, leaves, and flowers--this dry, hairy surface being so evident that the flowers will apparently continue in blossom when they have dried, hence its common name Everlasting or, as the French call a similar flower, Immortelle. (_See plate, page 161._) The utilization of the hairs upon the leaves is begun by the mother butterfly when she lays her egg upon the upper surface, pushing it down among the hairs so that it is almost concealed. Should you be fortunate enough to find one of these eggs you would see that it is a small, yellowish green object, looking like a tiny barrel with several vertical ribs upon its surface. A few days after the egg is laid it hatches into a minute caterpillar that begins eating off the hairs where they are attached to the leaf, in such a way that it soon has a free space beneath a bunch of these hairs which it has more or less matted together by means of silken thread. The little caterpillar has thus provided for itself a protecting nest that effectually conceals it from birds or other enemies. It now begins feeding upon the succulent surface of the rather thick leaf, where it has removed the hairs. After several days of such feeding it moults, still under the shelter of its hairy covering. This process of moulting and feeding continues for two or three weeks, the caterpillar occasionally making a new covering as needed for its food supply. The later nests are likely to be made by folding two or three leaves together, binding them with silken thread. The caterpillar in doing this takes advantage of the fact that the terminal leaves are vertical before they have spread out, so that it is a comparatively simple matter to make a little house by binding their edges together with silken threads. The larva feeds upon the inner walls of the house it thus constructs, and as it becomes larger the buds and blossoms are also utilized for food. When the caterpillar is full grown it thus finds itself fairly well concealed within a very substantial sort of a home. Many of them have the apparent good sense to realize that this is as safe a place as they are likely to find for shelter during the period of the chrysalis. So the caterpillar makes the nest especially secure near the centre of what might be called the ceiling and in this web it entangles its hind legs and hangs downward, preparatory to changing to the chrysalis. A few hours later the skin splits apart and is wriggled off, leaving the chrysalis hanging in place of the caterpillar. About a fortnight later the butterfly emerges and crawls at once to the outside of the nest, where it rests quietly while its wings expand and its tissues harden. Then it flies away in search of the nectar of thistles and many other flowers which it visits freely. This Painted Beauty is a wonderful example of harmonious coloring. The general tone of the upper surface of the wings is fulvous, with some distinct white markings on a blackish background at the outer angles of the front pair. There is also more or less blackish shading on the base and margin of all the wings with an indistinct row of about four dots, more or less run together, near the margin of the hind wing. The under surface of the wings is even more beautiful than the upper, and furnishes a striking example of flower-picturing. There is a little fulvous background near the middle of the front wings, but the rest of the surface is spotted and striped with blotches and circles of gray and brown in a most intricate design. On each front wing near the outer angle are three indistinct eye-spots in a row, and on the outer half of each hind wing there are two bull's-eye circles, one smaller than the other, which form the most conspicuous feature in the marking of the insect. When full grown the caterpillars are a little more than an inch long with a general color of velvety black, marked with fine yellow lines and more or less covered with bristly spines. There is also a distinct row of whitish spots along each side beginning a short distance back of the head. This is a widely distributed butterfly, occurring from Canada to the Southern states and beyond. In most northern regions it seems to be two-brooded, the butterflies commonly hibernating as adults; but sometimes the winter is passed in the condition of the chrysalis. Along its southern range there are three and perhaps four broods each year. =The Painted Lady or the Cosmopolite= _Vanessa cardui_ Our story of this beautiful butterfly ought really to begin with that of one of the most successful plants in the world. Now a plant is successful from its own point of view when it is able to multiply abundantly in many different sorts of situations and to spread easily over a large area. The plant I have in mind is the thistle, which from time immemorial has been one of the commonest neighbors of man. It is found over the whole habitable globe, as well as in many parts which are scarcely habitable. It has many advantages in its struggle for life. The roots penetrate deeply into the soil; the thickened, spiny leaves are so protected by their juices and their spines that they are molested by very few enemies; the flower stalks are also clothed in a similar armature; and the great heads of flowers are surrounded with prickly involucres that generally prevent their being eaten by browsing animals or even by phytophagous insects. The brightly colored blossoms are abundantly provided with nectar and pollen, and they attract great numbers of bees, moths, and butterflies, in order to bring about cross-fertilization. But all of these advantages are of little significance so far as wide distribution is concerned, compared with the feathery seeds which are produced in such abundance and so generally scattered by the slightest breath of wind that the word thistle-down has come into general use to express a lightly moving object. These airy seeds have been riding on the wings of the wind all over the surface of the earth for untold millions of years. Doubtless during severe storms they may be carried thousands of miles, and it is easy to think that one of them might readily go half-way round the world before it found a resting place. Wherever such a seed alighted and found the condition of a moist soil and slight protection, it would be likely soon to spring into growth and to start anew the development of its ancient race. The thistle, however, has not been entirely unmolested during its aeons of existence. There has been developing along with it one of the most beautiful of our butterflies which has received various scientific names and the common name of the Painted Lady, although it is also often called the Thistle Butterfly and the Cosmopolite, which latter title perhaps is to be preferred. This butterfly, however, can scarcely be considered a troublesome enemy of its host plant, for it is seldom sufficiently abundant to injure the thistle appreciably. The relation between the two is rather suggestive of that mutual toleration by which two living things develop together with advantage at least to one and without serious disadvantage to the other. The universal distribution of the food plant has led to a like distribution of the butterfly. Consequently the Thistle butterfly has long been recognized as the most cosmopolitan species of its group. (_See plate, page 176._) Aside from the wide distribution of its food plant and possibly correlated with it through the diversity of climatic conditions under which the insect has developed, this butterfly is remarkable for its powers of flight. Many instances are known where it has been taken at sea long distances from land. This is due not only to the propensity of the individual for taking aërial journeys, but also to the fact that this is one of the butterflies which has the instinct to congregate in swarms and to migrate long distances when thus congregated. In 1879 such a flock started from Africa and migrated to Europe. One of the most remarkable things about this butterfly is our ignorance of what it does with itself in winter. American entomologists are agreed that the adult butterfly hibernates, but where it does so seems not to be known. Here is an excellent opportunity for some young naturalist to go scouting, hunting in board piles, under loose bark, or with a flashlight searching the interiors of hollow trees to find between November and April living specimens of this butterfly. Such a discovery would be a real service to science and should at once be made known through some scientific journal. In Europe there seems to be a belief that the insect hibernates partially at least in the condition of the chrysalis. _The Life-story_ While we may not know just where the butterflies have been throughout the winter, we do know that in southern New England they begin to be seen in fields and along roadsides about the middle of May. Many of the specimens then have a ragged appearance which is a pretty good indication that they came from the chrysalis the fall before and have been lying concealed through all the weeks since. These butterflies lay their small greenish, barrel-shaped eggs on the leaves of the thistle. The mother butterfly chooses the location rather carefully and deposits only one egg upon a leaf. The butterflies continue thus to visit flowers and to lay eggs until about the middle of June when apparently they perish. About a week after the egg has thus been laid, it hatches into a small spiny caterpillar which does not take the trouble to devour its egg shell as so many other caterpillars do. Instead it crawls around to the lower side of the leaf and gnaws off enough of the silken surface of the leaf to furnish material for making a webby covering, the leaf particles being woven together by threads from the caterpillar's mouth. In this way the little creature soon provides itself with a snug enclosure which serves it as a temporary home. It remains in this home much of the time when not eating, going out occasionally to feed upon the green tissues of the adjacent parts of the leaf. This first home of the young caterpillar, made as it is as a flat blanket upon a flat surface, can be used only by a very small larva. Consequently, the caterpillar soon finds these quarters too cramped and it deserts them to make a new home with larger space. This second nest is commonly made on the upper surface of a leaf, the edges of which are likely to be more or less drawn together and other supports connected from other leaves or a near-by stem. The caterpillar continues to use this nest number two as a place for remaining when not feeding and for protection during the process of moulting. But even this larger nest is likely to be given up about the time the caterpillar becomes half grown, and a third nest is begun in the upper part of the plant. This is likely to be very commodious, its walls being made of leaves or stems bound together by a silken web. Within this the caterpillar completes its growth, going out and in through one or more doors when it wishes to feed. Sometimes it even remains within this nest during the process of changing to the chrysalis, hanging downward from the upper part in much the same way that the caterpillar of the Painted Beauty butterfly does. In case it leaves the nest when fully developed it generally finds a place near-by in which to pupate. About ten days after the caterpillar has changed to a chrysalis it changes again to the adult butterfly. In southern New England these butterflies appear about the middle of July and lay eggs soon afterward, these eggs hatching into butterflies that change to chrysalids and change again to butterflies late in August or early in September. This autumn brood doubtless furnishes the butterflies that will be seen upon the wing the following May, so that it is pretty certain that they must find some shelter in which to pass the intervening months. The full-grown caterpillar of the Thistle butterfly is about one and a quarter inches long and of a general yellowish color, more or less marked with blackish as well as with paler lines of color. There are many transverse rows of spines along the segments, each yellowish spine having a circle of smaller ones at the top. Notwithstanding its fondness for thistles, these caterpillars occasionally feed upon various other plants. One might readily expect them to be able to live upon other composites upon which they are found, but it seems a bit strange that they should be recorded as being "especially fond of mallows." =The Mourning-cloak= _Vanessa antiopa_ One of the most scholarly students of American insects has happily called the butterflies "the frail children of the air." It seems a fitting term for creatures so ethereal that they are readily wafted on the wings of the slightest breeze and so delicate in structure that they are likely to be sadly mutilated by the lightest touch of human hand. Such creatures one would say belong to regions of perpetual summer and have no place in the blizzard-swept winters of our Northern states. Yet if one goes into the snow-clad woods during one of the midwinter thaws one is likely to see in every open glade several dark-colored butterflies flitting from tree to tree, or resting with expanded wings in the sunniest spots. These butterflies obviously have endured the coldest weather and if they are to survive until another season must continue to endure still more. This species is commonly called the Mourning-cloak butterfly--not a particularly happy name for so beautiful an insect. In England it has the more suggestive title of Camberwell Beauty, and country boys are said to call it the Yellow Edge butterfly. Its general life-story has already been told on pages 112-115. The caterpillars of the Mourning-cloak butterflies are restricted to comparatively few food plants. In regions where they are not especially abundant, they are likely to be found upon willow, poplar, or elm. In general, as many observations indicate, they are as likely to be found upon any one of these food plants as upon either of the other two; but in certain localities where they become especially abundant it seems that they are more likely to occur upon the elm. On this account they have been called the Spiny Elm caterpillars. There is considerable evidence to show that they prefer the American elm to other species of the genus, although in the case of willow and poplar there seems to be little if any preference as to the species. Miss Caroline G. Soule has seen the butterflies depositing their eggs upon the white and canoe birch, and it has been recorded as feeding in Labrador and Europe upon a species of birch. There is one record of the caterpillars having been found feeding upon the hackberry, and also of their having fed greedily upon the leaves of rose bushes, and still another of their having almost defoliated a pear tree. Linden and nettle are also included in the European lists of the food plants of this species. (_See plates, pages 145, 176._) It is evident, however, that all of these, except the three first named--willow, poplar, and elm--are to be regarded as exceptional cases, and that the normal food of the species is the foliage of a plant belonging to one of these three genera. It has generally been supposed that this species is double-brooded in central and southern New England, the butterflies of the first brood appearing early in July. These are said to deposit eggs which hatch into caterpillars that mature into butterflies early in September. These butterflies live through the winter, laying eggs the following spring. It is very probable that as far north as southern New Hampshire the species is commonly single-brooded. During one season when the caterpillars were unusually abundant, a very careful watch was kept for the second brood in New Hampshire and Vermont by several competent observers. Only one colony of caterpillars was found and this was at Durham in the southern part of New Hampshire near the seacoast. Consequently, it seems safe to conclude that in northern and central New England, at least, a single brood is the rule rather than the exception. This involves the conclusion that the butterflies seen upon the wing early in autumn are the same ones that developed in July, and that these same butterflies remain alive through the winter and until, in the following May, they lay their eggs. Thus there is a period of ten months of existence in the butterfly state, an extraordinary length of time for a butterfly to live. To a large extent the butterflies disappear in August, and the question arises as to what becomes of them. Our observations lead to the conclusion that they go into summer quarters similar to those which they seek out for winter shelter. Apparently they fly about for a few days after coming from the chrysalis and then retire to cool woods, where under the side of a log or beneath the loose bark of a dead tree they settle down and to all appearances go to sleep. The instinct to remain quiet is very strong in these butterflies. In taking the accompanying photographs, I found that even shortly after coming from the chrysalis the butterflies when disturbed would fold their wings with the antennae between them, and drawing the legs against the body would lie quietly on their sides for a long time. These same butterflies would also hang downward from a limb by the hour in the hibernating position as shown in plate opposite page 32. In the cooler weather of early autumn, the butterflies come from their retreats and fly about in the sunshine. They are especially likely to be seen along the borders of woods or in open glades. At this time they love the sunshine, and will settle in a sunny place to bask in it. _Going into Winter Quarters_ When the warm days no longer tempt them abroad, the Mourning-cloaks seek shelter in many sorts of situations--under loose bark, in hollow trees, under culverts and bridges, in woodpiles, in crevices of rocks, or alongside logs lying on the ground. In such retreats they remain until the sunshine of spring again calls them forth. Prof. G. H. Parker's observations indicate that these butterflies are very sensitive to changes of temperature, and he has seen the interesting action of the butterflies crawling into their hiding places, finding that this takes place each day after they had been sunning themselves. Thus he writes: "These butterflies remain during cool spring nights in places similar to those in which they hibernate in winter, _viz._, in openings in stone walls, in old out-houses, in openings under the bark of trees, etc. They retire to these places with considerable regularity, so that in the open woods, where dozens of individuals may have been seen flitting about, all may have disappeared a quarter of an hour later. I have watched their retreat with some care. On a clear afternoon in early April I took my stand in a woodland where many Mourning-cloak butterflies were on the wing. They continued actively flying about till approximately four o'clock, when I began to notice a diminution in their numbers. By a quarter past four not a butterfly was to be seen. During the fifteen minutes from four o'clock on I followed two to their hiding places. One alighted on the front of a fallen tree and without expanding its wings crept immediately into a large crack in the bark. The second settled on a stone fence and crept into a hole between some loose stones. The period during which this occurred was marked not so much by a diminution of light as by a rapid fall of temperature." That the habit of lethargy in cold and of resting upon the bark of trees is practically universal with this species is shown by a statement quoted by H. G. Adams in his book, "Beautiful Butterflies," published in England in 1871. The writer quoted says: "In a wood on the summit of the Drachenfels, when the wind was rather keen, I found numbers resting on the backs of fallen trees in a state of stupor. They made no attempts to escape and when thrown into the air their wings barely opened or flapping feebly eased their fall or enabled them to seek repose on the stem of a rotten trunk." _Its Rarity in England_ In many books this species is spoken of by its English name Camberwell Beauty. It is so called because it was first observed in the neighborhood of Camberwell in the county of Surrey, England. It seems that in that country it is a very rare species. This is a bit curious considering the fact that in America it is so extremely abundant. In his attractive little book quoted above, Mr. Adams begins the discussion of this species with this statement: "This is the crowning glory of the British butterfly collector's cabinet, and a happy man is he who gets a perfect specimen of an insect which is at once so rare and so beautiful." And later in the same discussion is this further statement concerning the scarcity of the species: "In neither the larva nor the pupa state has the insect been found, we believe, in this country where its appearance occurs, except just here and there a single specimen or two, at long and uncertain intervals. About eighty years ago it was seen in many parts of the kingdom and again in 1819, but not since then although almost every year one or more specimens are taken or seen." A curious fact in regard to the Mourning-cloak, as found in England, is that the border around the wings seems to be much more generally white than it is with us. J. O. Westwood in his book on British butterflies describes the margin as of a white or whitish color and other writers speak of the same fact. Kirby in his "Butterflies and Moths" makes this comparative statement: "The border is whitest in British specimens, and perhaps yellowest in American ones." He speaks of it also as one of the rarest British species. It is sometimes called by the common name the White Border and also occasionally the Grand Surprise, appellations which bear out what has been said above both in regard to the color of the border and the rarity of the insect. [Illustration: THREE MORE ANGLE-WINGS Upper surfaces at left; under surfaces at right, slightly reduced The Buckeye (_see page 188_) The Painted Beauty (_see page 163_) The Cosmopolitan (_see page 166_)] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See pages 112, 171_ THE MOURNING-CLOAK Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly] The Mourning-cloaks subsist upon a considerable variety of liquid food which they suck through their long tongues. In spring, when they first come from their winter quarters, they visit the stumps of recently cut trees and suck the exuding sap, a habit which they continue whenever opportunity offers. Mr. W. F. Fiske has noticed that they commonly sip the sap of maple twigs where the squirrels have gnawed the bark. A little later they visit the willow catkins to suck the nectar secreted by these blossoms, and still later they hover about the delicate blossoms of the mayflower, or trailing arbutus, for a similar purpose. Probably many other flowers are thus rifled of their sweets, although this butterfly seems to be a less regular visitor to flowers than are many of its allies. A little later, when the aphids, or plant-lice, have become sufficiently abundant so that the so-called "honey dew" is to be found upon the infested shrubs, these Mourning-cloaks sometimes sip the liquid sweet from the surface of the leaves. In April and May they occasionally visit the flowers of moosewood, and later in the season have been observed upon the blossoms of the common milkweed. From the time the early apples ripen these butterflies may often be seen beneath the orchard trees, sipping the liquids of the fallen and decaying fruit. _The Parasites of the Eggs_ One fine spring morning I came upon a Mourning-cloak depositing a cluster of eggs upon a willow twig. She was so busily engaged that I was able to draw near and watch the operation for some time before she flew away. As soon as she was gone I was much interested to see a tiny parasitic fly running eagerly over the newly laid eggs, and this fly also was so busily interested in her work that I was able to cut the twig off and sit down to observe at leisure through a lens the actions of the insect. I dictated to a companion my notes of these observations and so was able to get rather a complete record of the process of oviposition. The tiny fly would stop over one of the butterfly eggs, holding its body vertical with the hind legs far back and the other legs so straightened out as to hold the front of the body high up. Then it would insert its tiny ovipositor through the egg shell and proceed to deposit an egg of its own inside of the larger egg of the butterfly. At least it seemed a safe assumption that this was what happened although of course it was impossible to see the smaller egg at the time. While thus engaged the antennae of the tiny fly were bent directly downward to the egg beneath. In about a minute the fly withdrew its ovipositor and after running around for a few seconds again settled upon another egg and repeated the operation. Then it tried again on a third egg, after which I got out my watch and began timing the process. These are the results in the case of the next dozen eggs that were laid. It required: 94 sec. to lay egg No. 4. Then fly moved around 26 sec. 120 " " " " " 5. " " " " 27 " 83 " " " " " 6. " " " " 20 " 92 " " " " " 7. " " " " 22 " 75 " " " " " 8. " " " " 40 " 90 " " " " " 9. " " " " 42 " 102 " " " " " 10. " " " " 15 " 120 " " " " " 11. " " " " 21 " 120 " " " " " 12. " " " " 18 " 60 " " " " " 13. " " " " 25 " 120 " " " " " 14. " " " " 25 " 60 " " " " " 15. " " " " 50 " It thus required an average of about two minutes per egg for the laying of these fifteen eggs. I then caught the little fly and sent her to Dr. L. O. Howard, our greatest authority on this group of insects, to learn the name of the parasite. He identified it as _Telenomus graptae_, a well-known parasite of the eggs of the Mourning-cloak and related butterflies. The most interesting thing about this observation was the fact that the little fly had apparently begun its operation before the mother butterfly had finished laying her cluster of eggs. There were thousands of willow twigs in the immediate vicinity. How did this tiny creature arrive at this particular place at the particular moment when from its own point of view it was most needed? Had it been riding around upon the body of the butterfly waiting for the time when she should lay the eggs? Or was it attracted to them from somewhere in the immediate vicinity? That this early arrival probably takes place generally is indicated by the fact that a similar observation had been made in the White Mountains by Prof. C. W. Woodworth. The history of the egg parasite after the laying of the egg seems to be comparatively simple. It soon hatches into a tiny larva that develops within the shell at the expense of the contents. It finally changes to a pupa which in turn changes to the little fly that gnaws a hole through the egg shell and emerges to the outer world. _The Parasites of the Caterpillars_ After hatching from the egg, the Mourning-cloak caterpillars are also subject to the attacks of various parasites. One of these is quite minute, not a great deal larger than the egg parasite. It is a tiny four-winged fly which deposits many eggs in a single caterpillar. The eggs hatch into tiny maggots that grow at the expense of the caterpillar, finally killing it and changing to four-winged flies again. As many as 145 of these parasites have been known to emerge from a single dead caterpillar. These little flies are called Chalcids by entomologists. There is still another group of four-winged flies, some of which attack the Antiopa caterpillars. These are much larger than the Chalcid flies and are called Ichneumon flies. In the case of these, only one or two parasites develop in each caterpillar or chrysalis. In addition to these various four-winged flies, there are certain two-winged flies, called Tachinid flies, that develop at the expense of the caterpillars. In New Hampshire, during recent years, these appear to have been the most abundant parasites of these insects. An egg is laid on the skin of the caterpillar by a two-winged fly, similar in general appearance to the figure below. The contents of this egg shortly develop into a tiny grub that burrows through the egg shell and the skin of the caterpillar into the inside of the body. Here it remains, absorbing the body substance of its host and gradually increasing in size. In a few weeks it becomes fully developed in this grub state. By this time the caterpillar has become sluggish from the effects of the parasite. If the branch upon which it feeds is disturbed, the other caterpillars are likely to crawl away, but the enfeebled victim remains in its place. [Illustration: Tachinid Parasite. (Slightly magnified.)] Shortly after becoming full grown, the Tachinid grub breaks through the skin of the dying caterpillar and, falling to the ground, changes to a peculiar pupa; the outer skin of the grub turns brown and becomes hard, forming a protective covering for the body inside. A week or two later the insect undergoes another change and emerges as a two-winged Tachinid fly, like the one that laid the egg some weeks before. _Other Enemies_ Besides those insects that develop on the inside of the bodies of these Antiopa caterpillars there are other insect enemies which attack them from the outside and devour them bodily. The most notable of these, perhaps, is a large beetle commonly called the Caterpillar Hunter; it is known to entomologists as _Calosoma scrutator_. This is a very active insect, with large strong jaws, that runs rapidly about in search of victims. In some cases it has been observed while destroying many of the Antiopa larvae. In the Southern states a common reddish wasp--a species of Polistes--has also been observed attacking these caterpillars, and there are probably various other insects that destroy them, although definite observations showing this have not been recorded. The Antiopa caterpillars are such spiny creatures that comparatively few birds attack them. They are devoured, however, by the two species of cuckoos--the yellow-billed and black-billed--and it is probable that they are sometimes killed by Baltimore orioles and various other birds. They are also greedily devoured by toads, but of course they do not often come within the reach of these useful animals. Even the adult butterflies of this species have to be on the lookout for enemies. During the long months of their life many of them probably succumb to the attacks of birds or other creatures. I have seen but one such tragedy. While riding along a country highway with a bird-loving friend one spring day we saw a male Maryland yellow-throat flit by with a Mourning-cloak in his mouth. The bird lit on a fence, from which I startled him so that he dropped the butterfly, a worn and faded, half-dead specimen. The places where the bird held the insect were indicated by missing pieces of the wings. =The American Tortoise-shell= _Aglais milberti_ This beautiful butterfly is one of the most distinctive of all our species. It is of moderate size, its wings rarely expanding more than two inches, and it has sufficiently irregular outlines to indicate its relationship with the Angle-wings. The most striking feature of the upper surface is the broad band of orange-brown extending clear across both wings a little inside the border. The remaining surface is a darker brown marked with two orange-brown spots near the front margin of each front wing and having scattered iridescent scales which show plainly under a lens. The suggestion of the coloring of a tortoise-shell is easily seen in these rich brown tones. The under surface is a wonderful illustration of protective coloring. With wings closed and resting against the bark of trees or lying beneath the trees among fallen leaves, it would require a keen eye to detect the insect. (_See plates, pages 160-161._) The American Tortoise-shell is distinctly a northern species. North of latitude forty-three degrees it seems to occur practically from ocean to ocean, extending far up toward the arctic region. It is commonly found in British America as far north as Fort Simpson in latitude sixty-one degrees. There are specimens in the British Museum collected by the explorer Ross in arctic America, and there are many in our own National Museum collected in the Hudson Bay region by various American explorers. In New England the species is abundant at times in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine. In the vicinity of New York City and Buffalo, New York, it is rather rare. And south of this latitude it is found chiefly at the higher elevations in mountainous districts. As a rule it is likely to vary in numbers from year to year, sometimes being extremely abundant while more commonly it is rather rare. These are the same sorts of fluctuations that we find in the case of the Mourning-cloak, the American tent caterpillar, and various other insects whose larvae live in colonies. The variation is probably due to the fact that when the caterpillars become unusually abundant they become correspondingly conspicuous and so provide a shining mark that is soon discovered by their insect enemies or by various fungous diseases. _The Story of Its Life_ In its manner of laying eggs this butterfly differs from most others. The great majority of our familiar species lay their eggs one in a place or possibly two or three near together. Some species deposit several in a group, while some, like the Mourning-cloak, may lay two or three dozen in a cluster. Very few, however, deposit hundreds in a bunch. Two of these are the Baltimore and this American Tortoise-shell. In the case of the latter the eggs are loosely laid, hundreds together, upon the leaves of the common stinging nettle. Probably each female can deposit six or eight hundred eggs. In less than a week the eggs hatch into minute blackish caterpillars that feed upon the tender tissues of the leaf upon which they were born and then migrate together toward the top of the plant. In their habits they are quite similar to the caterpillars of the Mourning-cloak. As each walks it spins from its mouth a silken thread and the combined effect of hundreds of these threads is to make a noticeable silken web over the leaves. The caterpillars remain in colonies, feeding together from day to day and gradually denuding the upper branches of the nettle plant, leaving an unsightly silken web as a memento of their presence. This webbing is very suggestive of the similar result left behind by a colony of Mourning-cloak caterpillars upon the twigs of elm or poplar. When about half grown these caterpillars are likely to scatter more or less in accidental groups which may make small shelter tents from the larger leaves. In each little nest there may be four or five or more of the dark-colored caterpillars. From these shelter tents they sally forth to feed upon the adjacent leaves and a little later become full grown as caterpillars. Each now wanders away and finding such shelter as it is able to, spins a button of silk and becomes a chrysalis. It remains in this condition but a short time before it emerges again as the beautiful butterfly. This species is commonly reputed to have three broods a year, hibernating both as a butterfly and as a chrysalis. It has been suggested, however, by Mr. W. F. Fiske, one of our most painstaking entomologists who has studied the butterflies of New Hampshire for many years, that it is more probably double-brooded with a period of aestivation during the later weeks of summer. This seems a very probable condition and it is to be hoped that some observer will make such a careful study of this species as to settle the point definitely. In the case of many butterflies the distribution of the species coincides with the distribution of the food plant. This American Tortoise-shell, however, is perhaps the exception that may prove the rule, for its southward limit is far north of the southern range of the stinging nettle. Evidently, it is a species which has developed in adjustment to the cool climate of northern regions or high altitude, and it does not easily adapt itself to a warmer territory. =The White-J Butterfly or Compton Tortoise= _Eugonia J-album_ During bright days in March and April one is likely to find two kinds of butterflies on the wing in open glades of the woods. One is the familiar Mourning-cloak and the other is the Compton Tortoise--the latter generally much less abundant than the former. Both make the most of the brief periods of sunshine and quickly disappear when the sky is overcast. The Compton Tortoise butterflies which are thus abroad in early spring have been in hibernation since October. They are helping to carry the species over from one season to another, and as the days become longer and warmer they appear on the wing more and more, seeking such liquid food as the field and forest yields during the days of early spring. The sap exuding from holes in bark made by woodpeckers, or from the tappings of the maple trees by man, the nectar of willow catkins, the moisture of roadside pools--these help to yield a precarious sustenance to these butterflies after their long winter fast. They remain upon the wing week after week, while spring slowly progresses in the northern regions they inhabit. When at last the leaves push out on their food trees--willow, birch, and elm--the females lay their eggs and then, having lived to what for a butterfly is a ripe old age, they die, after nearly ten months of adult existence. Apparently the eggs are laid in clusters on the twigs, although this seems to be one of the many facts about butterflies awaiting observation by some careful student. The caterpillars feed together in small colonies but make no nest. They become full grown in about a month. They are then nearly two inches long with spinous, greenish bodies, striped with lighter lines. Some change to chrysalids about the middle of June and ten days later change again to butterflies, the first of which appear early in July while others continue to emerge for nearly a month. These butterflies may be seen rather frequently from midsummer on, visiting various flowers and sipping the juices from decaying fruits beneath the trees. At times they seem to disappear in August to reappear in October, a fact which has led some observers to suggest that there is a second brood. The caterpillars of this brood, however, have never been observed and a much more probable explanation has been made by Mr. W. F. Fiske who studied the butterflies of New Hampshire carefully for many years. He found that in the hot summer weather this butterfly goes into a seclusion similar to that of its winter rest--that is, it aestivates in summer and hibernates in winter. "The possibility that the October J-album did not represent a second brood," writes Mr. Fiske, "was rendered almost a certainty by repeated observations which failed to disclose a single specimen approximating in freshness to average August individuals, and the question of their whereabouts during the interim was unexpectedly answered one warm August day by my finding several snugly packed away under the shingles on an old roof. The theory of the aestivation of the butterflies of this group will explain a good many points hitherto obscure in the life histories of the other species." In October these butterflies seek their winter quarters, finding them in woods and groves. Apparently they commonly rest upon the bark of the trunk as well as crawl into such crevices beneath loose bark as they can find. Here they remain through fall, winter, and spring, except when called into brief periods of activity by the unwonted warmth of the winter sunshine. Then in spring they come forth again to lay the eggs for the caterpillars of the new generation. The fresh butterflies are creatures of exquisitely modulated coloring. The name Compton Tortoise has reference to the rich brown tones of the upper wing surface, suggestive of those of fine tortoise-shell. In fresh specimens much of the surface, especially in the middle and along the front border, is overlaid with iridescent purple scales. Near the front outer angle of each of the four wings there is a distinct white spot, divided near the middle by a darker line of the vein running through it. The under surface is one of the best examples of mimicry of gray bark to be found in any butterfly. The tones vary considerably in different individuals, but in all the protection must be well nigh perfect when the insect is at rest with closed wings upon the bark of a tree. The striking angularity of the wing's border doubtless helps to conceal it, and the habit of dropping motionless to the ground when disturbed must also have protective value. Near the middle of each hind wing there is a small white J which led to the specific name _J-album_. This butterfly is essentially a member of the Canadian fauna. It ranges from far north in Labrador, British America, and Alaska, south as far as Pennsylvania, but toward its southern limit it occurs only on the higher elevations of mountains like the Alleghanies. =The Buckeye= _Junonia coenia_ Some genera of butterflies seem to belong almost exclusively to the north temperate regions, seldom occurring even in our Southern states. Others belong equally exclusively to tropical regions, seldom straying into the north. The Buckeye is an illustration of the latter group. The genus Junonia to which it belongs is essentially tropical, as it contains several species which are found throughout the tropics in both the Old and the New Worlds. In fact, this is apparently the only species which occurs north of the tropics. It has an extraordinary range, being found from Cuba to Massachusetts and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. Toward the northern limits of its range it is very rare and one of the greatest prizes which the collector can obtain. In our Southern states it is an abundant and generally distributed butterfly and, as it hibernates as an adult and one group follows another throughout the season rather rapidly, it is likely to be taken at almost any time. (_See plate, page 176._) The mother butterflies select as food plants for the larvae various members of either the plantain or figwort families. They lay eggs, one in a place, upon the leaves of plantain, figwort, gerardia, and related plants generally near the tip of the leaves. Less than a week later these hatch into spiny caterpillars which feed upon the green substance of the leaves during the next few weeks. For the most part they eat between the veins leaving a ragged effect which may help in finding them. When full grown they change to chrysalids which hang straight downward and bear a general resemblance to those of the Thistle butterfly. Curiously enough, those chrysalids which are attacked by parasites take on a characteristic golden hue; although the normal healthy chrysalids are dark brown with a few touches of a decidedly lighter brown. In its tropical home, where there is no winter period to interrupt its growth, this butterfly doubtless continues to develop generation after generation without any break in the sequence. As the species goes north, however, there is necessarily such an interruption--in which case the winter seems commonly to be passed by the adult butterfly. In our Southern states there are commonly three or four broods each year, while in the northern parts of its range there is but one brood a year. In the South there is such an overlapping that all stages of the insect may be found at one time. _Synopsis of the Angle-wings_ _I. The Polygonias_ The most angular of the Angle-wings are grouped in the genus Polygonia. They are characterized by having the outer margin of the front wings projecting in two places in a way to give an angular effect, and by having the hind or inner margin distinctly excised toward the outer end, so that this margin is curved rather than straight. _Violet-tip_ (_Polygonia interrogationis_ or _Grapta interrogationis_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Under surface of each hind wing marked by a silvery semicolon, made up of a dot and a crescent. _Hop Merchant_ (_Polygonia comma_ or _Grapta comma_). Expanse 2 inches. A white comma with expanded tips on lower surface of each hind wing. Lower surface of all the wings mottled with brown. _Green Comma_ (_Polygonia faunus_ or _Grapta faunus_). Expanse 2 inches. A white comma with expanded tips on lower surface of each hind wing. The lower surface of all the wings more or less mottled with green toward the margins. _Gray Comma_ (_Polygonia progne_ or _Grapta progne_). Expanse 2 inches. A white comma with tips narrowed rather than expanded on lower surface of each hind wing. _II. The Vanessids_ Our beautiful species of the genus Vanessa may be known by the long scales that make up the fringe on the wing margins, in alternate groups of black and white. There are also several white spots on the upper surface of the outer angle of each front wing. _Red Admiral_ (_Vanessa atalanta_, _Pyrameis atalanta_ or _Cynthia atalanta_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface of front wings blackish, marked with white spots on outer angle and a broad orange stripe across the middle. _Painted Beauty_ (_Vanessa huntera_, _Pyrameis huntera_ or _Cynthia huntera_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Upper surface orange-brown with black, white, and blue markings. Lower surface of each hind wing with two large eye-spots, each extending across two veins. _Painted Lady_ or _Cosmopolite_ (_Vanessa cardui_, _Pyrameis cardui_ or _Cynthia cardui_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Easily distinguished from the Painted Beauty by the four or more small eye-spots on the lower surface of each hind wing, each eye-spot being included between two veins. _III. Other Angle-wings_ The other common Angle-wings are readily distinguished by the following characters: _Mourning-cloak_ (_Euvanessa antiopa_ or _Vanessa antiopa_). Expanse 3 1/2 inches. Easily known by the nearly black wings with creamy white borders. _American Tortoise-shell_ (_Aglais milberti_ or _Vanessa milberti_). Expanse 1 1/2 inches. One of the smallest of the Angle-wings. Easily known by its small size and the broad orange band extending across the upper surface of all the wings just beyond the middle. Under surface dark mottled gray without distinct white markings. _Compton Tortoise_ (_Eugonia j-album_, _Vanessa j-album_ or _Grapta j-album_). Expanse 3 inches. Best known by the straight line of the inner margin of the front wings and the white j on the under side of each hind wing. _The Buckeye_ (_Junonia coenia_ or _Vanessa coenia_). Expanse 1 3/4 inches. Distinguished by the large eye-spots on the upper surface of the wings, one on each front and two on each hind wing. Eyes not hairy. THE TRIBE OF THE SOVEREIGNS No other small group of American butterflies has attracted so much attention as the species of the genus Basilarchia, which have been happily called the tribe of Sovereigns. These are rather large butterflies with rounded wings which are found in one species or another over practically the whole of North America. Some of them are of exceeding beauty and all of them present life-histories of extraordinary interest. At least two of the species are the most notable examples of the mimicry of other butterflies that are shown in our fauna. They also present some extremely interesting problems for the study of natural hybrids and they illustrate in their development some of the most wonderful cases of adaptation to environment that have ever been found. [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See pages 268-282_ SOME COMMON SKIPPERS The Long Dash, male, at top; the Vitellius Skipper, female, next below; the Canadian Skipper resting on iris flower in the middle; the Least Skipper, next below; Leonard's Skipper at rest on leaf, next; and the Sachem Skipper, male, at bottom] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See pages 195-202_ THE STAGES OF THE VICEROY The butterfly freshly emerged; caterpillar hung up for pupation; the chrysalis; the caterpillar feeding] These butterflies may be considered from so many interesting points of view that it is a bit difficult to know which phases to emphasize. In general, there is a striking similarity in their structure and habits in the earlier stages. The eggs are very nearly alike; the caterpillars resemble one another so closely that even expert entomologists sometimes have to decide what species a collected caterpillar belongs to by seeing what plant it is feeding upon, and the chrysalids are also very similar. Some of the more interesting phases in the development of these insects are discussed in connection with the life-stories of the different species. A phase which is characteristic to all of them may well be emphasized here. From the time the caterpillars hatch until they change to chrysalids they illustrate to a marked degree an adaptation through structure and habit which must very largely protect them from attack by birds and other enemies. Their structure and markings are almost grotesque. The body is covered with strange club-like appendages and it is colored with a curious mottling of tones of green, drab, brown, and white which is very difficult to describe but which suggests, as the caterpillar rests upon rough bark, simply a bit of bird dung or some natural excrescence. The caterpillars have the habit of feeding at night and remaining upon their perches by day, often assuming positions which are very unusual among insect larvae. Such positions, in which they remain motionless for hours at a time, are undoubtedly of protective value and help to conceal the insect. After the caterpillars are half grown they rest not upon the leaves upon which they feed, but rather upon the bark of twigs or branches where their peculiar structure is likely to make them inconspicuous. The chrysalids of the Sovereigns are also curiously mottled in color tones that will probably lead to their being overlooked. Three distinct species of Sovereigns are found in eastern North America, namely: The Viceroy, _Basilarchia archippus_. The Banded Purple, _Basilarchia arthemis_. The Red-spotted Purple, _Basilarchia astyanax_. The first species, the Viceroy, has a much wider distribution than either of the others. It apparently is found in nearly all localities in which either of these occur, and so includes within its range almost the whole of the United States and much of Canada. The second of these, the Banded Purple, is a northern form. It is found commonly at least as far north as the Mackenzie River region in British America and southward to central Massachusetts. It also occurs as far west as Nebraska so that it has a very wide distribution in northern regions. It is especially abundant in Canada and the White Mountains. The third, the Red-spotted Purple, is the characteristic form south of latitude 42 degrees. Its range overlaps that of the Banded Purple for about one degree but it is seldom found north of latitude 42 degrees. It seems to range about as far west as the Banded Purple. There are several other butterflies belonging to this genus which are rarely found and which occur only in certain limited regions. There has been much discussion in regard to these. Some entomologists have thought them simply varieties or dimorphic forms while others have considered them hybrids. An analysis of the conditions shows that these doubtful butterflies occur only in regions where the different species overlap. Thus in the boundary connecting the Banded Purple and the Red-spotted Purple there are forms which resemble these two species in such a way as to suggest that these are the parents of the hybrid. In localities where the Viceroy and the Banded Purple occur there are other forms which seem to connect these two species, and in the locality where the Viceroy and the Red-spotted Purple occur there are still other forms which seem to suggest these as the parents. So the evidence seems pretty conclusive that where these butterflies overlap there are likely to be occasional crosses between the species which result in these natural hybrids. In the far Western states there are certain other species of Basilarchia which take the place of the eastern form. One of the most abundant of these on the Pacific Coast is sometimes called Lorquin's Admiral (_B. lorquini_). In Florida there is another species, _B. floridensis_, which is found in the Southern states. It is the only one whose coloring resembles that of the Viceroy. =The Viceroy= _Basilarchia archippus_ The common name of this butterfly was probably given it in allusion to its resemblance to the Monarch butterfly. For the Monarch and the Viceroy have been closely associated in the minds of many observers ever since people began to study butterflies in America. These two insects have become famous as the most notable examples that we have of the mimicking of one butterfly by another. According to the theory which has been held by many naturalists, the Monarch is distasteful to birds and other animals and it advertises the fact by its bright combination of brown and black. The Monarch is thus an example of what has often been called warning coloration. On the other hand, the Viceroy is commonly supposed to have no objectionable taste when eaten by birds, but it so closely resembles the Monarch in its color pattern and its habits of flight that it has been assumed that birds would not touch it because of its resemblance to the distasteful butterfly. There has, however, recently been a reaction among naturalists in regard to the validity of many supposed examples of warning coloration and the whole subject is still open to careful investigation. (_See cover; and plate, page 145._) Whether the Viceroy deserves its celebrity as an insect mimic or not, it is well worthy of study for other reasons. It is a common and attractive butterfly and it has most interesting habits in the larval state. It is found over a large part of North America and flies freely from spring until autumn over meadows, fields, and open glades. _The Yearly Cycle of Life_ To trace the yearly cycle of this butterfly's life, let us begin with one of the mother insects flitting along a stream in early summer. She stops now and then to lay an egg on the tip of a leaf on a willow or poplar. She then continues on her way occasionally sipping nectar from any early flowers she may chance to find, and continuing her leisurely life perhaps for several weeks. The egg thus laid upon the poplar leaf remains in position for a week or more, unless it should be devoured by some wandering ant or discovered by some tiny parasite. If it escapes these dangers, it hatches into a minute caterpillar that escapes from the egg shell through a hole in its side. After it has come out it turns around and eats the remainder of the shell. It then begins feeding upon the tender tissue of the leaf it is resting upon, nibbling at the sides until its appetite is satisfied. Then it retires to the midrib on the lower surface where it remains quietly through the day and thereafter feeds chiefly at night. After about a week it becomes too large for the skin with which it was born, so it moults and immediately devours its cast skin. It continues these operations of feeding and moulting at occasional intervals for several weeks, finally becoming a rather large and curious looking caterpillar, mottled in greenish olive and light gray, with two large horn-like projections from the front of the body. It finally becomes full grown in this larval state. Then it spins a web of silk upon the bark of the twig and entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs in the silken web. It thus hangs downward until the larval skin is shuffled off and the curious pupa with the conspicuous hump upon the middle of its back remains in its place. This chrysalis is of a mottled coloring, very similar to that of the caterpillar. A week or so later the chrysalis skin breaks open, and the butterfly comes out, catching hold of the twig with its legs and hanging quietly in position while its wings expand. The butterflies of this brood are likely to appear late in summer. It is the second brood of adult butterflies for the season. These insects have the same leisurely habits as those that were on the wing earlier in the season. In a similar way the mother butterflies lay their eggs on the leaves of willows and poplars, and these eggs soon hatch into young caterpillars that look like those that hatched in early summer. The caterpillars, however, of this autumnal brood have a most interesting habit which was entirely lacking in those of early summer. Soon after hatching they begin to make for themselves little houses in which to pass the winter. This is very cleverly done by utilizing part of the leaf upon which they are feeding. Each side of the leaf toward its tip is eaten off with the midrib remaining untouched; then the lower half of the leaf which has not been eaten is rolled into a tube and securely sewed together with silken threads. The stem of the leaf is also covered with a similar silken web and securely fastened to the twig in such a way that it is impossible for the leaf to fall off when the other leaves do. The little caterpillar thus cleverly provides itself with a safe winter home into which it retreats on the approach of cold weather to remain until spring. They enter these little cases head first, and apparently seldom emerge again until the warm spring sun brings them forth to feed upon the developing willow catkins or the unfolding leaves. The caterpillars that thus pass the winter in these pitcher-like cases are perhaps a third grown. They develop rapidly in spring and are likely to use the cases for resting purposes when they are not feeding. After a few weeks they become full-grown caterpillars and change to chrysalids, to change again a little later into the butterflies that appear in early summer. There are thus two broods of each stage of the insect during the year. _Curious Caterpillar Habits_ This brief summary of the yearly history of the Viceroy is by no means adequate as a story of the many interesting things to be told about this insect, which has been carefully studied by several eminent naturalists. One of these is the strange habit the very young caterpillars have of fastening a few bits of leaf together by means of silken threads and then tying the bunch to the denuded rib of the leaf. To explain this, allow me to quote from an admirable essay of the late Samuel H. Scudder, whose studies of butterflies have added so much to our knowledge of these beautiful creatures: "Soon after birth," wrote Mr. Scudder, "when it has eaten but a very few swaths down the leaf, the little fellow constructs a small and loose packet from minute bits of leaf and other rejectamenta, loosely fastened to one another and to the midrib, close to but scarcely touching the eaten edge of the leaf; and as fast as the leaf is eaten, it removes this packet (continually added to until it becomes almost as big as a small pea) farther and farther down the midrib away from its perch, always keeping it near the eaten edge. It should be noted that it is so loosely attached (the bits of leaf at all possible angles) that it is moved by the least breath. Meanwhile, the caterpillar has been growing larger and more conspicuous, and thus in greater peril from its enemies. There are two possible services that this odd packet may render. A spider wandering over a leaf and observing its motion may seize it, and thinking it has a prize, hurry away with it and leave its architect unharmed. This seems to me rather a strained suggestion, for a wandering spider would probably proceed to investigate it on the spot. Another explanation seems more probable. It should be remembered that the leaves preferred by these creatures as food are mostly such as are easily shaken by the wind, and as the caterpillar moves with the leaf and with all the surrounding leaves (in a continual fluttering in the case of the trembling aspen, and to a less degree in the other food plants), this of itself is a protection to it, as it would more readily escape observation as an object distinct from the leaves, all being in motion together; but on the more stable leaves, like the willow, the motion in a feeble wind would not be sufficient to be serviceable, and here, at least, the packet comes into play. An object in motion among others at rest is a noticeable thing; a fact well recognized among animals, as a host of them show when they fear being seen. This packet attached by loose silken threads moves, as stated, with a breath of wind, and so would distract attention from its architect near by, who has taken pains to place it at the farthest remove from his perch while still (to avoid undesirable steps) on his daily track. If this be really its object, it is surely one of the oddest devices in nature." The curious winter cases of the Viceroy were first carefully described by the late Dr. C. V. Riley, in one of his classic reports on the insects of Missouri. It is one of the best accounts which has ever been written and is well worth quoting at some length: "The larvae of the autumnal brood," wrote Doctor Riley, "when about one fourth or one third grown, build for themselves curious little houses in which they pass the winter. First and foremost--with wise forethought and being well aware through its natural instincts that the leaf which it has collected for its house will fall to the ground when the cold weather sets in unless it takes measures to prevent this--the larva fastens the stem of the leaf with silken cables securely to the twig from which it grows. It then gnaws off the blade of the leaf at its tip end, leaving little else but the midrib. Finally it rolls the remaining part of the blade of the leaf into a cylinder, sewing the edges together with silk. The basal portion of the cylinder is of course tapered to a point as the edges of the leaf are nearly drawn together, not overlapped; and invariably the lower side of the leaf forms the outside of the house so as to have the projecting midrib out of the way of the larva as it reposes snugly on the inside. The whole, when finished, has somewhat the appearance of the leaf of a miniature pitcher-plant (_Sarracenia_), its length being .50-.65 inch, and its diameter .11-.14 inch. "These curious little cases may be commonly found upon our willows and poplars in the winter time. I have examined hundreds of them and although they are invariably built upon this plan, they vary greatly in the degree of perfection which the architect attained; and this is especially the case where they have been built in confinement. The blade on the tip piece is sometimes gnawed off right down to the rib; at others it is left almost as broad as the tube. Sometimes it is bent over the orifice; at others not. They are also much more irregular and ungainly when made with broad leaves, such as those of the silver poplar, than when made from the more narrow leaves of the willow tree. These autumnal larvae have also another peculiar habit: they exhibit a tendency to build from the time they are hatched and will always eat the leaves from the side, gnawing large holes and cutting along the sides of the midrib. They commence at the tip, and as they work downward toward the base, they collect the débris into a little bunch which they fasten with silk to the midrib. When the hibernaculum is finished the seam is perfectly smooth and the hole inside is lined with silk. The larva, having completed its work, composes itself for the winter with the hind end toward the orifice. Here it remains till the catkins are in bloom the next spring when it retreats from its house and commences feeding. Not the least wonderful part of this phenomenon is that it is only the autumnal brood of larvae that form pitcher-like houses to live in during the inclement season of the year--the summer brood having no occasion to shelter themselves from cold." It is an interesting fact that in most northern regions these winter cases are nearly always made so near the ground that they are protected by snow during most of the winter. When an insect has such a curious habit as that of making these winter cases it seems comparatively easy to explain it as an acquired instinct brought about through the conditions of life during the long period in which successive generations have been laid. But, as Doctor Riley seems to suggest above, it is much more difficult to explain this sort of phenomenon when it occurs only in one of two or more broods during the season. =The Banded Purple= _Basilarchia arthemis_ None of our common butterflies shows more striking color markings than the Banded Purple. A broad white stripe runs midway through the wings on both surfaces, the white making a strong contrast to the purplish or brownish black of the rest of the wings. This white band is supplemented by rows of fulvous and of blue dots, especially on both surfaces of the hind wings. This butterfly is a northern form ranging to a large extent north of the regions occupied by the Viceroy. Its life-history is very similar to that of the latter insect. The caterpillars have the same curious habits and bear a close general resemblance to one another. The Banded Purple butterflies appear in June and lay their eggs in July upon the tips of the leaves of birches, especially the black birch. Almost all of these eggs are laid within two or three feet of the ground. They are of grayish green color. The caterpillars are greenish- or olive-brown. About a week after the egg is laid it hatches into a small caterpillar that feeds upon the sides of the leaf and rests upon the midrib just as the Viceroy caterpillar does. It continues to feed through July and the early part of August, moulting once or twice before it begins to form the winter case. It usually goes into this during the latter part of August, when it is in the second or third caterpillar stage. From then on it remains quietly in its winter home, being covered by the deep snows during several months, and coming out about the middle of the following May, when the spring warmth starts the buds of its food plant. It then feeds for two or three weeks before it changes to a chrysalis to emerge in June as a butterfly. There seems to be normally but one brood each year although under exceptional conditions some of the eggs laid in July mature into butterflies the same season. But it is probable that these butterflies either do not lay eggs and perish as the cold comes on, or that if they do lay eggs the caterpillars that hatch from them do not get large enough to construct their winter cases. Consequently, it is doubtful if we can consider the insect really two-brooded even in part. =The Red-spotted Purple= _Basilarchia astyanax_ Were it not for the wonderful iridescence of its wings the Red-spotted Purple would be one of the most plainly marked of the Sovereigns. But the upper surface of both pairs of wings is thickly covered with iridescent scales which give the insect a shimmering beauty that makes it conspicuous among northern butterflies, suggesting something of the marvelous coloring of the large tropical species. The general coloring is a purplish black with rows of white dots along the borders of the wings. The under surface shows much more of the fulvous brown which is so characteristic of the Viceroy, the brownish background being rather thinly overlaid with iridescent scales, but with a large number of spots and stripes, where the fulvous color alone shows. The favorite food plants of this species belong to the great order _Rosaceae_ which includes the apple, pear, cherry, rose, and many other common trees and shrubs. The egg is laid upon the extreme tip of the leaf, a characteristic habit of all the species of Basilarchia. It obviously must have decided advantages in preserving the eggs from attack by ants, spiders, Ichneumon flies, and other enemies. All of these creatures are constantly patrolling leaf surfaces in search of eggs and minute insects. They are much more likely to find their victims upon the broad general surface than upon the extreme tip of narrowly pointed leaves. The eggs of all these butterflies are small, and pitted much like a tiny little honeycomb with a large number of tiny hairs arising from the surface. These hairs are very similar to the hairs upon the surface of many leaves and they probably assist in leading other insects to overlook the eggs. Yet, notwithstanding these devices for protection, it remains true that a large proportion of the eggs are attacked by tiny parasites and probably many others are eaten by ants and spiders. This very fact emphasizes the necessity of such protective features as the laying of one egg in a place upon the tip of a leaf and the hairy covering on the egg shells. A few days after the eggs are laid each hatches into a small caterpillar that immediately begins feeding upon the green tissues beside it--first, however, devouring the empty egg shell. It does not eat the midrib of the leaf, but utilizes it as a perch, generally winding it more or less with silken threads, apparently to make it stronger and to prevent it from curling up. The caterpillar seems to feed chiefly at night, resting quietly by day. After a week or so it moults and then continues feeding as before. It continues to feed and grow for several weeks, moulting regularly until it becomes full fed as a caterpillar. It then spins a web of silk closely upon the bark of twig or branch or possibly upon some other object near at hand. In this web it entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs and hangs downward preparatory to the change to the chrysalis. Soon afterward the last larval skin is shed and the chrysalis hangs in place of the caterpillar. This chrysalis has the characteristic form of all the members of this limited group, the outer skin being well hardened and there being a very prominent projection on the middle of the back. The chrysalis hangs thus, buffeted more or less by wind and rain for about ten days, then the skin breaks apart and the butterfly emerges. Over a large part of its range there are two broods of this butterfly each year. The adults appear in early summer and lay eggs which develop into butterflies again during the latter part of summer. The life-history of this generation is the one described in the last paragraph. The eggs laid by these late summer butterflies, however, require a somewhat different story. They hatch in the same way as the others but when the caterpillars have moulted about twice they form a winter case or hibernaculum, in exactly the same way as the caterpillars of the Viceroy. They remain within these winter homes till the following spring, when they come forth and complete their development producing the early summer brood of butterflies with which our story began. =The Vicereine= _Basilarchia floridensis_ In Florida and some of the other Southern states there is a butterfly which looks almost like the Viceroy except that the brown coloring of the wings is very much darker. The species has been called the Vicereine as it is believed to mimic the Queen Butterfly, a species closely related to the Monarch and occurring in the Southern states. The Vicereine probably has a life-history very similar to that of its northern cousin. _Synopsis of the Sovereigns_ _Banded Purple_ (_Basilarchia arthemis_ or _Limenitis arthemis_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Ground color of upper surface of wings black with a distinct white band in bow-like form running across the middle of both wings. A row of six tawny spots just outside the white band on each hind wing and various sub-marginal blue spots outside of these. Under surface tawny brown with the white stripe distinct and many red-brown spots. _Red-spotted Purple_ (_Basilarchia astyanax_ or _Limenitis astyanax_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Ground color brownish black tinged with bluish, especially on the hind wings. No white band but various red and blue spots, especially near the outer margins of the upper surface of both pairs of wings. _Viceroy_ (_Basilarchia archippus_ or _Limenitis disippus_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. General color reddish brown with veins and margins blackish. A narrow black band running across the hind wings just beyond the middle. A series of white spots in all the marginal bands. _Vicereine_ (_Basilarchia floridensis_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Similar to the Viceroy but much darker in the brown coloring of all the wings. THE TRIBE OF THE EMPERORS The members of this small group are distinguished from the closely related Sovereigns by the tailed hind wings in one species, by the eye-spots on the upper surface of the wings of the others, and by the fact that on the club of the antennae there are three instead of four longitudinal ridges. There is also a distinction in the arrangement of the veins of the hind wings. This tribe is represented in our northern fauna by only two genera. In the genus Chlorippe the antennae are as long as the front wings are wide. In the genus Anoea the antennae are much shorter than the width of the front wings. Only two species of the former and one of the latter are sufficiently abundant to be considered here. =The Goatweed Emperor= _Anoea andria_ Comparatively few butterflies are confined so closely to the valley of the Mississippi River as the Goatweed Emperor. From southern Illinois south to the Gulf this insect is rather abundant in many localities where its food plant, the goatweed, is common. The life-history of the insect was carefully studied by Dr. C. V. Riley, and one of the best accounts was published in one of his early reports on the insects of Missouri. The excellent illustrations in that article first made the species familiar to many students. Briefly summarized, the life-history runs something like this: the butterflies hibernate, coming forth in spring and visiting various spring and early summer flowers. The females deposit eggs singly upon the leaves of the young goatweed plants. In a week or less each egg hatches into a little caterpillar that feeds upon the tip of the leaf leaving the midrib and covering it with silk so that it may serve as a resting perch. Later each makes an excellent tent for itself by bending over and binding together the opposite margins of a leaf.[D] This bit of work is cleverly done, a hole being left at each end so that there is good ventilation and an opportunity for the caterpillar to go in and out. Quite frequently the nest is also lined with more or less silken webbing. This tent is used as a refuge from the heat of the sun and doubtless serves also in concealing the caterpillar from its many enemies. The larva goes out to neighboring leaves when it wishes to feed and only occasionally eats up the leaf of which its tent is made. When this is done it must of course construct another home. [D] _See next page._ [Illustration: THE BANDED PURPLE (_see page 202_) THE RED-SPOTTED PURPLE (_see page 204_) THE BLUE-EYED GRAYLING OR COMMON WOOD-NYMPH (Upper and lower surface) (_see page 215_)] [Illustration: _From drawings by W. I. Beecroft_ _See pages 207-214_ THREE EMPEROR BUTTERFLIES The Gray Emperor, female (_top_) The Tawny Emperor, female (_middle_) The Goatweed Emperor, female (_bottom_)] After some weeks of this sheltered existence the caterpillar is ready to change to a chrysalis. It leaves the tent and commonly attaches a bit of silken web to the under side of a leaf or branch of its food plant or some other kind of shelter. Here it changes to a chrysalis, to emerge a little later as the beautiful burnt-orange butterfly. There are said to be two broods each season, in some regions, although in others there seems to be but one. The butterflies hibernate in hollow trees or in such other shelters as they may find. [Illustration: Goatweed Butterfly: _a_, larva; _b_, chrysalis; _c_, larval case. (After Riley)] The full-grown caterpillar (_a_) is an inch and a half long and of a general grayish color, dotted thickly with slightly elevated points. The chrysalis (_b_) is suggestive of that of the Monarch butterfly. It is light green covered with whitish granules. The adult butterfly is remarkable for the falcate shape of the outer margin of each front wing and the broad tail at the hind outer angle of each hind wing. In the male the upper surface of all the wings is of a dark orange tone, with a rather narrow brown marginal marking. In the female this marginal band is broader and is nearly paralleled by another narrower band a little nearer the body. In bright sunshine there is a distinct purplish red iridescence over practically the whole upper surface. The under side of both wings is of a color to suggest a dead brown leaf, with a purplish iridescence in certain angles of light. =The Gray Emperor= _Chlorippe celtis_ This very distinctive medium-sized butterfly is found in the Southern states at least as far west as the Mississippi Valley. It extends north to Indiana and Ohio and probably occurs quite generally from Ohio eastward. This species is distinguished by the general gray-brown or olive-brown coloring of the wing surfaces, heavily marked with a much darker dusky brown and with many irregular white spots as well as one large eye-spot on each front wing near the border, and a row of seven more or less distinct eye-spots near the border of each hind wing. Like the Tawny Emperor this species feeds in the larval state upon the leaves of hackberry. In Missouri the butterflies appear in June. A little later they lay eggs upon the under side of the hackberry leaves, commonly one in a place but sometimes several side by side. A few days later these eggs hatch into little yellow caterpillars that feed upon the leaves for about a month when they become full grown. They are then a little more than an inch long, of a general light green color with yellow spots along the middle of the back and three yellow lines along each side. The head has a pair of curious antlers much like those of the caterpillar of the Tawny Emperor. These caterpillars now spin a bit of silken web on the under side of the leaf or twig. They attach their hind legs into this web and hang downward for a day or two, before casting the last larval skin and changing to chrysalids. They change again to butterflies which are seen upon the wing early in August. These butterflies lay eggs in turn on the hackberry leaves, the eggs soon hatching into small caterpillars which according to Riley's observations are less active than those of the earlier brood. These caterpillars feed for a few weeks until they become nearly half grown and have passed their second or possibly their third moult. They now stop eating and get ready for a long fast through the winter. Apparently some of them at least attach themselves to the under side of the hackberry leaves and turn to a brownish color, remaining upon the leaves until the latter fall to the ground and presumably hibernating in the shelter thus provided. Whether or not all of the caterpillars have this rather curious habit seems to be doubtful. It has been suggested that some of them find shelter within the crevices in the rough bark of the tree. At any rate, the caterpillars remain in a sort of stupor until the following spring. Then they awaken, climb up the trees or bushes, and begin feeding upon the young leaves. They continue this until they become full grown in May when they change to chrysalids, to emerge as the first brood of butterflies the following month. Many of the caterpillars make a sort of nest for themselves by spinning a web of silk upon the under surface of the leaf and drawing together slightly the outer edges. As is the case with so many other butterflies that hibernate as caterpillars, apparently the species is only partially double-brooded. Some of the earlier caterpillars become lethargic when half grown and remain in that condition throughout the later weeks of summer and all through the fall and winter. =The Tawny Emperor= _Chlorippe clyton_ This handsome butterfly is easily distinguished from the Gray Emperor by the general reddish color of the wings which are thickly marked with bands and eye-spots of darker brown or black. The eye-spots are especially marked on the hind wing, there being a row of five of these on each hind wing in both sexes. The females are decidedly larger than the male and generally of a distinctly lighter color. This butterfly is a southern species found more or less abundantly from southern New York to northern Florida and across the country to a line drawn from Iowa to Texas. It seems to be more common in the Mississippi Valley than in other regions and its life-history was first thoroughly worked out in Missouri and published in one of Riley's classic reports on the insects of that state. It has since been studied by Edwards and others, but even now there seems to be some uncertainty in regard to many points in its development, notably the number of broods in different localities and the habits of the larvae when preparing for hibernation. The principal points in the life-history of the species may be outlined as follows: some time in July the eggs are laid on the leaves of hackberry in dense clusters, each of which may contain from two hundred to five hundred eggs. These are usually deposited in two or more layers, one upon another. A little more than a week later these eggs hatch, each caterpillar eating through one end in a way to cut out the rim of a tiny cap which is pushed up as the larva escapes. The whole brood emerges at practically the same time and collects upon one or more leaves where they begin to feed upon the succulent green tissues. Like so many caterpillars that feed in companies each spins a silken thread wherever it goes. The little larvae remain together until after the third moult, at which time they are about half grown. In the more northern regions where they are found they are now likely to scatter about in search of quarters for hibernation. Having found suitable shelter, they remain through the winter to come forth early the following spring and feed upon the developing leaves of the hackberry trees. They continue to do this for a few weeks before they become full grown. They are then smooth-bodied, greenish worms about an inch and a half long, striped longitudinally in yellow and brown. The hind end of the body is forked in a curious fashion and the head is even more remarkable for the strange pair of tiny antlers projecting from it. These full-grown caterpillars soon change to pale green chrysalids, lightly striped with longitudinal lines of yellow, with a distinctly pointed head. From these chrysalids butterflies emerge early in summer. Evidently in the more Southern states there are two broods of these butterflies each year but there is great need of more precise knowledge in regard to them. As is the case with so many other butterflies there is a dimorphic form, called _ocellata_, in which the outer half of the hind wing is very dark brown, with the eye-spot showing as black with red-brown circles. _Synopsis of the Emperors_ _Goatweed Emperor_ (_Anoea andria_ or _Pyrrhanea andria_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Front outer angle of each front wing projecting into a falcate tip. Rear outer angle of each hind wing projecting into a distinct tail. General color burnt-orange with darker marginal bands, and in the female on the upper surface other sub-marginal markings. _Gray Emperor_ (_Chlorippe celtis_). Expanse 2 inches. General color grayish brown with numerous markings of white and blackish. A distinct brown eye-spot on the upper surface of each front wing near the outer hind angle. _Tawny Emperor_ (_Chlorippe clyton_). Expanse 2 inches. General color tawny brown with markings of black and yellowish white. No distinct eye-spot on upper surface of front wings. THE MEADOW-BROWNS OR SATYRS FAMILY _Agapetidae_ The Meadow-browns form one of the most distinctive family groups among all the butterfly tribes. They are characterized, at least so far as our eastern species are concerned, by their slender bodies and rather large wings, toned in various shades of brown, and marked chiefly with conspicuous and characteristic eye-spots. The larger veins of the front wings are swollen at the base. The caterpillars are rather slender and have a curious division of the last body segment into two parts, which gives them an appearance suggestive of the caterpillar of the Emperor butterflies, although the Meadow-brown caterpillars do not have, upon the head, the curious antlers borne by the Emperor larvae. =The Common Wood-nymph or Grayling= _Cercyonis alope_ In the development of our knowledge of both birds and mammals as found upon the American continent the experience in many cases has been essentially this: a bird or a mammal was first described from some well-known region of North America, commonly from specimens carried to Europe by early voyagers. Later other species of the same genus were brought to light by various explorers and given specific names. As each section was thus explored a new form differing markedly from the others was found and named. At a later period, when great collections were brought together so that one observer was able to make a careful survey of specimens from all parts of the continent, it was found that many of these species merged into each other through intergrading forms from regions between the localities of the original species. So it has come about that in the case of a large number of our birds and mammals we have geographical races distinctly recognized instead of separate species. While the study of butterflies has by no means received the degree of attention which has been given the birds and mammals, it is already evident that a similar condition prevails with reference to many species. As the size of collections has increased and more careful studies have been made of the various forms from different regions it has been found in numerous cases that they intergraded to so great an extent that it is impossible to distinguish many species which were formerly considered entirely distinct. One of the most striking examples of this is found in the case of our common Wood-nymph, which is sometimes called the Blue-eyed Grayling. The form which is one of our most abundant butterflies in southern New England and many of the Eastern states was described as _Satyrus alope_ by the French naturalist Fabricius, who also described another species from the Southern states as _Satyrus pegala_, and a form found in northern Canada was described by the English entomologist Kirby as _Satyrus nephele_. Various other forms from isolated regions have been given specific names by other authorities. (_See plate, page 81._) During recent years many collectors have gathered these butterflies from all parts of North America and many specimens have been grouped together in the more important collections. When this occurred it became easy to see that this is essentially a variable species which under varying climatic conditions has assumed slightly different forms, so that we have a good illustration of well-developed geographical races. The more important of these are indicated in the synopsis of the Meadow-browns on page 227. _The Similar Life-histories_ One good indication that these varying forms all have a common origin is found in the remarkable unity of their life-histories. It is essentially the same in all. The mother butterflies lay eggs late in summer upon the leaves of grasses and perhaps other plants. About three weeks later these eggs hatch into small caterpillars that immediately become lethargic and begin their hibernating condition without eating any vegetation. They remain thus fasting until spring when, after the weather warms up sufficiently, they begin to feed upon grasses and perhaps other herbage. But they have lots of time in which to complete their growth and they are very moderate in their eating and their movements. They grow slowly so that they do not become mature as caterpillars until June. They then change to chrysalids to emerge as butterflies during July and August. The female butterflies remain upon the wing for some weeks before they begin to lay their eggs. We thus have in this case an adaptation to single-broodedness in practically all stages of the insect's life. The twelve months of the year must be passed and egg, larva, chrysalis, and butterfly each seems to try to do its part in prolonging its period of life. These butterflies are especially common along streams and near the borders of woods, as well as in upland pastures and meadows. They are interesting creatures with characteristic manner of flight. They are by no means so easy to capture as one might think who sees them apparently going with slow, erratic motions from flower to flower. Mr. S. F. Denton, a collector of long experience, has written this interesting paragraph upon this point: "As the flight of these insects is weak, they have been obliged to resort to a number of tricks to outwit their enemies. In capturing these butterflies the collector will very soon become acquainted with their modes of escape, which are very interesting and show no small amount of cunning, scarcely to be looked for in an innocent little butterfly. Their first plan of escape on being disturbed is to make directly for a clump of bushes into the thickest part of which they dive and there remain until the danger is past. If one is startled from the grass at some distance from a safe retreat and the collector overtakes him, he will immediately dodge backward and forward, at one time high in air and again low down near the grass tops, and in spite of his slow flight keeping well clear of the net. If the net is at last brought very close to him he will try his last desperate scheme to elude his pursuer and shutting his wings quickly together will drop into the grass, disappearing as if by magic. If it were not for the cunning of the frail little creatures they would doubtless have gone to the wall long ago in the struggle for existence." =The Southern Wood-nymph= _Cercyonis pegala_ This large southern butterfly is sufficiently distinct from the other Wood-nymphs to rank as a separate species. The yellow blotch has expanded into a large band extending practically across the front wings. On its upper surface there is one eye-spot in the male and two in the female. It is abundant in the extreme Southern states and has occasionally been taken much farther north. =The Pearly Eye= _Enodia portlandia_ Most butterflies are creatures of open country, basking freely in the sunshine and visiting flowers of many sorts for their nectar food. Some of them are found at times along the borders of woods and others seek the woods especially in autumn for the purpose of hibernation. This exquisite Pearly Eye, however, is distinctly a woodland species, being found only in little glades in the midst of woods and apparently seldom even seeking flowers for their nectar. It is commonly considered one of the rarest of American butterflies, but many collectors who have searched their regions carefully have been able to find small areas in which the butterfly is quite abundant. In such situations it may be looked for in all parts of the United States east of the western limits of the Mississippi Valley and south of Canada, except perhaps the lower part of Florida. In northern regions this butterfly is single-brooded: the adults appear shortly before midsummer and continue on the wing through July and at least part of August. The eggs are laid some weeks after the butterflies emerge. The caterpillars feed upon grasses and apparently hibernate after they become well grown, changing to chrysalids the following spring in time to emerge as butterflies in early summer. These Pearly Eyes have certain characteristics which are of especial interest. No other species presents such exquisite modulation of brown coloring arranged in beautiful circles upon both surfaces of the wings. The males possess, perhaps to a greater degree than any other of our native butterflies, the ability to give off a peculiar, pleasant aroma which is noticeable whenever the insects are collected and which at least one careful observer has been able to detect in the open air as the butterfly flew near. For many years Mr. W. F. Fiske made a special study of the butterflies prevailing in the region of Webster, New Hampshire. His word picture of the haunts of the Pearly Eye is more adequate than any other which has been published and seems well worth quoting in this connection: "I have found them in several localities, always in some numbers, but nowhere more abundant than in a little wooded glen in Webster. Here a scattering group of tall pines, a few thick hemlocks, and a young growth of miscellaneous deciduous trees fill up the space between two rather steep banks. A small trout brook follows close by one of these banks, and near the lower end of the glen, in a space kept clear of underbrush by the overshadowing influence of the pines and hemlocks, is a little spring, the overflow from which keeps the ground moist for some space on each side of the channel which it follows to the brook. This is the great meeting place of these butterflies; here they may be seen at almost any time in the day except in the early morning--when they seek the outskirts of the woods--until the shades of evening render their flitting forms indistinguishable. Half-way up the bank on one side, half shrouded in the dense growth of underbrush which is springing up around it, is an old apple tree upon which the sapsuckers work yearly. The wounded limbs, dripping with sap, are frequented by many forms of insect life, most noticeable among them this butterfly, and such refreshment added to the moisture which they suck from the margin of the spring is all that I have ever seen them partake." =The Eyed Brown= _Satyrodes canthus_ For delicacy of gray-brown color tones few butterflies can compare with this exquisite creature. It seems indeed to have succeeded in a modest attempt to obliterate itself, for even when the spread wings are placed against a clear white background they can scarcely be called conspicuous and it is very probable that when the butterfly is at rest in its native haunts, with wings closed together so that only the very delicate light brown color-tones of the under surface are revealed, it actually becomes invisible. The upper surface of the wings is broadly washed with a gray-brown color which runs into a suggestion of a lighter band near the outer margin of the front pair. The upper surface of the hind wings is almost uniformly washed with this same brown color which is interrupted only by very fine, double lines at the outer margin and a sub-marginal row of delicate _ocelli_ which are larger than the somewhat similar sub-marginal row of eye-spots on the front wings. The under surface is much lighter in color, with distinct striations extending across the main surface of both wings from front to back and with some very attractive _ocelli_ arranged as a sub-marginal series each with a central white eye. This is distinctly a northern species, having rather a limited range in Canada and New England. It extends south to Pennsylvania and Ohio and westward to Wisconsin and Iowa. It is more abundant in northern than in southern New England but it is often overlooked by collectors who are not familiar with its haunts. It is especially likely to be found among the tall grass of swamps and brooks running through lowlands. One of the best ways to discover it is to beat the grasses in such situations. The life-history of the Eyed Brown is fairly well known. The eggs are laid chiefly on grasses and probably at times upon the grass-like sedges. The larvae feed upon these plants and become nearly full grown before winter sets in. They then hibernate in this larval stage and the following spring complete their growth and change to chrysalids in time for the butterflies to emerge in June. There is but one brood a year. =The White Mountain Butterfly= _Oeneis norna semidea_ To appreciate the extraordinary distribution of this notable species one must let his fancy carry him back a million years or so until he reaches that old time when the whole northern part of the American continent was covered with an icy coating. Then he must follow the gradual retreating of the ice northward, carrying with it wonderful changes in climate and along with these climatic changes taking northward many plants and animals which were adapted to the cool temperature along the borders of the glacier. As the ice cap retreated most of these arctic forms retreated with it, and all along the lower levels they were replaced by others migrating from the south so that gradually there came about the distribution of plants and animals as we find them to-day. When, however, the glaciers left the higher elevations of the White Mountains and the Rocky Mountains there were at the summits small areas in which the climatic conditions were of very much the same arctic character as prevailed along the margin of the ice cap. Consequently conditions were here favorable for the continuation of many of the arctic species which had disappeared from the warmer, lower levels. It was as if we had a great sea of air of a certain warmth and rising above this the islands of the mountain tops, these islands retaining the same arctic features as otherwise are found much farther northward. Among the animals thus left stranded by the retreating ice cap this White Mountain butterfly has perhaps attracted the most attention from scientists. It is a butterfly of moderate size which shows in every phase of its structure and its life-history the results of the long process of adaptation to its unique environment. It has been carefully studied by many observers and has been considered one of the most desirable trophies by every collector of insects. As a result, notwithstanding its isolation and the difficulty of studying it, its life-history is better known than that of many a common and widely distributed species. To appreciate the facts in regard to the structure and life of this butterfly one must know that its habitat is confined to a thousand feet or so at the summits of the mountain, that in this area there are no trees or even shrubs worth mentioning, and that the surface of the mountain is covered with rocks between which grow a few stunted sedges and over which grows the ever-present reindeer moss. It is a bleak, bare, gray environment, constantly swept by terrific winds, where snow is seen in August and is likely to remain until June. So the summer season is of briefest duration and the climatic conditions are so severe that one can only wonder how a fragile creature like a butterfly is able to survive the twelve long months. _Habits and Life-history_ From a first glance at the mottled gray-brown wings of these insects one would guess that here was a distinctive example of obliterative coloring, and it is true as all observers testify that when the butterfly lights upon the stones and turns sideways, as apparently it does habitually in deference to the force of the wind, it becomes very difficult to see, for the wings are closed and only the rounded, mottled under surface shows. It appears also to have the habit of some of the Graylings when hard pushed of simply closing its wings and dropping to the ground feigning death. In deference also to the winds its flight is just above the surface. Doubtless if it rose high in the air it would be swept away to lower regions where evidently it is unable to survive for long periods. [Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 229_ THE ZEBRA BUTTERFLY On orange leaves and blossoms. (Reduced)] [Illustration: On a milkweed pod] [Illustration: _From "Seeing Nature First"_ _See pages 47, 235_ On clematis seed-fruits PHOTOGRAPHS OF A PET MONARCH BUTTERFLY] These butterflies appear early in July and continue on the wing for several weeks. They lay their small eggs upon or near a species of sedge which is abundant on these alpine summits. About two weeks later the eggs hatch into sluggish little caterpillars which feed upon the sedge leaves, apparently eating only at night and hiding in crevices between stones by day. As one would expect from the prevailing low temperatures these caterpillars grow very slowly and apparently a large proportion of them require two years to complete their development. There seems to be some uncertainty in regard to this phase of the insect's life-history, but most entomologists are of the opinion that some of the butterflies mature in one year while others require two years: that is, the broods are both annual and biennial. There is no doubt that the insect hibernates as a caterpillar, and if this statement about the number of broods is correct some of the caterpillars hibernate when very small, and recently hatched from the egg, while others hibernate when nearly full grown. The full-grown caterpillars change to chrysalids beneath the shelter of the small stones in practically the same sorts of situation which they have chosen for hiding at night or for hibernation through the winter. Here without any button of silk or silken loop and with scarcely a suggestion of a silken cocoon they change to chrysalids, generally about the first of June. They remain in this condition for perhaps three or four weeks when they come forth as butterflies. =The Arctic Satyr= _Oeneis norna jutta_ This is another butterfly of decided interest because of its geographical distribution. It is normally an inhabitant of the Far North, extending around the North Pole over parts of three continents. Apparently, the only place in the United States where it occurs is a bog a little north of Bangor, Maine. This locality is called the Orono-Stillwater bog and is the only place where collectors have been able to find this species. * * * * * An even more local insect is another of these mountain butterflies found by H. H. Newcomb on Mount Katahdin, Maine. So far as known this species is confined to the higher portion of this mountain and so is even more distinctly localized than the White Mountain butterfly. It is called the Katahdin butterfly (_Oeneis norna katahdin_). =The Little Wood Satyr= _Cissia eurytus_ This elfin creature has well been named the Little Wood Satyr, although under our modern conditions it is often found in fields and along hedgeroads rather than in the woods. It has, to a marked degree, the delicacy of structure of its allies and its small size serves to emphasize this appearance. It has also a rather general distribution west to the Mississippi Valley, extending from the corner of Dakota, south through Nebraska, Kansas, and central Texas, and north to Wisconsin, Michigan, and New England. It occupies the whole of the United States east and south of the lines thus indicated. The life-history of this species is very similar to the Common Grayling. The butterflies appear in early summer, deposit their eggs upon grasses, and the resulting larvae feed upon the grasses and grow slowly through the weeks of summer. They become nearly full grown by autumn and hibernate in this condition in such shelter as they can find at the soil surface. The following spring they come forth, probably feeding for a short time, and change to chrysalids in time to emerge as butterflies in May and early June. Practically all observers emphasize the fact that the butterflies are abundant only late in spring or early in summer, generally disappearing before the middle of July. There is thus but one brood a year. _Other Meadow-browns_ The _Gemmed Brown_ (_Neonympha gemma_) is a small southern species remarkable for the plainness of its gray-brown wings which are marked on the upper surface only with two or three dark spots on the middle margin of each hind wing. There are two broods a year. The _Georgia Satyr_ (_Neonympha phocion_) is another small southern form, remarkable for the four elongated eye-spots on the lower surface of each hind wing. The shape of these spots distinguishes it at once from the _Carolina Satyr_ (_Cissia sosybius_) in which the eye-spots are rounded. _Synopsis of Meadow-browns_ _Pearly Eye_ (_Enodia portlandia_ or _Debis portlandia_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Eyes hairy. Outer margin of hind wings projecting in a noticeable angle. Brown with many distinct eye-spots on both surfaces of wings. _Eyed Brown_ (_Satyrodes canthus_ or _Neonympha canthus_). Expanse 2 inches. Eyes hairy. Margin of hind wings rounded, without an angle. Both surfaces of wings pale brown with four distinct blackish eye-spots on each front wing near the margin. Five or six such spots on each hind wing. _Common Wood-nymph_ or _Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope_). Expanse 2 inches. Eyes not hairy. Eye-spots on front wings, but not on upper surface of hind wings. The chief geographical races of this abundant species are indicated below, although in regions where the forms overlap many intermediate hybrids occur. _Blue-eyed Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope alope_). A large yellowish-brown blotch near outer margin of each front wing, above and below, with two distinct eye-spots in middle spaces of the blotch. A southern race extending north to central New Hampshire, Michigan, and Wisconsin. _Dull-eyed Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope nephele_). The yellowish brown blotch obsolete or nearly so, but eye-spots present. A northern race extending southward only to central New Hampshire, Michigan, and Wisconsin. _Maritime Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope maritima_). Similar to the type form, but with the yellowish blotch tinged with reddish. A race found only near the seacoast. _Southern Wood-nymph_ (_Cercyonis pegala_). Expanse 3 inches. Eyes not hairy. General color brown with an orange-yellow blotch near outer margin of each front wing above and below with one eye-spot in middle space of the blotch on the male, and two on the female. _Little Wood-satyr_ (_Cissia eurytus_ or _Neonympha eurytus_). Expanse 1 1/2 inches. Eyes not hairy. General color fawn-brown with two eye-spots on upper surface of each front wing and several on each hind wing. _Gemmed Brown_ (_Neonympha gemma_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches. Eyes not hairy. General color mouse-brown with no markings on upper wing surface except a rather indistinct pair or more of spots next the margin of the middle of each hind wing. Under surface indistinctly striped with rusty lines and a few brown and silvery spots on the hind wings directly beneath the spots on the upper surfaces. Occurs in Southern states. _Georgia Satyr_ (_Neonympha phocion_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches. Distinguished from the related species by the four distinct eye-spots on lower surface of each hind wing, these spots being transversely elongated rather than round. Occurs in Southern states. _Carolina Satyr_ (_Cissia sosybius_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches. Distinguished by the row of round eye-spots near outer margins of lower wing surface. Occurs in Southern states. THE HELICONIANS FAMILY _Heliconidae_ This is a tropical family with only a single species migrating northward to our Southern states. The butterflies of this group are characterized by having the wings so long and narrow that their length is usually twice as great as their width. The front legs in both sexes are so poorly developed that they are considered a modification approaching the complete dwarfing found in the Brush-footed butterflies. =The Zebra Butterfly= _Heliconius Charitonius_ While the butterflies of temperate North America show many examples of marvelous beauty and coloring, one must go to the tropics to see the culmination of what nature has done in painting the outstretched membranes of butterfly wings with gorgeous colors. The great butterfly tribes that swarm in tropical forests seldom reach our temperate clime, and even when they do they are likely to show only a suggestion of the splendid size and rich coloring to be seen farther south. The Zebra butterfly (_Heliconius charitonius_) belongs to one of these tropical tribes. It shows its affinities by its coloring and the curious shape of its wings. In most of our northern butterflies, the wings are about as long as they are wide, but in the tropical family, _Heliconidae_, they are very much longer than wide. This gives the insect an entirely different look from our common forms so that one recognizes it at once as a stranger within our gates. Indeed, it does not penetrate far into our region, being found commonly only in Florida and one or two other neighboring states, its principal home being in tropical America. The Zebra butterfly is well named. Across the brownish black wings there runs a series of yellow stripes, three on each front wing and one on each hind wing, with a sub-marginal row of white spots on each of the latter. The under surface is much like the upper, except that the coloring is distinctly paler. It is very variable in size: some specimens may be but two and a half inches across the expanded wings, while others are four inches. (_See plate, page 224._) The Zebra caterpillars feed upon the leaves of the passion flower. When full grown they are about an inch and a half long, whitish, more or less marked with brownish black spots arranged in transverse rows, and partially covered with longitudinal rows of barbed black spines. They change to chrysalids which are remarkable for their irregular shape, with two leaf-like projections on the head which the insect can move in a most curious fashion. One of the most notable things about this insect is the fact that the male butterflies are attracted to the chrysalids of the females even before the latter emerge. Many observers have reported upon this curious phenomenon and have recorded experiments demonstrating that it is a general habit with the species. _The Roosting Habits_ The adult butterflies flock together at night and rest upon the Spanish moss which festoons so many of the trees in the Far South, or upon dead branches. They take positions with heads upward and wings closed, many of them often flocking together to roost, and wandering out to the near-by fields when the morning sun gives them renewed activity. But these butterflies are essentially forest insects. Reliable observers have noticed that when one emerges from a chrysalis it flies up in the air and makes straight for the nearest woods. Others have noticed that when a butterfly in a field is alarmed it also makes for the woods. And in the regions where the species is abundant the butterflies are most likely to be found in paths and glades in the forest. Thus they show the influence of their ancestral habitat in the tropical wilderness. There seems to be a certain amount of ceremony attending the flocking together at night for roosting purposes. A famous English naturalist, Philip Henry Gosse, saw the performance in the West Indies many years ago and described it in these words: "Passing along a rocky foot-path on a steep wooded mountain side, in the Parish of St. Elizabeth (Jamaica), about the end of August, 1845, my attention was attracted, just before sunset, by a swarm of these butterflies in a sort of rocky recess, overhung by trees and creepers. They were about twenty in number, and were dancing to and fro, exactly in the manner of gnats, or as _Hepioli_ play at the side of a wood. After watching them awhile, I noticed that some of them were resting with closed wings at the extremities of one or two depending vines. One after another fluttered from the group of dancers to the reposing squadron, and alighted close to the others, so that at length, when only two or three of the fliers were left, the rest were collected in groups of half a dozen each, so close together that each group might have been grasped in the hand. When once one had alighted, it did not in general fly again, but a new-comer, fluttering at the group, seeking to find a place, sometimes disturbed one recently settled, when the wings were thrown open, and one or two flew up again. As there were no leaves on the hanging stalks, the appearance presented by these beautiful butterflies, so crowded together, their long, erect wings pointing in different directions, was not a little curious. I was told by persons residing near that every evening they thus assembled, and that I had not seen a third part of the numbers often collected in that spot." THE MILKWEED BUTTERFLIES FAMILY _Lymnadidae_ So far as the great majority of readers of this book are concerned, this family includes but one species--the familiar Monarch or Milkweed butterfly. In the Southern states there is another--the Queen--and in Florida, still a third. The distinguishing characteristics are found in the dwarfed, useless front legs and the absence of scales upon the antennae. =The Monarch= _Anosia plexippus_ From June until October one may often see the stately Monarch flitting leisurely about over fields and meadows. It is one of the largest and most distinctive of these "frail children of the air" and may be easily recognized by its resemblance to the picture opposite page 241. The veins of the wings are heavily marked in black, with large white dots upon the black bands along the margin. The color of the rest of the wings both above and below is reddish brown. These butterflies come from the South in spring or early summer. They find milkweed plants and lay their eggs upon the leaves. These eggs soon hatch into small white and black caterpillars that feed upon the milkweed leaves and grow rapidly. One is likely to find them throughout most of the summer, wherever a milkweed shows partially eaten leaves. Bring in the half-grown caterpillars, place them in an open vivarium, and furnish fresh leaves every day or two. The caterpillars will soon mature and change to beautiful green chrysalids with golden markings. This chrysalis has been called "the glass house with the gold nails." (_See plates, pages 32-33, 241._) About two weeks later the glass house will burst open and the butterfly emerge. It will rest an hour or two while its wings and body harden and then it will want to fly away. It is not so anxious to do this, however, as most butterflies. If one is kept beneath a good-sized bell-glass, or in a glass-covered box, or even in a closed room, and fed with sweetened water it will soon become so tame that it will perch on one's finger and suck nectar from a flower held in one's hand. On this account it is a particularly desirable butterfly for the amateur photographer to cultivate, because he can easily get many interesting and beautiful pictures by posing the butterfly on different flowers. _The Change from Caterpillar to Butterfly_ The change from the caterpillar to the butterfly is easier to watch in this species than in most others. The full-grown caterpillar spins--sometimes on the under surface of the milkweed leaf, sometimes elsewhere--a little mat of silk in which it entangles the hooked claws of its hind feet. Then it lets go with its fore feet, and hangs downward with the front end of its body curled upward. In this position it remains for some hours--perhaps a day--the body juices gravitating downward and causing a swollen appearance on the lower segments. Then the skin splits apart and is wriggled off by the contortions of the body. When it finally drops away, there is left a strange-looking creature, broader below than above. This is a transition stage that lasts but a very short time: soon the form is entirely changed so that the broadest part is above instead of below. The definite outline of the chrysalis is soon taken on, the outer tissues hardening into a distinct covering. The insect is now a beautiful green with wonderful golden spots upon its surface and a few black spots just below the black "cremaster" by which the chrysalis is connected with the web of silk upon the leaf. In this quiet chrysalis the insect remains for nearly a fortnight. Then the structure of the forthcoming butterfly begins to show through the thin outer covering and you know that the period of the chrysalis is nearly ended. If you keep watch you will probably see the sudden bursting of the outer envelope and the quick grasping of its surface by the legs of the newly emerged butterfly. Its wings at first are short and crumpled, bearing little resemblance to those of the fully developed butterfly. But as it hangs there with one pair of legs holding to the empty chrysalis and the other to the leaf above, the wings rapidly lengthen, hanging limply downward, and the body juices penetrate the veins. A little later they expand in the other direction, the hind wings reaching full size before the front ones do. Finally both pairs of wings are fully expanded, and the butterfly is likely to walk to the top of the support, where it rests for an hour or two while its tissues harden, before it attempts to fly. In early autumn out of doors these butterflies start southward on their long journey. They often gather in great flocks and roost at night on wayside shrubs and trees. At this season it is easy to catch them in an insect net and bring them indoors for pets. They live for a long while and lend interest and beauty to living room or window garden. To the photographer they offer opportunities for attractive indoor pictures. (_See plates, pages 32-33, 160, 225._) =The Queen= _Anosia berenice_ The general form and color patterns of this fine butterfly show at once that it is related to the Monarch. Its general colors are chocolate-brown and black, dotted and spotted with white. The eggs are laid upon milkweed and the life-history is much like that of the Monarch. One of the most interesting facts in connection with this species is that it seems to be mimicked by the Vicereine butterfly in the same way that the Monarch is mimicked by the Viceroy. THE SNOUT BUTTERFLIES OR LONG-BEAKS FAMILY _Libytheidae_ One has a suggestion of Hobson's choice in the common names of this unique family. If Snout butterflies does not seem sufficiently elegant as a descriptive phrase for such delicate creatures, he can call them the Long-beaks, until he sees that this also is inadequate. As a matter of fact both are misnomers, for the projection from the head that gives them these names is neither a snout nor a beak. It is simply a pair of palpi unusually developed, which perhaps in an early stage of butterfly history served a useful purpose. At present, however, they serve chiefly to set the few owners apart from the other butterflies in the system of classification; although possibly they may also serve the butterfly by helping to give the impression of a leaf attached to a twig. (_See plate, page 240._) =The Snout Butterfly= _Hypatus bachmani_ There is a peculiar interest in any form of animal life which can be definitely traced far back through the geologic ages. In nearly every group of living creatures there are certain types which scientists have found were once abundant but which now are on the wane. As a rule these are better represented in the museums through fossil species than by those now living. To a considerable extent also such forms are likely to present various features which mark their primitive condition and the living allies have peculiarities which set them off as distinct from those of their own relations which have been modeled in a more modern fashion. Among the mammals the curious marsupials, of which our southern opossum is an example, furnish good illustrations of this general truth. Among the birds the curious little Least Bittern is an example. Among the butterflies the strange Snout butterfly is by far the best example. These Snout butterflies, of which only two species are now living in North America, are the sole representatives with us of the family _Libytheidae_ or the Long-beaks. Only one of these species occurs to any extent at least north of Texas. It is the curious little creature called the Snout butterfly. It has a strange appearance due to the angular outline of both front and hind wings and the long palpi which project forward from the head in a way to attract attention. The common name is due to these projecting palpi. Even the coloring is primitive, the general tone of the wings being blackish brown, distinctly marked with white and orange spots. The under surface is less primitive in its coloring, being toned in iridescent grayish brown in a way to suggest protective coloring, except in that part of each front wing which is not hidden when the insect is at rest. This shows the white and orange-brown markings. Some years ago there were found in certain fossil deposits in the West about a dozen species of fossil butterflies. It is strange indeed that these ethereal creatures should be fossilized at all. One would think it scarcely possible that they could be so preserved that a million years after they had died man should be able to study them, determine to what families they belonged, and even guess with a high probability of accuracy upon what leaves their caterpillars fed. This little collection of fossil butterflies was studied by one of the great American authorities on living butterflies, the late Samuel H. Scudder, who said of them: "They are generally preserved in such fair condition that the course of the nervures and the color patterns of the wings can be determined, and even, in one case, the scales may be studied. As a rule, they are so well preserved that we may feel nearly as confident concerning their affinities with those now living as if we had pinned specimens to examine; and, generally speaking, the older they are the better they are preserved." A curious fact is that out of the comparatively few species of these fossil butterflies two were easily recognized as members of this Long-beak family. They were given special scientific names and undoubtedly were closely related to the Snout butterfly which is still flying every year in various parts of the United States. Our modern species lays its eggs upon the leaves of hackberry and in these geologic deposits of that far-gone era there have been found well-preserved leaves of old hackberry trees, upon which it is extremely probable that the caterpillars of these ancient Long-beaks fed. What an opportunity for a modern collector of butterflies to work his fancy, as he thinks of those old times when these fossil creatures were flying in the sunshine, depositing their eggs upon the leaves of trees that made up landscape pictures probably very different from those of to-day! And how he wonders what flowers these butterflies visited for their nectar food, what birds chased them from tree to tree, and what mammals wandered through those ancient forests. What a suggestion also it gives of the continuity of life upon our old earth to realize that these butterflies of to-day are carrying on their brief existence in practically the same way that these forbears of theirs did so many millions of years ago. Another way in which these butterflies are peculiar is the fact that the females have six well-developed legs while the males have only four. As already indicated the caterpillars feed upon hackberry. When full grown they are about an inch long, dark green, striped with yellow, with two blackish tubercules on the second ring behind the head. They apparently pass the winter in the chrysalis stage. The butterflies are likely to be found along the borders of brooks or streams running through woods, or along the margins of the forest. Occasionally they become abundant in certain localities, but on the whole they are rare and highly prized by collectors. THE METAL-MARKS FAMILY _Riodinidae_ This small family of very small butterflies contains five genera and a dozen species found in the United States and Mexico. Only two, however, occur in the eastern region and only one extends much north of the Gulf states. Aside from certain peculiarities of the wing-venation (a costal and a humeral vein on the hind wings) these Metal-marks may be known by their minuteness and the bright metallic markings on the brown wings. Both our eastern species belong to the genus _Calephelis_. The Small Metal-mark (_C. caenius_) has been collected in Florida and Georgia. The wings are rusty red on both surfaces, brighter below than above, and marked with blackish spots that almost converge to form stripes; in addition to which there are, beyond the middle of each wing, two lines made by special scales that glisten with a steel glitter. The wings expand only about three quarters of an inch. So far as I can learn, the egg, larva, or pupa have never been described. The Large Metal-mark is called by science _Calephelis borealis_, but it deserves the latter name only in the sense that it is more northern than its allies. It has been collected as far north as New York and Michigan, but it seems to be very seldom found, at least in eastern regions. It expands a little more than an inch. The general color of the wings is yellowish brown, marked with blackish dots and lines, together with rows of steely spots on the under surface. In this case also the life-history is unknown. [Illustration: _See page 236_ THE SNOUT BUTTERFLY IN FLIGHT AND AT REST] [Illustration: _See page 62_ GIANT SWALLOWTAIL JUST OUT OF THE CHRYSALIS] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 233_ THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY Caterpillar feeding; caterpillar hung up for pupation; chrysalis, and adult] THE GOSSAMER-WINGS FAMILY _Lycaenidae_ The daintiest and most delicate of all our butterflies are included among the Gossamer-wings. Their bodies are small and slender, their antennae ringed with white and almost threadlike, their wings thin and of exquisite beauty. Many of them are marked with the slenderest of tailed projections from the hind wings. When the face is viewed from in front it is seen to be much narrower than its height. At the insertion of the antennae the eyes are notched, and they are also more or less surrounded with white scales. Most of the caterpillars have oval, slug-shaped, smooth bodies, with the under surface flattened, and very small heads, which in many species can be extended by means of an extensile neck. The chrysalids are held in place by silken threads both at the tail and over the middle. They are rounded, short, and stout. Notwithstanding their small size, the Gossamer-wings are among the most spritely of all our butterflies. They seem indeed winged sprites, playing everywhere, in fields and open woods, along roads, lanes, and brooks, in dooryards and gardens--wherever, in fact, a bit of open space invites their presence. Not alone upon the wing but even when at rest does their liveliness appear. For most of these butterflies have the curious habit of keeping the hind wings in motion after alighting, rubbing them against each other in a vertical plane or "moving them backward and forward when half expanded." These habits are so fixed that when one sees a butterfly thus engaged one can pretty certainly conclude it is a member of this family. The Gossamer-wings are commonly separated into three rather distinct tribes--the Hair-streaks, the Coppers, and the Blues. The characteristic features are these: Three branches arising from the radius of each front wing. Under surface of hind wing commonly marked with threadlike streaks: the Hair-streaks. Four branches arising from the radius of each front wing. Under surface of hind wing commonly marked with spots rather than lines. Colors brownish red: The Coppers. Colors blue: The Blues. THE TRIBE OF THE HAIR-STREAKS The Hair-streaks are small butterflies with the eyes notched to allow for the insertion of the bases of the antennae. The name is given on account of the fine, hair-like markings which extend across the under surface of the hind wings. In many species there is a tailed projection or two on the hind inner margin of the hind wing. The caterpillars are remarkable for the small head, so connected with the body that it can be pushed forward in a characteristic way. The Hair-streaks are among the most exquisite and delicate of all our butterflies. A large proportion of them have the upper surface of the wings toned in beautiful hues of grayish brown and the under surface lighter gray, marked with dots and stripes, some of which are brilliant in coloring. A few of the larger species are brilliantly iridescent in purples, blues, and greens, marked with black. The males have well-developed scent-pockets in many species, these being commonly along the front border of the front wing. A very interesting suggestion in regard to the possible function of the curious tail projections was made nearly a hundred years ago by some English entomologists and has since been discussed at considerable length in various publications. It is that the slender tails, together with the enlargement of the wing just back of them, give the impression of a false head. Along with this unusual development of the wing is to be considered the fact that these butterflies nearly always alight head downward so that the false head, furnished with what seem to be waving antennae, takes the place that would naturally be occupied by the true head. Instances have been reported in which this false head has apparently been nipped off by a lizard and much evidence has accumulated to indicate that this curious device may be a real protection in many cases. Of course, the loss of the tails and the part of the wings adjacent would be comparatively insignificant. In most cases, these projections on the wings are held at right angles to the plane of the wing. While nearly half a hundred species of Hair-streaks have been found in North America, only a few of these are sufficiently abundant to require discussion in this little book. =The Great Purple Hair-streak= _Atlides halesus_ It seems something of a reflection on the activities of American entomologists to say that, after the lapse of more than a century since Abbott studied the insects of Georgia, our knowledge of the early stages of two of the largest Hair-streak butterflies is still confined to the observations he made. Yet this is true, and one of them--the Great Purple Hair-streak--is the largest species of the group that occurs in the eastern United States. The other is the White-M Hair-streak. The Great Purple Hair-streak is a beautiful, iridescent blue creature, as seen from above, with blackish borders around the blue. As seen from below, the wings are dark brown, with red spots near the body. The two tail-like projections are quite long. It is very large for the group to which it belongs, measuring nearly two inches across the expanded wings. It is a tropical form, extending into our southern borders from California to Florida and occasionally occurring north as far as southern Illinois. The larvae feed on oak. (_See plate, page 256._) =The White-M Hair-streak= _Eupsyche M-album_ The White-M Hair-streak is about two thirds the size of the Great Purple species with less blue and more black on the upper wing surface. The hind tail is slender and well developed, and the angle of the wing just back of it is rounded out in an unusual fashion. The lower surface of the wing is of a general grayish brown color, marked by a white stripe, which takes the form of the letter M: hence its name. This is also a southern species occurring at times as far north as Ohio and even Atlantic City, New Jersey. The caterpillars feed upon the leaves of oak and Astragalus or milk vetch. There is also a third species of this group of whose history we are ignorant except for Abbot's observations. It is an exquisite little butterfly called the Least Purple Hair-streak (_Calycopis cecrops_) and is apparently a tropical form which has spread into our Southern states. It is especially beautiful because of the brilliant red and white lines running across the under surface of both wings. It occurs as far north as West Virginia and Kentucky and ranges westward at least to the Mississippi Valley. =The Gray Hair-streak= _Uranotes melinus_ This exquisite little creature is capable of surviving under a great variety of climatic conditions. It ranges from New Hampshire to Florida and Central America, but apparently occurs only rarely north of the United States. Perhaps the most distinctive feature in the female is the orange spot just in front of a pair of tiny tails on each hind wing, the rear one being curiously curved and about three times as long as the other. In the male the shorter tail is absent. The general color of the upper surface is a dark bluish gray, relieved on the margin of each hind wing by a few white dots and the orange spot already mentioned. The under surface is much lighter gray, distinctly marked with two dark brown lines near the margin, the outer line little more than a row of spots and the inner line with a white edge. (_See plate, page 257._) These small butterflies lay tiny though beautiful eggs upon a variety of plants. The eggs hatch into curious little caterpillars that have the appearance of slugs with small heads which can be extended as if the little creature had really a rubber neck. The object of this extensile head is seen when one finds the larvae feeding upon the fruits or the seed-pods of its various food plants--hawthorn, hop, hound's-tongue, and St. John's-wort. The caterpillar is able to thrust its jaws into the interior of the seed-pods and devour their contents. There seem to be generally two broods in a season, even in the more northern parts of its range, while toward the south there are probably at least three broods. The butterflies are found upon the wing almost any time in summer, especially from early June until late in August. =The Banded Hair-streak= _Thecla calanus_ This is one of the most familiar of the delicate little butterflies grouped in the genus _Thecla_. It occurs rather commonly in a great stretch of territory extending from Maine, west to Nebraska, south to New Mexico and Texas, and east to Alabama and Georgia. It also occurs in a limited area on the coast of California. The general color of the upper surface is a dark brown, which in the male is marked near the front edge of the fore wings with a distinct gray patch of scent scales. The under side is similar in color to the upper except that the outer half of the wing is marked by two series of broken lines in white, blue, and brown and a brilliant bit of coloring just in front of the tail projection of the hind wings; this coloring shows beautiful tones of red, blue, and black. These little butterflies may often be seen visiting the midsummer flowers but are fully as likely to be found along the sides of a shady road, where they rest upon the leaves of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. When disturbed, they fly up in small companies but soon settle back again into their previous positions. They are lovers of sunshine and may often be seen upon a leaf, with fully expanded wings, taking a sun-bath. There is but one brood a year, butterflies appearing early in summer and remaining for several weeks. They lay their tiny pale green eggs upon the leaves of various trees, especially oaks and hickories, and probably hawthorns. It is not known whether these eggs remain unhatched as a rule until the following spring, or whether they soon hatch and the young caterpillars hibernate without feeding. It is probable that both conditions occur. In spring the larvae eat holes in the leaves of their food plant and grow rather slowly, gradually becoming brown or green slug-like caterpillars about half an inch long. They finally change into greenish brown chrysalids from which the butterflies emerge in early summer. =The Striped Hair-streak= _Thecla liparops_ In the Eastern states the distribution of this species is almost the same as that of the Banded Hair-streak, but in the Central West the outline of its region moves northward extending into Canada, above North Dakota, and into Montana and Wyoming. It does not go so far south, however, extending practically only to the southern borders of Kansas and Missouri. The butterfly bears a striking general resemblance to the other species just named, differing chiefly in the fact that the under surface of the wings is much more thickly marked with broken lines that extend nearer to the body. As a rule, it is not common and consequently it is prized by collectors. Some good observers have noticed that it is more likely to be found only on flowers, instead of sunning itself on leaves. It is single-brooded, hibernating either in the egg state or in that of the young larvae. The food plants are varied, there being good evidence that the caterpillar feeds upon all of these: apple, plum, shadbush, blueberry, holly, chestnut, willow, thorn, and several kinds of oaks. Mr. W. F. Fiske found a chrysalis of this species in the deserted nest of a tent caterpillar in New Hampshire in early June, the butterfly emerging later in the month. =The Acadian Hair-streak= _Thecla acadica_ This is one of the numerous butterflies that offers some young student an opportunity to make real contributions to science. It is a beautiful little creature, expanding scarcely an inch across its outstretched wings, found from New England west to Montana along a rather restricted area, which coincides pretty closely with the southern part of the Transition Zone. There is a form on the Pacific Coast which is commonly considered to be this same species. These butterflies appear during July and August. They visit various flowers but are especially likely to be found near willow thickets along the borders of brooks and swamps. It is supposed that the eggs are laid upon the willows and that they remain unhatched until the following spring. Then they develop into little caterpillars that feed upon the willow leaves and mature in time to form chrysalids early in June. These chrysalids in turn disclose the butterfly early in July. So far as I know the eggs themselves and the situation in which they are laid have never been described. =The Olive Hair-streak= _Mitoura damon_ Very few butterflies have the distinction of showing a clear case of protective resemblance to one kind of plant in both the adult and the larval stages. This is the case, however, with this Olive Hair-streak which is so intimately associated with our common red cedar, that where one is found the other is likely to occur, although both caterpillars and butterflies are seldom seen because they resemble the twigs of the cedar so closely. Along the Atlantic Coast this little butterfly occurs from New Hampshire to Florida, and westward to a line drawn from Dakota to Texas. The upper surface of the wings is rather dark olive-brown and the under surface, so far as it is exposed when the butterfly is resting, is of a greenish hue that harmonizes with the green of the red cedar twigs. There are also, on the under surface, some irregular lines and dots of red, brown, and white which probably help in rendering the insect inconspicuous when it is resting among a cluster of twigs. The yearly history of this beautiful little butterfly differs from that of most of its relatives. The species winters in the chrysalis state, the first brood of butterflies bursting forth early in May. These lay their eggs upon or between the scales of the red cedar twigs, especially those which bear flowers. About a week later the eggs hatch into tiny caterpillars that feed upon the scale-like leaves, continuing to eat and grow for nearly six weeks before they reach their full size. These caterpillars are so similar in color that they are difficult to see, and they have a remarkable protective device in that the first ring behind the head is developed into a shield which covers the head, hiding it so completely that the movement of the jaws in feeding is effectively concealed. Late in June they change to chrysalids, part of which appear to remain in this condition until the following spring, while most of them give forth a second brood of butterflies in July. These butterflies lay eggs for a second brood of larvae that mature into chrysalids during September, and hibernate in this condition until the following spring. Consequently, in the Northern states, the collector should look for fresh specimens in May and early June and again in July and early August. These butterflies visit various flowers, apparently preferring rather small blossoms, such as those of the Mouse-ear Everlasting, which is in bloom when the first brood is flying, and the various members of the mint family, especially spearmint, as well as the sumacs, which are in bloom when the second brood is on the wing. The time between flower visits seems to be spent at rest upon the red cedar branches, and one of the surest ways to find the butterflies is to give these trees a sudden jar, which starts them into flight. In fact, they may often be seen flying around the tops of the cedars a score of feet from the ground. _Synopsis of the Hair-streaks_ _Great Purple Hair-streak_ (_Atlides halesus_ or _Thecla halesus_). Wing expanse 1 3/4 inches. Upper wing surface bright blue with blackish margins, the blackish coloring extending nearly to the middle in the female. Two distinct tails on each hind wing. Under surface sepia brown with blue and red spots. Abdomen orange below. _White-M Hair-streak_ (_Eupsyche m-album_ or _Thecla m-album_). Wing expanse 1 1/3 inches. Upper wing surface blue with wide blackish margins in both sexes. Under surface marked with whitish lines suggesting the letter M, with a reddish spot near it. Each hind wing with two small tails. _Least Purple Hair-streak_ (_Calycopis cecrops_ or _Thecla cecrops_). Wing expanse 1 inch or less. Upper wing surface dark brown, more or less marked with blue, especially at base of front wings and inner half of hind wings. Under wing surface marked with a brilliant red line edged outside with white. Two very fine tails on hind wings with brightly colored spots near their base on lower surface. _Gray Hair-streak_ (_Uranotes melinus_ or _Thecla melinus_). Wing expanse 1 1/5 inches. Upper wing surface bluish gray with a brilliant red spot at base of tails on hind wing. Lower wing surface much lighter gray, each wing marked with a brown and white stripe and a row of dots nearer the margin. _Banded Hair-streak_ (_Thecla calanus_). Wing expanse 1 1/5 inches. Upper wing surface dull dark brown, commonly without markings although sometimes there is an orange spot on each hind wing. Lower wing surface a little lighter than upper with bright red and blue spots at the base of the tiny tails, and with distinct narrow blue and white broken bands extending across the outer half of each wing. _Striped Hair-streak_ (_Thecla liparops_). Wing expanse 1 inch. Very similar to the Banded Hair-streak, but having more white markings on the lower surface of the wings. _Acadian Hair-streak_ (_Thecla acadica_). Wing expanse 1 1/3 inches. Upper wing surface blackish brown with a slaty tinge, and red spots at base of the single short tail on each hind wing. Lower surface bluish gray with many small blackish spots edged with white arranged in two principal rows on the outer half of each wing. Larger orange-red spots on each side of base of the tail on each hind wing. _Olive Hair-streak_ (_Mitoura damon_ or _Thecla damon_). Wing expanse 1 inch or less. Upper wing surface olive-brown, more yellow in the male than the female. Tips of tiny tails on hind wing whitish. Lower surface green except where upper wing is covered by lower: this part is brown. The green is marked with a row of white spots on each front wing and two distinct rows of brown and white spots on each hind wing, with black spots between. THE TRIBE OF THE COPPERS The members of this tribe are well characterized by their name, for most of them show on the upper wing surface tones of coppery brown, more or less marked around the margin with darker shades. On the under side of the tarsi there are numerous spines in irregular clusters. In the chrysalis there are curious hair-like projections on the skin, which are short and shaped like tiny toadstools or mushrooms. While some of the Coppers are very abundant, the majority are rather rare. Only a few species are sufficiently widely distributed to require description here. =The Wanderer= _Feniseca tarquinius_ In many orders of insects there are whole families whose larvae are habitually carnivorous, feeding entirely upon other kinds of insects. This is especially so in case of the beetles, the flies, the true bugs, and the great order to which the bees and wasps belong. Among the scale-winged insects, however, carnivorous caterpillars are rare, seldom occurring among the moths and in hardly more than one species among the butterflies. This one exception is the modest-looking little butterfly fancifully called the Wanderer, perhaps because instead of frequenting the flowery fields where other butterflies congregate it wanders in and out among the alders by brooks and ponds, alighting oftener upon a leaf or twig than upon a flower--the latter apparently lacking for it the attraction it has for other butterflies. If you watch one of these copper-hued creatures for awhile, however, you will soon see that its wandering is not aimless but has rather a method all its own. Perhaps you will see it alight upon an alder twig on or above which you are likely to notice curious woolly white excrescences. If you are close enough you will probably see the butterfly uncoil its tongue and sip up a liquid on twig or leaf--the exudations of the woolly aphids that make up the supposed excrescence and suck the sap from the bark. Much of this sap passes through the bodies of the aphids and collects in liquid globules on twigs and leaves, forming a sort of honey-dew which is much sought after by flies, wasps, and other insects. It seems to form the chief sustenance of these Wanderers. But many of these butterflies have another purpose besides that of sipping the honey-dew. Should you watch one of the mother butterflies carefully you would be likely to see her alight on or near a colony of woolly aphids and run rather rapidly over them in a wasp-like manner, finally stopping long enough to lay a tiny, roundish, slightly flattened egg upon the twig, generally on the under side, and only one in a place. Then she may continue her way, wandering lazily along the alder-bordered stream. Let us now centre our interest upon the egg. Three or four days later it hatches into a curious caterpillar. Instead of having mouth parts fitted for biting leaves as is the case with most butterfly larvae, it has one fitted for grasping, piercing, and sucking the juices of the plump bodies of the aphids, which it finds hard by its place of birth. It also has silk spinnerets connected with its mouth, so it is able to spin a web to shelter it from being run over by its intended victims. The newly hatched larva is not slow to take advantage of the facilities with which it is provided. It at once begins to spin a web above and around itself, from the end of which it reaches out for the nearest aphids, sucking their life-blood and casting their empty skins to the discard of its protecting web. The skins thus serve as an additional shelter so that, as the caterpillar moves forward, increasing the number of its victims from day to day, it extends its web and the protection of the cast skins intermingled with it, while through all--the cast skins, the silken web, and even the hairs on the body of the caterpillar--there runs a woof of the woolly excretion--effectually concealing the larva from sight. The woolly aphids thus serve as the sole food of the caterpillar during its brief life as a larva. Perhaps because of the pre-digested nature of its food, it is able to mature much sooner than most butterfly larvae. In about eleven days after hatching it is ready to change to a chrysalis, having undergone during this period only three moults, instead of at least four as with other caterpillars. Each caterpillar then changes to a chrysalis which is remarkable because the form and color of its back bears a striking resemblance to the face of a miniature monkey. It remains in this condition nearly a fortnight and then emerges as a butterfly. In New England and the Northern states the short life of the larva enables this insect to mature three broods each season. Farther south there are probably more, for this species is widely distributed in eastern North America, occurring from Nova Scotia to Georgia and west to the Mississippi Valley. =The American Copper= _Heodes hypophlaeas_ This little butterfly is one of the most generally abundant insects in the northern part of North America. It commonly occurs from ocean to ocean, from the Hudson Bay region to the latitude of Georgia, and it flies freely in city parks and village yards as well as in the more open spaces of field and forest. When seen through a lens it is very beautifully colored, the coppery red of the wings being overspread with conspicuous black dots and a touch of orange around the outer border. The expanded wings measure just about an inch, so that this is one of the smallest of our common butterflies. The caterpillars of the American Copper feed upon sorrel, one of the commonest weedy plants of waste places everywhere. The rusty red blossoms of the sorrel harmonize in color with the color of the butterfly, which is frequently to be seen flying slowly above the plants, stopping now and then to lay its eggs singly upon the leaves or stems. Each egg soon hatches into a curious caterpillar, which looks more like a slug than the usual type of butterfly larva. It feeds upon the succulent tissue of the sorrel leaf, at first biting small holes in the under surface. As it gets larger it feeds more freely and is likely to make channels instead of holes. It matures in about three weeks, changing into a chrysalis under the shelter of a stone or board. A little later it again changes to a butterfly. There is an interesting variation in the number of broods of this butterfly each season. In regions where it has been studied it has been found to be double-brooded in northern New England and triple-brooded in southern New England and the Atlantic states. It is probable that in its far northern home in the Hudson Bay territory it is only single-brooded. It is thought that the insect hibernates as a chrysalis. These little butterflies are so small and fly so near the ground that they are likely to be overlooked by the casual observer. They frequently alight to sun themselves or to sip nectar from many kinds of flowers. They begin their day's work early in the morning and continue well into the evening. Then they find a roosting-place, head downward upon a blade of grass, where they sleep until wakened by the morning sunshine. [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ FIVE INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES The Spring Azure (_p. 258_) at the top; the Falcate Orange-Tip (_p. 94_) next; the Bronze Copper (_p. 257_), female, next; the Spring Azure (_p. 258_) resting on a leaf, next; and the Great Purple Hair-streak (_p. 243_), female, below.] [Illustration: _See page 245_ STAGES OF THE GRAY HAIR-STREAK] =The Bronze Copper= _Chrysophanus thoe_ This butterfly is nearly twice as large as the American Copper to which the female of the present species bears a striking resemblance. The Bronze Copper is a rare species, occurring from New England nearly to the Rocky Mountains. The slug-shaped yellowish green caterpillar feeds upon dock and related plants. (_See plate, page 256._) _Synopsis of the Coppers_ _The Wanderer_ (_Feniseca tarquinius_). Wing expanse 1 1/4 inches. Upper wing surface tawny brown, each wing more or less marked with dark brown spots, the distinction between the colors being clear-cut, and the lines between having an angular effect. Lower surface of front wings similar in colors to upper with dark spots rectangular. Under surface of hind wings mottled with irregular spots of pale brown. _American Copper_ (_Heodes hypophlaeas_ or _Chrysophanus hypophlaeas_). Wing expanse 1 inch. Upper surface of front wings tawny orange with margins and rectangular spots blackish. Upper surface of hind wings coppery red with a tawny orange band on outer margin. Lower surface of front wings much like upper surface; that of hind wings grayish marked with dark spots and an orange line near the margin. _Bronze Copper_ (_Chrysophanus thoe_). Wing expanse 1 1/2 inches. _Male._ Upper wing surface coppery brown marked with dark spots and a tawny orange sub-marginal band along outer margin of hind wings. Under surface of front wings lighter orange with blackish spots and of hind wings grayish with blackish spots and an orange sub-marginal band. _Female._ Upper surface of front wings tawny orange with blackish spots. THE TRIBE OF THE BLUES These beautiful little butterflies are well named, for the majority of them are colored in exquisite tints of blue. They are distinguished from the Coppers by this blue coloring, as well as by the fact that the spines on the under side of the tarsi are arranged in rows rather than in clusters and are comparatively few in number. The body is rather slender and the under surfaces of the wings are generally dotted in a characteristic fashion. Most of the two score or more species found in North America occur on the Pacific Coast or in the Southwest, less than half a dozen being common in the eastern region. =The Spring Azure= _Cyaniris ladon_ For a wee bit of a gossamer-winged creature that expands scarcely an inch across its outstretched wings, the Spring Azure has caused American scientists an immense amount of patient labor. Over the vast territory from Labrador across to Alaska and south to the Gulf of Mexico, this little blue butterfly exists in so many different forms that it requires special analytical keys to separate them. Not only does it vary geographically so that in one locality we find one form and in another a different form, but it also varies seasonally to a marked degree. As one would expect there is a striking difference in its annual cycle between Labrador and the Gulf Coast. In the far northern region there is but one brood a year, while in the southern region there are at least two and perhaps more. The variations in this butterfly are shown by the differences in the marking of both surfaces of the wings. These markings may run from a faint blackish border along the extreme margin and a few faint dots upon the under surface, to a wide black margin around the wings and a deep abundant spotting of the under surface. The markings of the various forms are so uniform that the varieties are easily distinguished. It is beyond the scope of this book to attempt to differentiate all these varieties but any reader interested will find an admirable summary of the conditions illustrated by an excellent plate in Comstock's "How to Know the Butterflies." The species as a whole may be known from the fact that the upper surface is blue, the lower surface ash-gray, more or less spotted with dark brown, and the wings are without tails. (_See plate, page 256._) _The Strange Structures of the Larvae_ A remarkable variation of the adults is sufficient to give this species a special interest, but the larvae also have a unique attraction for the naturalist. The mother butterflies lay their eggs upon the flower buds of various plants, especially those which have clustered racemes of blossoms. These eggs hatch into minute slug-like larvae which feed upon the buds, commonly burrowing through the calyx lobes and devouring the undeveloped stamens and pistils inside. They finally change to chrysalids, which are more or less securely attached to a central flower stalk, from which in due time the butterflies emerge. So far there is nothing remarkable about this story of the life of the Spring Azure, but that is yet to come. These little caterpillars are subject to attack by tiny parasitic flies which lay eggs in their bodies. Each egg hatches into a still more tiny maggot that lives at the expense of the tissues of the caterpillar and finally kills it. When one of these little caterpillars has its head buried in the round ball of a flower bud, about half of its body is exposed defenseless, so that the little fly that lights upon it to lay her egg cannot even be dislodged by the head of the caterpillar, as is often the case with other species. There is a very curious provision for defense, however. If you look carefully through a lens at the hind part of the body you will find a little opening on the back of the seventh abdominal ring. This opening leads to a sort of tiny pocket, a pocket which the caterpillar can turn inside out when it so desires. Now the curious thing about it is that the caterpillar, while this pocket is concealed in its body, is able to secrete in it a drop of liquid which we presume to be sweet to the taste. When the little pocket is partly filled with this drop of liquid the caterpillar turns it inside out in such a way that the liquid drop remains in position on top of the protruded pocket. Perhaps you ask what is the good of all this complicated arrangement? If you could see what happens when the little drop of what--for lack of a better name--we shall call honey-dew is exposed, you would begin to guess the reason. Wherever these larvae are found you will also find many ants wandering round among them, and the moment the honey-dew appears these ants begin to sip it up. When it is all gone the little caterpillar draws in its pocket again and presumably begins to store up another bit of liquid. It is certainly a curious example of what the naturalists call symbiosis, which simply means a living together of two animals, each helping the other in some way. In this case it is easy enough to see how the caterpillar helps the ant, but perhaps you are wondering in what possible way the ant may help the caterpillar. I hardly dare give the most plausible explanation for fear some one will cry out, "Nature-faker!" But fortunately the explanation is based upon at least one precise observation by W. H. Edwards, one of the most careful and reliable naturalists America has produced, who lived before the recent era of Nature-fakers and was never accused of sensationalism. Mr. Edwards saw an ant drive away from one of these caterpillars a little parasitic fly which apparently was searching for a victim. Consequently, it would appear that the ants helped the caterpillars by protecting them from these arch enemies. This is by no means an isolated example of the relations between ants and other insects. It has been known for hundreds of years that the ants use the aphids as a sort of domestic milk-producer, attending the aphids at all times and even caring for their eggs throughout the winter season. As the plant-lice live in colonies, sucking the sap of their host plant, they are attended by great numbers of ants that feed upon the honey-dew which passes through their bodies. In many cases the ants have been observed to stroke the aphids with their antennae in a way which seems to induce the aphid to give out a drop of the sweet liquid for the ant to lap up. In a similar way these ants seem sometimes to stroke these little caterpillars with their antennae and thus to induce them to turn their little pockets inside out with the drop of liquid at the tip. This is certainly an unusual and most interesting relation between two insects far separated by their structural characters. The little pocket that I have thus described is situated upon the seventh segment of the abdomen. Just back of it there are two other openings which are even more curious in their structure. These are provided with some slender tentacles on which there are circles of hairy spurs. These structures are a great puzzle to naturalists. It is difficult to explain what they are for unless we assume that they relate in some way to the honey-dew pocket on the seventh ring. The only plausible explanation is that these serve to advertise to the ants, by giving off a distinctive odor, that there is nectar near at hand to be had for the asking. They would thus be analogous in a way to the fragrant scent of flowers which is for the purpose of advertising to the bee the fact that nectar or pollen or both are near at hand and may be had for the asking. In the case of these caterpillars, however, if this is the true explanation it is a most wonderful provision and one which would be likely to tax the ingenuity of man's mind for a long while before it was originated. So this little butterfly which greets us in every spring, like "a violet afloat," to quote Mr. Scudder's happy phrase, is full of interest at all stages of its existence. It should lead one to a new respect for the familiar things in the natural world when one learns how baffling to the wits of the wisest scientist is this little creature with its protean forms and the wonderful structure of its caterpillars. =Scudder's Blue= _Rusticus scudderi_ This beautiful little butterfly is perhaps the most richly colored of all our northern Blues. The upper surface of the wings in the male is a nearly uniform hue, except for a narrow dark border around the margin. In the female there is, in addition, a series of black-centred orange spots inside of the black border, the series being more prominent on the hind wings than on the front ones. The under surface is very pale with distinct marks in black scattered over the basal two thirds, with a row of orange spots outside of these and another row of small blackish spots just inside of the blackish border stripe. This butterfly is a northern species. It occurs in New England, New York, and Michigan, and thence extends far north into Canada. The caterpillar feeds upon blue lupine and apparently the butterfly is likely to be found in most places where this plant grows. The eggs are laid upon the leaves or stems and the little caterpillars come out of the shells through small holes which they have gnawed. "The caterpillar," wrote Mr. Scudder, "has a very extensible head and flexible neck, and its manner of feeding immediately after birth is rather remarkable; it pierces the lower cuticle of the leaf, making a hole just large enough to introduce its minute head, and then devours all the interior of the leaf as far as it can reach--many times the diameter of the hole--so that when the caterpillar goes elsewhere, the leaf looks as if marked with a circular blister, having a central nucleus; the nearly colorless membranes of the leaf being all that is left, and at the central entrance to the blister the upper membrane only." Later in its life it often modifies this feeding habit somewhat, and as it approaches full growth it is likely to devour the entire blade of the leaf. These larvae have the curious nectar-secreting glands on the seventh abdominal segment which are discussed in connection with the preceding species. Many ants are attracted by this secretion so that it often happens that the easiest way to find the caterpillars is to look for these attendants. In New England there are two broods of the butterfly, one appearing early in June and the other late in July. =The Tailed Blue= _Everes comyntas_ The tiny, threadlike, white-tipped tail projecting from the hind angle of the hind wings distinguishes this species at sight from any other found in eastern North America. The species, however, occurs clear to the Pacific Coast and ranges north and south over most of the northern continent. The small slug-like caterpillar feeds upon the flowers of various clovers and other legumes. =The Silvery Blue= _Nomiades lygdamus_ It would be a distinct privilege to work out the life-history of this exquisite little butterfly. Although the adult was described as long ago as 1842, the early stages seem to be still unknown. The species occurs in the South Atlantic states, extending west as far as Wisconsin. _Synopsis of the Blues_ _Tailed Blue_ (_Everes comyntas_ or _Lycaena comyntas_). Wing expanse 1 inch or less. A slender tail projecting from each hind wing. Upper wing surface of varying tones of blue, the males lighter than the females. Lower wing surface grayish white with scattered spots. _Scudder's Blue_ (_Rusticus scudderi_ or _Lycaena scudderi_). Wing expanse 1 inch or less. No tails on hind wings. Eyes without hairs. Upper wing surface blue; female has dusky margins on front wings and an orange border with blackish spots near outer margin of the hind wings. Lower wing surface bluish gray with many small spots. _Silvery Blue_ (_Nomiades lygdamus_ or _Lycaena lygdamus_). Wing expanse 1 inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes hairy. Upper wing surface silvery blue with dusky margins which are broader in the female. Lower wing surface ashy gray with many darker spots. _Spring Azure_ (_Cyaniris ladon_ or _Lycaena ladon_). Wing expanse 1 inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes hairy. Upper wing surface azure blue with black border markings varying greatly, more pronounced in the female. Lower wing surface slaty brown with many darker spots. PART III THE SKIPPER BUTTERFLIES SUPERFAMILY _Hesperioidea_ The true butterflies are so distinct in their structure and many of their habits from the Skippers that the most careful students of the order are pretty well agreed in making the two great superfamilies--Papilionoidea, the true butterflies, and Hesperioidea, the Skipper butterflies. The latter includes these two families: The Giant Skippers (_Megathymidae_). The Common Skippers (_Hesperiidae_). These insects as a whole are distinguished from the higher butterflies by their large moth-like bodies, small wings, hooked antennae (except in the Giant Skippers), by having five branches of the radius vein arising from the large central cell. The larvae spin slight cocoons in which to pupate and the pupae are rounded rather than angular. The two families are readily distinguished by the differences in their size and the structure of the antennae. The Giant Skippers measure two inches or more across the expanded wings and have comparatively small heads, with the clubs of the antennae not pointed or recurved. The Common Skippers are smaller, and have very large heads with the antennal clubs drawn out and recurved. THE GIANT SKIPPERS FAMILY _Megathymidae_ Although large in size, the Giant Skippers are few in numbers. Only one genus and five species are listed for North America, and practically all of these are confined to the Southwestern states and Mexico. Some of them extend as far north as Colorado and as far east as Florida. [Illustration: Megathymus yuccae. Female. (After Riley.)] So far as the story of its life is concerned, the best-known species is the Yucca-borer Skipper (_Megathymus yuccae_) which was carefully studied by the late Dr. C. V. Riley. As will be seen from the picture above which represents the adult, natural size, this skipper has a body so large as to suggest some of the heavy-bodied moths. The wings are dark brown, marked with red-brown spots and bands. They fly by day and when at rest hold the wings erect. These adults lay eggs upon the leaves of Spanish needle or yucca. The eggs soon hatch into little caterpillars which at first roll parts of the leaves into cylinders, fastening the sides in place by silken threads, and later burrow into the stem and root, often making a tunnel a foot or more deep. Here the caterpillars remain until full grown. They are then nearly four inches long and half an inch in diameter. They now pupate in the top of their tunnel and in due season emerge as adults. THE COMMON SKIPPERS FAMILY _Hesperiidae_ The Skippers are the least developed of the butterflies. They show their close relationship to the moths both by their structure and their habits. The larvae make slight cocoons before changing to chrysalids, and these chrysalids are so rounded that they suggest the pupae of moths rather than those of butterflies. The common name--Skippers--is due to the habit of the butterflies--a jerky, skipping flight as they wing their erratic way from flower to flower. In North America the Skipper family includes nearly two hundred species grouped in about forty genera. From this point of view it is the largest family of our butterflies, but on account of the small size and limited range of most of the species it has by no means the general importance of such families as the Nymphs, the Swallowtails, or the Pierids. The Skippers are remarkable for the uniformity of structure in each stage of existence. The butterflies have small wings and large bodies. The broad head bears large eyes without hairs, but with a tuft of curving bristles overhanging each. The antennae are hooked at the end and widely separated at the base. Each short palpus has a large middle joint and a small joint at the tip. The fore wings project out at the front angle and the hind wings are folded along the inner margin. There are six well-developed legs in both sexes. The colors are chiefly various tones of brown, dull rather than bright, and many of the forms resemble one another so closely that it is difficult to separate them. The Skipper caterpillars have stout bodies and are easily known by the constricted neck. Most of these have the habit of making nests from the leaves of the food plants, weaving them together with silken threads. In a similar way each also makes a slight cocoon when it is ready to change to a chrysalis. The Skippers found in eastern North America are commonly grouped into two types--the Larger Skippers and the Smaller Skippers. The characteristics are given in the paragraph immediately following and the one on page 278. THE TRIBE OF THE LARGER SKIPPERS The butterflies of this tribe have that part of the club of the antenna, which is recurved, about as long as the thicker part below it. As a rule, the abdomen is distinctly shorter than the hind wings. The caterpillars are rather short and thick, and the upper part of the head, when looked at from in front, is square or roundish rather than tapering. The chrysalids have the tongue case attached throughout its length and stopping short of the tips of the wing cases. =The Silver-spotted Skipper= _Epargyreus tityrus_ One can seldom draw hard and fast artificial lines in nature. There are all sorts of intermediate conditions which disturb arbitrary classifications. It might seem simple enough to say that some insects are leaf-rollers and others are tent-makers, but as a matter of fact in the case of the Silver-spotted Skipper we have an insect which starts its larval life as a leaf-roller and finishes it as a tent-maker. Its life-history is rather interesting and easily observed, if one can find the larvae at work upon the leaves of locusts and other trees. (_See plates, pages 272-273._) The Silver-spotted Skipper is one of the largest butterflies of the interesting group to which it belongs. It lays its eggs upon the upper surface of the leaflets of locusts and other plants of the legume family. In less than a week each egg hatches into a little caterpillar with a very large head and a comparatively large body, tapering rapidly toward the hind end. This little creature cuts out from one side of the leaf a small round flap which it turns over and binds in place by silken threads to make a home for itself. This little home shows considerable variation in its construction but it usually has an arched dome held in place by strands of silk running from the eaten fragment to the surface of the leaf. It remains an occupant of this home until after the second moult. About this time it becomes too large for its house and deserts it to make a new one generally by fastening together two adjacent leaves. These are attached along the edges by silken strands in such a way as to give considerable room. It leaves one end open as a door out of which the caterpillar crawls to feed at night upon near-by leaves, returning to the house for shelter during the day. They continue to use this habitation until they are full grown as caterpillars and sometimes they change to chrysalids within it. More commonly, however, they crawl away both from the leafy case and the tree that bears it and find such shelter as they can upon the ground near by. Here they spin slight silken cocoons within which they change to chrysalids. In the more Northern states there is but one brood a year, so these chrysalids remain in position until early the following summer when they come forth as butterflies. Farther south there are two broods each summer, the second brood of butterflies appearing chiefly in August. The Silver-spotted Skipper derives its name from the distinct silvery spots upon the under-wing surface against a background of dark brown. The butterflies appear in the Northern states early in June and remain upon the wing for several weeks, being found even in August. They fly very rapidly and are difficult to catch in an insect net except when they are visiting flowers. This species is widely distributed, occurring from ocean to ocean over nearly the whole of the United States. It extends into Canada only in the eastern part and is not found in the Northwestern states. =The Long-tailed Skipper= _Eudamus proteus_ This is perhaps the most easily recognized of all the Skippers found in the United States for it is the only one that looks like a Swallowtail. Its hind wings project backward as long, broad tails in a way that marks the insect at once as different from anything else. It expands nearly two inches and when the front wings are spread at right angles, the distance from the apex of the front wing to the end of the tail of the hind wing just about equals the expanse. The general color is dark brown, with about eight more or less rectangular silvery spots on each front wing. This is distinctly a tropical species which is common along the Gulf Coast from Mexico to Florida. It ranges north along the Atlantic Coast to New York City and even to Connecticut. In the South Atlantic states it is common, but toward the northern limits of its range it is very rare. In the West Indies this butterfly is very common and has been observed to rest with its wings vertical, the front ones held far back between the hind ones and the tails of the latter held at right angles to the plane of the wings. Apparently, this curious fact was first noted by Dr. G. B. Longstaff. Of course in museum specimens the wings have been flattened into the same plane during the process of drying, so that this peculiarity would not be noticed. [Illustration: _Photograph by A. H. Verrill_ _See page 270_ Upper Surface Lower Surface THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER (About twice natural size)] [Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 270_ THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER Caterpillar, chrysalis and adult] =Juvenal's Dusky-wing= _Thanaos juvenalis_ There are few trees which have so interesting a set of insects attacking them as does the oak. It would be a simple matter to find abundant material for a large volume by making a study of the life-histories of the various insects that live upon or within the various tissues of this tree. The leaves alone provide a home for a remarkably large number of insect species scattered through a great many orders and families. The thickened blades seem to furnish an ideal opportunity for many larvae to get their living, and they are particularly useful to those which need to make a winter nest. By a little searching almost any time after the middle of June, one is likely to find a curious caterpillar home upon some of the oak leaves. The margin of the blade has been turned over, generally from above downward but sometimes from below upward, and has been fastened down to the main expanse of the blade by means of golden threads; commonly this fastening is not continuous but is more or less intermittent, so that the turned-over margin is likely to have an irregular border where it joins the blade. Inside of this tubular construction a rather unusual looking worm-like caterpillar is probably to be seen. Late in the season it will probably be nearly an inch long, with a smooth greenish body and a head that may be a bit brownish and more or less marked on the sides with orange tones. This is the larva of one of the most widely distributed Skippers--Juvenal's Dusky-wing. The species is found from southern New Hampshire west to the Great Plains and south to the Gulf of Mexico. In most localities it is seldom abundant but yet is so general that it may be found by almost every persistent collector. The wings expand about an inch and a half and are of a dull brownish color, more or less marked with darker and lighter spots. Toward the northern limits of its range there is but one brood a year but farther south there are two, although it is not improbable that some of the caterpillars of the first brood remain unchanged throughout the season, so that the insect is both single- and double-brooded in the same locality. _The Yearly Cycle_ The yearly cycle in southern New Hampshire may be taken as an illustration of the life of the species in regions where there is but one brood. The butterflies appear in open woods and on cut-over lands in May and June. They lay eggs upon the twigs of oak trees, one egg in a place and generally near a leaf stem. The egg soon hatches into a little caterpillar that crawls upon a near-by leaf and begins the construction of its tubular nest by bending over the margin and sewing it with golden silk. It utilizes this nest chiefly as a tent for resting and sleeping and wanders away from it generally to another leaf when it is ready to feed. It grows very slowly, having before it all the weeks of summer to complete its caterpillar growth. As it gets larger it needs a new tent and is likely to desert its early one. When it does this some observers have noted a curious habit. It cuts loose all the silk that binds the margin of the leaf down upon the blade so that the flap is free to spring back to its original position. It would be difficult to suggest an adequate explanation for this habit. When autumn comes our caterpillar is faced with the problem of passing through the winter successfully. It must shelter itself from birds, spiders, predaceous beetles, and many other enemies. It must find a means of keeping out of the reach of snow and rain, for while it can survive a great degree of cold as long as it keeps dry, it might easily be killed by freezing up with moisture. But the caterpillar is able to provide against these dangers. It has apparently an abundant supply of liquid silk to secrete from the silk glands in its head, so it lines its tubular tent with a dense silken web that effectually excludes enemies and moisture. It thus has on the outside of its nest the thick oak leaf and on the inside a dense soft lining that makes a most admirable winter protection. So it remains here throughout the winter, the leaf commonly staying on the tree until early spring. Then leaf, nest, and enclosed caterpillar are likely to drop to the ground to remain until spring arrives in earnest. Just what happens then seems to be a bit doubtful. The caterpillar changes to a chrysalis, but whether it first works its way out of its winter nest and makes a new and less dense covering seems not to be certainly known. Here is another good opportunity for some careful observations. At any rate, the caterpillar changes to a chrysalis, and late in spring it changes again to an adult butterfly that flits about on dusky wing for a few weeks before it dies. =The Sleepy Dusky-wing= _Thanaos brizo_ The appearance of this butterfly both as to size and marking is very similar to that of Juvenal's Dusky-wing except that the white spots are not present on the front wing of this species. The life-histories of the two species as well as their distribution seem to be closely parallel. The present butterflies are to be found early in summer in the same oak barrens as the other, the blueberry blossoms being freely visited for nectar by both species. =Persius's Dusky-wing= _Thanaos persius_ This is a rather small, dark brown Skipper, with a few white spots toward the apex of the front wing, but otherwise not marked except for a very pale transverse band which is almost obsolete. The butterfly is found from ocean to ocean along the northern tier of states. It also occurs in the Eastern states as far south as Florida as well as in the states along the Pacific Coast. The food plants of the caterpillars differ from most of those of the other Skippers. The butterflies lay their yellowish green eggs, one in a place, upon the leaves of willows and poplars. These soon hatch into little caterpillars each of which cuts out a small flap along the margin of the leaf and folds it over, fastening it in place with silken threads. It thus forms a protecting nest within which it remains during the day, going forth at night to a neighboring part of the same leaf or to another leaf, and feeding upon the green surface tissues. In this first caterpillar stage it does not eat the veins to any extent. As it becomes larger it constructs a larger nest and feeds more freely upon the leaf tissues. When about half grown it has the curious habit of biting out small holes here and there in the blade so that the leaf takes on a very unusual appearance. The presence of these holes is generally the easiest way to find the caterpillars, for when the holes are seen, a little searching is likely to show one the characteristic tent-like nest. After a few weeks the caterpillars become full grown. They then sew themselves in for the winter, fastening all of the crevices in the nest so securely with silken webbing that a very serviceable winter cocoon is formed. An interesting fact is that this sewing up for the winter is likely to take place about midsummer, the caterpillars remaining quiet from this time until the following spring. The nests of course fall in autumn with the leaves and the caterpillars remain unchanged until April or May, when they transform into chrysalids to emerge in May as butterflies. There appears to be normally but one brood a year although there is some evidence of a partial second brood. =The Sooty Wing= _Pholisora catullus_ This is one of the smallest of the blackish Skippers and may be known by its small size, expanding less than an inch, and the series of five white dots near the apex of the front wing, these dots being more distinct on the under surface. The species is widely distributed, occurring over practically the whole of the United States, except in the states along the Canadian border from Wisconsin west--and in several of these it is found along their southern limits. This butterfly is of particular interest because it is one of the comparatively few species that habitually occur in gardens and cultivated fields. The reason for this is that the eggs are laid upon white pigweed or lambs' quarter, the common garden pest of the genus Chenopodium. The eggs are laid singly, generally on the upper surface, and hatch in about five days into tiny caterpillars that make a little shelter for themselves by cutting out the edge of a leaf and folding over the blade, sewing it in place by a few silken threads. Here they remain and feed upon the green pulp of the succulent leaves either within the nest or near by outside. They remain in these cases until the time for the first moult, when they are likely to line the inside of the silken web before moulting. After this they make new cases for concealment and shelter, the cases as they grow older being generally made of two or more leaves securely bound together by silken web along their margin. When they become full grown, they spin a silken cocoon and change to yellowish green chrysalids from which the butterflies emerge a little more than a week later. This species is supposed to be double-brooded in the north. The full-grown caterpillars of the second brood sew up their leafy cases very carefully, making them of such thick silken webbing that they are watertight. They remain in these coverings until the following spring, when each changes, still within the case, into a chrysalis from which the butterfly comes forth in April or May. THE TRIBE OF THE SMALLER SKIPPERS In the members of this tribe the tip beyond the club of the antenna is short and the abdomen is long enough to extend as far as or farther than the hind wings. The caterpillars have long and slender bodies with the upper part of the head, when looked at from in front, tapering rather than roundish or square. The chrysalids have the tongue-case free at the tip and projecting beyond the tips of the wing-cases. =The Tawny-edged Skipper= _Thymelicus cernes_ This is one of the commonest and most widely distributed of all our Skippers. It is found from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, south along the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico, Texas, and Florida. It is apparently absent west of the Rocky Mountains and along the Gulf Coast except in Florida. Its life-history was carefully worked out by Dr. James Fletcher, late entomologist to the Dominion of Canada, and in the north may be summarized thus: the butterflies come from the hibernated chrysalids in May or June. They remain upon the wing for several weeks so that worn specimens may be taken late in July or, rarely, even early in August. The females lay eggs upon grass blades. These eggs hatch about two weeks later, the larvae eating their way out of the shells so slowly that a whole day may be taken up by the operation. Each little caterpillar weaves a silken nest for itself, in which it remains concealed most of the time, reaching out to feed upon adjacent blades of grass but retiring into the nest at the least alarm. It is a sluggish little creature and grows so slowly that in the north it may require more than two months to become full fed as a larva. It is then about an inch long and has the characteristic outlines of the other Skipper larvae, with a black head and a greenish brown body. It now spins a cocoon, possibly using its larval nest as a basis, and some time later, before cold weather surely, it changes to a chrysalis that winters over. This is the story of the life of the butterfly in the more northern parts of its range. Even in New Hampshire there seems to be at least a partial second brood, and farther south there are probably two regular broods with the possibility that a small percentage of the first set of chrysalids remains unchanged until spring. =The Roadside Skipper= _Amblyscirtes vialis_ This little butterfly is found apparently in most parts of the United States, as it has been collected in New England, California, Texas, and many intermediate points. Over the northern part of its range there is but one brood a year. In New Hampshire the butterflies appear in May and early June and lay eggs upon the blades of various grasses. These hatch about ten days later into slender, silk-spinning caterpillars, each of which makes a nest for itself by sewing together the margin of one or more grass blades. When the larvae get larger, they make larger and denser nests with heavy linings of silken web. After the earlier moults, the thin skin is covered with very fine snow-white hairs, between which there is developed a curious whitish exudation, so that the caterpillars have a flocculent appearance. When full grown, they change to delicate green chrysalids which apparently in the North remain until the following spring before disclosing the butterflies. In more southern regions there are two broods each summer. =The Least Skipper= _Ancyloxipha numitor_ The Least Skipper differs from the other Skippers both in structure and habits. Most of these butterflies have thick bodies and a distinct hook at the end of each antenna. This has a slender body and the antennae lack the hook. Most Skippers have strong wings and show their strength in their rapid, erratic flight. This has feeble wings that show their weakness in their slow, straight flight. But from the fact that it is about the smallest of all our butterflies, expanding little more than three quarters of an inch, it deserves our interested attention. The tawny wings are so marked with broad margins of dark brown that they show the tawny tinge chiefly in the middle spaces. On account of its small size and its retiring habits this little butterfly is often overlooked by all but the most experienced collectors. It generally flies slowly just above the grass in sunny places in wet meadows and along the open margins of brooks and marshes. It rests frequently upon grasses, flowers, or bushes. Mr. Scudder noticed that when resting these butterflies have the curious habit of "moving their antennae in a small circle, the motion of the two alternating; that is, when one is moving in a forward direction, the other is passing in a reverse direction." This is the sort of observation that should challenge us all to sharper wits in watching living butterflies. It would be strange if no others thus twirled their feelers in their leisure moments. Who will find out? The female butterflies at least have something to do besides sipping the nectar of flowers or idly twirling their feelers. They must lay their eggs and thus provide for the continuation of the species; to do this they find suitable blades of grass on which they deposit their tiny, half-round, smooth yellow eggs. A week or so later each egg hatches into a dumpy little yellow caterpillar with a black head and a body well covered with hairy bristles. This little creature is a silk spinner and makes a home instinctively by drawing together more or less the outer edges of a leaf blade and fastening them with transverse bands of silk. It then feeds upon the green tissues and as it grows larger it makes its nest more secure by thicker walls of silken web. When full grown as a caterpillar it changes into a slender chrysalis generally of a grayish red color, thickly dotted with black. About ten days later it emerges as a butterfly. The Least Skipper is one of the most widely distributed of all butterflies. It occurs from New England to Texas, south to Florida on the east coast, and west to the Rocky Mountains. THE END GENERAL INDEX Abdomen, 4 Acadian hair-streak, 248 Admiral, Red, 160 Aestivation, 21-22 _Agapetidae_, 214-229 _Aglais milberti_, 182 _Ajax_, 77 _Amblyscirtes vialis_, 280 American copper, 255 American tortoise-shell, 182 Anatomy of butterflies, 3-5 _Ancyloxipha numitor_, 281 Androconia, 15 Angle-wings, Synopsis of the, 190 Angle-wings, Tribe of the, 150-192 _Anoea andria_, 208 _Anosia berenice_, 235 _Anosia plexippus_, 233 Antennae, 3-4 _Anthocaris genutia_, 97 _Anthocaris olympia_, 97 Antiopa, 112-115, 171-182 Ants and caterpillar, 261 Aphids, 261 Apparatus for collectors, 51-54 _Araulis vanillae_, 115 Arctic satyr, 225 _Argynnis aphrodite_, 125 _Argynnis atlantis_, 126 _Argynnis cybele_, 122 _Argynnis diana_, 118 _Argynnis idalia_, 120 _Argynnis montinus_, 127 _Atlides halesus_, 243 Baltimore checker-spot, 135 Banded hair-streak, 246 Banded purple, 202 _Basilarchia archippus_, 195-202 _Basilarchia arthemis_, 202 _Basilarchia astyanax_, 204 _Basilarchia floridensis_, 206 Black-bordered yellow, 105 Black swallowtail, 59 Blue-eyed grayling, 215 Blue swallowtail, 65 Blues, Synopsis of the, 265 Blues, Tribe of the, 258-265 _Brenthis bellona_, 128 _Brenthis myrina_, 131 Brimstone butterfly, 98 Bronze copper, 257 Brown, Eyed, 221 Brown, Gemmed, 227 Buckeye, 188 Butterflies, Aestivation of, 21-22 Butterflies, Anatomy of, 3-5 Butterflies and Moths, Difference between, 13-14 Butterflies, Classifications of, 55 Butterflies, Collecting, 49-54 Butterflies, Coloration of, 24-35 Butterflies, feigning death, 22-23 Butterflies, General characteristics of 3-54 Butterflies, Hibernation of, 17-21 Butterflies, Migrations of, 16-17 Butterflies, Parasites of, 40-43 Butterflies, Photographing, 47-48 Butterflies, Rearing of, 43-47 Butterflies, Scents of, 15 Cabbage butterfly, Southern, 88 Cabbage butterfly, White or Imported, 83 _Callidrayas eubule_, 98 _Calosoma scrutator_, 181 _Calycopis cecrops_, 251 Camberwell beauty, _see_ Mourning-cloak Carolina satyr, 227 Caterpillar cages, 44 Caterpillar collecting, 44 Caterpillar habits, curious, 198 Caterpillar hunter, 181 Caterpillar parasites, 260 Caterpillar to chrysalis, 8-10 Caterpillars, 5-9 _Catopsilia eubule_, _C. philea_, or _C. agarithe_, 109 _Cercyonis alope_, 215, 228 _Cercyonis pegala_, 218 Chalcid flies, 42 _Charidryas nycteis_, 141 Checker-spot, Baltimore, 135 Checker-spot, Harris's, 140 Checkered white, 88 _Chlorippe celtis_, 210 _Chlorippe clyton_, 212 Chrysalis, 8-12 Chrysalis to butterfly, 10-13 _Chrysophanus hypophlaeus_, 257 _Chrysophanus thoë_, 257 _Cinclidia harrisii_, 140 _Cissia eurytus_, 226 _Cissia sosybius_, 227 Classification of butterflies, 55 Clouded sulphur, 101 Cloudless sulphur, 98 _Colias caesonia_, 110 _Colias eurytheme_, 110 _Colias philodice_, 110 Collecting butterflies, 49-54 Color changes, 7 Color sense, Selective 32 Coloration, 24-35 Comma, 153 Common skippers, 268-282 Common wood nymph, 215 Compton tortoise, 185 Copper, The American, 255 Copper, The Bronze, 257 Coppers, Synopsis of the, 257 Coppers, Tribe of the, 252-258 Cosmopolite, 166-171 Counter-shading, 24-25 Cremaster, 8 Crescent-spots, Synopsis of the, 149 Crescent-spots, Tribe of the, 135-150 Cyanide bottle, 51 _Cyaniris ladon_, 258 _Cynthia atalanta_, 191 _Cynthia cardui_, 191 _Cynthia kuntera_, 191 Cynthia Moth, 14 Dainty sulphur, 109 Dazzling coloration, 26-29 Death-feigning, 22-23 _Debis portlandia_, 227 Diana fritillary, 118 Dog's-head butterfly, 100 Drying box, 54 Dull-eyed grayling, 228 Dusky-wing, Juvenal's, 272 Dusky-wing, Persius's, 276 Dusky-wing, Sleepy, 275 Eclipsing coloration, 26-29 Eclosion, 11 Egg-laying, 46 Emperors, Tribe of, 207-214 Encasement theory, 9 _Enodia portlandica_, 219 Envelopes for collectors, 52 _Epargyreus tityrus_, 270 _Euchloe genutia_, 97 _Euchloe olympia_, 97 _Eudamus proteus_, 271 _Eugonia J-album_, 185 _Euphydryas phaeton_, 135 _Eupsyche M-album_, 244 _Euptoieta claudia_ 116 _Eurema euterpe_, 111 _Eurema lisa_, 106 _Eurema nicippe_, 105 _Eurymus eurytheme_, 102 _Eurymus interior_, 104 _Eurymus philodice_, 101 _Euvanessa antiopa_, 191 _Everes comyntas_, 264 Exuviae, 6 Eyed brown, 221 Falcate orange-tip, 94 _Fenisequa tarquinius_, 253 Fritillaries, Synopsis of the, 133 Fritillaries, Tribe of the, 115-135 Gemmed brown, 227 Georgia satyr, 227 Giant skippers, 267-268 Giant swallowtail, 62 Goatweed emperor, 208 Gossamer-wings, 240-265 _Grapta comma_, 190 _Grapta faunus_, 190 _Grapta interrogationis_, 190 _Grapta J-album_, 192 _Grapta progne_, 191 Gray comma, 158 Gray emperor, 210 Gray hair-streak, 245 Gray-veined white, 86 Grayling, Blue-eyed, 215 Great purple hair-streak, 243 Great southern white, 90 Great spangled fritillary, 122 Green-clouded swallowtail, 67 Green comma, 159 Gulf fritillary, 115 Hair-streaks, Synopsis of the, 250 Hair-streaks, Tribe of the, 242-252 Harris's checker-spot, 140 Heliconians, 229-232 _Heliconidae_, 229-232 _Heliconius Charitonius_, 229 Heliotropism, 35-37 _Heodes hypophlaeus_, 255 _Hesperiidae_, 268-282 _Hesperioidea_, 55, 266-282 Hibernation, 17-21 Honey-dew, 261 Hop merchant, 153 _Hypatus bachmani_, 236 Ichneumon flies, 41-42 Imago, 10 Imported cabbage butterfly, 83 _Iphiclides ajax_, 76 _Junonia coenia_, 188 Juvenal's dusky-wing, 272 Killing bottle, 51 _Laertias philenor_, 65 Larger Skippers, Tribe of the, 269-278 Least purple hair-streak, 251 Least skipper, 281 _Lepidoptera_, _see_ Butterflies _Libytheidae_, 236-239 _Limenitis arthemis_, 206 _Limenitis astyanax_, 207 _Limenitis disippus_, 207 List observations, 37-40 Little sulphur, 106 Little wood nymph, 228 Little wood satyr, 226 Locusts, Coloration of, 29 Long-beaks, The, 236-239 Long-tailed skipper, 271 _Lycaena comyntas_, 265 _Lycaena ladon_, 265 _Lycaena lygdamus_, 265 _Lycaena scudderi_, 265 _Lycaenidae_, 240-265 _Lymnadidae_, 232-236 _Marcellus_, 77 Maritime grayli Meadow-browns, The, 214-229 Meadow fritillary, 128 _Meganostoma caesonia_, 100 _Megathymidæ_, 267-268 _Megathymus yuccae_, 267 _Melitaea harrisii_, _M. phaeton_, _M. nycteis_, _or_ _M. tharos_, 149 Metal-marks, The, 239-240 Microgaster, 42 Migrations, 16-17 Milkweed butterflies, The, 232-236 Mimicry, 34-35 _Mitoura damon_, 249 Monarch, The, 12, 233 Moths, 13-14 Moulting, 6-7 Mountain silver-spot, 126 Mourning-cloak, 112-115, 171-182 _Nathalis iole_, 109 _Neonympha canthus_, 227 _Neonympha eurytus_, 228 _Neonympha gemma_, 227 _Neonympha phocion_, 227 Net, Butterfly, 51 Nettle butterfly, 160 _Nomiades lygdamus_, 265 _Nymphalidae_, 111, 214 Nymphs, The, 111, 214 Odors, _see_ Scents of butterflies _Oeneis norna jutta_, 225 _Oeneis norna semidea_, 222 Olive hair-streak, 249 Olympian orange-tip, 96 "Orange dogs", 63 Orange sulphur, 102 Orange-tips, Synopsis of the, 97 Orange-tips, Tribe of the, 92-97 Orientation, _see_ Heliotropism Painted beauty, 163 Painted lady, 166-171 Palamedes swallowtail, 76 Palpi, 4 _Papilio asterias_, 81 _Papilio brevicauda_, 75 _Papilio cresphontes_, 80 _Papilio glaucus_, 72 _Papilio palamedes_, 76 _Papilio philenor_, 81 _Papilio polyxenes_, 59 _Papilio thoas_, 62 _Papilio troilus_, 67 _Papilionidae_, 57-81 _Papilionoidea_, 55, 265 Parasites, 40-43 Parasites of the Mourning-cloak, 177 Parnassians, 56-57 _Parnassiidae_, 56-57 Pearl crescent, 143 Pearly eye, 219 Persius's dusky-wing, 276 _Pholisora catullus_, 277 Photographing butterflies, 47-48 _Phyciodes nycteis_, 149 _Phyciodes tharos_, 143 _Pieridae_, 82-115 _Pieris napi_, 86 _Pieris phileta_, 92 _Pieris protodice_, 91 _Pieris rapae_, 83 Pink-edged sulphur, 104 Pins for collectors, 53 _Polygonia comma_, 153 _Polygonia faunus_, 159 _Polygonia interrogationis_, 150 _Polygonia progne_, 158 Polygonias, Synopsis of, 190 _Pontia monuste_, 90 _Pontia protodice_, 88 Protective coloration, _see_ Coloration Purple hair-streak, Great, 243 Purple hair-streak, Least, 251 Purples, Banded and Red-spotted, 202-206 _Pyrameis atalanta_, 191 _Pyrameis cardui_, 191 _Pyrameis huntera_, 191 _Pyrrhanea andria_, 214 Queen, The, 235 Rearing butterflies, 43-47 Red Admiral, 160 Red-horns, Tribe of the, 97-115 Red-spotted purple, 204 Regal fritillary, 120 Riker mounts, 54 _Riodinidae_, 239-240 Roadside skipper, 280 _Rusticus scudderi_, 263 Satyr, Arctic, 225 Satyr, Little wood, 226 _Satyrodes canthus_, 221 Satyrs, The, 214-229 Satyrs, Georgia and Carolina, 227 Scents of butterflies, 15 Scudder's blue, 263 Selective color sense, 32-33 Setting board, 52-53 Shadow observations, 37-40 Short-tailed papilio, 75 Silver-bordered fritillary, 131 Silver crescent, 141 Silver-spot fritillary, 125 Silver-spotted skipper, 270 Silvery blue, 265 Skippers, 55, 266-282 Skippers, Common, 268-282 Skippers, Tribe of the larger, 269-278 Skippers, Tribe of the smaller, 278-282 Sleepy dusky-wing, 275 Smaller skippers, Tribe of the, 278-282 Snout butterflies, The, 236-239 Sooty wing, The, 277 Southern cabbage butterfly, 88 Southern wood nymph, 218 Sovereigns, Synopsis of the, 206 Sovereigns, Tribe of the, 192-207 Spring azure, 258 Striped hair-streak, 247 Sulphur butterflies, 98-100, 101-105, 106-109 Swallowtails, 57-81 Swallowtails, Synopsis of, 80 _Synchloe genutia_, 94 _Synchloe olympia_, 96 Tachina flies, 42-43 Tailed blue, 264 Tawny-edged skipper, 279 Tawny emperor, 212 _Telamonides_, 77 _Terias lisa_, 110 _Terias nicippe_, 110 _Thanaos brizo_, 275 _Thanaos juvenalis_, 272 _Thanaos persius_, 276 _Thecla acadica_, 248 _Thecla calanus_, 246 _Thecla cecrops_, 251 _Thecla damon_, 252 _Thecla halesus_, 250 _Thecla liparops_, 247 _Thecla M-album_, 251 _Thecla melinus_, 251 Thistle butterfly, 166-171 Thorax, 4 _Thymelicus cernes_, 279 Tiger swallowtail, 72 Tortoise-shell, American, 182 Transformations, 5-13 _Uranotes melinus_, 245 _Vanessa antiopa_, 171-182 _Vanessa atalanta_, 160 _Vanessa cardui_, 166-171 _Vanessa coenia_, 192 _Vanessa huntera_, 163 _Vanessa J-album_, 192 _Vanessa milberti_, 191 Vanessids, Synopsis of, 191 Variegated fritillary, 116 Vicereine, 206 Viceroy, 195-202 Violet-tip, 150 Wanderer, The, 253 Warning coloration, 33-34 Weismann's theory, 10 White cabbage butterfly, 83 White J butterfly, 185 White M hair-streak, 244 White Mountain butterfly, 222 White Mountain fritillary, 127 Whites, Synopsis of the, 91 Whites, Tribe of the, 82-92 Wing expansion, 12-13 Wood nymph, Little, 228 Wood nymphs, 215-218 _Xanthidia lisa_, 110 _Xanthidia nicippe_, 110 Yellow edge, _see_ Mourning-cloak Yellows, Synopsis of the, 109 Yellows, Tribe of the, 97-115 Yucca-borer skipper, 267 Zebra butterfly, 229 Zebra swallowtail, 76 _Zerene caesonia_, 110 Transcriber's Notes Except for the list of corrections below and minor corrections (deletion or addition of periods or commas; application of styling to headers to match comparable divisions; etc.), the text presented is that contained in the original printed version. Any unique grammatical usage has been retained. Some of the illustrations were moved so that paragraphs were not split. Also, some of the text in the illustration blocks were rearranged so that they more closely matched each other. Although in there are chacters available for some common fractions diplayed in this text (ex., ¼, ½ and ¾), other fractions (ex., 1/3; 1/5, etc.) are not available. Therefore, it was decided to display them all in the format #/#. In the case of mixed fractions, they are displayed as # #/# (ex., 3 1/2). Typographical Corrections Page Correction ===== ==================== 146 similiar => similar 156 harrisi => harrisii 194 eing => being 262 analagous => analogous 284 Heleconidae => Heliconidae 283 c. philea => C. philea 283 c. agarithe => C. agarithe " Cercyonis alope 215-228 => 215, 228 285 Monarch, The 12-223 => 12, 233 " Nymphalidae 111-214 => 111, 214 " Nymphs, The 111-214 => 111, 214 " Papilionoidea 55-265 => 55, 265 Emphasis Notation _Text_ - Italic =Text= - Bold 
43713	----	UNIQUE AND POPULAR WORKS FOR ALL NATURE LOVERS. _Uniform with this Volume._ * * * * * Wayside and Woodland Blossoms A Pocket Guide to British Wild Flowers for the Country Rambler. (_First and Second Series._) With Clear Descriptions of 760 Species. BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. And Coloured Figures of 257 Species by MABEL E. STEP. * * * * * Wayside and Woodland Trees A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. With 127 Plates from Original Photographs by HENRY IRVING, And 57 Illustrations of the Leaves, Flowers and Fruit by MABEL E. STEP. * * * * * AT ALL BOOKSELLERS. _Full Prospectuses on application to the Publishers_-- FREDERICK WARNE AND CO. LONDON: 15, Bedford Street, Strand. NEW YORK: 36, East 22nd Street. THE WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND SERIES THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES [Illustration: _Pl._ 1. _Frontispiece._ Swallow-tail Butterfly. _Male and female, with caterpillars and chrysalids._] THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES BY RICHARD SOUTH, F.E.S. EDITOR OF "THE ENTOMOLOGIST," ETC. WITH ACCURATELY COLOURED FIGURES OF EVERY SPECIES AND MANY VARIETIES ALSO DRAWINGS OF EGG, CATERPILLAR CHRYSALIS, AND FOOD-PLANT LONDON FREDERICK WARNE & CO. AND NEW YORK 1906 (_All rights reserved_) PREFACE. Few things add more enjoyment to a country ramble than a knowledge of the many and varied forms belonging to the animal and vegetable kingdoms that present themselves to the notice of the observing wayfarer on every side. Almost every one admires the wild flowers that Nature produces so lavishly, and in such charming variety of form and colour; but, in addition to their own proper florescence, the plants of woodland, meadow, moor, or down have other "blossoms" that arise from them, although they are not of them. These are the beautiful winged creatures called butterflies, which as crawling caterpillars obtain their nourishment from plant leafage, and in the perfect state help the bees to rifle the flowers of their sweets, and at the same time assist in the work of fertilization. It is the story of these aërial flowers that we wish to tell, and hope that in the telling we may win from the reader a loving interest in some of the most attractively interesting of Nature's children. There are many people, no doubt, who take an intelligent interest in the various forms of animal life, and yet do not care to collect specimens because, as in the case of butterflies for instance, the necessity arises for killing their captives. Such lovers of Nature are quite satisfied to know the names of the species, and to learn something of their life-histories and habits. Still, however, there are others, and possibly a larger number, who will desire to capture a few specimens of each kind of butterfly for closer examination and study. It is believed that this little volume will be found useful to both sections of naturalists alike. The author in preparing the book has been largely guided by a recollection of the kind of information he sought when he himself was a beginner, now some forty odd years ago. In conclusion, he desires to tender his most sincere thanks to the undermentioned gentlemen, who so kindly furnished him with eggs, caterpillars, and chrysalids; or favoured him with the loan of some of their choicest varieties of butterflies for figuring; without their valued assistance many of the illustrations could not have been prepared:--Rev. Gilbert Raynor, Major Robertson, Messrs. F. Noad Clark, T. Dewhurst, C.H. Forsythe, F.W. Frohawk, A.H. Hamm, A. Harrison, H. Main, A.M. Montgomery, E.D. Morgan, G.B. Oliver, J. Ovenden, G. Randell, A.L. Rayward, E.J. Salisbury, A.H. Shepherd, F.A. Small, L.D. Symington, A.E. Tonge, B. Weddell, F.G. Whittle, and H. Wood. _Varieties_--Messrs. R. Adkin, J.A. Clark, F.W. Frohawk, and E. Sabine. With kind permission of the Ray Society, figures of the following larvæ and pupæ have been reproduced from Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies":--_P. daplidice_, _C. edusa_, _M. athalia_, _P. c-album_, _S. semele_, _A. hyperanthus_, _C. typhon_, _C. pamphilus_, _C. rubi_, _C. argiolus_, _A. thaumas_, _A. actæon_. Larva only--_L. sinapis_, _A. selene_, _A. aurinia_, and _T. pruni_. Figures of _A. cratægi_, _A. lineola_, and _C. palæmon_ have been made from preserved skins. For coloured plates, 1, 30, 42, 48, 58, 66, 98, 100, 112, 116, 118, and the accurately drawn black-and-white figures, including enlargements, the author is greatly indebted to Mr. Horace Knight. INTRODUCTORY. Butterflies belong to the great Order of insects called Lepidoptera (Greek _lepis_, a scale, and _pteron_, a wing), that is, insects whose wings are covered with minute structures termed scales. Moths (Heterocera) also belong to the same order, and the first point to deal with is how may butterflies be distinguished from moths? In a broad kind of way they may be recognized by their horns (_antennæ_), which are slender as regards the shaft, but are gradually or abruptly clubbed at the extremity. For this reason they were designated Rhopalocera, or "club horned," the Heterocera being supposed to have horns of various kinds other than clubbed. As a matter of fact this method of separating moths and butterflies does not hold good in dealing with the Lepidoptera of the world, and it is from a study of these, as a whole, that systematists have arrived at the conclusion that there is no actual line of division between moths and butterflies. In modern classification, then, butterflies are reduced from the rank of a sub-order, which they formerly held, and are now dovetailed into the various newer systems of arrangement between certain families of moths. As regards British butterflies, however, it will be found that these may be known, as such, by their clubbed horns. Only the Burnets among British moths have horns in any way similar, and these are thickened gradually towards the extremity rather than clubbed. Day-flying moths, especially the bright-coloured ones, might be mistaken for butterflies by the uninitiated, but in all these the horns will be found not at all butterfly-like. Although varieties of the species will be referred to in the descriptive portion of the book, a few general remarks on variation in butterflies may here be made. All kinds are liable to vary in tint or in the markings, sometimes in both. Such variation, in the more or less constant species especially, is perhaps only trivial and therefore hardly attracts attention. In a good many kinds variation is often of a very pronounced character, and is then almost certain to obtain notice. Except in a few instances, where the aberration is of an unusual kind, it is possible to obtain all the intermediate stages, or gradations, between the ordinary form of a species and its most extreme variety. A series of such connecting links in the variation of a species is of greater interest, and higher educational value, than one in which the extremes alone have a place. In those kinds of butterflies that attain the perfect state twice in the year, the individuals composing the first flight are somewhat different in marking from those of the second flight. Such species as the large and small whites exhibit this kind of variation, which is termed seasonal dimorphism. The males of some species, as for example the Common Blue and the Orange-tip, differ from the females in colour; this is known as sexual dimorphism. The Silver-Washed Fritillary, which has two forms of the female, one brown like the male, the other green or greenish in colour, is a good example of dimorphism confined to one sex. Gynandrous specimens, sometimes called "Hermaphrodites," are those which exhibit both male and female coloration, or other wing characters; when one side is entirely male and the other side entirely female, the gynandromorphism would be described as complete. The ornamentation on the under side of a butterfly differs from that of the upper side, and is found to assimilate or harmonize in a remarkable manner with the usual resting-place. It is therefore of service to the insect when settled with wings erect over the back, in the manner of all butterflies, except some few kinds of Skippers. The number of known species of butterflies throughout the world has been put at about thirteen thousand, and it has been suggested by Dr. Sharp that there may be nearly twice as many still awaiting discovery. Dr. Staudinger in his "Catalog" gives a list of over seven hundred kinds of butterflies as occurring in the whole of the Palæarctic Region. This zoological region embraces Europe, including the British Islands, Africa north of the Atlas range of mountains, and temperate Asia, including Japan. The entire number of species that can by any means be regarded as British does not exceed sixty-eight. Even this limited total comprises sundry migratory butterflies, such as the Clouded Yellows, the Painted Lady, the Red Admiral, the Camberwell Beauty, and the Milkweed Butterfly; and also the still less frequent, or perhaps more accidental visitors, the Long-tailed Blue and the Bath White. Again, the Large Copper is now extinct in England, and the Mazarine Blue does not seem to have been observed in any of its old haunts in the country for over forty years. The Black-veined White is also scarce and exceedingly local. The majority of the remaining fifty-seven butterflies may be considered natives, and of these about half are so widely distributed that the young collector should, if fairly energetic, secure nearly all of them during his first campaign. The other species will have to be looked for in their special localities, but a few kinds are so strictly attached to particular spots, that a good deal of patience will have to be exercised before a chance may occur of obtaining them. A few remarks may here be made in reference to the names and arrangement adopted in the present volume. As will be adverted to in the descriptive section, the English names of our butterflies have not always been quite the same as those now in general use. There has, however, been far less stability in scientific nomenclature, and very many changes in both generic and specific names have been made during the past twenty years, more especially perhaps within the last decade. Genera are now founded by some specialists on characters which formerly served to distinguish one species from another, whilst other authorities merge several genera in one upon certain details of structure that are common to them all. Patient research into the entomological antiquities has revealed much important material, some of which may furnish a new interpretation of the Linnean classification of Lepidoptera. The discovery of the earliest Latin specific name bestowed upon an insect, is a labour which entails a large expenditure of time and requires fine judgment. Great credit is therefore due to those who undertake such investigations, the result of which may tend to the establishment of a fixed nomenclature in the, probably not remote, future, although it sadly hampers and perplexes students in the meanwhile. All things considered then, it has been deemed advisable not to make many changes in specific names, and to retain the old genera as far as possible. The arrangement of families, genera, etc., will be found to accord with that most generally accepted both in England and on the continent. THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES. PART I. THE LIFE CYCLE OF A BUTTERFLY. As is the case with all other Lepidoptera, butterflies pass through three very distinct stages before they attain the perfect form. These stages are:--1. The egg (_ovum_, plural _ova_). 2. The caterpillar (_larva_, _larvæ_). 3. The chrysalis (_pupa_, _pupæ_). The perfect insect is called the _imago_ (plural _imagines_). The Egg. Butterfly eggs are of various forms, and whilst in some kinds the egg-shell (_chorion_) is elaborately ribbed or fluted, others are simply pitted or covered with a kind of network or reticulation; others, again, are almost or quite smooth. If the top of an egg, such as that of the Purple Emperor (Plate 28), is examined under a good lens a depression will be noted, and in this will be seen a neat and starlike kind of ornamentation. In the middle of this "rosette" are, present in all eggs, minute apertures known as micropyles (little doors), and it is through these that the spermatozoa of the male finds entry to the interior of the egg and fertilization is effected. The changes that occur in the egg after it is laid are of a very complex nature, and readers who may desire information on this subject are referred to Sharp's "Insects," Part I., in the "Cambridge Natural History," where also will be found much interesting and instructive matter connected with the caterpillar and chrysalis, to which stages only brief reference can here be made. The Caterpillar. The second stage is that of the caterpillar, and in some species, such as the Red Admiral, this is of very short duration, a few weeks only, whilst in others, as for example the Small Blue, it usually lasts for many months. There is considerable diversity both in the shape and, where it is present, in the hairy or spiny clothing (_armature_) of caterpillars. All, however, are alike in one respect, that is the body is divided into thirteen more or less well-defined rings (_segments_), which together with the head make up fourteen divisions. In referring to these body-rings, the first three nearest the head, each of which is furnished with a pair of true legs (_thoracic legs_), are called the thoracic segments, as they correspond to the thorax of the perfect butterfly. The remaining ten rings are the abdominal segments; the last two are not always easily separable one from the other, and so for all practical purposes they may be considered only nine in number. These nine rings, then, correspond to the abdomen of the future butterfly. The third to sixth of this series have each a pair of false legs (_prolegs_), and there is also a pair on the last ring; the latter are the anal claspers. The warts (_tubercles_) are the bases of hairs and spines, and are to be seen in most butterfly caterpillars, but they generally require a lens to bring them clearly into view. These warts are usually arranged in two rows on the back (_dorsal series_) and three rows on each side (_lateral series_). All the various parts referred to, or to be presently mentioned, may be seen in Fig. 1, which also shows a peculiarity that is found in very young caterpillars of the Orange-tip, and in some others of the "Whites" (_Pieridæ_). The odd thing about this baby caterpillar is that the fine hair arising from each wart is forked at the tip (Fig. 1, _a_), and holds thereon a minute globule of fluid. When the caterpillars become about half grown these special hairs are lost in a general clothing of fine hair. Fig. 1, _b_, represents a magnified single ring of the caterpillar, and this shows a spiracle and the folds of the skin (_subsegments_). The manner in which such folding occurs is to be observed in the higher study of larval morphology. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Young caterpillar of Orange-tip highly magnified. (_After Sharp._)] On each ring, except the second (including now the three thoracic with the nine abdominal; and so making twelve rings), the third, and the last, there is an oval or roundish mark which indicates the position of the breathing hole (_spiracle_). Through these minute openings air enters to the breathing tubes (_tracheæ_), which are spread throughout the interior of the caterpillar in a seemingly complicated kind of network of main branches and finer twigs; air is thus conveyed to every part of the body. In the event of one or two air-holes becoming in any way obstructed, the caterpillar would possibly be none the worse; but if all the openings were closed up effectually, it would almost certainly die. Total immersion in water, even for some hours, is not always fatal. Turning again to the "feet" of the caterpillar, it will be seen from the figure that the true legs (_a_) differ from the false legs (_b_) in structure. The former are horny, jointed, and have terminal claws; the latter are fleshy, with sliding joints, and the foot is furnished with a series of minute hooks which enable the caterpillar to obtain a secure hold when feeding, etc. The false legs are also the chief means of locomotion, as the true legs are of little service for this purpose. The true legs, however, appear to be of use when the caterpillar is feeding, as the leaf is held between them so as to keep it steady whilst the jaws are doing their work. [Illustration: FIG. 2. (_a_) True and (_b_) false legs.] [Illustration: FIG. 3. _a_, labrum; _b_, mandible; _c_, antenna; _d_, ocelli; _e_, maxilla; _f_, labium; _g_, spinneret; _h_, labial palp.] In the accompanying figure of the head of a caterpillar the mouth parts are clearly shown. The biting jaws (_mandibles_) are slightly apart, above them is seen the upper lip (_labrum_), and below them is the under lip (_labium_ or _lingua_). The _maxillæ_ are very tiny affairs, but they should be noted because in the butterfly they become the basal portions of the two tubes which, when united together, form the sucking organs (_proboscis_). The eyes, or ocelli as they are termed, are minute, and are said to be of slight use to the caterpillar as organs of sight, so that it probably has to depend on its little feelers (_antennæ_) for guidance to the right plants for its nourishment. Attention should also be given to the spinneret, as it is by means of this that the silken threads, etc., for its various requirements are provided; the substance itself being secreted in glands placed in the body of the caterpillar. The palpi are organs of touch, and seem to be of use to the caterpillar when moving about. Immediately after hatching, many caterpillars eat the egg-shell for their first meal; they then settle down to the business of feeding and growing. It should be remembered that it is entirely on growth made whilst in the caterpillar stage that the size of a butterfly depends. In the course of a day or two the necessity arises for fasting, as moulting, an important event, is about to take place. Having spun a slender carpet of silk on a leaf or twig, the caterpillar secures itself thereto, and then awaits the moment when all is ready for the transformation to commence. After a series of twistings from side to side and other contortions, the skin yields along the back near the head, the head is drawn away from its old covering and thrust through the slit in the back, the old skin then peels downwards whilst the caterpillar draws itself upwards until it is free. The new skin, together with any hairs or spines with which it may be clothed, is at first very soft. In the course of a short time all is perfected, and the caterpillar is ready to enter upon its second stage of growth. At the end of the second stage the skin-changing operation is again performed, and the whole business is repeated two or more times afterwards. Finally, however, when the caterpillar has shed its skin for the last time, the chrysalis is revealed, but with the future wings seemingly free. These, together with the other organs, are soon fixed down to the body by the shell, which results from a varnish-like ooze which covers all the parts and then hardens. Generally speaking, newly hatched caterpillars, though of different kinds, are in certain respects somewhat alike, but the special characters of each begin to appear, as a rule, after the first change of skin (_ecdysis_), and these go on developing with each successive stage (_stadium_) until the caterpillar is full grown. The form assumed in each stage is termed the _instar_, therefore a caterpillar just from the egg would be referred to as in the first instar; between the first and second changes of skin, as in the second instar, and so on to the chrysalis, which in the case of a caterpillar that moulted, or changed its skin, four times before attaining full growth, would be the sixth instar, and the butterfly would then be the seventh instar. In practice, however, it is usually the stages of the caterpillar alone that are indicated in this way. The Chrysalis. The term _chrysalis_ more especially applies to such of them as are spotted or splashed with metallic colour, as, for example, the chrysalids of some of the Fritillaries. The scientific term for the chrysalis is _pupa_, which in the Latin tongue means "a doll or puppet." [Illustration: FIG. 4. Caterpillar of Small White, about to change to chrysalis.] In passing to the chrysalis stage the caterpillars have sometimes to make rather more preparations than in previous skin-changing provisions. Those of the Swallow-tail, Whites, Orange-tip, and similar kinds have to provide a silken girdle for the waist as well as a pad for the tail. Chrysalids that hang suspended, head downwards, such as the Vanessids, Fritillaries, etc., are attached by the cremaster--a hooked arrangement on the tail (Fig. 5)--to a pad of silk; others, such as the Blues and the Coppers, appear to be held in position on a leaf, or some other object, by means of a fine girdle of silk, or sometimes a few silken threads spread net-like above and below them--rudiments of a cocoon in fact. Chrysalids of the Skippers are enclosed in a more or less complete cocoon placed within a chamber, formed of a leaf or leaves of the food-plant, drawn together by silken cables. Some of these chrysalids are furnished with hooks on the tail as well as with a girdle for suspension; but others have hooks only. As almost all the chrysalids here considered are figured in the illustrations, it will be unnecessary to refer in detail to their great diversity in form, but a few general remarks on the structure of a chrysalis may be made. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Enlarged view of cremaster, and a hook still more enlarged. (_After Sharp._)] If the upper (_dorsal_) surface of a chrysalis is examined, the thorax and the body divisions will easily be made out, while, by looking at the sides and the under (_ventral_) surface, the various organs, such as the wings, legs, antennæ, etc., will be found neatly laid along each side of the "tongue," or proboscis, which latter extends down the centre. All these are separately encased, but by reason of the shell mentioned in the remarks on the caterpillar, they appear to be welded together. When, however, the butterfly is ready to emerge, the shell of the chrysalis is split along the thorax and at the lower edge of the wing-cases, and the insect is then able to release itself from the pupal trappings. This breaking open of the chrysalis shell is termed dehiscence (_dehisco_, "to split open"), and the manner in which it is effected varies in different species. The emergence of a butterfly from the chrysalis is always an interesting operation to observe, and every one should make a point of watching the process, so that he may obtain practical knowledge of how the thing is done. A photograph of it will be found in the description of the Wall Butterfly. The Butterfly. Having safely cleared itself free of the chrysalis shell, the butterfly makes its way to some suitable twig, spray, or other object, from which it can hang, sometimes in an inverted position, whilst a very important function takes place. This is the distention and drying of the wings, which at first are very weak and somewhat baggy affairs, although the colour and markings appear upon them in miniature. All other parts of the butterfly seem fully formed, but the helpless condition of the wings alone prevent it as yet from floating off into the air. In a remarkably short time, after the insect has settled to the business, the fluids from the body commence to flow and circulate through the wings, and these are seen gradually expanding and filling out until they attain their proper size. Occasionally there is some obstruction to the equal distribution of the fluids, and when this occurs a greater or lesser amount of distortion, or cockle, in the wing affected is the result. When the inflation is completed the wings are kept straight out for a time; they are then motionless, but all their surfaces are well apart. The wings being now fully developed, the further flow of fluid appears to be arrested. It has been stated by some authorities that this fluid is fibrin held in solution, and that when the work of expansion has been accomplished, the watery medium evaporates, leaving the fibrin to harden, and so fasten together the upper and lower membranes of the wing and to fix the veins, or nerves, in their proper position. Mayer, a specialist on these matters, referring to the expansion of the wings, remarks that the blood [the fluid previously mentioned] forced into the freshly emerged wing would cause it to become a balloon-shaped bag if it were not for fibres that hold the upper and lower walls closely together. The fibres referred to, he states, are derived from those hypodermic cells which do not contribute to the formation of scales, but are stretched out from one wall of the wing to the other. It may be well now to briefly consider some of the structural details of the perfect butterfly, so a beginning will be made with the head (Fig. 6). When looking at the head of a butterfly, the first thing to attract the attention is the very large size of the compound eye (_a_), which seems to take up the largest share of the whole affair. Although so bulky and so complex in the matter of divisions, or facets, as they are termed (the facets are not shown in figure), the power of sight is not really very keen. A butterfly can see things in a general way readily enough, but it seems unable to clearly distinguish one object from another. When engaged in egg-laying, the female butterfly rarely fails to place her eggs on a leaf or spray of the plant that the future caterpillar will feed upon, and it has been suggested that in making this unerring selection the insect is guided more by the sense of smell than by that of sight. [Illustration: FIG. 6. =Head of Butterfly.= _a_, compound eye; _b_, palp; _c_, antenna; _d_, proboscis.] The horns (_c_) (_antennæ_), or feelers, as they are sometimes called, which adorn the head, are now considered to be organs of smell. These are composed of a number of rings or segments, which vary in the different kinds of butterfly, as also does the shape of the terminal rings forming what is known as the club. In Fig. 7, _e_ (Purple Emperor) and _f_ (Marbled White) represent the gradually thickened club; in _g_ (Brimstone) and _h_ (Dark-green Fritillary) the clubs are more or less abruptly formed. Our Skippers have well-developed clubs; these may be hooked at the tip as in _i_ (Large Skipper), or blunt at the tip as in _j_ (Chequered Skipper); at the base of the Skipper's antenna, that is at the point where it is inserted in the head, there is a tuft of rather long hairs. Of the various mouth parts it will only be necessary to refer to the suction-tube, Fig. 6, _d_ (_proboscis_), often called the "tongue," which is perhaps the most important, at least to the butterfly itself, as this organ is, in a way, as useful to it in the perfect state as were the very differently constructed strong biting jaws (_mandibles_) of its caterpillar existence. These latter in the butterfly are only microscopically represented, and the suction-tube of the perfect insect is an extension of the maxillæ, which in the caterpillar are not conspicuous. When not engaged in probing the nectaries of flowers for the sweets they contain, the suction-tube is neatly coiled up between the palpi (Fig. 6, _b_). Its great flexibility is due to the many rings of which it is composed. Although seemingly entire, it is really made up of two tubes, each being grooved on its inner side, and forming, when the edges are brought together, an additional central canal, through which the sweets from the flowers and other liquids are drawn up into a bulb-like receptacle in the head, whence it passes into the stomach. When it is remembered that the passage of sweet, and no doubt sticky, fluid through the central tube would most probably result in its walls becoming clogged, there is reason to suppose that the method of construction permits of the canal being cleansed from time to time. [Illustration: FIG. 7. =Antennæ of Butterflies.=] The important divisions of the body are the thorax and the abdomen. The former is made up of three segments (named the pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax), each of which, as in the caterpillar state, is furnished with a pair of legs; the second and third, which are closely united, each bear a pair of wings also. The legs, which in the butterfly are adapted for walking at a leisurely pace, are made up of four main parts; these are (a) the basal joint (_coxa_, _coxæ_), (_b_) the thigh (_femur_, _femora_), (_c_) the shank (_tibia_, _tibiæ_), and (_d_) the foot (_tarsus_, _tarsi_). The small joint uniting the coxa with the femur is the trochanter (_tr._). The foot usually has five joints, the last of which is provided with claws (_e_). The abdomen really consists of ten rings or segments according to some specialists. Examined from above, the female butterfly appears to have only seven rings and the male butterfly eight. This discrepancy arises from the fact that in the former sex two rings and in the latter one ring are withdrawn into the body, and so are tucked away out of sight. The organs of reproduction are placed in the terminal ring. The breathing arrangements are pretty much as in the caterpillar, but the external openings are not so apparent owing to the dense clothing of the body. [Illustration: FIG. 8. =Leg of Butterfly.=] The beauty of a butterfly's wings is intimately connected with the form and colour of the scales with which they are covered, as with a kind of mosaic; but before the scales and their method of attachment, etc., are referred to, something should be said about the wings themselves. The various shapes of these organs of flight will be seen on turning to the plates, where will be found accurate portraits of every species that will be dealt with in the descriptive section later on. A butterfly's wing consists of an upper and a lower membrane, with a framework of hollow tubes, acting as ribs, between the two layers. Fig. 9, A, shows a fore and a hind wing of the Swallow-tail butterfly. The point of attachment with the thorax is the base of the wing, and the edge farthest from the base is the outer margin (_termen_); the upper edge, or front margin, is the costa; and the lower edge is the inner margin (_dorsum_). The point where the upper margin meets the outer margin on the fore wing is the apex, but on the hind wing it is called the outer angle; the angle formed by the junction of outer and inner margins is the inner angle of the fore wing, but the anal angle of the hind wing. The term _tornus_ is sometimes used for this angle on either wing. Dividing the wings transversely into three portions, we have three areas, termed respectively basal, central or discal, and outer. These are terms used in descriptions of butterflies, and it will be useful to remember them. [Illustration: FIG. 9. =Butterflies' Wings.=] The ribs of a butterfly's wings are by some authors described as veins, whilst others style the main ones nervures, and the branches nervules. Fig. 9, B, represents the venation, or neuration of the Black-veined White, and the numeral system of indicating the veins has been adopted, as it is the most simple. In another method of referring to the venation, and one that has been much in use, vein 12 of the fore wing would be styled the costal nervure, or vein; veins 11, 10, 9 (absent in figure), 8, and 7 would be the subcostal nervules 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; 6 would become the upper radial, and 5 the lower radial; 2, 3, and 4 would be the median nervules 1, 2, and 3; vein 1 would be the submedian nervure, or vein. On the hind wing, vein 1_a_ would be the internal vein; 1 the submedian; 2, 3, and 4 the median nervules; 5 the lower and 6 the upper radials; 7 the subcostal, and 8 the costal nervures. Just near the base of the hind wing will be noted a short recurved vein (p.c.); this is the precostal vein, and so named because it comes before the costal. It is always absent in some species. Comparing the venation of A and B, it will be seen that in A the fore wing has 12 veins and the hind wing 8 veins, whilst in B there are only 11 veins on the fore wing, but the hind wing has one vein more than that of A. In the Black-veined White, vein 9 is absent on the fore wing, and on the hind wing there is one internal vein. [Illustration: FIG. 10. =Arrangement of Scales.= (_After Holland._)] Dust-like as they appear to the naked eye, the scales from a butterfly's wing seen under the microscope are found to be exceedingly interesting structures and very varied in shape. Dr. Sharp describes them as "delicate chitinous bags." Chitin, it may be mentioned, is the horny substance of which the chrysalis shell is formed, and this was adverted to when discussing the chrysalis stage as a varnish-like ooze. As seen on the wings, the scales are flattened and the upper and under sides are then almost, or quite, brought together. They are attached in lines on the membrane or covering of the wing by short stalks which fit into sockets in the membrane. The arrangement of the scales, which has often been stated to resemble that of the slates on a roof, is shown in Fig. 10. Colour is chiefly due to pigment contained in the scale or adhering to the interior of its upper side. Pigments, according to Mayer, are derived, by various chemical processes, from the blood while the butterfly is still in the chrysalis. Some scales have minute parallel lines (_striæ_) on their upper sides, and rays of light falling on these are turned aside or broken up, and so produce changes in the colouring of a wing, according to the angle from which it is looked at. The males of many kinds of butterfly have special scales, which are known as androconia, or plumules. It is believed that these are scent organs. Whatever their particular use may be to the possessor, these androconia enable the entomologist to distinguish male specimens from females with great certainty. In the Fritillaries they are placed on one or more of the median nervules (veins 2, 3, and 4) of the fore wing. In the Meadow Brown and its kindred they form brands on the disc of the fore wing. In the Skippers they are placed in a fold of the costa in some species, and in other species they are clustered together, into more or less bar-like marks, about the middle of the fore wings. Some of these various shaped "plumules" are shown in the illustrations. In the foregoing sketch of the life cycle of a butterfly, the object has been to condense as much necessary information as possible into a limited space. Many matters of importance to the student have not been touched on, but it was considered that, as these were more especially connected with a higher scientific phase of the subject than would here be found helpful, they might be omitted. [Illustration: FIG. 11. =Butterfly Plumules.= _a._ Tufted Plumule (Satyrs); _b._ Bristle Plumule (Grizzled Skipper); _c._ Hair Plumule (Dingy Skipper); _d._ Jointed Plumule (Silver-studded Skipper); _e._ Bladder Plumule (Common Blue); _f._ Dotted Plumule (White-letter Hairstreak). (_After Aurivillius._)] Collecting. Naturally the first matter for consideration, when the formation of a collection of butterflies has been decided upon, is how to set about it. Well, there are two methods of effecting our purpose. The specimens may be purchased from a dealer in such things, or we may acquire an outfit comprising net, boxes, and pins, and go in search of the insects ourselves. Apart from its healthful and entertaining possibilities, the latter method has very much to recommend it. In the first place, those who are at all observant--and no true lover of Nature can be suspected of being otherwise--will become acquainted with the objects under natural conditions, and so be enabled to appreciate them more highly than could be the case if they were obtained in any other way. The chief purpose in making a collection of Natural History specimens should be study of some kind rather than mere accumulation. [Illustration: FIG. 12. =Y-piece.=] [Sidenote: Nets.] The net may be a simple cane ring one of home construction, or the more elaborate, but not necessarily more efficient, fabrication of steel-jointed ring with grenadine bag and telescopic handle. A good serviceable butterfly-net may be fitted up as follows. Procure a light flexible cane, about 3 feet or so in length. Next, a Y-shaped holder (Fig. 12) for the two ends of the cane will have to be made, and either tin or brass may be used for the purpose. The latter is the better metal, and the parts should be brazed and not soldered together. (If difficulty is experienced in the manufacture of this article, it may be obtained from any dealer in entomological requisites for a few pence.) The bag may be made of leno, tarletan, or fine mosquito netting; the latter is the most serviceable, and should be used wherever it can be obtained. The size of the bag at the top, where it has a wide band to take the cane, should not exceed the circumference of the cane ring when fitted in the two arms of the Y-piece; the depth should be just a little less than the length of one's arm, and the bottom should be rounded off so that no corners are available for the butterflies to get into and damage their wings. An opening about 3 inches in length is left in the seam of the bag just under the Y-piece, so that the cane may be removed and rolled up when the net is put out of action. The ring band should be covered with some stouter material to prevent it from fraying, thin leather is sometimes used for this purpose; the slit in the seam also requires protecting on each side, and strengthening at the lower end by a crosspiece. An ordinary walking-stick, with the ferrule end thrust into the longer tube of the Y, will serve as a handle to the complete net. [Illustration: FIG. 13. =Kite or Balloon Net.=] The dealers adverted to above generally stock a variety of nets ready fitted for use. Among these is a very useful pattern known as the kite or balloon net (Fig. 13). This is made in two sizes, and as the writer has used this kind of net for at least twenty years, he is able to speak well of its merits. It does not need a stick for ordinary work, and the long end of the socket should be about 9 inches in length. The "ring" being made of four separate rods, in addition to the Y-piece, some care will have to be taken when a balloon net is unshipped. It will be found a good plan to leave the two short curved canes in the hem or band of the bag, remove the two straight arms from the Y-piece and the band, place these on top of the bag when folded, and then roll all up together. A canvas or linen pouch or pocket, opening at one end, may be made to contain the whole affair. The umbrella-net, when in its case, looks very like the familiar "gamp." Its chief merit is that it is quickly put up for use, and its principal defect is that the stick, which crosses the mouth of the bag, frequently damages the quarry. Another implement of the chase known as the "Ortner" net is used pretty extensively on the Continent. English entomologists who have used it speak of it most favourably. Its great advantage over other nets is found in the simple and rapid method of its adjustment for use. In connection with nets it may be well to advise the wielder to remember that carrying a threaded needle is a useful practice. Tears and rents are apt to occur, and it is well to have the means of repair handy. [Sidenote: Killing.] Some collectors seem to be expert at killing butterflies by pressing the sides of the thorax together. The method is not, however, as satisfactory as one could wish, and so no more need be said about it. For the happy despatch of insects, the cyanide bottle is frequently used. All that has to be done is to clap the open bottle over the captive while still in the net, then draw the gauze or what-not over the mouth of the bottle until the bung can be inserted, and the whole affair withdrawn from the net. Cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison, and no inexperienced person should attempt to charge a cyanide bottle himself. In fact, chemists are not permitted to supply the poison to unknown customers. Under certain conditions, however, a chemist might consent to make up a killing bottle, and the following instructions may help him in doing this. A fairly strong, clear glass bottle, holding about 4 to 6 ounces; the mouth must be pretty wide, and closed with a well-fitting bung that has been dipped in melted wax; if the bung is of fine grained cork, the wax will not be needed. At the bottom of the bottle place a thick layer of the cyanide, and over this pour plaster of Paris which has been mixed with water and converted into a cream-like paste: one-third of the depth of the bottle to be occupied by the poison and plaster, but only a thin layer of the latter should cover the former. Dealers who supply cyanide bottles (uncharged) also have in stock a brass bottle for chloroform, which some people prefer as a killing agent because it does not change the colour of insects as cyanide is occasionally apt to do. In using this, the insect should be boxed, then a drop of the chloroform may be allowed to run from the bottle over the perforated lid or bottom of the box, and a finger put over the hole or holes for a short time. The majority of butterflies, if transferred to pill boxes from the net, settle down quietly. In this way they may be taken to one's home and there placed, boxes and all, into the ammonia jar, a simple but very effective contrivance. To start one of these lethal chambers, procure a good sized pickle jar, one of the brown earthenware kind, holding about 2 gallons. At the bottom put in several layers of stout blotting-paper, and have ready a covering for the mouth of the jar. This covering may be of skin, waterproof-apron material, or even thick brown paper. Before turning the boxes into the jar, lift up the blotting-paper, drop in about half a teaspoonful of strong liquid ammonia (·880) and replace blotting-paper. Directly the boxes are in the jar, put on cover and tie it down securely. If brown paper is used, a piece of pasteboard should be put over it and a weight on top of that. Suffocation takes place directly the gas reaches the insect, but it often happens that one or more of the boxes exclude the gas longer than others. At the end of half an hour all may be removed, but the insects will not hurt in any way if left in all night. The best kind of boxes for field work are those known as "glass bottomed," as in these the captives can be examined and, if not wanted, may be set free. It is always better to retain only those specimens that we know are really useful, rather than to incur the necessity of throwing away insects after we have deprived them of life. [Sidenote: Pinning.] If butterflies are pinned on the spot, a collecting box will be required, and the most useful and convenient is one of an oval shape. This should be made of zinc, and lined with cork that is held in place by zinc clips. The cork should be kept damp when in use, and the water used for damping should have a few drops of carbolic acid mixed with it so as to prevent the formation of mould. Insects may remain in such a box for several days without injury. This box will also be useful for relaxing specimens that have been badly set, or have been simply pinned during the busy season. In the matter of pins, it is not altogether easy to make suggestions. There are, perhaps, only two makers in this country of entomological pins, and each of these supplies a large number of sizes. The selection of suitable pins will largely depend on the method of setting adopted. Black pins are, however, the best for butterflies, and are now used almost exclusively. In pinning a specimen care should be taken that the pin passes in a direct line through the centre of the thorax. Insects that are properly pinned set better, and have a neat appearance when arranged in the collection. For regulating the height of specimens on the pin, a handy graduated stage has been devised by Dr. Scarancke (see Fig. 14). Each of the little rests are hollowed to receive the body of the insect, so suppose we wish a quarter of an inch of the pin to show below the body of a specimen, the pin is pushed through a perforation in the centre of the rest groove marked "3/16" until the point touches the wooden base, and we have the required length. Beginners would, perhaps, find three sizes of pins quite sufficient for almost every purpose--say, Nos. 10, 8, and 5 of one maker; or Nos. 9, 17, and 5 of the other. In each case the first size pin would be suitable for small butterflies, the second size for all other butterflies except quite the largest, for which No. 5 would remain. English pins are sold by the ounce. [Illustration: FIG. 14. =Pinning Stage.=] [Sidenote: Setting.] Setting, as it is called, that is, spreading out and fixing the wings so that all their parts are displayed, arranging the horns, etc., is perhaps the most tedious work that the collector will be called upon to perform. The various methods will be referred to, and he must then decide as to which he will adopt. Each style may possibly be found to have its difficulties at first; but time and patience will overcome these, therefore he must be prepared for a good deal of troublesome practice before he quite gets "the hang of the thing," and can set out his specimens without removing a greater or lesser number of the scales. First, as to the flat and high setting as practised by almost every lepidopterist abroad and by some in our own country. Boards of the pattern, shown in the illustration, will be required; also some tracing cloth, and a pair of entomological forceps, bead-headed pins, etc. In these boards, it will be noticed, the sides tilt outwards; this is to allow for drooping of the wings, which generally occurs after insects are removed from the "sets." In this case the wings would settle dead flat, which is considered to be the acme of perfection in this style of setting. Carlsbad or other foreign pins would be used for this kind of work. They are of a uniform length, about one inch and a half, but vary in thickness, and are usually sold by the 100 or 1000. [Illustration: FIG. 15. =Board for Flat-setting.=] Manipulation of the specimen on these boards is as follows. Having carefully pinned it, leaving the greater length of pin below the insect, guide the pin carefully through the narrow opening (_a_ Fig. 15) and the cork (Fig. 16) below to a suitable depth, so that the body of the insect rests in the groove and the wings lie easily on the board. Then take two strips of tracing cloth, glazed side downwards, and pin them on at the end of each side of the setting-board (Fig. 17). The strip should be just wide enough to cover all but the basal part of the wings. Now pass the strips over the wings, press one side lightly with the fingers of the left hand while the wings are moved into position with the setting needle (a fine needle with eye end fixed into the stick of a small penholder will do for this) from the uncovered base, a pin being inserted below the fore wing while the hind wing is brought into position, but when this has been done and another pin inserted to keep it in place, as shown in the diagram, the first pin may be removed; repeat the same operation on the other side. Other pins will be required to keep the horns, etc., in place. In dealing with the next specimen the strips will have to be turned back while it is fixed into position, then proceed as before. An imaginary line following the inner margin of the fore wings and passing through the pin on the thorax is an excellent guide to uniformity in setting. The groove will prevent the pin leaning to either side, but care should be taken that it does not incline either forwards or backwards. The strip of tracing cloth may be used more than once, but the roughness of the pin holes should be removed by drawing the strip across the back of a knife. [Illustration: FIG. 16. =Longitudinal Section of Setting-board.=] [Illustration: FIG. 17. =Setting-board in use.=] [Illustration: FIG. 18. ="Saddle" Setting-board.=] [Illustration: FIG. 19. =Setting-bristle.=] [Illustration: FIG. 20. =Brace and Band Modes of setting.=] The setting-boards most frequently used in this country have sloping sides, and are known as saddles (Fig. 18). Where tracing cloth is used, the _modus operandi_ is exactly similar to that just described, but small pins will do for pinning down the strips, as the saddles are made of cork, or cork carpet, instead of wood. The following method of setting butterflies on the English kind of "board" or saddle is frequently adopted. Select a suitable saddle, that is one that has the groove wide enough to take the body, and rather wider than the wings when expanded. A setting bristle will then be required. This is made, as shown in Fig. 19, by fixing a fairly long and stout bristle, or a very fine needle, or a thin length of quill, in a cube of cork; the cork cube has a stoutish and sharp-pointed pin pushed through it as indicated. Having placed the first insect on the saddle with its body comfortably resting in the groove and the wings flush with the surface, the setting bristle is then brought into action. The point of the pin is rested on the saddle directly in the rear of the hind wing, and the top of the bristle touching the saddle in advance of the front wing. Tilt the pin slightly forward until the bristle presses lightly on the central area of the wings, then with the setting needle push the wings into the required position, and at the same time drive pin of bristle into the saddle. After the wings have been secured by means of braces (triangular pieces of thin card or stout paper, with a pin through the base of the triangle), proceed in the same way with the other side. Finally, fix a brace to the tip and angle of each fore wing to keep them from turning up in drying, and a pin or two may be required for the horns if these are not in a good position. Instead of using braces, a strip of transparent paper may be pinned over the wings beyond the bristle, but in this case the bristle must be pressed across the wings at a point nearer their base than in the previous method (see lower figure in Fig. 20). In lieu of a setting bristle a length of sewing cotton may be used. Tie a double knot at one end, and through this pass the point of a pin in such a way that the cotton lies flush on the saddle when in use. Insert the pin firmly in the saddle a little in advance of the fore wing, then draw the cotton downwards across the wings and hold it taut, with the fore finger of the left hand placed on it just in rear of the hind wing. Whilst so held the wings can be got into pose with the setting needle, and braces may then be applied as previously directed. Fig. 21 shows a specimen set by a method that is in vogue in the north. Blocks of soft pine, grooved and bevelled as in the cork saddle, are easily made. Down the centre of the groove there is a saw cut for the point of the pin to enter, and nicks are cut along the bottom edge at each end. One end of a length of cotton is knotted and fixed in a nick, then a turn is taken over the wings on one side; these are placed in position and secured by other turns of the cotton. The other side is then treated in the same manner, and the end of the cotton fastened off in one of the nicks. This is a quick and, in skilled hands, a very neat method. As specimens after being set will have to remain on the setting boards or saddles for at least a fortnight, it will be necessary to protect them not only from dust, but from possible attack by ants, cockroaches, mice, etc. This is best ensured by placing the sets into a receptacle called a setting or drying house. Dealers supply these, but the young collector may have a knowledge of carpentry and could make one for himself. The height and depth of such a construction would depend upon the number and the width of the boards or saddles that would be put therein. The width would be that of the length of the boards, which is usually 14 inches. About a quarter of an inch of cork is cut off each end of the saddles, and grooves are cut in the sides of the house for these to run in. The back and the door should have a square of fine perforated zinc inserted in them for ventilation. As an example of holding capacity it may be well to note that a house with a height of 12 inches, and a depth of 6 inches, inside measurement, would take eighteen 2-inch boards if the grooves were cut at 2 inches apart, or twenty-four boards of same width if 1-1/2 inch only were allowed between the grooves. [Illustration: FIG. 21. =Cotton Method of setting.=] In taking insects off the sets, the braces or strips should be removed from the wings, and the pins from the horns, with care, as a good deal of damage can be done in the performance of this operation, simple as it seems to be. A little twist of a brace and away goes a patch of scales, a side slip of a pin and off comes a horn. Pending the arrival of that twelve or twenty drawer cabinet, the beginner will probably be content to arrange his specimens in boxes. A handy sized box is one measuring 14 inches by 10 when closed, and it should have a cell for naphthaline. Before putting the specimens away into boxes or drawers they should be labelled with the date of capture, the locality, the name of the captor, and any other detail of interest in connection with it. All these particulars may be written on small squares of paper and put on the pins under the specimens. Cabinets or boxes containing insects should always stand where they are free from damp, otherwise mould may make its appearance on the specimens. Mouldy insects may be cleaned, but they never look nice afterwards; so it will be well to bear in mind that prevention is better than cure. Where drawers and boxes are not properly attended to in the matter of naphthaline, mites are apt to enter and cause injury to the specimens. If these pests should effect a lodgment, a little benzine poured on the bottom of box or drawer will quickly kill them. The benzine, if pure, will not make the least stain, and of course the drawer or box must be closed directly the benzine is put in. Do this only in the daytime. Rearing butterflies from the egg is much practised, and is a very excellent way. One not only obtains specimens in fine condition, but gains knowledge of the early stages at the same time. The eggs of most of the Whites, the Orange-tip, the Brimstone, and some others are not difficult to obtain, but searching the food-plants for the eggs of many of the butterflies is tiresome work, and not altogether remunerative. Females may be watched when engaged in egg-laying, and having marked the spot, step in when she has left and rob the "nest." The best plan is to capture a few females and enclose them in roomy, wide-mouthed bottles, or a gauze cage, putting in with them a sprig or two of the food-plant placed in a holder containing water. The mouth of the bottle should be covered with gauze or leno, and a bit of moistened sugar put on the top outside. Either bottle or cage must be stood in the sunshine, but it must be remembered that the butterflies require plenty of air as well as sunshine, and that they can have too much of the latter. PART II. DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES. The Swallow-tail (_Papilio machaon_). The Swallow-tail butterfly is the only British member of the extensive and universally distributed sub-family Papilioninæ, which includes some of the largest as well as the most handsome kinds of butterfly. Our species has yellow wings ornamented with black, blue, and red, and is an exceedingly attractive insect. The black markings are chiefly a large patch at the base of the fore wings, this is powdered with yellow scales; a band, also powdered with yellow, runs along the outer or hind portion of all the wings. There are also three black spots on the front or costal margin, and the veins are black. The bands vary in width, and that on the hind wings is usually clouded more or less with blue. At the lower angle of the hind wings there is a somewhat round patch of red, and occasionally there are splashes of red on the yellow crescents beyond the band. The male and female are shown on Plate 2. The eggs are laid on leaflets of the milk parsley (_Peucedanum palustre_), which in the fenny home of the butterfly is perhaps the chief food-plant of the caterpillar. This is one of the few eggs of British butterflies that I have not seen. Buckler says that it is globular in shape, of good size, greenish yellow in colour when first laid, quickly turning to green, and afterwards becoming purplish. The caterpillar when full grown, as figured on Plate 1, is bright green with an orange-spotted black band on each ring of the body, and blackish tinged with bluish between the rings. The head is yellow striped with black. When it first leaves the egg-shell, which it eats, the caterpillar is black with a noticeable white patch about the middle of the body. After the third change of skin it assumes the green colour, and at the same time a remarkable =V=-shaped fleshy structure of a pinkish or orange colour is developed. This is the _osmaterium_, and is said to emit a strong smell, which has been compared to that of a decaying pine-apple. The organ, which is extended in the figure of the full-grown caterpillar, is not always in evidence, but when the caterpillar is annoyed the forked arrangement makes its appearance from a fold in the forepart of the ring nearest the head. Other food-plants besides milk parsley are angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_), fennel (_Foeniculum vulgare_), wild carrot (_Daucus carota_), etc. From eggs laid in May or June caterpillars hatch in from ten to twelve days, and these attain the chrysalis state in about six or seven weeks. If the season is a favourable one, that is fine and warm, some of the butterflies should appear in August, the others remaining in the chrysalids until May or June of the following year; a few may even pass a second winter in the chrysalis. Caterpillars from eggs laid by the August females may be found in September, nearly or quite full grown, and chrysalids from October onwards throughout the winter. They are most frequently seen on the stems of reeds, but they may also be found on stems or sprays of the food-plants, as well as on bits of stick, etc. It would, however, be practically useless to search for the late chrysalids as the reeds are usually cut down in October, when the fenmen keep a sharp look-out for them, and few are likely to escape detection in any place that would be accessible to the entomologist. [Illustration: _Pl._ 2. =Swallow-tail Butterfly.= 1 _male_; 2 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 3. =Black-veined White Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] On Plate 1 three forms of the chrysalis are shown. The figures are drawn from specimens collected in Wicken Fen in October, 1905. Occasionally a much darker, nearly black, form is found. This butterfly was known to Petiver and other early eighteenth-century entomologists as the Royal William. There is every reason to believe that at one time it was far more widely distributed in England than it now is. Stephens, writing in 1827, states that it was formerly abundant at Westerham, and gives several other localities, some very near to London. During the last twenty-five years or so, the butterfly has been seen on the wing, from time to time, in various parts of the Southern and Midland counties. Caterpillars have also been found at large in Kent. Possibly attempts may have been made to establish the species in certain parts of England, and the presence of odd specimens in strange places may thus be accounted for. Or such butterflies may have escaped from some one who had reared them. On the Continent the butterfly is common in woods as well as in meadows, and even on mountains up to an elevation of 5000 feet. It occurs also, but less commonly, at much higher altitudes. It therefore seems strange that in England it should be confined to the low-lying fens of Norfolk and Cambridgeshire. Such is the case, however, and a journey to one or other of its localities will have to be made by those who wish to see this beautiful creature in its English home. It may be added that the geographical range of the butterfly extends eastwards through Asia as far as Japan. A form, known as the Alaskan Swallow-tail, is found in Alaska. * * * * * The following ten species belong to the Pierinæ, another sub-family of Papilionidæ. The Black-veined White (_Aporia cratægi_). The Black-veined White (Plate 4) may be at once recognized by its roundish white wings and their conspicuous veins, which latter are black in the male butterfly, and in the female brownish on the main ones (nervures) and black on the branches (nervules). As the scales on the wings are denser in the male than in the female, the former always appears to be the whiter insect. On the outer margin of the fore wings there are more or less triangular patches of dusky scales, and these in occasional specimens are so large that their edges almost or quite meet, and so form an irregular, dusky border to the fore wings. These patches are also present on the hind wings, but are not so well defined. Sometimes the patches are absent from all the wings. The fringes of the wings are so short that they appear to be wanting altogether. The early stages are figured on Plate 3. The egg is upright and ribbed from about the middle to the curiously ornamented top, which appears to be furnished with a sort of coronet. The colour is at first honey-yellow, then darker yellow, and just before the caterpillar hatches, greyish. The eggs are laid in a cluster on the upper side of a leaf of sloe, hawthorn, or plum, etc., in the month of July. The caterpillar when full grown is tawny brown with paler hairs arising from white warts; the stripes along the sides and back are black. The under parts are greyish. The head, legs, and spiracles are blackish. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in August, and then live together in a common habitation which is formed of silk and whitish in colour. They come out in the morning and again in the evening to feed, but a few leaves are generally enclosed in their tenement. In October they seem to retire for the winter and reappear in the spring. During May they become full grown and then enter the chrysalis state. The butterflies are on the wing at the end of June and in July. [Illustration: _Pl._ 4. =Black-veined White Butterfly.= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 5. =Large White Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] The chrysalis is creamy white, sometimes tinged with greenish, and dotted with black. This butterfly was mentioned as English by Merret in 1667, and by Ray in 1710. Albin in 1731, who wrote of it as the White Butterfly with black veins, figures the caterpillar and the chrysalis, and states that caterpillars found by him in April turned to chrysalids early in May and to butterflies in June. Moses Harris in 1775 gave a more extended account of the butterfly's life-history, and what he then wrote seems to tally almost exactly with what is known of its habits to-day. This species has seemingly always been somewhat uncertain in its appearance in England. Authors from Haworth (1803) to Stephens (1827) mention Chelsea, Coombe Wood in Surrey, and Muswell Hill in Middlesex, among other localities for the butterfly. It has also been recorded at one time or another, between 1844 and 1872, from many of the Midland and Southern counties. In 1867 it was found in large numbers, about mid-summer, in hay fields in Monmouthshire. The latest information concerning the appearance of the species in South Wales relates to the year 1893, when several caterpillars and four butterflies were noted on May 22 in the Newport district. At one time it was not uncommon in the New Forest, but no captures of the butterfly in Hampshire have been recorded during the last quarter of a century. At the present time it is probably most regularly obtained in a Kentish locality, presumably in the Isle of Thanet, which is only known to a few collectors. It may be mentioned that some thirty years ago caterpillars of the Black-veined White could be obtained from a Canterbury dealer at a few shillings per gross. The species is widely distributed, and often abundant, on the Continent, and its range extends through Western and Northern Asia to Yesso, Northern Japan. The Large White (_Pieris brassicæ_). This butterfly is probably almost as familiar to those who dwell in towns as it must be to those who live in the country. It is perhaps unnecessary to describe it in any detail, and it may therefore suffice to say that it is white with rather broad black tips to the fore wings; there are some black scales along the front margin of these wings, and on the basal area of all the wings. The male has a black spot on the front margin of the hind wings, and the female has, in addition, two roundish black spots on the fore wings, with a black dash from the lower one along the inner margin. As there is a rather important difference between the specimens of the spring (_vernal_) and the summer (_æstival_) broods, figures of a male and a female of each brood, and showing the upper and under sides, are given. Those on Plate 6 represent the spring form, which was at one time considered to be a distinct species, and named _chariclea_ by Stephens. Plate 9 shows the summer form. The chief point of difference is to be noted in the tips of the fore wings, which in the spring butterflies are usually, but not invariably, greyish; in the summer butterflies the tips are black, as a rule, but not in every case. Occasionally the black on tip of the fore wing in the female is increased in width, and from it streaks project inwards towards the upper discal spot. In some examples of the male there is a more or less distinct blackish spot on the disc of the fore wings. Very rarely the ground colour is creamy or sulphur tinted. The greenish tinge about the veins, sometimes seen in these butterflies, is due to some accidental cause, probably injury to the veins. [Illustration: _Pl._ 6. =Large White Butterfly (Spring Brood)= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 7. =Small White Butterfly= _Resting._] The egg is yellowish in colour, somewhat skittle-shaped, and very prettily ribbed and reticulated. On Plate 5 there are two figures of the egg from enlarged drawings by Herr Max Gillmer, to whom I am greatly indebted for the loan of them. In the figure on the right, the dark spot at the shoulder of the egg represents the head of the young caterpillar, and in that on the left is seen the caterpillar about to come out of the egg. The head is already out, and the jaws have left their mark on the egg-shell. Most caterpillars of the Whites, as well as those of other butterflies, devour their egg-shells. The eggs are laid in batches of from six to over one hundred in each batch. They are placed on end, and on either side of a leaf, chiefly cabbage. Herr Gillmer writes that he watched a female depositing her eggs on a leaf of white cabbage in the hot sunshine, and found that she laid twenty-seven in about nine minutes. A previous observer had timed a female, and noted that she produced eggs at the rate of about four in the minute. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in about seven days in the summer. The caterpillar (Plate 5) when full grown is green tinged with blue or grey above, and greenish beneath. There are numerous short whitish hairs arising from little warts on the back and sides; the lines are yellow. The caterpillars feed in July, and sometimes again in September and October, on all plants of the cabbage tribe, and also on tropæolum and mignonette. A number of these caterpillars may often be seen crowded together on a cabbage leaf, and they sometimes abound to such an extent that much loss is sustained by growers of this most useful vegetable. A peculiarity of these caterpillars is that even when not numerous, their presence is indicated by an evil smell that proceeds from them. The unpleasantness of the odour is greatly intensified if the caterpillars are trodden upon. The chrysalis (Plate 5) is of a grey colour, more or less spotted with black and streaked with yellow. It is often to be seen fixed horizontally under the copings of walls, the top bar of a fence, or a window-sill; but it sometimes affects the upright position when fastened in the angle formed by two pales. A position that affords some measure of protection from weather is generally selected. Although this butterfly is almost annually to be seen, in greater or lesser numbers, throughout the country, it is occasionally scarce, either generally or in some parts of the British Islands. For example, during the past year (1905) it was abnormally plentiful in Ireland, but at the same time comparatively rare in England. It is a migratory species, and no doubt its abundance in any year in these islands is dependent on the arrival of a large number of immigrants. Possibly in some years none of the migrant butterflies reach our shores, and that it is largely to this failure the rarity of the species in such years is to be attributed. Caterpillars resulting from alien butterflies may absolutely swarm in the autumn of one year, but the eccentricities of an English winter may be too much for the vitality of such of them as escape their enemies, _Apanteles glomeratus_, and other so-called "ichneumons," and reach the chrysalis state. So, with immigration on the one hand and destructive agencies on the other, it may be understood how it comes about that the Large White is sometimes abundant and sometimes scarce. This species seems to range over the whole of the British Islands, with the exception, perhaps, of the Shetlands. Abroad, it has been found in all parts of the Palæarctic Region, except the extreme north, and Eastern Asia. The Small White (_Pieris rapæ_). The Small White butterfly (Plate 11) is, perhaps, more often in evidence then its larger kinsman just referred to. It also is a migrant, and although it never seems to be absent from these islands, in its proper season, its great increase in numbers in some years is almost certainly due to the arrival of immigrants. The spring form of this butterfly, named _metra_ by Stephens, who, together with others, considered it a good species, has the tips of the fore wings only slightly clouded with black; and the black spots near the centre of the wings are always more or less faint in the male. Sometimes the central spot and also the blackish clouding of the tip are entirely absent. The summer brood, on the other hand, has fairly blackish tips and distinct black spots--one in the male and three in the female, the lower one lying on the inner margin. Occasionally examples of this flight bear a strong resemblance to the Green-veined White, the next species. The wings are sometimes, chiefly in Ireland, of a creamy colour, more especially in the female, or, more rarely, of a yellowish tint. In North America, where this species was accidentally or intentionally introduced some years ago, bright yellow forms are not uncommon in some localities, and the variety is there known as _novangliæ_. In certain favourable years a partial third brood has occurred, but such specimens are often small in size. The egg (Plate 8) is at first pale greenish, but later on it turns yellowish, and this tint it retains until just before the caterpillar hatches out. The caterpillar when full-grown has a brownish head and a green body; the latter is sprinkled with black and clothed with short blackish hairs emitted from pale warts. There is a yellowish line on the back, and a line formed of yellow spots on the side. It feeds on most plants of the cabbage tribe, and in flower gardens on mignonette and nasturtiums. It is often attacked by parasites, and especially by the _Apanteles_, referred to as destructive to caterpillars of the Large White. The chrysalis may be of various tints, ranging from pale brown, through grey to greenish; the markings are black, but these are sometimes only faint. It is to be found in similar situations to those chosen by the caterpillar of the last species, but often under the lower rail of a fence or board of a wooden building. Where caterpillars have been feeding in a garden, they often enter greenhouses, among other places, to pupate; and where these structures are heated during the winter, the butterflies sometimes emerge quite early in the year. Distributed throughout the British Islands, except the Hebrides and Shetlands. It is common over the whole of Europe, and extends through Asia to China and Japan. In America, where it was introduced into the United States some forty-five years ago, it has now spread northwards into Canada, and also southwards. The Green-veined White (_Pieris napi_). This butterfly is not often seen away from its favourite haunts in the country; these are woods, especially the sunny sides, leafy lanes, and even marsh land. As in the case of the two Whites previously noticed, there are always two broods in the year. The first flight of the butterflies is in May and June, occasionally as early as April in a forward season. These specimens have the veins tinged with grey and rather distinct, but are not so strongly marked with black as those belonging to the second flight, which occurs in late July and throughout August. This seasonal variation, as it is called, is also most clearly exhibited on the under side. In the May and June butterfly (Plate 13, left side) the veins below are greenish-grey, and those of the hind wings are broadly bordered also with this colour. In the bulk of the July and August specimens (Plate 13, right side) only the nervures are shaded with greenish-grey, and the nervules are only faintly, or not at all, marked with this colour. [Illustration: _Pl._ 8. =Small White Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 9. =Large White Butterfly (Summer Brood).= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] Now and then a specimen of the first brood may assume the characters properly belonging to the specimens of the second brood; and, on the other hand, a butterfly of the second brood may closely resemble one of the first brood. As a rule, however, the seasonal differences referred to are fairly constant. By rearing this species from the egg it has been ascertained that part (sometimes the smaller) of a brood from eggs laid in June attains the butterfly stage the same year, and the other part remains in the chrysalis until the following spring, the butterflies in each set being of the form proper to the time of emergence. The strongly-marked specimens (Plate 14) are from Ireland, and are of the first or spring brood. The seasonal variation in this species is not so well defined in Ireland as in England. A form of variation in the female, and most frequent perhaps in Irish specimens, is a tendency of the spots on the upper side of the fore wings to spread and run together, and so form an interrupted band. Specimens with a distinct creamy tint on the wings are sometimes met with, but such varieties, as well as yellow ones (var. _flava_, Kane), are probably more often obtained in Ireland and Scotland than in England. Occasionally male specimens of the second brood have two black spots on the disc of the wing. Some forms of this butterfly have been named, and these will now be referred to. _Sabellicæ_ (Petiver), Stephens, has been considered as a species distinct from _P. napi_, L. Stephens ("Brit. Entom. Haust.," I. Pl. iii., Figs. 3, 4) figured a male and a female as _sabellicæ_, which he states differs from _napi_ in having shorter and more rounded yellowish-white wings. No locality or date is given in the text (p. 21) for the specimens figured; but referring to another example which he took at Highgate on June 4, he says that it agrees with his Fig. 2. Probably, however, it was his second figure that he intended, the Fig. 4 of the plate, which is a female. This is rather more heavily marked with dusky scales than is usual in specimens of the first brood, at least in England, although it agrees in this respect with some Irish June examples. Fig. 3 represents a male which certainly seems to be referable to the spring form. Most authors give _sabellicæ_ as belonging to the summer flight, but this does not seem to be correct. Var. _napææ_ is a large form of the summer brood, occurring commonly on the Continent, in which the veins on the under side of the hind wings are only faintly shaded with greenish-grey. Occasionally specimens are taken in this country in August, which both from their size and faint markings on the under side seem to be referable to this form. Var. _bryoniæ_ is an Alpine form of the female, and in colour is dingy yellow or ochreous, with the veins broadly suffused with blackish grey, sometimes so broadly as to hide the greater part of the ground colour. This form does not occur in any part of the British Islands, but some specimens from Ireland and from the north of Scotland somewhat approach it. All the early stages are shown on Plate 10. The egg is of a pale straw colour when first laid, but it soon turns to greenish, and as the caterpillar within matures, the shell of the egg becomes paler. The ribs seem to be fourteen in number. The eggs are laid singly on hedge garlic (_Sisymbrium alliaria_) and other kinds of plants belonging to the Cruciferæ. The egg in the illustration was laid on a seed-pod of hedge garlic, but the caterpillar that hatched from it was reared on leaves of garden "nasturtium" and wallflower. The caterpillar when full grown is green above, with black warts, from which arise whitish and blackish hairs. There is a darker line along the back, and a yellow line low down on the sides. Underneath the colour is whitish-grey. The spiracular line is dusky, but not conspicuous, and the spiracles are blackish surrounded with yellow. It has been stated that caterpillars fed upon hedge garlic and horseradish produce light butterflies, and that those reared on mignonette and watercress produce dark butterflies. Barrett mentions having reared a brood of the caterpillars upon a bunch of watercress placed in water and stood in a sunny window, but he does not refer to anything peculiar about the butterflies resulting therefrom. He states, however, that from eggs laid in June the earliest butterfly appeared within a month, and the remainder by the middle of August, only one remaining in the chrysalis until the following June. [Illustration: _Pl._ 10. =Green-veined White Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 11. =Small White Butterfly.= 1, 2, 4 _male (spring)_, 3 _do. (summer)_; 5, 7, 8 _female (spring)_, 6, 9, _do. (summer)_.] Caterpillars may be found in June and July and in August and September. The chrysalis is green in colour, and the raised parts are yellowish and brown. This is the most frequent form, but it varies through yellowish to buff or greyish, and is sometimes without markings. Generally distributed throughout the British Islands, but its range northwards does not seem to extend beyond Ross. In Europe it is generally common, and extends through Western and Central Asia to Siberia, and, according to Leech, is found in North Japan. In Amurland and Corea it is represented by the form _orientis_, Oberth. It occurs in North-West Africa, the Canary Isles, and the Azores. In America it is found in the Northern States and in California. The Bath White (_Pieris daplidice_). The Bath White (Plate 14) is such a rare visitor to this country, that any one who captures a specimen may congratulate himself on the event. During the whole of the last century not more than sixty specimens seem to have been recorded as taken in England, and ten of these were captured between 1895 and the present time. Nearly all of these were netted on the south or south-eastern coast, and in the months of July or August, but chiefly the latter. The occurrence of specimens in May or June appears to be quite exceptional. Although it might be passed over for a Green-veined White, or other common butterfly, when seen on the wing, it is very different from any of our other species when seen at close quarters. In the greenish mottling of the under side of the hind wings, the male has some likeness to the female Orange-tip, but on the Bath White the green is heavier and less broken up. On the upper side of the fore wings the black markings comprise a spot, sometimes divided, at the end of the cell, and a patch on the tips of the wings; the latter enclose spots of the ground colour. The markings of the under side show through blackish on the upper side of the hind wings. The female differs from the male in having a black spot between veins 1 and 2 of the fore wings, and the markings of the hind wings are blacker, especially on the outer area. The egg is stated by Buckler to be of a bright pinkish-red colour, agreeing in this respect, as well as in size, with the anthers of the flowers of mignonette, upon which plant it is laid in an upright position. The shape is compared to that of an acorn without the cup, and it has twelve or fourteen rather prominent ribs. The full-grown caterpillar is bluish-grey, dotted with glossy black warts, from each of which there is a short blackish hair. The lines along the back and sides are yellow, or white spotted with yellow. Head yellowish, dotted with black, and hairy. August and September. It feeds on garden as well as wild mignonette (_Reseda_). The chrysalis is at first similar in colour to the caterpillar, but it afterwards becomes whitish. It has numerous black dots, and is marked with yellow along the sides and on the back of the thorax. The above descriptions are abridged from Buckler's more detailed account of the life-history of this species. Of the caterpillars resulting from thirty-three eggs, only two attained the chrysalis state, in September. One of these turned black and died in November, and from the other a butterfly emerged in the following June. The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 12 are from Buckler's "Larvæ." [Illustration: _Pl._ 12. =Bath White Butterfly.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Buckler)._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 13. =Green-veined White Butterfly.= 1, 2 _male (spring)_, 5, 6, _do. (summer)_; 3, 4 _female (spring)_, 7, 8 _do. (summer)_.] It has been suggested that specimens taken in July and August are the offspring of immigrants that arrive here in May, but there is no conclusive evidence of this. It has, however, been proved that our climate is not suitable for the permanent establishment of the species here. The earliest writers on English insects called this butterfly "Vernon's Half Mourner," or "The Greenish Half Mourner." It was first mentioned by Petiver, some two hundred years ago, and about that time only two British specimens were known. One of these was taken in Cambridgeshire, and one at Hampstead. According to Lewin, who wrote about it in 1795, the name "Bath White" was given to the butterfly "from a piece of needlework executed at Bath by a young lady, from a specimen of this insect, said to have been taken near that place." In 1796 Donovan only knew of the Bath specimen; and in 1803 Haworth mentions a faded specimen taken in June at Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire. The species is more or less common in many parts of Europe, but it seems to be most at home and abundant in the south. Its range extends to North Africa, Madeira, the Canary Isles, and the temperate parts of Asia, including Northern China and Corea. The Orange-tip (_Euchloë cardamines_). This butterfly (Plate 17), as its name suggests, has a large patch of orange colour on the outer third of its white, or creamy white, fore wings, and the extreme tip is blackish; at least, this is so in the male. The female is without the orange patch, and this is replaced by a smaller one of blackish-grey. The lower portion of this patch is broken up by the ground colour, and by white spots on the outer margin and around the tips of the wings. The hind wings, in both sexes, appear to be dappled with greyish-green, and this is caused by the green marking on the under surface of the wings showing through. Some specimens, chiefly from Ireland, have all the wings in the male, and the hind wings in the female, distinctly tinged with yellow. The discal black spot varies in size and in shape; often it is roundish, and sometimes it is crescent-like. It is always larger in the female than in the male, and may be entirely absent in the latter sex; but this probably occurs very rarely. Usually the orange patch of the male extends very near to the inner angle of the wing, but sometimes it is continued through to this point. It ranges in colour from deep to pale orange, and occasionally to almost yellow. Small specimens, some not more than one inch and a quarter in expanse, occur from time to time. In these dwarfs the orange patch does not reach beyond the black discal spot, which in normal specimens it usually does. This small form has been considered a distinct species, and the name _hesperidis_ has been proposed for it. Female specimens with splashes or streaks of the male colour on the upper or the under sides have been noted not infrequently; and more rarely specimens with one side entirely male and the other entirely female have been taken. The egg (Plate 15), when freshly laid, is whitish, faintly tinged with greenish; it soon changes to yellow, and, later on, turns orange and then dark violet. When the latter colour appears, the little caterpillar may be expected to hatch out very shortly. The eggs are placed upright on the foot-stalks of the flowers, and may be readily found in June by searching the blossom-clusters of hedge-mustard or cuckoo-flower. The caterpillar, when mature, is dull bluish-green, with raised dots and warts; from the former arise whitish hairs, and from the latter longer blackish hairs. There is a white line, or stripe, along the sides, and the underparts of the body are greener than the back. Both in colour and marking the caterpillar agrees so closely with the seed-pods of its food-plant that its detection is not always easy. A peculiarity in very young caterpillars of this species, and also those of some of the "Whites," is, that the hairs are forked at the tips, and bear globules of moisture thereon (see figure and remarks on p. 3). [Illustration: _Pl._ 14. =Green-veined White (Irish).= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. =Bath White.= 4, 5 _male_; 6 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 15. =Orange-tip Butterfly.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The caterpillars feed in June and July on lady's smock or cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine pratensis_), charlock (_Brassica sinapistrum_), hedge-mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), garlic mustard (_S. alliaria_), rock-cress (_Arabis_), horseradish (_Cochlearia armoracia_), dame's violet (_Hesperis matronalis_), watercress (_Nasturtium officinale_), etc. The chrysalis, as will be seen from the figure (Plate 15), is curiously elongated, and tapers towards each end; the outline of the back is curved, and the wing-cases bulge out into an angle about the middle of the under side. The colour is pale grey or whitey-brown, sometimes with a strong rosy tinge; the back is speckled with brownish, and has an olive-grey dorsal line, and the veins of the wings are well defined. This stage lasts, as a rule, from August of one year until May of the following year. When the chrysalis is first formed, it is green, with the wing-cases brighter, and this colour is sometimes retained. It has been stated that the chrysalids assume the colour of their immediate surroundings, and this may be so; but all that I have had under observation were of the colours described above, although some were fastened to green stem, others to muslin, and others, again, to glass. Towards the end of May and in June is the usual time for this butterfly to be on the wing. It has, however, been noticed as early as about the middle of April, and as late as the middle of July, and rarely in August and September. The specimens, seen in the last-mentioned months, may have represented a second brood, and, if so, a very unusual event. Possibly, however, they may have been specimens whose emergence had for some reason not understood, been retarded. There is at least one record of the insect remaining in the chrysalis for two winters. Although generally distributed throughout England, Wales, and Ireland, and occurring in Scotland as far north as the Caledonian Canal, it seems to be more common in some districts than in others. Abroad, its range extends over Europe, and through Asia as far east as Amurland and China. The Wood White (_Leucophasia sinapis_). The graceful little butterfly figured on Plate 19 is creamy white, with a rather square black or blackish spot on the tip of the fore wings of the male. In the female the spot is reduced to some blackish scales on and between the veins. Occasionally there is a second brood in the year, and the specimens of this flight have smaller and rounder black spots in the males, and almost none at all in the females. Specimens of the female sex entirely devoid of black marking are referable to var. _erysimi_ (see fourth figure in second row, Plate 16). Series of each brood are shown on Plate 16, which is reproduced from a photograph by Mr. Hamm. The lower specimen in each series has been reversed to show the seasonal variation of the under side. The row of specimens on the left are of the first brood, and the second and last examples in this series show the characters of var. _lathyri_--black tips to the fore wings, and dusky band-like shades on the hind wings; the under sides of the hind wings dull greenish--to which form a good many of our spring specimens belong. The specimens of the second generation are referable to var. _diniensis_. The species is sometimes referred to _Leptosia_, Hüb. The egg, which is figured on Plate 18, is yellowish-white in colour; it is ribbed, and rather glassy in appearance. The caterpillars have been known to hatch out about a week after the eggs were laid. [Illustration: _Pl._ 16. =Wood White Butterfly.=] [Illustration: _Pl._ 17. =Orange-tip Butterfly.= 1, 5 _male_; 2 _do. (Irish)_; 3, 6 _female_; 4 _do. (Irish)_.] The caterpillar when full grown is, according to Hellins, "a beautiful green, the front segments minutely dotted with black; dorsal line darker green, edged with yellowish-green; spiracular line distinct, of a fine clear yellow, edged above with darker green; spiracles indistinguishable." The chrysalis in shape is something like that of the last species, but the back is not curved, and the ends are less tapered. The colour is a "lovely delicate green; the abdomen rather yellowish; just in the spiracular region there runs all round the body a stout pink rib, enclosing the greenish spiracles; from this a strong pink line branches off, bordering the outer edge of the wing-case, and the nervures of the wings themselves are delicately outlined in pink" (Hellins). Sometimes the chrysalids are green without marking. Mr. A.M. Montgomery, who on one occasion had four batches of eggs, and the subsequent caterpillars, under observation, states that the caterpillars hatched about June 2 from eggs laid about May 22. Pupation took place about July 3, and, except from one batch that remained for the winter in the chrysalids, the butterflies emerged between July 16 and 22. The food-plant in this case was bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_). The yellow pea (_Lathyrus pratensis_) is a favourite pabulum, but the caterpillar will also eat a vetch (_Vicia cracca_), and probably many other plants belonging to the order Leguminosæ. Caterpillars from the July butterflies would feed in August and September. This fragile-looking little species is somewhat local, but is not altogether uncommon in some of its particular haunts. As its English name implies, the butterfly is fond of the woods, or, perhaps, is rather more partial to their shady rides and margins. On dull or wet days, it settles on the under side of a leaf. The first brood is on the wing in May, and the second--when this occurs, which is not every year--in July and August. In Ireland, where it is abundant in the south and west, there seems to be only one flight, and this is in June. It may be well to remember that this butterfly does not like the pill-box, and will not settle down quietly therein. Possibly the Wood White had a much more general distribution in England at one time than it now seems to have. It was not uncommon in parts of Sussex some years ago, but there appears to be no record of its occurrence there now. It is certainly much scarcer in the New Forest than it used to be. However, it is still to be found, no doubt, in many parts of England and Wales, but chiefly perhaps in the counties of Berkshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Lancashire, and Cumberland. Also in the south and west of Ireland. It occurs throughout Europe, Western and Central Asia, and its range extends eastwards through Siberia, Amurland, China, and Corea to Japan. The Pale Clouded Yellow (_Colias hyale_). This usually scarce butterfly (Plate 21) is of a primrose-yellow colour in the male, and, as a rule, almost white in the female; sometimes the latter sex is of the yellow male colour. The outer margin of the fore wings is broadly black in both sexes, but there are some more or less united spots of the ground colour in the black towards the tips of the wings, and below vein 3 the black is usually confined to the outer margin. There is a black spot near the middle of the wing, and some blackish dusting quite near the base of the wing. The hind wings have a pale orange central spot, sometimes two spots, and the blackish border on the outer margin is generally narrow, and often interrupted or broken up into spots. The fringes of all the wings are pinkish, as also are the antennæ. The egg is pearly yellowish-white when first laid; a few days later the top becomes transparent, white, and glassy, shading downwards into yellow, and then clear rosy orange; the base is pale, but less transparent than the top. It has a number of transverse ribs, ranging from nineteen to twenty-two. Before the caterpillar hatches out, the egg changes to a purplish leaden colour. [Illustration: _Pl._ 18. =Wood White Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 19. =Wood White Butterfly.= 1, 4, 6 _male_; 3 _do. (var.)_; 2, 5, 7 _female_.] The caterpillar in October, before hibernation, is about a quarter of an inch long, and deep clover-green in colour; it has a number of pale, shining warts along the back, from each of which there is a moderately long black bristle, and there is a pale yellowish-white stripe above the black spiracles. The head is pale ochreous green, with warts and bristles as on the body. It rests upon a pad of silk spun on the centre of a leaflet. When full grown the colour is clear light green, but has a darkish velvety appearance, due to the entire surface being densely sprinkled with black warts, the bristles from the warts on the back are black, and those on the lower surface are white, the line above the spiracles, which are white outlined with black, is made up of lemon-yellow, orange-vermilion, and orange with an upper border of white. The head, claspers, and legs are green. It feeds in June, and again in August, on clover, trefoil, etc. The figure on Plate 20 is after Hübner. The chrysalis is very similar to that of the Clouded Yellow, the chief differences are that the head-beak of the present species is straight instead of being slightly upturned, and the tip of the wing-case extends further down the body. The above particulars of the early stages of the Pale Clouded Yellow are adapted from Mr. Frohawk's account of the life-history of the species (_Entomologist_, 1892 and 1893). From eggs laid in September by a captured female, Mr. Williams reared two butterflies in November of the same year. Other caterpillars from the same batch of eggs hibernated and recommenced feeding in the spring, but failed to attain the chrysalis state. Young caterpillars from eggs obtained in August were successfully hibernated by Mr. Carpenter, and many of these produced butterflies in the following May. In rearing this species from eggs laid in the autumn, a fairly dry treatment appears to be the best. Protect the young caterpillars from frost, and do not water the plants during the winter. When they become active again, about February, transfer them to other growing plants, which should be kept ready for the change. Do not water the plants much, or wet the foliage at all, and keep a sharp look-out for earwigs. It seems pretty clear that this species passes the winter as a caterpillar, and from the evidence available it appears equally certain that the caterpillars would not survive an ordinary winter in this country. Possibly, however, in very mild winters, or in certain warm nooks on the south coast, some may be able to exist until the spring, and then complete their growth and reach the butterfly state. In such native-born butterflies the ancestral migratory habit may be lost, owing to climate, and they would not, therefore, wander far from the spot where they emerged from the chrysalis, but found a colony, which probably would be cleared off sooner or later by the severity of an English winter. The Pale Clouded Yellow was not mentioned as an English butterfly until Lewin wrote about it in 1795. He states that he only met with it "in the Isle of Sheppey and on a hilly pasture-field near Ospringe in Kent." He seems to have noted it in different years at both places. Stephens, in 1827, referred to it as a rare British species, and from that date until 1867 it seems to have been common only in 1835, 1842, 1857, and 1858. In 1868 it was abundant in the southern and eastern counties, and was observed as far north as Lancashire and Yorkshire, also in Ireland. It was common on the south coast in 1872, and rather more so in 1875, when it spread into Essex and Suffolk, and also inland. Until 1875 the butterflies seem only to have been noticed in the autumnal months, but in that year specimens had been seen in May and June. In 1876 the species was pretty plentiful, but after that date it did not again occur in numbers until 1892, when it was recorded from most of the southern and eastern counties. In 1893 one or two specimens were reported as seen in April or May, but less than a dozen were recorded as captured during the autumn of that year. Not much was seen of the butterfly again until 1899, when a score or so were recorded from Kent. Two or three specimens were seen on the south coast in June, 1900, and the species was plentiful in the autumn of that year in many parts of the country. Single specimens were seen in June, 1901, and in the autumn the butterfly was again fairly common in several southern counties, and abundant in parts of Essex. In 1902 a male was taken near Dartford in March, and one example in May in a locality where two specimens had been captured on October 20 of the previous year; six males and one female were obtained between June 27 and July 12 at Sheerness. The summer of 1902 was a cold one, and, with the exception of four specimens at Folkestone in August, the species was not again seen during that year or the following one; but in 1904 a good many specimens were secured at Chatham in September, and one or two at Margate in August. [Illustration: _Pl._ 20. =Pale Clouded Yellow Caterpillar.= (_After Hübner._)] [Illustration: _Pl._ 21. =Pale Clouded Yellow.= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] When it occurs in this country the butterfly should be looked for in clover and lucerne fields. Common throughout the Palæarctic Region. It is probably a species of Eastern origin, but with a tendency to spread westward. The Clouded Yellow (_Colias edusa_). In its typical colouring--orange with broad black borders--this butterfly (Plate 22) will be recognized the first time it is seen. Both sexes have a black spot about the centre of the fore wings, and a deep orange spot near the middle of the hind wings--the latter is subject to variation in size and shape. The female usually has the black borders spotted with yellow, but in some examples these spots are almost (Plate 24, Fig. 1) or quite absent. Another form of the female, known as var. _helice_ (Plate 24, Fig. 2), has the orange colour replaced by yellowish-white, and in some years is not altogether uncommon. Between this yellowish-white at one end of the colour range and the typical orange at the other, specimens showing all the intermediate shades have been obtained, chiefly by rearing the butterflies from eggs laid by a female _helice_. One of these intergrades will be seen on Plate 24, Fig. 3. The males vary, especially bred ones, from "deep rich orange to the palest chrome yellow; the marginal bands also vary in width; in many examples the yellow nervules run through the borders of all the wings. A large proportion of the males have the hind wings shot with a beautiful amethystine blue" (Frohawk). The egg (Plate 23) is oval, tapering towards each end, very pale yellowish in colour at first, but afterwards becoming darker yellow, and then pink. The eggs are laid, as shown in the figure, on the upper side of a leaf of clover or lucerne, sometimes singly, but often in small batches. The caterpillar when full grown is deep green with minute black dots, from which fine hairs arise, and a pink-marked yellow, or whitish, spiracular line. The head is also green, rather downy, and small in size. When first hatched the caterpillar is brownish, but soon changes to greenish. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium_), trefoil (_Lotus_), melilot (_Melilotus_), etc., in June and again in September or October. The chrysalis is yellowish-green above, somewhat paler below; the wing-cases are rather deeper in tint than the thorax and back, and have a central black speck and a row of slender marks at the edges. The body is marked with a splash of reddish and tiny black dots on the under side. The beak-like projection from the head is dark green above and yellow beneath. The figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis are taken from Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies," and the descriptions of these stages by the same author have been followed. The Clouded Yellow has a great fancy for clover or lucerne fields, and should be looked for in such places in August and September. It is not very difficult to rear from the egg, so that if a female is captured in August (the spring ones should not be taken), it would be a good plan to try to induce her to lay some eggs. The best method to succeed in this is to pot up a growing plant of clover, and over this place a glass cylinder with a muslin cover. (See further directions in the Introduction, page 28.) This butterfly, which was known, to the earliest English authors as the "Saffron" or "Spotted Saffron," has always, no doubt, been erratic and uncertain in its appearance in this country, sometimes becoming increasingly abundant for three, four, or even five years in succession, and then scarce or entirely absent for similar periods. The most recent years of plenty, or when it was fairly common, were 1877, "the great Edusa year," 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1899, 1900, and 1902. In some of these years the Pale Clouded Yellow was also common. In some of the warmer countries that this butterfly inhabits it has certainly three, and possibly four, broods in the year. It is therefore conceivable that at times its increase in numbers may become very great in some particular area. At such times swarms of the surplus butterfly population set out to seek fresh fields and pastures new. Some portion of these flights reach our country from time to time, and this probably always occurs in the spring of the year. The weather conditions being favourable, the offspring of the visitors put in a welcome appearance in the autumn, and not only gladden the heart of the entomologist, but add a charm to the countryside which every one can appreciate. The butterfly has probably occurred, at some time or other, in almost every county in England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, extending even to the Orkney Islands (1877). Its home appears to be in North Africa and South Europe, whence it spreads over the greater part of Europe and Western Asia. NOTE.--According to Kirby, this butterfly should be called _Eurymus hyale_, Linn., and the Pale Clouded Yellow be known as _Eurymus kirbyi_, Lewis. The Brimstone (_Gonepteryx rhamni_). This butterfly (Plate 26) has the tips of the fore wings sharply pointed, and there is a rather acute angle about the middle of the outer margin of the hind wings. The colour of the male is bright sulphur yellow, with a central orange spot on each wing, that on the hind wings usually the largest; there is also a rusty dot at the outer end of the upper veins and along the front margin of the fore wings towards the tip. The female is greenish yellow, and is marked similarly to the male. In both sexes the horns (_antennæ_) are reddish, and the long silky hair on the thorax is a noticeable character. It is probably this insect to which the name "butter-coloured fly," contracted into butterfly, was first given; anyway, it is the only species to which the name applies so well. The egg. If the under sides of the leaves of buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_) or of the berry-bearing alder (_R. frangula_) are examined in May or June, the eggs of this butterfly may be found thereon. They are often placed on a rib of the leaf, but sometimes they are laid as shown in the illustration (Plate 25). At first the colour is pale greenish and rather glossy, but it soon changes to yellowish, and later on, when the caterpillar has formed inside, to a dull purplish-grey. The caterpillar when full grown is green, merging into bluish-green on the sides, thickly powdered with shining black specks. There is a pale line on each side below the spiracles. It feeds in June and July on both kinds of buckthorn, and will generally be found resting along the main rib of a leaf. [Illustration: _Pl._ 22. =Clouded Yellow.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 23. =Clouded Yellow.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The chrysalis is bluish-green in colour and of a curious shape. The sharp yellowish and brown beak-like projection in front and raised brownish bases of the wing-covers, together with the humped thorax, somewhat resemble a bird's head when seen from the front. Then, again, the enlarged wing-cases, which are rather greener than the other parts, in conjunction with the general outline, give a very good imitation of a curled leaf. The butterfly is very constant as regards colour and marking, but occasionally the fore wings may be more or less suffused with orange, and in this respect assumes the coloration of the South European species known as _G. cleopatra_. The attempt has been made to establish the last-named butterfly in Ireland, but the experiment seems to have been only partially successful. Sometimes female specimens are found to have splashes of the male colour on their wings. Occasionally their colour is intermediate between their own proper tint and that of the male, and more rarely the wings on one side may be yellow, as in the male, while those on the other side are greenish, as in the female. Such specimens are termed gynandrous examples, and sometimes hermaphrodites. The latter, however, is not correct. An unusual variation of the butterfly is shown on Plate 27. This has large oval pale brownish-orange marks on the under side of the wings. It was taken in the New Forest. The Brimstone butterfly enjoys a longer existence in the perfect state than any of the other British species, with the exception, perhaps, of the Tortoiseshells and their allies. It leaves the chrysalis at the end of July or beginning of August, and is usually quite common during the latter month. After this it takes up its winter quarters, from which, however, it may be tempted to come out whenever the day is sufficiently warm and sunny for it to indulge in a few hours' flight. The fine condition of some of the specimens that are seen in May or June has suggested the possibility of such specimens having remained in the chrysalis during the winter, but it is not at all probable that they do so. It may be seen any sunny day from March, or even February, to June in almost every English and Welsh county where its food-plant grows, and locally in Ireland. The best time to take specimens is in the autumn, when they are often to be seen in numbers flying along the rides in or on the outskirts of woods, and also in clover fields. Distributed over the whole of temperate Europe, and extending through Asia to the far east and to North Africa. * * * * * The thirty butterflies now to be considered belong to the Nymphalidæ, which has a larger membership than any other family of butterflies. It is divided into several sub-families, but only four of these concern us; these are Apaturinæ (1 species), Nymphalinæ (17 species), Danainæ (1 species), and Satyrinæ (11 species). The next butterfly is our only representative of Apaturinæ. The Purple Emperor (_Apatura iris_). On account of its large size and the beautiful purple sheen over its brownish-black velvety wings, this butterfly (Plate 29) is always counted a prize by the collector. It is, however, only the male that dons the purple, and he only when seen from the proper angle. The female is without the purple reflection and her wings are browner, but the white spots on the fore wings and the white bands on the hind wings are rather wider than those of the male. Above the anal angle of the hind wings, in both sexes, there is a black spot, ringed with tawny and sometimes centred with white, and a tawny mark on veins 1 and 2. As will be seen on turning to the figures on Plate 31, the under side of this butterfly is exceedingly pretty. On the same plate there is a figure of the rare variety known as _iole_ (for the loan of which I am indebted to Mr. Sabine), in which most of the white spots are absent or obscured. Intermediates between this extreme form and the type also occur, but all such aberrations are uncommon. [Illustration: _Pl._ 24. =Clouded Yellow.= 1 _Female aberration;_ 2, 3, 4 _var. helice_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 25. =Brimstone Butterfly.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The egg (Plate 28) may be looked for in August on the upper surface of a leaf of the sallow (_Salix caprea_). According to Buckler, it is pale olive green in colour, and cylindrical in shape; the height from base to top being about equal to the width through from side to side. It has about fourteen ribs. The caterpillar in October, just before hibernation, is dingy green roughened with numerous whitish warts from which arise short bristles, some of the latter appearing to be tinged with reddish, and those along the sides longer than those on the upper part of the body; the straight lines along the back and the oblique ones on the sides are yellowish. The head and the two horn-like projections, reminding one of the horns of a slug, are reddish-grey and covered with warts and bristles. The anal points (tails), which lie close together, are tipped with reddish. It should be mentioned here that on emerging from the egg the young caterpillar is without horns; these are not developed until the first skin is thrown off, which event happens from eight to twelve days after hatching. The full-grown caterpillar is green, merging into yellowish towards the anal points (tails); the oblique stripes on the sides are yellowish, edged with reddish. The individual depicted on the plate took up a position for change to the chrysalis on June 6. It spun a mat of silk to the under side of a sallow leaf, and the next day it was found suspended by the claspers, which were grasping the silken mat. On the fourth day the chrysalis was fully developed, and from this a male butterfly emerged on June 24, an unusually early date. The chrysalis is whitish, more or less tinged with green, but having the oblique lines on the sides whitish; the veins of the wings also show up whitish. The caterpillar was well known to entomologists in this country as far back as 1758, when, in May, four were obtained from sallow at Brentwood in Essex. It usually occurs on sallow, but an instance is recorded of it refusing to eat this plant; it would probably have starved if willow, upon which it fed up, had not been substituted. A full-grown caterpillar was on one occasion found at Raindene in Sussex on poplar, which is a well-known food of the species on the Continent. Now and then a full-grown caterpillar has been met with in October, and Buckler reared two in the autumn from the egg almost to the chrysalis stage, but they died before the change was effected. As befits his rank, the Emperor has lofty habits, and after quitting the clump of sallow bushes, among which its transformations from egg to the perfect insect were effected, it resorts to the oak trees, around which it flies in July, and, when not so engaged, rests on a leaf of the higher branches. To capture the butterfly, when seen at such times, is not altogether an easy matter, as for the purpose the net must be affixed to the end of a pole about 14 or 15 feet in length. The insect's rather depraved taste for the juices of animal matter, in a somewhat advanced stage of decay, is a fact well known to the professional collector and others who have taken advantage of it to the monarch's destruction. This method of attracting a butterfly for the purpose of capture is, however, not exactly to be commended. It surely is a greater pleasure to show one's friends a single specimen that has been captured by dexterity with the net, than to exhibit fifty that were secured by a device which is not only unsavoury, but unsportsmanlike. The female, however, is not to be allured; she must be sought among the sallows, and when seen is not easy to net, as she skims away over the tops of the bushes and is difficult to follow. [Illustration: _Pl._ 26. =Brimstone Butterfly.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 27. =Brimstone Butterfly.= _Underside (aberration)_. =Common Blue.= _At rest_.] Although most certainly not so common or so generally distributed as in former times, the butterfly still occurs in the larger oak woods in most of the midland, western, and southern counties of England, but is, perhaps, most frequent in Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire. In Wales it is found in Monmouthshire. It has not been recorded from Scotland, and only doubtfully from Ireland. In Central Europe it is often abundant, and its range extends eastward into Amurland, Central and Western China. * * * * * Now follow seventeen butterflies of the sub-family Nymphalinæ. The White Admiral (_Limenitis sibylla_). The "White Admirable Butterfly," as it was called by some of the older English entomologists, needs only to be seen to be at once recognized (Plate 33). The white markings on its blackish wings are somewhat similar to those of the Purple Emperor. As in that butterfly, so, too, in this, the most beautiful ornamentation is found on the under side. The shape of the wing is, however, very different in the two butterflies, and there is no probability of confusing one with the other. A somewhat uncommon form is shown on Plate 31 (also kindly loaned by Mr. Sabine); this is var. _nigrina_. Intermediates also occur, but these, too, are also rather rare. The eggs, which I have not seen, are stated to hatch in about fourteen days, and are laid in July. They have been described as pale green in colour, and of the shape of an orange, but flatter at the base and top. The caterpillar (Plate 30) when full grown is dark green on the back and lighter on the sides, roughened with yellow dots, and with a yellow-marked white line above the feet. The bristly spines are reddish with pinkish tips, and those on the second, third, fifth, tenth, and eleventh rings are longer than the others. The first ring seems to be without spines, but the brownish head is set with short ones, two on the crown being rather longer and blacker than the others, and are inclined backwards. In the autumn, when still quite tiny, it constructs a winter retreat (_hibernaculum_) (Plate 30) by fastening a growing leaf of sallow to a twig with silken threads, and then, using more silk, it draws the edges of the leaf together, and so forms a secure chamber wherein it can rest until the following spring, when it quits the domicile and sets to work on the tender foliage around it. At this time the caterpillar is brownish in colour. The chrysalis is of the remarkable shape shown on the plate. It is brownish, with purplish or olive tinge; behind the rounded hump there is a patch of bright green, and above the wing-cases a beautiful golden sheen. There are also other metallic spots and dots on various parts. Altogether, it is one of the prettiest of British butterfly chrysalids. I am tempted here to quote Buckler's excellent description of the pupation of this species, as it will serve to show the remarkable method by which caterpillars are able to perform a seemingly impossible feat; that is, to get absolutely free of the old skin whilst hanging head downwards from the silken pad or button to which they attach themselves by the anal claspers when preparing to pupate. [Illustration: _Pl._ 28. =Purple Emperor.= _Egg enlarged; young and full-grown caterpillars; chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 29. =Purple Emperor.= 1 _male_; 2 _female_.] "When full fed the larva becomes rapidly paler, and then suspends itself by the anal prolegs to a stem of the honeysuckle or other surface, and hangs with its body downwards in a sinuous curve, with its head bent a little upwards, facing the abdomen; it then remains motionless for three days, becoming whitish on the abdomen, and remaining very pale green on the thoracic segments. In the course of the third day the creature seems to wake up, unbends its head, swings itself to and fro a few times, then stretches itself downwards in a long attenuated line, which causes a rupture of the skin close to the head; the skin then is seen slowly to ascend, exposing the bare and soft shining parts below, from which a flat and forked pair of horns grow out perceptibly as one beholds this wonderful process; the skin continues to glide slowly upwards, and as the soft parts become exposed, they are seen to swell out laterally, and to assume the very singular projections so characteristic of this chrysalis, the skin of the old head gliding up the belly marks the progress of the disclosure, as the colour of the old and new surfaces is at this time alike, the new being, however, rather more shining and transparent. Occasionally during the bulging out of the soft parts, a kind of convulsive heave or two occurs, but otherwise it remains still until the creature is uncovered as far as the ninth or tenth segment; it then curves its anal extremity by a sudden twist laterally, and in a moment dexterously withdraws the tip of the anal segment from the larval prolegs by an opening on the back of the skin at that part. At this critical moment one has time to see that the naked shining point is furnished with black hooks, and to apprehend a fall; but in another moment the pupa has forcibly pressed the curved tip with its hooks against the stem close to the previous attachment of the anal prolegs, and now it is strongly and firmly fixed. The creature now seems endowed with wonderful power and vigour; it swings boldly to and fro, and undulates itself as if to gain longer swings, when presently the old skin that remains is seen to burst away and fall off, the chrysalis gradually becoming quiescent, the entire metamorphosis, from the first waking to the last movement, occupying nearly seven minutes. In sixteen days the perfect insect emerged." Linnæus in 1767 wrote of the sexes of this butterfly as _sibylla_, or rather _sibilla_, and _camilla_, but, as Kirby points out, three years earlier the same author had given the butterfly the name _camilla_. It is probable, therefore, that the latter name will have to be adopted for our butterfly. Certain it is that the older British authors--Donovan, Haworth, Stephens, etc., knew our species as _camilla_. The species known on the Continent as _camilla_, and which, owing to the confusion of names has been supposed to be British, will have to be called _drusilla_, according to Kirby. This species seems to be pretty much restricted to the southern and eastern counties of England. In the New Forest, Hampshire, it is often exceedingly abundant in July. So long ago as 1695 the butterfly was known to occur in Essex, and the species is found in some woods in that county at the present time. It has, however, quite disappeared from several woodland localities in Kent and Sussex, where it formerly occurred. It has been recorded from Shropshire and also from Worcestershire, but both these counties appear to be beyond the normal range of the species. Almost all writers on our butterflies, from Haworth downwards, have commented on the graceful flight of the White Admiral as it skims aloft and alow through the woodland glades. This elegance of motion is still retained even when the wings become sadly torn and frayed, probably by contact with twigs and thorns. Widely distributed throughout Central Europe. It is also found in Amurland, Corea, and Japan. The Comma (_Polygonia c-album_). The peculiar shape of the wings of this butterfly (Plate 35) might cause it to be mistaken for a very tattered example of one of the Tortoiseshells. The irregular contour of the outer edges of the wings is, however, quite natural, and is subject to some variation in its jaggedness. Their colour is deep tawny or fulvous, with brownish borders on their outer margin. On the fore wings there are three black spots on the front or costal area, and below the first, which is often divided, there is a roundish black spot (sometimes double) just above the inner margin; two, sometimes three, other spots lie between this and the third costal spot. On the hind wings there are three black spots on the basal half, and a series of pale fulvous spots before the brownish border; these are inwardly edged with brownish, and sometimes this edging is united with the marginal border. Similar spots are, in some specimens, present in a like position on the fore wings also. On the under side the wings are of various shades of brown, sometimes variegated with whitish, or yellowish, and greenish, the latter often conspicuous; other specimens are paler on the outer half than on the basal half, and, except occasionally having a series of greenish or dusky spots on the outer area, are without marking. These differences occur in both sexes. The white comma or c mark, placed about the middle of the under side of the hind wings, is rather stronger in the variegated specimens; but it varies, generally, in shape as well as in size. [Illustration: _Pl._ 30. =White Admiral.= _Young caterpillar with hibernaculum (h); caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 31. 1, 2 Purple Emperor; 3 var. _iole_. 4, 5 White Admiral, var. _nigrina_.] Var. _hutchinsoni_, Robson, which has been renamed _pallida_ and _lutescens_, differs from the typical form in having the ground colour much lighter and brighter on the upper side and ochreous on the under side. It is shown on Plate 35. The outline of the wings of this form, which occurs in June and July, is said to be less jagged, and this may be so as a rule, but it certainly is not always the case. Possibly this is "The Pale Comma" of Petiver. There are two broods of this species in the year, but the first or summer flight of butterflies seems to depend upon a favourable season, as also does the second or autumnal brood, at least as regards the number of butterflies representing it. The late butterflies hibernate and reappear in April, or even March, of the following year. It has been stated that all the specimens appearing in the spring are of the form with plain under sides. From eggs laid between April 27 and May 6, Miss E. Hutchinson, writing in 1887, says caterpillars hatched between May 5 and 11. They were "fed" on currant and nettle mixed, and were full grown from June 17th till the 23rd. The first butterfly emerged on June 26, and the last on July 3, and all were very fine and of the pale summer variety. Two of the insects paired on June 30, and the female commenced laying on July 1, and continued doing so till the 10th, when there were 120 ova. Unfortunately, a very cold spell of weather began on July 12, and more than half the eggs perished. The butterflies resulting from the remainder appeared during August, from the 17th to the 27th, but they would not pair, probably because, although they had emerged at an early date, they properly belonged to the autumnal flight. In 1894 Mr. Frohawk reared 200 of these butterflies from 275 eggs laid by a female between April 17 and June 1 of that year. The caterpillars were supplied with nettle only. The first butterfly emerged on June 30, and the last on August 2. Of the whole number forty-one were of the light fulvous form, var. _hutchinsoni_, and all the others of the dark or typical form. With few exceptions, the light-coloured butterflies were the first to emerge, and the major portion of these during early July, and before any examples of the dark form had come out. The egg is at first green in colour with ribs whiter, but changes before the caterpillar hatches out to yellowish. In confinement the female butterflies deposit their eggs singly or in chains of three or four; probably the latter is the usual method of laying the eggs under natural conditions. The caterpillar when full grown is black, netted with greyish; the spines on the second to fifth rings inclusive are yellowish, and those on the back of the other rings are white; the back from ring 6 to ring 10 inclusive is broadly white, marked with black, and the upper surface of the other rings is more or less yellowish. The head is black, marked with ochreous; the crown is lobed, and on each lobe is a short club-like knob. [Illustration: _Pl._ 32. =Comma Butterfly.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 33. =White Admiral.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] The chrysalis is brownish tinged with pink; the wing-cases and the rings of the body are edged with blackish; there is a greyish line along the back of the body and a brownish stripe along the spiracles; at the point where the body joins the thorax there are some silvery or golden spots. The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 32 are after Buckler. This butterfly seems to have disappeared from many localities in England where it formerly flourished. About seventy or eighty years ago, for example, it was plentiful in Epping Forest, in Herts, and in Dorset. During the last half-century or so it has been common in certain parts of many of the counties from Somerset to Durham and Cumberland, but seems to have occurred only sparingly or singly in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Wilts, and Devon. It still occurs now and then in the Dover district, the most recent record being of one taken in October, 1894; and it was reported from North Staffordshire in 1893. Probably it is now almost entirely confined to favoured districts embraced within the area represented by the counties of Herefordshire, Worcestershire, and Monmouthshire, whence it may occasionally stray into the adjoining counties, or even further afield. This butterfly is often associated with hop gardens, but it is by no means restricted to such places. The usual food-plants of the caterpillars are hop (_Humulus lupulus_), nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and currant (_Ribes_), but it is reported to eat gooseberry (_R. grossularia_) and elm (_Ulmus_). Abroad it has a very wide distribution in Europe, and extends through Asia to Japan. The Large Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa polychloros_). Apart from its larger size, and somewhat different outline, this butterfly may be known from the Small Tortoiseshell by its duller colour, which is brownish-orange; on the fore wing there are, as a rule, no blue crescents in the hind marginal border, but there is an extra black spot placed between veins 1 and 2; on the hind wings a black spot on the front area represents the black basal area seen on the Small Tortoiseshell; and this is an important point of difference, although the two species are not likely to be confused when both are well known. The blue spots referred to as not usually present on the fore wings are stated to occur in specimens emerging from chrysalids that have been kept in a rather cold temperature for a certain length of time. An aberration known as _testudo_ has the black spots of the fore wings united, and forming blotches on the front and inner areas; the ground colour of the fore wings is lighter, and the hind wings are blacker. This form occurs at large on the Continent, but it is rare; it has also been produced in the course of temperature experiments. The only eggs of this butterfly that I have been able to obtain are the batch figured on Plate 34. These were purplish with whitish ribs, but no caterpillars hatched from them. Hellins, who squeezed a few eggs from a freshly killed female, states that the colour apparently is a dull green. The ribs vary from seven to nine in number. The caterpillar in the adult stage is black, with a speckled dark ochreous band traversed by a black central line on the back; the sides are dappled with ochreous grey; the under parts are brown dappled with darker, and merging into the black. The spines are dark ochreous tipped with black, and the head is shiny black and bristly. (The figure is after Buckler.) These caterpillars live in large companies, often at the top of a high elm tree, from which they may be dislodged by a well-aimed stick, if this happens to be heavy enough to jar the branch when it reaches the mark. Besides elm trees (_Ulmus_), they also may be found on willow and sallow (_Salix_), aspen and poplar (_Populus_), white-beam (_Pyrus aria_), and various fruit trees, especially cherry. Occasionally they have been found on nettle, but the butterflies from these were small in size. June is the best month for them. [Illustration: _Pl._ 34. =Large Tortoiseshell.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 35. =Comma Butterfly.= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 _male_; 7 _female (var. hutchinsoni)_.] The chrysalis (Plate 34) is greyish, tinged with pink or reddish, sprinkled with greenish, and shaded with brown and black; the back of the body nearest the thorax is adorned with golden spots. I once obtained a number of these chrysalids in July at Mill Hill; they were found suspended by the tail from the edges of boards that formed a rickety old cart-shed standing at one end of a field and beneath an elm tree. Although this butterfly is often common in the caterpillar state, the perfect insect, which emerges in July and August, is more frequently seen in the spring after hibernation than before that event. It probably establishes itself in suitable quarters, in old trees, faggot stacks, barns, etc., for its long rest during the winter, at an early period after emerging from the chrysalis. No doubt large numbers are destroyed by their great enemies, the parasitic flies, chiefly perhaps the Hymenopterous _Apanteles_. An observer states that from fifty chrysalids only one butterfly resulted, all the others were found to be filled with parasites. In another case of one hundred caterpillars, some collected when quite small, only one was not "ichneumoned." These butterflies, in common with most other Vanessids, do not pair until the spring, but Barrett cites an instance of caterpillars, from eggs laid by a female in early September, being reared until about 1/2 inch in length, when they apparently laid up for hibernation. Lanes margined with trees, especially elms, or the verges of woods, are the most likely places in which to find the butterfly. At one time and another it has been observed in nearly every county of England and Wales, and also in some parts of Scotland, but not in Ireland. It appears to be more or less common in all counties around London, extending to Somerset in the west; to Cambs, Norfolk, and Suffolk in the east; and to Northampton and Warwick in the Midlands. Abroad it is found throughout the greater part of Europe, Asia Minor, and eastward to the Himalayas. The Small Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa urticæ_). This butterfly is one of the most ubiquitous as well as prettiest that we have in this country. Its reddish-orange colour, marked with yellow patches, black spots, and blue crescents, gives it a charming appearance as it sits on a flower, or even on the ground, with wings fully expanded to the sunlight. When the wings are closed up, however, the butterfly seems to disappear, as the under side of the wings is quite sombre in colour. The only bright spot on the under side is the yellowish central area of the fore wing, and when the wings are held erect over the insect's back this is not seen, but only the tips of these wings, which are of the same dull colour as the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 22.] The ground colour is subject to modification as regards the shade of red in the orange, and this may be intense or reduced to just a mere tinge. Specimens have been taken on the wing in which the colour was some shade of buff, and the same kind of colour change will sometimes result from an over-long exposure to the action of ammonia. The black markings vary in size, and sometimes those on the costal area are more or less connected or even confluent (Fig. 22); a greater or lesser amount of blackish suffusion on the hind wings (Fig. 23) generally accompanies confluence of the costal spots on fore wings. The two black spots between veins 2 and 4 occasionally enlarge and unite, or, on the other hand, they decrease in size to vanishing point. Some specimens have black scales between the second costal spot and the black spot on the inner margin, and the space between these two spots may be entirely covered with black and so form a central transverse band (var. _polaris_). A modification of this form is shown on Plate 38, lower figure. The yellow patch between the second and third costal black spots is sometimes continued right across the wings to the yellow spot on the inner margin, and in this respect resembles an Indian form of the species named _ladakensis_. Dwarf specimens result, in most cases, when the caterpillars have fed on hop (_Humulus_); at least, this is so in confinement. [Illustration: FIG. 23.] The egg is at first green, but after a time becomes tinted with yellow and the ribs stand out clear and transparent. The eggs are laid in a cluster on the under side of a terminal leaf of a nettle plant in May and again in July. The adult caterpillar is yellowish, closely covered with black speckling and short hairs; there is a black line down the centre of the back, and this is bordered on each side by the clear ground colour. The spiracles are black ringed with yellow, and there is a yellowish line above them. The yellowish spines have black tips. Head black, hairy, and speckled with yellow. Individuals of another company were almost entirely black, the spines alone being tinged with yellow. These caterpillars are gregarious from the time they hatch from the egg until about the last stage. The chrysalis is most often of some shade of grey and sometimes tinged with pinkish. The points on the upper parts of the body are in some examples metallic at the base, and occasionally the metallic lustre spreads over the thorax and other parts as well. There are two broods in the year, one in June, the other in August and September. The latter brood, or at least some of the butterflies, hibernate and reappear in the earliest sunny days of spring. They have been seen on the wing as early as January and February (1896), and as late as December. The geographical range of this species extends through Europe and Asia to Japan. The Peacock (_Vanessa io_). Unlike the last species referred to, this handsome butterfly is more frequently seen in the autumn than after hibernation. It is not likely to be mistaken for any other kind, for on its brownish-red velvety wings it bears its own particular badge, the "peacock eyes." The marks on the hind wings are more like the "eyes" on the tail feathers of the peacock than are those on the fore wings, and the brownish-red on these wings is confined to a large patch below the eye-mark, the remainder being blackish, powdered with yellow scales on the basal area. Some specimens have a blue spot below the "eye" on the hind wings, and the name _cyanosticta_ has been proposed for this form by Raynor. The under side is blackish, with a steely sheen, and crossed by irregular black lines; the fore wings are tinged with brown on the inner area, and the central dot and a series of dots beyond are ochreous; the hind wings have an ochreous central dot. [Illustration: _Pl._ 36. =Large Tortoiseshell.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 37. =Small Tortoiseshell.= _Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] In a state of nature the butterfly seems little given to variation. In rearing from the caterpillar, however, some curious aberrations occasionally crop up. In my early days of collecting I raised a number of specimens from caterpillars selected from a large brood; every one of these butterflies was of a dull brownish colour and had a greasy semi-transparent appearance. I regret to add that I set them all at liberty as they did not come up to my, then, standard of what a Peacock butterfly should be. Now and then specimens are bred from collected caterpillars, in which the eye spots are represented by a broad white cloud-like suffusion on the fore wings, and by a pale roundish patch on the hind wings; in conjunction with this the black costal spots of the fore wings are all more or less united (see Plate 41). This extreme variety is known in the vernacular as the "Blind Peacock," and as _ab. belisaria_ in science; between it and the typical form there are all kinds of intermediate modifications, and one of these is also shown on the plate referred to. It may be interesting to remark that similar varieties have been produced by subjecting the chrysalids at a particular period to a very low temperature. Readers who may wish to know more about "Temperature Experiments" are referred to a pamphlet on the subject by Dr. Max Standfuss. The egg, an enlarged figure of which will be found on Plate 39, is olive green in colour, and has eight ribs, which start just above the base and turn over the top. The eggs are laid in April or May in batches on the upper part of nettle plants and under the young leaves. The mature caterpillar is velvety black with white dots, and the divisions between the rings of the body are well marked. The spines are black and rather glossy, and besides this clothing, the body is also provided with short hair which gives the velvety appearance. The head and a plate on the next ring, also the legs, are shining black; the prolegs are blackish, tipped with yellowish. When quite young they are greenish-grey, and although hairy are without spines. The caterpillars usually feed in companies in June and July on the common stinging nettle. They have also been found on hop. Once or twice I have reared caterpillars of this butterfly, and also those of the Small Tortoiseshell and the Red Admiral, on hop, but the result has been disappointing, as the specimens produced were always small in size. The individuals for these experiments were obtained from nettle, and were generally about half grown at the time they were put on the hop diet. The chrysalis is figured on Plate 39. Its colour may be pale greenish, greyish, pale brown, or brownish-grey, but is usually stippled with blackish, especially the antennæ and the outline of the wing-cases. Some of the points on the thorax and the ring, or rings, next to it have a metallic lustre. Two chrysalids among those resulting from my hop-fed caterpillars were more or less suffused with the metallic sheen. It does not seem to be very clearly known where the caterpillars retire to for pupation. Those that I have found have been under a tent-like arrangement of the lower nettle leaves. In confinement, however, I have noted that in a roomy cage they all go to one end of it and suspend themselves from the roof; in a large flower-pot they crowd together in much the same way. The butterfly is on the wing in August and September, and frequents all and every kind of ground where flowering plants, especially the taller kinds, are available; clover fields are attractive, and so also are orchards. It passes the winter in some hollow tree trunk, wood stack, or possibly buildings of some kind, and in the spring it again comes forth. March and April are the usual months for its reappearance, but in 1900 it was seen flying over the snow on February 17. The time last mentioned is probably an unusual one, but it is interesting to note that a very similar observation was made by Harris, who in 1778 wrote in his remarks on this butterfly, "I have seen them flying in February, when the snow has been on the ground." [Illustration: _Pl._ 38. =Small Tortoiseshell.= 1, 2 _female_; 3, 5 _male_; 4 _var._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 39. =Peacock Butterfly.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] Usually the Peacock butterfly assumes the perfect state but once in the year. There is, however, a record of half-grown caterpillars being found in September, and that these produced butterflies in due course. Although not always abundant, the butterfly is to be, or has been, found in almost every part of the kingdom, excepting perhaps north of the Caledonian Canal in Scotland. Around Bishop Auckland and in other parts of the county of Durham, and also in Northumberland, it was common some forty years ago, but it seems to be hardly ever seen there now. The same applies to other northern localities where it was once plentiful. Its distribution includes the whole of Europe, Asia Minor, Siberia, Amurland, Corea, and Japan. The Camberwell Beauty (_Vanessa antiopa_). This is a large and handsome insect; its chocolate-brown wings are bordered with ochreous speckled with black scales. The border is variable in width, and this is occasionally so wide that it partly or completely hides the blue spots, which in the ordinary form are placed on a dark band just before the ochreous border. Such specimens are known as var. _hygiæa_ or var. _lintneri_ (Plate 41); but in the former form the yellow spots on the front edge of the fore wing are absent, and in the latter variety these spots are sometimes united and form a blotch. One authority states that the proportion of these extreme variations in nature is about 1 in 500. The same form may be produced by subjecting summer chrysalids to a temperature of about 110 deg. Fahr. during three to five consecutive days, the chrysalids being placed in this heat four times a day, and for a period of one hour each time. Dr. Max Standfuss, who has made many experiments with this and other butterflies, states that the result of such treatment as that adverted to, and as regards this species, has been the production of as many as seven of the varieties among forty specimens. It would seem probable, then, that the varieties occurring in the open are from chrysalids that received a greater amount of heat than those that produce the ordinary butterfly. It has been stated that the borders are ochreous, but this only applies to the specimens seen in the summer or early autumn. The butterflies hibernate, and when they leave their winter retreats in the spring, the colour of the border is considerably paler and often even white. For some time it was considered that white borders were a peculiarity of the British Camberwell Beauty and stamped it a genuine native. Probably there are some who may still hold this opinion. An example of each form is represented on Plate 43, the upper one was taken in the spring, and the other in the autumn. Both belong to Mr. J.A. Clark, to whom I am indebted for their loan. The egg is at first deep ochreous yellow, changing through olive brown to red brown, and a day or two before the larva hatches out becoming leaden grey. The ribs, which are eight or nine in number, are most prominent below the top, and disappear before the base is reached. The eggs are laid on twigs or stems in small batches of 30 or 40 up to large ones of 150 to 250. The caterpillar has been described by Mr. Frohawk, who gives a full account of the life-history of this species in the _Entomologist_ for 1902 and 1903. The following is an abridgement of his description. [Illustration: _Pl._ 40. =Peacock Butterfly.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 41. 1, 3 =Peacock vars.=; 2 =Camberwell Beauty var.=] The head is bilobed, having a deep notch on the crown, and of a dull black colour, covered with black warts, each emitting a white hair. The ground colour of the body is deep velvety black, and densely sprinkled with pearl-white warts, each emitting a fine white hair, some being of considerable length, and the majority slightly curved. Down the centre of the back is a series of rich deep rust-red shield-like markings, which commences on the third segment and terminates on the eleventh segment. In the centre of the anal segment is a shining black dorsal disc, much resembling the head; the legs are black and shining, and the four pairs of prolegs are rust colour, with a polished band above the feet, and the anal pair are black with pale reddish feet. The caterpillars feed on sallow, willow, birch, and elm. They cover the leaves of their food-plant with a silken web and live thereon in companies, and do not separate until about to prepare for the chrysalis state. The chrysalis. The dorsal half of the head and wing points are black, and the ventral half orange. Some of the points on the body are tipped with orange. The whole surface is finely and irregularly furrowed and granulated. The ground colour is pale buff, covered with fine fuscous reticulations. The entire surface is clothed with a whitish-powdery substance, giving a pale lilac or pinkish bloom to the chrysalis, which, however, is easily rubbed off, the chrysalis then assuming a brownish hue. Our figure of the chrysalis is after Holland. Mr. Frohawk, who had female butterflies living under observation for about three months, states that eggs were laid in April, May, and June. Caterpillars from the first batch of 192 eggs hatched early in May, nineteen days after they were laid. These were full grown by June 20, and entered the chrysalis state soon after. The butterflies from these commenced to emerge about the middle of July. He says: "Both sallow and willow are equally suitable food for the larvæ, and birch is readily eaten, even when willow has formed the sole food until the last stage; they will feed on elm. Nettle was not appreciated, and not touched by them during the last two or three stages." This butterfly appears to have first attracted the attention of the earlier British entomologists about the middle of the eighteenth century. Stephens, writing in 1827, remarks that "about sixty years since it appeared in such prodigious numbers throughout the kingdom, that the entomologists of that day gave it the appellation of the Grand Surprise." Harris figured the butterfly under the name mentioned by Stephens, and it has also been referred to by others as the "Willow Beauty" and the "White Petticoat." Newman called it the "White-bordered;" and from this, as well as from his description of the butterfly, it would seem that he had not seen any specimen, caught in Britain, with ochreous borders. Such specimens have most certainly been captured in these islands, and occasionally in some numbers, as, for example, in the autumns of 1872 and 1880. In the former year the butterflies were seen or taken in a great many parts of the kingdom. The single specimens that are taken now and then in the spring have hibernated, and possibly they may have just come over from the Continent. It is, however, equally possible that they may have arrived in the country the previous autumn and passed the winter here. After the invasion in the autumn of 1872, specimens were observed in January, March, and April, 1873, at places widely apart. In 1881 single specimens were taken in April in Surrey, Kent, and Brecknockshire; and in Essex and at Hampstead in August. One or two specimens were taken in the summer or autumn of the years 1884 to 1887 inclusive. In 1888 two were captured in Essex in May; and in August, three in Kent, one each Surrey, Hants, and Isle of Wight; and one in Kent in September. In 1889 a specimen was taken in Surrey in April, one in Kent, and one in Cambs in May; a few also in the autumn of that year. In 1891 a specimen was seen at Balham in September. In 1893 one was taken in Epping Forest in April, and one in South Devon in August. Single specimens were noted in Oxfordshire, Lincolnshire, Berwick, and the Isle of Skye, in September, 1896, and one at Epsom in December of that year. In 1897 one was recorded from Yorks (August), and one from Norfolk (September); and in May, 1898, one was taken at Norwich. One or two were observed in August or September, 1898 and 1899; and in 1900 there seems to have been an invasion, on a small scale, of this butterfly in August into some of the eastern and southern counties of England. It extended westward to Somersetshire, and northward to Roxburghshire. A few were taken in various southern localities, including south-east and north London, in August and September of 1901. A specimen occurred in the Isle of Wight in September, 1903, and one in September, 1904; and in the latter year one was captured in August at Raynes Park in Surrey. In 1905 one butterfly was taken at Harrow, Middlesex, on July 27; one at Norwich on August 26, and one in Suffolk on September 29. [Illustration: _Pl._ 42. =Camberwell Beauty.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 43. =Camberwell Beauty.=] A full record of this fine butterfly in the British Islands would occupy too much space, but the details given above will show something of its erratic occurrence since 1880. It visits Ireland occasionally, but there are no recent reports of its having been seen there. Kane, in his _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_, mentions a specimen taken in Co. Kerry, July 21, 1865; one from near Belfast [in 1875?]; and a third example seen by a friend "many years ago" near Trillick, Co. Tyrone. The latter was "settled on the roadside, but not captured, it being Sunday." Distributed throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, it is common in the Scandinavian Peninsula, whence probably our specimens came; also in Germany. In some parts of the Continent it is, however, almost as uncertain in its occurrence as in England. The Painted Lady (_Pyrameis cardui_). The usual colour of this butterfly is tawny-orange, but in some specimens, especially fresh ones, there is a tinge of pink, or a rosy flush; the markings are black, and there are some white spots towards the tips of the fore wings. The black markings on the hind wings are subject to variation in size, and sometimes they run one into the other. Occasionally this union of the spots is accompanied by blackish suffusion spreading more or less over the entire surface of the wings, so that they appear blackish with tawny-orange patches or clouds. A somewhat peculiar variety of the species, kindly lent by Mr. J.A. Clark, is shown on Plate 49. Specimens of this form, or some modification of it, have been obtained in England, but very rarely. Similar examples have also been found in other parts of the globe. Fig. 24 represents another interesting aberration of this butterfly. [Illustration: FIG. 24.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 44. =Painted Lady.= _Caterpillar, chrysalis and protection-web._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 45. =Painted Lady.= 1, 3, 4 _male_; 2, 5 _female_.] The egg is at first green, and gradually becomes darker. It is strongly ribbed from the base to the top, where the ribs become finer and turn over towards the central hollow, at the bottom of which is the micropyle. The fine cross-ribs form slight bosses at their junction with the upright ribs. The eggs are laid on the leaves of the thistle, but usually only one on a leaf. The caterpillar is rather stout for its length. It has a dark greyish head, which is covered with short bristles. The ground colour of the body varies from greyish-green and ochreous-grey to blackish, and in the darker colour is generally freckled with paler, sometimes yellowish. There is a black line along the back, often edged with yellowish, and sometimes much broken up; the lines on the sides are yellowish, but not always distinct; the line below the yellow-ringed black spiracles, however, is generally broad and yellowish in colour. Although thistles (_Carduus_) appear to be the plants most frequently eaten by these caterpillars, they have sometimes been found feeding upon mallow (_Malva_), burdock (_Arctium_), viper's bugloss (_Echium_), and even nettle (_Urtica_). They commence life by fixing up the edges of a leaf so as to form a sort of pocket in which to conceal themselves, but as they eat away the fleshy part of the leaf their retreat is easily detected. The hiding-place, or dining-room, of a full-grown caterpillar is shown on the plate; change to the chrysalis is often effected in a somewhat similar structure. The chrysalis is grey, ochreous-grey, or greenish; shaded or striped with brownish. The raised points are burnished, and according to the way light falls on them appear golden or silvery. This metallic effect is also seen on other parts of the chrysalis, but chiefly on the back. This butterfly is a notorious migrant. Its proper home is probably in Northern Africa, and there it, at times, becomes so exceedingly numerous that emigration is possibly a necessity in the interests of future generations of the species. Whatever the cause of their leaving may be, there is no doubt about the fact that the butterflies do quit the land of their birth in great swarms. Almost any part of the world may become the dumping-ground of this surplus stock. Our own islands are frequently favoured in this way, and it is most likely that if this were not so, this pretty butterfly would not be so common throughout Great Britain as it is in some years. The natural habit of the species is to go on reproducing its kind throughout the year, and those individuals that arrive here most certainly endeavour to do this in their new home. Unfortunately our climate is not, as a rule, a suitable one for those caterpillars which hatch from the egg late in the season, and although some may complete their growth, and even attain the perfect state, the butterfly, so far as is known, does not hibernate as do the Tortoiseshells and the Peacock. It may therefore be assumed that the specimens seen in May or June of any year are not native born, but early immigrants, and that it is from such aliens that the caterpillars and butterflies observed later in the year are descended. A curious habit of the Painted Lady, and also of the Red Admiral, is that of continuing on the wing long after other kinds of butterfly have retired to their resting-places for the night. Both have been seen flying about at dusk, and have been recorded as attracted by light on more than one occasion. It has been noted that these butterflies, in early summer, usually occur singly, and seem to become attached to some short stretch of ground, over which they career to and fro with almost mechanical regularity. They may be struck at with the net again and again, but do not desert their beat. Even if caught and released again they appear to be undismayed, and resume their interrupted patrol either at once or very shortly afterwards. The later butterflies also are not afraid of the net, and will repeatedly return to some favourite perch after being struck at and missed. Although the butterfly has been observed, sometimes in abundance, in every part of the British Islands, even to the Shetlands, its occurrence in any given locality is always uncertain. In some years it may be fairly common in the early part of the year and very scarce later on. [Illustration: _Pl._ 46. =Red Admiral.= _Eggs enlarged; young and adult caterpillars; chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 47. =Red Admiral.= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] A North American species, _Pyrameis virginiensis_ (_huntera_), has been once or twice, since 1828, reported as captured in England, but its occurrence in this country can only be regarded as accidental. The Red Admiral (_Pyrameis atalanta_). The vivid contrast of black and scarlet in this butterfly will certainly arrest the attention of even the least observant. But Nature, ever excellent in her colour schemes, has toned down the glare of the scarlet bands by the addition of some splashes and dots of white above them on the fore wings, and some dots of black on those of the hind wings. Then, by way of a finish, there is a delicate tracing of blue along the outer margin of the fore wings, and a touch of the same colour at the angle of the hind wings, the scalloped margins of all the wings being white relieved by black points. On the under side the combination of colour on the fore wings is much the same as above, but there is also some blue tracing on the central area, and the tips harmonize with the hind wings, which are mottled with various shades of brown, traversed by wavy black lines, and have a more or less square pale spot on their front edges. The ordinary variation in this butterfly consists of slight differences in the tone of the red markings, which ranges from the normal scarlet in one direction to almost crimson, and in the other to orange-yellow. The bands on the fore wings may be broken up into two, or sometimes three, distinct parts; and a specimen with the bands of hind wings marked with yellow has been noted. There is often a white dot in the bands of the fore wings, and this occurs in both sexes. A somewhat rare variety is represented on Plate 49. It was reared from one of three caterpillars casually picked up at Erith, and is now in Mr. Sabine's collection. Somewhat similar specimens have been figured elsewhere. One of these was bred from a caterpillar found at Ashton in 1867, and another was captured in Jersey in 1893. All these varieties seem to be modifications of the form named _klemensiewiczi_ by Schille, and which was figured by Esper as a variety of _atalanta_ in 1777. This form has also resulted from temperature experiments on the chrysalis, of the kind previously adverted to. The egg when first laid is green in colour, but as the caterpillar matures within the colour changes to greenish-black, with the ten ribs showing up more or less transparent. The egg is laid in an upright position on nettle leaves and young shoots, but not in batches like those of the Tortoiseshell, etc. The caterpillar varies in colour. Some are blackish freckled with white, with two yellow stripes, sometimes broken up, on the sides; and the rows of branched spines yellow, except those nearest the head, which are black or tipped with black. Others are greyish, or grey marked with yellowish-green. Others, again, are dark brownish, with the spines on the back pale, and those on the sides black; or all the spines may be shining black (Hellins). The chrysalis is greyish, prettily ornamented with gold along the centre of the back and on the thorax and head. The projections are also tinged with metallic gloss. It is generally suspended under a canopy of nettle leaves. The caterpillars do not live in companies like those of the Peacock and Tortoiseshells, but each individual constructs for itself a kind of tent (see Plate 48) by spinning together the leaves of its food-plant, the common stinging-nettle. Although the caterpillar is well concealed in such hiding-places when newly made, it "gives itself away" when it has partly consumed its home. It has been found on pellitory (_Parietaria officinalis_), and also on hop (_Humulus_); but I have found that caterpillars fed on hop alone always produce small butterflies. [Illustration: _Pl._ 48. =Red Admiral.= _Caterpillar's shelter-tent, and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 49. 1, 2 _Red Admiral var._ 3, 4 _Painted Lady var._] The caterpillars, which in a state of Nature are often badly "ichneumoned," have been noted in England as early as the end of June and as late as October. In the South of Europe they have been seen in February. The butterflies seen in spring and early summer, up to, say, the beginning of July, are supposed to have wintered in this country, but there is no positive evidence, that I can find, that the butterfly does hibernate here. It is, however, most probable that they are arrivals from abroad. The species is found throughout Europe and North Africa, Northern Asia, and North America, and it may be suspected of migration, although there is, perhaps, not such conclusive evidence on this point as in the case of its cousin, the Painted Lady. Anyway, unless we admit immigration, it seems difficult to understand why this butterfly should suddenly become common in some British localities from which it has been almost or quite absent for several years. Again, we rarely hear of butterflies moving about at night, but the Red Admiral, as well as the Painted Lady, are known to do this. If it does hibernate in this country it is very late in taking up winter quarters, as it is seen on the wing at the end of October, and sometimes even in November; it has also been known to emerge from the chrysalis in the latter month. It does not appear in the spring with other hibernating species, and is rarely seen before the end of May, but June seems to be about the normal time. In the autumn it is fond of making excursions into the flower garden and the orchard, where it takes toll from flower and fruit, an over-ripe pear or plum being its special weakness. The blossoms of ivy, hop, thistle, teazle, etc., are attractive, but a tree-stem that has been bored by the caterpillar of the goat moth will be visited by nearly every Red Admiral in the district. One observer mentions that he once saw quite thirty of these butterflies gathered around one wounded birch tree on Wimbledon Common. There was not room for all to imbibe at the same time, but those unable to satisfy their desire at the moment were content to sit around and await a favourable opportunity of joining in the feast. The seductive fluid obtained from such trees is evidently more potent than the nectar from flowers, as under its influence the insect is so listless that it may be taken up between the finger and thumb. Its range extends throughout the British Islands, and seems to be very similar to that of the Painted Lady. The Silver-washed Fritillary (_Argynnis paphia_). The wings of this fine butterfly are fulvous, with the veins and spots black; the spots on the hind wings are band-like, and the central spots on the fore wings are sometimes connected. The female is paler than the male, and is without the heavy black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1, 2, and 3; the basal third of the fore wing, and a larger area of the hind wing, tinged with greenish. The form of the female with all the wings greenish is the var. _valesina_ (Plate 52), and between this and the type there are various intergrades, one of which is shown on the plate. Specimens with white spots on the fore wings, and chiefly in the males, are sometimes not uncommon in the New Forest, as, for instance, in the year 1893, when quite a large number were secured. Very much more rarely white spots occur on all the wings (Plate 57, Fig. 1). In a very remarkable male specimen, taken in the New Forest in 1881, the central area of all four wings is black, and the veins beyond are broadly edged with the same colour. A curious female aberration has the central black spots much reduced or absent, whilst those on the outer margin are united, and form elongate blotches between the veins, the upper one being wedge-shaped. Aberrations of the _valesina_ form, similar to that figured on Plate 57, Fig. 2, and Fig. 25 on next page, are not often met with; the ground colour is greenish, but much suffused and clouded with black. Now and then gynandrous specimens are obtained, the one side normal male and the other side typical female, or var. _valesina_. The egg when newly laid, in July, is whitish tinged with green, ribbed, and cross-furrowed, the alternate ribs not extending to the top. As the caterpillar matures, the egg-shell appears blackish and the ribs hoary. The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black with two bright yellow lines along the back; the spines are of a reddish-ochreous colour with the extreme tips and branches black. There are only two on the first ring, and these are inclined forward over the head. The chrysalis is of a pale ochreous colour, streaked and mottled with brownish; the hollow part of the back has a brilliant golden sheen, and the points on the rest of the body are gold tipped. Suspended by the anal hooks to a silken pad spun on a twig, rock, or other object in the vicinity of its feeding-place, it is capable of much activity in the way of wriggling when touched, and displays the beauty of its metallic adornment to the greatest advantage when so engaged. The caterpillar hatches in August, and after eating its egg-shell and nibbling a leaf or two of dog-violet (_Viola canina_), goes into winter quarters whilst in its second skin, and consequently very small; the spines, which are such an imposing feature of the adult caterpillar, have not yet appeared. In April, after feeding again, it moults the second time, and the spines are then disclosed. Sometimes caterpillars continue to feed in the autumn instead of hibernating. This, at least, has happened to Mr. Frohawk on two occasions, notably in 1893, when he had several individuals of a brood, from eggs laid by a female of the _valesina_ form, that departed from the usual custom of their kind by feeding and growing until they eventually passed through all the stages and emerged perfect butterflies in September and October of that year. Something similar occurred in a brood that he was rearing in the autumn of 1895, but on this occasion only one caterpillar continued to feed beyond the normal time. The English name by which we now know this, the largest of the six British Argynnids, seems to have been given to it by Moses Harris in 1778. Sixty years or so before that date it was called the "Greater Silver-streaked Fritillary." Fortunately, in this case, as in others where the vulgar tongue is entomologically concerned, the law of priority does not apply, so that the name Silver-washed, which so well expresses the underside ornamentation, may be retained. [Illustration: FIG. 25. =Aberration of var. valesina.=] The butterfly is probably to be found in most of the Southern English and Welsh counties, especially where there are extensive woods. In North Devon, however, it occurs in places where there is not much in the way of woodland. It is abundant in the New Forest, and also in some parts of Ireland. Although it has been observed as far north as the Clyde, it is scarce in North England and Scotland. The _valesina_ form is to be seen, in July and August, in the New Forest every year, and sometimes in numbers. This variety has been reported from Kent, Sussex, Devon, and Dorset; also from "near Reading" and "the border of Hertfordshire." [Illustration: _Pl._ 50. =Silver-washed Fritillary.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4, 5 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 51. =Silver-washed Fritillary.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] Abroad, the typical form is distributed through Europe and Asia to China, Corea, and Japan. The _valesina_ variety is uncommon in Northern Europe, but in some parts of China it seems to be the dominant form. The High Brown Fritillary (_Argynnis adippe_). Bright fulvous with black spots and veins. The female is not so bright in tint as the male, and is without the thick patch of scales on veins 2 and 3. The series of black spots parallel with the outer margin of the fore wing are normally six in number, but the third is usually small and sometimes absent, whilst the fourth and fifth are often much larger than others of the series. In the corresponding row on the hind wing the first and third spots are sometimes wanting. On the under side the silvery spots are generally as seen in Plate 54, but they are subject to modification, and not infrequently are absent from the tips of the fore wings, and sometimes from the outer margin of the hind wings also. A very rare aberration has the central area of the fore wings black on the upper and under sides; the hind wings are black above with fulvous lunules on the outer margin, and the silvery spots on the under side are reduced to five, and these are confined to the basal area. In another remarkable form the hind wings above are similar to the last-mentioned variety, but on the under side the silvery spots on the basal half are united and form a large patch, which is divided by the nervures, and there are no silvery spots on the outer margin. The variety shown on Plate 57 has the under side of the hind wings buff in colour, the markings on the outer margin are reddish-brown with a few silvery scales towards the anal angle, and the basal silvery spots are confluent, agreeing in the latter character with the preceding variety, and also with var. _charlotta_ of the next species. In var. _cleodoxa_ the spots on the under side are yellowish instead of silvery, but the red spots on the outer area are sometimes silver centred; this form is only rarely found in Britain. Possibly some of the reputed British examples of _A. niobe_ may have been referable to _cleodoxa_, but what appears to be more certain is that the actual occurrence of _niobe_ in England is exceedingly doubtful. The egg when newly laid is yellowish-green; it afterwards turns pink, and then rosy red; during the winter it changes to greyish or bluish-green. As a rule, the eggs are laid at the end of July, and the caterpillars do not hatch until the following March or early in April. In 1893, however, Mr. Frohawk had a few caterpillars hatch out between the middle of August and September 20, from a number of eggs laid at the end of June. One of these, fed up, pupated on October 13, and the butterfly emerged on November 21. The majority of the eggs remained over to the following spring. According to an observation made by Mr. W.H.B. Fletcher, the caterpillar is fully formed soon after the egg is laid, but remains within the shell all the winter. The caterpillar, which feeds upon dog-violet, and also the sweet violet, is figured on Plate 53. The head is pinkish-brown, covered with short greyish bristles. Body black, incrusted with ochreous grey on the sides, and on the back marked with ochreous grey on the hinder half of each ring; dorsal line white. The branched spines are pinkish-brown. The chrysalis is deep brown, freckled with paler; points along the back of the body brilliant greenish-golden, as also are the four points on the thorax. The wing-cases are rather paler. The foregoing brief description was taken on July 10, and the butterfly emerged five days afterwards. [Illustration: _Pl._ 52. =Greenish Silver-washed Fritillary.= _Var. valesina, female._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 53. =High Brown Fritillary.= _Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] Barrett says, "Apparently found in most of the larger woods of the southern counties, from Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk on the east, to Devonshire, Glamorganshire, and Merionethshire on the west; also in similar situations through the north-western counties and the more sheltered woods of the Midlands to Herefordshire, Shropshire, Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire. Found in several localities in Yorkshire, in the favoured Grange and Silverdale districts of Lancashire, and near Lake Windermere in Westmoreland, its extreme northern boundary being reached in Cumberland." It is widely distributed over Europe, and its range extends into Asia Minor and Amurland. In China and Japan it is represented by various forms, the commonest of which is var. _locuples_. The Dark Green Fritillary (_Argynnis aglaia_). This butterfly is bright fulvous in the male, paler in the female; the latter sex is blackish towards the base, and has paler spots on the outer margin. The black marking is pretty much as in the previous species, but the male has the black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1 and 2, and these are less conspicuous. The basal two-thirds of the hind wings is greenish on the under side. The silvery spots are arranged in fairly regular series, and there are no silvery centred red spots between the two outer series. The blackish crescents on the outer margin of the fore wings are edged with silver, but this is chiefly towards the tips of the wings. There is some variation in the tone of the ground colour, lighter or darker than normal in both sexes; the female seems to be the most variable in this respect, and sometimes, especially in the north, examples of this sex are much suffused with blackish or greenish-black. Occasionally the colour is quite pale, as shown in the middle figure on Plate 61, and sometimes it is clouded with greyish. The black spots are apt to run together, and so form bands and blotches. An example of this kind of aberration is shown on the plate. Var. _charlotta_ differs very little from the type on the upper side, but on the under side of the hind wings the basal silvery spots are united, as shown in the upper reverse side figure on the plate. This variety was known to the entomologist of Haworth's time as the "Queen of England Fritillary," and there is a figure of it in Sowerby's "British Miscellany," which was published in 1806. The egg is yellowish when first laid, and a day or two afterwards violet-brown rings appear above the base and the apical half. It is ribbed and finely cross-ribbed, and some of the ribs are continued to the truncate and slightly depressed top. When full grown the caterpillar is shining purplish-grey, thickly mixed with velvety black; the grey is most in evidence between the rings and along the lower part of the sides. There is a yellow stripe along the middle of the back, and this has a central black line of irregular width; along the lower part of the sides there is a row of reddish spots, and these are connected by a fine yellowish line. The black spines are branched, and, except on the first three rings, which have only two rows, arranged in three rows on each side of the yellow stripe. The head is glossy black, and, like the body, hairy. (_Adapted from Buckler._) It feeds in May and June on dog-violet, and has been reared on garden pansy. The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases black, very glossy, and marked with pale brownish; the body is pale brownish, and the points black. Suspended in a tent-like arrangement of leaves. Moorlands, downs, sea-cliffs, and flowery slopes are the kind of situations most to the fancy of this agile butterfly. It is on the wing in July and August, and is much more easily seen than caught. However, it is rather fond of perching on the taller kinds of thistles, and is then not difficult to capture, if quietly approached. It is common locally in most of the English and Welsh counties. In Ireland it seems to be chiefly attached to the coast, and is plentiful in some of its localities. In Scotland it occurs in many suitable districts, but Skye is the only one of the isles from which it has been reported. Its distribution extends through Europe and Asia to Amurland, China, and Japan. [Illustration: _Pl._ 54. =High Brown Fritillary.= 1, 4, 5 _male_; 2, 3 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 55. =Dark Green Fritillary.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The Queen of Spain Fritillary (_Argynnis lathonia_). In shape and in general appearance this butterfly is not unlike a small example of the Silver-washed Fritillary; the large silvery, or sometimes pearly, blotches on the under side of the hind wings at once reveal its higher British rank. When flying it has a curious resemblance to the Wall, and sometimes it has been taken when the captor supposed that he was netting a specimen of that plebeian butterfly. The black markings on the upper side vary somewhat in size, and occasionally those on the front area, or those on the inner area of the fore wings, are more or less confluent; very rarely the wings are suffused with a steely-blue or bronze colour. The specimens occurring in this country do not, however, exhibit so much variation as has been observed in this butterfly abroad. I have not seen any of the early stages. The figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis (Plate 58) are after Hübner, and the following descriptions of the egg and other stages are adapted from the detailed life-history of the species by Mr. Frohawk, published in the _Entomologist_ for 1903:-- "The egg is one-fortieth of an inch high, of a rather straight-sided conical form, widest at the base, where it is smooth and rounded off at the edge. There are about forty longitudinal keels, irregularly formed and of different lengths, some not reaching halfway up the side, and others running the entire length from base to crown, where they terminate abruptly, and form a series of triangular peaks round the summit surrounding the granulated micropyle; the spaces between the keels are finely ribbed transversely. When first laid it is of a very pale lemon-yellow colour, inclining to ochreous, appearing almost white in certain lights; the colour gradually deepens, becoming yellower with a greenish tinge. On the fifth day the crown of the egg assumes a dull grey, finally changing to a lilac-grey." The female butterfly, when placed in the sunshine, laid about a hundred eggs during the day--August 7. These were mostly placed singly on the leaves or other parts of a plant of heart's-ease (_Viola tricolor_), but some were laid on the gauze cover of the cage. All the caterpillars hatched out on August 14. The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black, densely sprinkled with tiny white dots, each bearing a black bristle; there are six rows of spines, which are of various shades of brown with yellowish bases and shining black bristles; along the back there are two white streaks on the fore part of each ring, and white warts emitting black bristles on the hind part. The head is amber-coloured above, but black below, and is covered with bristles like the body. The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases shining olive-brown; the body chequered and speckled with olive-brown, ochreous, black, and white. The spiracles are black and conspicuous, and the points on the body are amber-coloured. The thorax and first two body rings have brilliant burnished silver-gilt ornamentation. The butterflies commenced to emerge on September 25, and between that date and the 28th ten came out. Although he succeeded in rearing almost all the caterpillars to the chrysalis, no less than eighty died in this stage, and he states that "there is no doubt that the late autumn English climate is quite unsuited for the existence of this species," as well as for others that come to us from abroad. [Illustration: _Pl._ 56. 1, 2, 3 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ 4, 5 _Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ 6, 7 _Heath Fritillary vars._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 57. 1, 2 _Silver-washed Fritillary vars._ 3 _High Brown Fritillary var._] Moses Harris, in 1775, gave this butterfly the name "Queen of Spain;" it had been known to English entomologists from 1710 until then as the "Lesser Silver-spotted Fritillary." Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire seems to have been the only British locality in which it had been observed until 1795, when Lewin mentions a specimen taken in a Borough (London) garden in August. All the Cambridge specimens had been captured in the month of May. Stephens, writing in 1828 ("Ill. Brit. Ent. Haust.," i. 37), says-- "Previously to the year 1818, few cabinets possessed even a single specimen; and from the very few known instances of its capture (six only, according to Mr. Haworth), there is reason to believe that some of the specimens at that time [1803] placed in collections were foreign; but in the above remarkable year for the appearance of certain papilionaceous insects, this species occurred simultaneously in several, and very distant, parts, having been taken in August by Mr. Haworth at Halvergate, in Norfolk; by Mr. Vigors in Battersea-fields; by myself at Dover, and, during that and the following month, near Colchester; Birchwood, Kent; and Hertford in plenty by others. At the latter place I saw several specimens, but was not fortunate enough to secure any." The butterfly has been taken, chiefly odd specimens, in many of the eastern and southern counties, from Norfolk to Dover, and almost always in the autumn. It has also occurred at Scarborough (1868), and at least once in Ireland (1864). The neighbourhood of Dover seems to have always been the most favoured locality, and no less than twenty-five specimens were captured there in 1882. Several examples were also obtained at Dover in 1883, and a single specimen in other parts of Kent in 1884 and 1885. The most recent records are--Brighton, one example in 1892; Clifton, one in July, 1898; Christchurch, one in August, 1899; Poole, one in 1901. There does not seem to be any authentic record of the caterpillar having been observed in Kent or any other British locality in which the butterfly has been noted. This may possibly be due to its love of concealment. There are two flights of the butterfly in the year, one in the spring and the other in the autumn. Females from the Continent may arrive on our east or south coasts in May, and deposit eggs from which the autumn butterflies are developed. Some of these might wander farther inland, but eggs would almost certainly be laid on the spot. The fate of the caterpillars from autumnal eggs would depend on the winter; if mild they, or at least some of them, might manage to get through and attain the butterfly state about May, but their doing so is rather doubtful. The species is widely distributed and often common on the Continent, and its range extends to Persia, Northern Asia, and North Africa. In Eastern Asia it is represented by var. _isoea_. The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis euphrosyne_). Some authors consider the smaller Fritillaries to be generically separable from the larger kinds, and place this and the next species in the genus _Brenthis_, whilst the Queen of Spain is referred to the genus _Issoria_, Hübner. Here, however, they are retained in _Argynnis_. In colour and in the marking of the upper side the Pearl-bordered is very like the High Brown, but, as will be seen from the figures, it is much smaller in size, and the ornamentation on the under side is different. There is one silvery spot at the base of the hind wings, a larger one about the middle of the wings, and a row of spots on the outer margin. The female is rather larger than the male, and darker at the bases of the wings. [Illustration: _Pl. 58._ =Queen of Spain Fritillary.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 59. =Dark Green Fritillary.= 1, 4 _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] Variation on the upper side consists of more or less black suffusion on the basal or general area of the wings, and an increase in the size of the black spots, resulting in the formation of bands or patches; or the black spots may be much reduced in size, and some of them entirely absent. Some of the more striking kinds of aberration, both above and below, are represented on Plate 56, Figs. 1-3, and Plate 65, Figs. 1-4. The usual colour is sometimes replaced by buff, and this may be yellowish or whitish in tint; occasionally white spots appear on the wings. The life-history of this butterfly is depicted on Plate 60. The egg, which is laid in May or June, is whitish-green at first, and afterwards turns brownish. It is distinctly ribbed, and the top is somewhat rounded and hollowed in the centre. The full-grown caterpillar is black, and the numerous minute hairs with which it is clothed give it a velvety appearance. There is a greyish-edged black line down the middle of the back, and the spines on each side of this are whitish or yellowish, with the tips and the branches black; all the other spines are black. A greyish stripe runs along the lower part of the sides, and this is traversed from the fourth to the last ring by a blackish line. Head black, shining, downy, and slightly notched on the crown. The natural food-plant is dog-violet (_Viola canina_), but the caterpillar will also eat garden pansy, and has been known to nibble a leaf of primrose. It retires for hibernation when quite small, and recommences to feed in March. The chrysalis is brownish, with the raised parts of the thorax and head greyish; the body is paler brown, and the points thereon are blackish. This butterfly seems to be fairly common in woods throughout England and Wales, and it is often abundant in some of the more extensive woodlands, especially in the southern counties. It used to be plentiful in Northumberland and Durham, but has become scarcer in those counties, and in some others in the north of England. It occurs in Scotland, and is not uncommon in Sutherlandshire, but Kane does not include it in his Irish catalogue. Clearings in woods are generally the best places in which to find this pretty little Fritillary; but it also seems to have a fondness for the margins of brooks and rills, where these run through or by the sides of woods. Usually it is on the wing in May or June, but sometimes, in early seasons, it puts in an appearance at the end of April. To entomologists of a bygone age it was known as the "April Fritillary," but this name would hardly be a suitable one for it in the present day. Very rarely a few specimens have been taken in August; and there is at least one record of caterpillars that had ceased feeding in July, in the usual way, and were apparently settled down for hibernation, suddenly arousing from their slumbers, and completing their growth in August. Abroad, the species is distributed throughout Europe, except the extreme south, and extends into Armenia, Northern Asia Minor, the Altai, and Amurland. It is stated to be double-brooded on the Continent. The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis selene_). This butterfly differs from the last one referred to in having a rather deeper colour on the upper side, and heavier black markings on the outer margin of the hind wings. The female is slightly more orange in tint, and has a series of pale spots on the outer margin of each wing. On the under side the red markings are browner in tint, and there are more silvery spots on the hind wings. Variation in colour and marking is similar to that mentioned under the Pearl-bordered. On Plate 66 a white spotted female and a specimen with the hind wings clouded with black are represented. These are rather uncommon aberrations. The life-history of this species is figured on Plate 62. [Illustration: _Pl._ 60. =Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; partly grown caterpillar; chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 61. =Dark Green Fritillary vars.= 1, 2, 4, 5 _male_; 3 _female_.] The egg is at first greenish, then yellowish, and afterwards greyish, and then becoming blackish towards the hollowed top. The ribs seem to be eighteen or twenty in number; laid in June or July on plants of dog-violet. On emerging from the egg the young caterpillar devours most of the shell. It is then of a pale olive colour with brownish warts, from each of which there is a pale and rather long jointed bristle; the head is black. The full-grown caterpillar is smoky pink and velvety-looking. There is a brownish line along the middle of the back. The spines are "ochreous in colour, tinged with pink, and beset with fine pointed black bristles." The upper ones are rather stouter than the others, and the pair on the first ring, the only spines on this ring, are rather more than twice the length of the others, and are directed forward over the head, thus giving the appearance of a pair of horns; the second and third rings have each four spines, which are rather finer than those on the rest of the body, which are arranged in six rows. A pale pinkish stripe runs along the lower part of the body; just above the feet. Head black and notched on the crown (Buckler). The chrysalis is brown on the thorax and the body; the wing-cases are more ochreous and marked with black near the edge. There is a black V-mark on the thorax, with a silvery spot on each side, one silvery spot on each side of the head, and other metallic spots on the body near the thorax (Buckler). On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and specimens are occasionally seen in August in this country; one of these late examples, taken by Mr. Barker in 1881, is shown on the plate (Fig. 6). Sometimes one or two caterpillars of a brood in confinement will feed up and attain the perfect state in August instead of settling down with their companions for hibernation. The butterfly in June and July frequents similar places to those favoured by the Pearl-bordered, and its distribution in Britain is somewhat similar, although it is a more local species. It seems, however, to be commoner in Scotland than the Pearl-bordered, and has been recorded at least once from Ireland. Its range abroad extends farther east, as it is found in Corea. The Heath Fritillary (_Melitæa athalia_). The ground colour of this butterfly, sometimes called the "Pearl-bordered Likeness" or "May Fritillary," is brownish-orange, and the markings are black or blackish; the bases of the wings are clouded with blackish, and the fringes are white checkered with black. The ground colour varies in tint, and may be pale tawny or deep reddish. The black markings are subject to modification in two directions; in one leading up to almost complete disappearance from the central area, and in the other they are much intensified and greatly obscure the ground colour. Sometimes the whole of the wings, with the exception of a series of orange spots on the outer area, are blackish. This form is known as var. _navarina_. The left-hand figure at the bottom of Plate 68 shows an aberration approaching this form, whilst the right-hand figure comes close to var. _corythalia_. Specimens with all the wings thinly marked with black, as in the fore wing of the variety last referred to, would be referable to var. _obsoleta_. According to Barrett, specimens from Essex have the ground colour on the under side of the hind wing much yellower than are the same parts in specimens from Sussex. I have not noticed this, but some Essex examples that I have seen were much darker and more heavily marked with black on the upper side, and especially on the hind wings, than any that I have seen from other parts of England, except, perhaps, a few individuals from North Devonshire. These Essex specimens reminded me very much of _M. dictynna_, a Continental species, with which, it appears, the Heath Fritillary was confounded by some of the old authors. [Illustration: _Pl._ 62. =Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 63. =Queen of Spain Fritillary.= 1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] There is a good deal of variation on the under side, but chiefly of a minor character, and most often unconnected with variation on the upper side. The following are more important varieties. Var. _tessellata_, the Straw May Fritillary of Petiver, and figured by him in 1717 and by Stephens in 1827, has the under side of the hind wings entirely straw-coloured with black veins. There are three large squarish yellow spots on the basal area, outlined in black; a yellow central band, margined and traversed by black lines. On the outer margin there is a series of yellow crescents, outlined in black. Var. _eos_ of Haworth (the Dark Underwing Fritillary) is the _pyronia_ of Hübner and Stephens, and a modification of var. _corythalia_, Hübn. On the under side the fore wings are fulvous, and have two black spots in the discal cell, and a black band, intersected by the veins, on the central area. On the hind wings the basal third is fulvous with eight black spots; the central area is whitish intersected by the black veins. On the yellow-tinged whitish outer area there is a series of black-margined orange crescents; a row of black lunules precedes a thin black line on the outer margin. The egg is upright, ribbed, and pale whitish-green in colour. As the caterpillar matures the shell becomes greyish. The eggs were laid in a cluster on a leaf of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_) as shown in the figure, but failed to hatch. The full-grown caterpillar is black on the back, becoming olive tinged on the sides and olive-brown underneath; the divisions between the rings are olive. The whole of the upper surface, except a line along the middle of the back, is dotted with white, and there are eleven white-tipped orange or yellowish spines on each ring, except the last two and the three nearest the head; the first and the last each have four spines, the third has eight, and the second and the eleventh have each ten spines. The head is black marked with white, and is clothed with short, stiff, black hair or bristles (Buckler). The chrysalis is pale whitish-ochreous, the markings on the wing-cases are black, and those on the other parts are orange and black. Cow-wheat appears to be the chief food of the caterpillar, but it will also eat, and has been found on, foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_) and woodsage (_Teucrium scorodonia_). Plantain is also said to be a food-plant, but Buckler says that his caterpillars would not eat this. The caterpillars are rather shy in their habits, and, except when the sun is shining brightly, require to be carefully looked for among their food-plant and the dead leaves, etc., around. They hatch from the egg in July, feed for a few weeks, and then hibernate in companies under a web. In April and May they become active again, feed up quickly, and appear as butterflies in June and early July. The species is, unfortunately, becoming scarcer in England than it used to be. It seems quite to have disappeared from some of the districts in which it was formerly common. No doubt in one or two of its old and well-known localities the butterflies, and perhaps the caterpillars also, have been too freely taken, and its natural enemies have probably completed the business. Clearings in woods or heathy borders of woods are the kind of places this species appear to prefer. Its headquarters in any given locality seems to be changed from time to time, so that the exact spot where it will occur next year cannot be predicted from this year's observations. The butterfly seems to be unknown in Scotland, and has only been recorded from Killarney in Ireland. In England it is to be found in the counties of Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Devonshire. Its geographical distribution extends through Europe into Asia Minor, East Siberia, and Northern Amurland. In Corea and Japan it is represented by a larger form known as var. _niphona_. The Glanville Fritillary (_Melitæa cinxia_). This butterfly is bright brownish-orange with black markings, as shown on Plate 71. The under side of the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings are very pale yellowish; the former with two black-margined brownish-orange bands, and lines of black dots; the tip of the fore wing is also dotted and marked with black. The female is slightly paler, and the markings are often blurred. There is variation in the black markings on the upper side. Sometimes these are enlarged, but more often they are much reduced, and the central one may be completely absent from all the wings. Connected with the suppression of the middle black line above there is usually aberration on the under side of the hind wings also, where the central area is clear of black dots, and the basal area is fulvous, edged and marked with black. Two very remarkable aberrations are represented on Plate 65, Figs. 7, 8. The eggs, which are yellowish-white, and sometimes tinged with green, are laid in a cluster on the under side of the tip of a leaf of the narrow-leafed plantain (_Plantago lanceolata_). The caterpillars hatch in July and August, and hibernate in companies under a web. The mature caterpillar is black with white dots, and black bristles arising from greenish warts. The red head, which is notched on the crown, and the red fore legs distinguish this at once from the caterpillars of the Heath, or the Marsh Fritillary. It feeds in early spring on plantain, but seems to prefer _Plantago maritima_ to _P. lanceolata_ when both are present. The chrysalis is brownish in colour, and is ornamented with orange on the thorax, and with orange points and black marks on the body. It may be found in April and early May suspended from the lower parts of the stems of the plantain or other plants around. Newman states that he found "dozens of the chrysalids in company," but I have only occasionally met with them, and always singly. Quite early in the eighteenth century this butterfly had only been observed in England in Lincolnshire, where, according to Ray, it was common, and in a wood at Dulwich. Petiver, who mentioned the last-named locality, calls it the "Dullidge Fritillary." Wilkes in 1773 wrote of it as the "Plantain Fritillary," although he gives clover and grass, as well as plantain, as the food of the caterpillar. Moses Harris in the Aurelian (1779) calls the butterfly the "Glanville Fritillary," and states that it was named after Lady Glanville, who was interested in butterflies, and whose will was disputed on that ground. This fact will serve to show that entomology as a pursuit was not much in vogue at that time, and that those who collected butterflies, etc., were apt to be regarded by their friends as being--well, just a "wee bit daft." Both Wilkes and Harris, it may be remarked, seem to have been acquainted with the caterpillar of this species as well as with that of the Marsh Fritillary, and there seems little reason, therefore, to suspect that they confused the two species. The localities given by the earlier authors appear, however, to suggest that the butterfly they wrote about may have been the Marsh Fritillary; but there is no direct evidence of this. Stephens in 1827 ("Illustrations of British Entomology," Haustellata, vol. i. p. 34) wrote-- "This is a very local species, and is found in meadows by the sides of woods; in Wilkes' time it was not uncommon in Tottenham wood; recently the places where it has been chiefly observed have been near Ryde and the Sandrock Hotel, Isle of Wight; in the latter place in plenty: also at Birchwood, and near Dartford and Dover, and in a wood near Bedford. I believe that it has been found in Yorkshire." [Illustration: _Pl._ 64. =Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= 1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 65. 1, 2, 3, 4 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ 5, 6 _Marsh Fritillary vars._ 7, 8 _Glanville Fritillary vars._] There is no doubt that between 1858 and 1863 the butterfly was more or less common on parts of the Kentish coast between Folkestone and Sandgate, but it seems to be equally certain that the species has long been absent from that part of England as well as from other localities that have been mentioned, except the Isle of Wight, where it is still to be found. It flies in May and June, and seems to have a preference for the rougher parts of the undercliff; but I have seen butterflies and caterpillars too on the higher slopes of St. Boniface. Whenever the caterpillars are met with, it will be well to remember that only the full-grown ones should be taken, as the smaller ones do not thrive very well in confinement. A little self-denial in this matter will bring its own reward in the shape of fine specimens for the cabinet, and the pleasant reflection that the useless sacrifice of a number of caterpillars has been avoided. The butterfly is widely spread and generally common on the Continent, and in the Channel Islands it is plentiful in Alderney and Guernsey. Its range extends into Asia Minor, Central Asia, and Siberia. The Marsh Fritillary (_Melitæa aurinia_). This species, of which several forms are represented on Plate 73, is subject to considerable variation in depth of colour, and also in size and intensity of the markings, in all localities. The varieties here referred to are more or less characteristic of the countries in which they occur. To mention all the forms, or even those to which varietal names have been given, would occupy more space than is available for the purpose. Reddish-orange or bright tawny, veins black, breaking up the yellow or yellowish transverse bands; there are three or four transverse black lines, the first and second, counting from the base of the wing, not always distinct; basal area more or less suffused with black. On the under side the fore wings are fulvous, with faint traces of the upper-side markings; the hind wings are rather redder, especially on the outer half, and have yellowish markings, comprising some spots towards the base of the wings, a band beyond the middle, a series of black centred spots, and crescents on the outer margin. The above applies more particularly to the form of the butterfly occurring in England and Wales. The Irish form known as _præclara_ has the transverse band straw-coloured, the red colour is more vivid, and the black veins and cross-lines heavier; the area nearest the base of the wings is often blacker. In a form occurring in Scotland, and known as var. _scotica_, the black is still more intense, and the straw-coloured markings are dull in colour. The egg is pale brownish and very glossy. It appears smooth towards the rounded base, but is ribbed from just before the middle to the top. The eggs are laid in batches on leaves of scabious, chiefly the Devil's bit (_Scabiosa succisa_). The full-grown caterpillar is black, with a number of tiny whitish dots, each bearing a short black hair; short black spines are arranged in nine rows from ring four, the first ring is only hairy, the second and third have each two spines. The head is black, with a groove down the front and short hairs on the sides. The true legs are black, and the false legs and the under parts of the body are dull rust-coloured. The caterpillars hatch from the egg in June or July, and towards the end of August they construct silken webs, in which they establish themselves for hibernation. Early in March they recommence feeding, and under the influence of much sunshine feed up quickly. Besides wild scabious, they will eat honeysuckle and the garden kinds of _Scabiosa_. The chrysalis is pale buff, with orange points on the body; the wing-cases are marked with black and orange. The chrysalids are suspended from a silken web, which is attached to a leaf or drawn-together leaves. The early stages are figured on Plate 70. [Illustration: _Pl._ 66. =Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= 1, 3, 4 _male_; 6 _do. (second brood)_; 7 _do. var._; 2, 5 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 67. =Heath Fritillary.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), and chrysalis._] Kane (_Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_), referring to this species, remarks: "This butterfly has been known to increase so prodigiously that whole fields and roads became blackened by the moving myriads of larvæ. An instance of this was observed by the Rev. S.L. Brakey, near Ennis, Co. Clare, where he drove out to see a reported 'shower of worms,' and found as above described, the larvæ being so multitudinous in some fields that the black layer of insects seemed to roll in corrugations as the migrating hosts swarmed over each other in search of food. The imagines that resulted from the starved survivors were extremely small and faded in colour." These caterpillars are destroyed in great numbers by Hymenopterous parasites, chiefly _Apanteles_, and it is almost certain that a large percentage of those collected will prove to have been stung. The butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and seems to affect damp meadows, marshy ground on the sides of hills, and such kind of places. It does not necessarily occur wherever its food-plant is abundant, but scabious is always found to be present in the haunts of the butterfly; so if we know that the insect occurs in a particular district we should probably get a clue to its exact whereabouts by noting the likely places in that district where the food-plant flourishes. Although it has seemingly disappeared from various English localities where it was formerly common, the butterfly may be found in many parts of the British Islands, but it is local and does not occur northwards much beyond the Caledonian Canal. Abroad it spreads over Europe to Northern Africa, and its range extends eastward through Asia to Amurland and Corea. * * * * * The fine butterfly next in order is regarded as a member of the Danainæ by most authors. Although its generic position seems to be established, its proper place in the classification of butterflies is still unfixed; and even the question of its trivial or specific name is not finally settled. According to Kirby, this butterfly is _Anosia menippe_, Hübner, and not the true _Papilio plexippus_ of Linnæus, nor the _P. archippus_ of Cramer. American authors, however, consider it to be the Linnean _plexippus_, and give _menippe_ Hb. as a synonym. The species is here retained in Danainæ, but Holland places it in Euploeinæ and Skinner in the Family Lymnadidæ. The Milkweed Butterfly (_Anosia plexippus_). The butterfly figured on Plate 120 is brownish-orange, with black veins and margins on all the wings. White spots are arranged in double rows on the black outer margin of each wing, and there are seven other rather larger white spots on the black apical patch of the fore wings. The male has a patch of black scales, covering the scent pouch, close to vein 2 on the hind wings. The egg is long, oval in shape, with over twenty low upright ridges and many cross-lines; is of a pale green colour; and is laid singly on the food-plant of the caterpillar (various kinds of milkweed, especially the commonest kind, _Asclepias cornuti_), and usually upon the under surface of the upturned apical leaves near the middle. The egg state lasts only about four days (Scudder). The caterpillar has the head smooth and rounded, yellow, conspicuously banded with black. Body cylindrical, tapering a little in front, naked, but with two pairs of long and very slender black thread-like filaments, one pair, the longer, on the second thoracic, the other on the eighth abdominal segment. The body is white, with numerous slender black and yellow, and especially black, transverse stripes, repeated with considerable regularity on each of the segments, so that there are nowhere any broad patches of colour (Scudder). [Illustration: _Pl._ 68. =Heath Fritillary.= 1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 69. =Glanville Fritillary.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The chrysalis is stout and not elongated, largest in the middle of the abdomen; where it is transversely ridged; elsewhere it is smooth and rounded, with no striking prominences, but with little conical projections at most of the elevated points, like those which half encircle the body at the abdominal ridge, all of a golden colour except the latter, which are situated in a tri-coloured band, black in front, nacreous in the middle, and gilt behind (Scudder). According to Dr. Holland, "the butterfly is considered to be polygoneutic, that is to say, many broods are produced annually; and it is believed by writers, that with the advent of cold weather these butterflies migrate to the South [in America], the chrysalids and caterpillars which may be undeveloped at the time of the frosts are destroyed, and that when these insects reappear, as they do every summer in North America, they represent a wave of immigration coming northward from the warmer regions of the Gulf States. It is not believed that any of them hibernate in any stage of their existence. This insect sometimes appears in great swarms on the eastern and southern coasts of New Jersey in late autumn. The swarms pressing southward are arrested by the ocean." Within quite recent years it seems to have effected a settlement in Australia, "and has thence spread northward and westward, until in its migrations it has reached Java and Sumatra, and long ago took possession of the Philippines. Moving eastward on the lines of travel, it has established a more or less precarious foothold for itself in Southern England.... It is well established at the Cape Verde Islands, and in a short time we may expect to hear of it as having taken possession of the continent of Africa, in which the family of plants upon which the caterpillars feed is well represented." So far as is shown by the published records, the actual number of specimens of the Milkweed, or, as it is sometimes called, Monarch butterfly, seen or caught in England between 1876, in which year it was first observed in this country, and the present time, does not much exceed thirty, and about one-third of these were obtained in September, 1885. In 1876 single specimens were captured at Neath, S. Wales; Hayward's Heath and Keymer, Sussex; and Poole, Dorset. In 1896 single specimens were reported as seen at Lymington, Hants, in May; Newlands Corner, Surrey, in July; and the Lizard, Cornwall, in September. The years in which the butterfly has been noticed in Britain are 1876, 1881, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1890, and 1896. It was first observed on the Continent in 1877, when, according to Barrett, a specimen was taken in La Vendée, France. In 1886, when half a dozen were recorded from England, single specimens were obtained in Guernsey, and at Oporto and Gibraltar. "More recently," Barrett states, "Mr. H.W. Vivian found it, I believe not uncommonly, in the Canaries, and very kindly brought me a specimen." There seems to be no question that the species is migratory in its habits, but exactly how it reaches this country is not definitely known. Neither is it known whether the species, having arrived, is able to reproduce its kind here. From the fact of its recurrence in England for four years in succession, the possibility of its breeding in this country might be assumed. One objection to any such inference, however, is that it is a many-brooded species, but, with the exception of two records in 1896, all British specimens were captured or seen in August, September, or October, and none seem to have been observed in the earlier months of those years in which the autumnal butterflies were obtained. [Illustration: _Pl._ 70. =Marsh Fritillary.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 71. =Glanville Fritillary.= 1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6, 7 _female_.] The Milkweeds (_Asclepias_) are not indigenous plants, but, as pointed out by the late Mr. J. Jenner Weir, _A. purpurescens_ and _A. tuberosa_ are hardy in this country. He endeavoured to ascertain whether these plants, or either of them, were grown in any of the gardens in the Cornish locality where four fresh specimens were captured in September, 1885. I do not find that the desired information was furnished. Recently I have ascertained that _A. cornuti_, which grows to a height of four feet, is used as a border plant in some parts of England. It is commonly known as Swallow-wort, and is esteemed for its fragrant pale purple flowers. * * * * * We now come to the Satyrinæ, which, as regards the number of species belonging to it, is a very large sub-family. In Great Britain, however, there are but eleven species, and although some of these are rather local, none are really scarce, and most are common. The Marbled White (_Melanargia galatea_). Older English names for the butterfly figured on Plate 75 are "Our Half-mourner" (Petiver, 1717), "The Marmoris" (Wilkes), and "The Marmoress" (Harris). The ground colour is white or creamy white, and the markings are black. On the under side the markings are similar in design to those on the upper side, but much fainter: the eye spots, which are not always in evidence above, are well defined below, and especially so on the hind wings. The female is generally whiter and larger than the male, and has the basal half of the costa, or front margin of the fore wing ochreous brown, and the markings on the under side of the hind wings are tinged with the same colour. Variation consists chiefly of increase or decrease in the size of the black markings. At least one specimen is known in which all the wings are uniform smoky black. This is in the collection of Mr. A.B. Farn, and was captured near Rochester, Kent, in 1871. Between this extreme and specimens with the black markings of typical proportions there are various modifications; but striking aberrations are rare in this country. Sometimes there is entire or partial absence of black pigment. A remarkable example of this kind of aberration, taken on the cliffs between Dover and Walmer some years ago, is described as of a clear milky-white colour, and has not, either on the upper or under side of the wings, the smallest speck of black. The ground colour is sometimes decidedly yellow, and very occasionally brownish. The life-history of this butterfly is figured on Plate 74. The egg is whitish, opaque, with a dark speck on the apex; base flattened and slightly hollowed; finely reticulated, but without distinct striations or anything resembling ribs. The eggs are laid in July, and are not attached to anything. The caterpillar when full grown, is whity-brown in colour with brownish lines. The head is brown, tinged with pink, and the tail-like points on the last ring are pink. The head, as well as the body, is clothed with short hair. The chrysalis is also whity-brown with a pinkish tinge, browner speckling on the wing cases, and the body is marked down the back with yellow. Hellins says, "It hibernates when very small, becomes full fed in June, and changes to a pupa without suspending itself in any way, or making a cocoon; I think it would hide itself, as my examples did; I found they had got among the thick moss with which I had furnished the bottom of their cage, and apparently made little hollows for themselves by turning round." Cock's-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) and cat's-tail grass (_Phleum pratense_) are given as food-plants, but the caterpillars in confinement seem to eat any kind of grass that is supplied. The butterfly is found in most of the Midland counties and in nearly all of the Southern ones, but is especially common on the chalk downs of the South-west. It does not occur in Ireland or Scotland, and seems to be absent from the Northern counties of England except Yorkshire. In the last-named county it was supposed to be extinct, but during the past ten years it has been observed at Sledmere, and near Scarborough and Helmsley. It is also reported to be not uncommon in three localities not far from York. [Illustration: _Pl._ 72. =Milkweed Butterfly.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis (after Smith)._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 73. =Marsh Fritillary.= 1, 3, 5, 9, 10 _male_; 2, 4, 6, 7, 11 _female_. 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9 _English_; 8 _Welsh_; 3, 5, 10, 11 _Irish_.] The butterflies usually affect broken ground, rough fields, grassy slopes near woods, or even sunny banks on the edges of cornfields. Occasionally an odd specimen or two may be met with here and there, but as a rule they seem to keep pretty much together, so that when one comes upon a colony of these butterflies, the selection of a series on the spot is quite an easy matter, and can be effected without destroying a single specimen over and above the required number. Abroad, this species is abundant in Central and Southern Europe, and its range extends to Northern Asia Minor and Armenia. The Small Mountain Ringlet (_Erebia epiphron_). The typical form of this butterfly, _epiphron_, Knock, has the tawny bands unbroken on the fore wings, and almost so on the hind wings; the black dots on the hind wings of the female are often pupilled with white, and more rarely this is so in the male also. It has been stated that specimens occur in Perthshire which exhibit these characters. All the British examples of the Small Mountain Ringlet that I have seen are referable to the form known as _cassiope_, Fab. (Plate 77). The tawny, or orange, bands are rarely so entire on the fore wings as in _epiphron_, and are generally rather narrower; and that on the hind wing is broken up into three or four rings. The black dots are usually smaller and without white pupils. The female is somewhat larger and the bands or rings paler. Variation in the markings is extensive. The bands on the fore wings become less and less complete, until they are reduced to a series of mere rings around the black dots. The black dots decrease in size and in number until they, together with the tawny marking, entirely disappear, and a plain blackish-brown insect only remains. This extreme form has been named _obsoleta_, Tutt. The earliest rings to vanish seem to be the third on the fore wings and the first on the hind wings. Similar modifications occur on the under side also, but there may be aberration on the upper side of a specimen, and not, or at least not in the same way, on the under side. The egg, when first laid, is yellow, changing afterwards to fawn colour with darker markings, especially towards the top. It is laid in July on blades of grass. The larva hatches in about sixteen days. The young caterpillar, before hibernation in October, is greenish, with darker green and yellow lines. Head brownish. Feeds in July and after hibernation on various grasses, among which _Poa annua_, _Festuca ovina_, _Aira præcox_, and _A. cæspitosa_ have been specified as eaten by caterpillars in confinement. A distinct preference, however, has been shown for mat grass (_Nardus stricta_), and it has been suggested that this may be the natural food. The full-grown caterpillar appears to be undescribed. The chrysalis is described by Buckler as being "little more than three-eighths of an inch in length, rather thick in proportion, being less dumpy in form than _hyperanthus_, but more so than _blandina_. The colour of the back of the thorax and wing cases is a light green, rather glaucous; the abdomen a pale drab or dirty whitish; a dark brown dorsal streak is conspicuous on the thorax, and there is the faintest possible indication of its being continued as a stripe along the abdomen. The eye-, trunk-, antenna-, and leg-cases are margined with dark brown, and the wing nervures are indicated by the same colours." [Illustration: _Pl._ 74. =Marbled White.= _Eggs enlarged, caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 75. =Marbled White.= 1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6 _female_.] As is indicated by its English name, this interesting little butterfly only frequents high ground, and is rarely found below about 1500 feet. All its English localities are in the lake district of Cumberland and Westmoreland. It seems to like boggy ground, and in such places on Gable Hill, Red Skrees, and at Langdale Pikes, among others, it is not uncommon. Previous to 1809 the species was unknown to occur in Britain, but in June of that year specimens were captured by Mr. T. Stothard on the mountains at Ambleside. Haworth, in 1812, referred to these specimens as from Scotland, but the butterfly was not taken in that country until 1844, when it was discovered by Mr. R. Weaver in Perthshire. It is now known to occur, sometimes in abundance, on Ben Nevis and other adjacent hills, also in suitable spots and the proper elevation around Lochs Rannoch and Vennachar, as well as in the Tay district and Argyleshire. In Ireland it was taken by Mr. E. Birchall, in June, 1854, in a grassy hollow about halfway up the Westport side of Croagh Patrick. About five years ago Mr. W.F. de Vismes Kane met with the butterfly on Nephin, Mayo, and he mentioned a specimen believed to have been taken on the hilly slopes on the eastern shores of Lake Gill, Sligo. Abroad the species is found in mountainous parts of South Germany, Switzerland, France, North and Central Italy. The typical form, _epiphron_, is more especially obtained in the Hartz and Alsatian Mountains, Silesia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. The Scotch Argus (_Erebia æthiops_ = _blandina_). The butterfly figured on Plate 77 is deep velvety brown, appearing almost black in very fresh male specimens. There is a broad fulvous band on the outer area, but not reaching either the costa or the inner margin; it is contracted about the middle, the upper part encloses two white pupilled black spots, and the lower part has one such spot. The hind wings have a narrow fulvous band, usually enclosing three white pupilled black spots. The under side is more distinctly brown and not velvety, band of fore wings similar to above; the hind wings have a greyish band beyond the middle, with three small white pupilled black spots on its outer edge; the basal area is often greyish also. The female is generally less dark and velvety, the bands are rather wider, more orange in colour, and the white pupils of the spots are more conspicuous; on the under side the alternate dark and pale bands are more striking, and sometimes the grey colour is replaced by ochreous, which seems to constitute the aberration named _ochracea_, Tutt. The spots on the fore wings, upper side, are often increased to four by the addition of a small one between those previously mentioned. More rarely there is an extra spot above the upper pair, and still less frequently, and in the female sex, an additional pair is found below the usual lower spot, thus making six in all. On the other hand, the only spots in evidence may be the pair in the upper part of the band. The spots on the hind wings range in number from two to five, but occasionally all are absent. The fulvous bands on the fore wings may be reduced to rings around the upper and lower spots respectively, and altogether wanting on the hind wings. Such an aberration would be referable to _obsoleta_, Tutt, which is considered to be very rare. There are many other modifications, but these mentioned will serve to show the variable character of this local butterfly. The egg is ochreous white, or bone colour, finely freckled with pale brown or pinkish-brown; it has a number of ribs, and is also reticulated. The caterpillar in its last skin is pale drab, the warts pale whitish-brown, emitting short tapering bristles; dorsal stripe blackish-brown, enclosed by two paler drab lines; subdorsal stripe paler drab, becoming narrow towards the anal point, edged above with a greenish-brown thread, and below with blackish or brownish dashes, that almost form a continuous line; below this come two thin pale lines, above the lower of which are the circular black spiracles; the under parts and the legs are of a somewhat warmer tint of the ground colour of the back. It changed on June 22nd to a pupa, unattached, but placed in an upright position amongst the grass near the ground. [Illustration: _Pl._ 76. =Small Mountain Ringlet.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; young caterpillar._ =Scotch Argus.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 77. =Small Mountain Ringlet.= 1, 4 _male_; 3 _female (English)_; 2, 5, 6, 7 _male (Scotch)_. =Scotch Argus.= 8, 11 _male (Scotch)_; 9 _do. (English)_; 10, 12 _female (Scotch)_.] The chrysalis has the body ochreous, with a darker stripe down the back, and other lines; the eye covers are black, and the thorax, antennæ cases, and wing covers are dingy, dark purplish-brown. The above descriptions of caterpillar and chrysalis are adapted from Buckler, whose figures of these stages are also reproduced on the plate. _Aira præcox_, _A. cæspitosa_, and _Poa_ are the grasses that seem to be the food of the caterpillar. Mr. Haggart, of Galashiels, who had exceptional opportunities for observing the habits of this butterfly in its natural home, gives a most interesting account of it in the _Entomologist_ for November, 1895. He writes-- "The haunt of this species is, almost without exception, the margin of a plantation or wood where the different species of _Poa_ grow abundantly, and always situated in such a position as to receive the first rays of the rising sun. This last-mentioned fact is so plainly evident, that the least observant cannot fail to notice it. The insect is truly sun loving, and no collector need go in search of it with any thought of success if the day be dull. "It is most interesting to observe the extreme sensibility of the insect to shine and shade. A very good day to illustrate this is one when heavy clouds at intervals obscure the sun; the moment it disappears so also does the butterfly, and no sooner does it shine forth again than, as if by magic, scores of the insect are on the wing. "The under side of the insect bears a marked resemblance to that of a dead leaf, and I have often watched the males being deceived by withered leaves lying among the moss. They would flutter down quite close to the leaf, immediately rise with a disappointed air and fly a little further, only to be deceived again and again. "The ova are deposited amongst the _Poa_ grass, and hatch in September. Towards the end of October the larvæ go down and hibernate throughout the winter and spring, coming up to feed again in May; they are generally full-fed about the end of June; and the insect appears in July or August. The larvæ are nocturnal feeders, coming up to feed on the grass just about dusk. The method of procuring the larvæ is by no means enviable, even to the most ardent entomologist, as in the uncertain light it necessitates crawling on one's hands and knees amongst the grass, and there is always the risk of grasping those little brown slugs in mistake, which resemble the larvæ very much in shape and colour. No artificial light can be used, as the larvæ immediately drop down amongst the grass if this is done. The only alternative, therefore, is to use one's eyes to the best advantage until the darkness makes that impossible. "They are not difficult to rear in confinement if the larvæ are kept properly supplied with food." This butterfly, which as a British species was discovered in the Isle of Arran in 1804, only occurs in the north of England and in Scotland. Its localities in the latter country are Glen Tilt and other valleys in the Perthshire highlands, Strathglass in Inverness, Altyre woods at Forres; Selkirk, Roxburgh, and various parts of Argyleshire; around the Lowther Hills, Dumfrieshire; also in Arran and the Isle of Skye. In most of the places it is plentiful. In England it occurs in the counties of Durham, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. It is common in Castle Eden Dene, Durham; at Grassington, in Yorkshire; at Witherslack and Arnside, in Westmoreland; and at Grange and Silverdale, in Lancashire. Abroad, it is distributed through Central and Southern Europe, and its range extends into Northern Asia Minor, Kurdistan, and Armenia; the Altai and South Siberia. It may be noted here that _E. ligea_ was supposed to have been taken in Arran at the same time as _E. blandina_, that is in 1804. If this were so, it would seem that the captor must have exterminated the species, for, although the island has often been closely explored, no one has been able to detect the "Arran Brown" again. The Grayling (_Satyrus semele_). On the upper side, this butterfly (Plate 78) is brown, more or less suffused with black, and this is especially noticeable on the outer area of the wings in the male, where it obscures the ochreous or rust-coloured bands, which in the female are almost free from the suffusion. The fore wings have two black spots, the upper one generally, and the lower often, pupilled with white. On the hind wings the bands are clear of blackish suffusion to a greater or lesser extent, and there is one black spot towards the anal angle which may be pupilled with white. Apart from its larger size and brighter bands, the female may be distinguished from the male by the absence of the blackish brand on the disc of the fore wings. On the under side, the fore wings are ochreous, tinged with orange on the basal half or two-thirds; hind wings are greyish, with darker markings, and an irregular white or whitish band beyond the middle. Variation is largely confined to the under side of the hind wings, and these wings, as well as the costal edge and the tips of the fore wings, are coloured and marked, in various localities that the butterfly affects, so that the insects may be protected from their enemies when resting. On the upper side of the fore wings an additional spot is sometimes present below one or other of the usual ones. The bands of the wings are pale ochreous in some examples, and rust-coloured in others; but it is not unusual for a specimen with ochreous bands on the fore wings to have rust-coloured bands on the hind wings, or ochreous bands with rust-coloured patches on the outer portion; these patches are most frequently triangular in shape, and placed between the veins. Gynandrous specimens also occur, but very rarely. The egg is of a dull creamy tint, ribbed, and with a slight depression on the top. The eggs were laid early in August, on blades and stems of a kind of grass; also on the leno covering, and the sides of the glass jar in which the female butterfly was enclosed. The caterpillar when full grown "is drab, delicately mottled, with longitudinal stripes broadest along the middle segments, viz. a dorsal stripe of olive-brown, very dark at the beginning of each segment, with a thin edging of brownish-white. Along the subdorsal region are three stripes, of which the first is composed of a double narrow line of yellowish-brown, the second wider of the mottled ground colour, edged with paler above and with white below; the third of similar width is of a dark grey-brown, edged above with black. The spiracular stripe is broader and of nearly equal width, pale ochreous-brown, edged with brownish-white both above and below; the spiracles are black. The head is brown, and the principal stripes of the body are delicately marked with darker brown" (Buckler). The chrysalis is described as "obtuse, rounded, tumid, and smooth, the abdominal rings scarcely visible, and wholly of a deep red mahogany colour." It was "in a hollow space a quarter of an inch below the surface, the particles of sand and earth very slightly cohering together, and close to the roots of the grass, yet free from them." The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are drawn from those in Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies." [Illustration: _Pl._ 78. =Grayling Butterfly.= _Males_, 1, 3 _(Chalk)_, 2 _(Heath); females_, 4 _(Heath)_; 5, 6 _(Chalk)_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 79. =Grayling Butterfly.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis (both after Buckler)._] The caterpillars hatch in August, hibernate when quite small, and feed up in the spring and early summer. They live upon grasses, such as _Triticum repens_, _Aira cæspitosa_, and _A. præcox_. The butterfly delights in sitting rather than flying about cliffs and sand-hills, heaths and downs, stony hillsides, dry fields, and even open woodlands. It is fond of sunning itself on rocks, and by some of the old Aurelians it was called the "Rock Underwing," no doubt in reference to the pattern and colour of the under side. It was also known as the "Tunbridge Grayling" some two hundred years ago, when it was said to be "very rare about London." It has long since been ascertained to occur in almost every county in England and Wales, as far north as Sutherlandshire in Scotland, and is widely distributed in Ireland. On the chalk downs and cliffs the butterfly has the under side of its hind wings so admirably agreeing in colour and marking with the soil, etc., that although one may watch it settle a few yards ahead, it is not to be seen when one reaches the spot. Whilst we are intent on the search the insect starts up, flies a short distance, and there repeats the disappearing butterfly trick. The same remarks apply to those Graylings that affect peaty or sandy heaths, etc. When the butterfly alights on the ground--and it rarely gets on the wing unless disturbed--it immediately closes its wings, and then allows them to fall more or less on one side, so that the whole of one hind wing is presented to view. It is said to have a fancy for the resinous sap that oozes from pine trees, and has also been observed to visit the trunks that have been "sugared." Abroad, it is found commonly throughout the temperate parts of Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. The Speckled Wood (_Pararge egeria_). Quite early in the eighteenth century Petiver met with the butterfly shown on Plate 80 at Enfield, so he figured it as the "Enfield Eye" in that curious old book entitled "Papiliorium Britanniæ Icones." Later on, Wilkes named the butterfly the "Wood Argus," thus indicating its favourite haunts, as well as a prominent character in its ornamentation. Harris changed the name to the "Speckled Wood Butterfly," which seems even more suitable. The general colour is blackish-brown, and the spots are yellowish. The fore wings have one white-pupilled black eye spot towards their tips, and the hind wings have three such eye spots on the outer area. The male has a long oblique patch of blackish scales on the middle of the fore wings, which is, perhaps, more easily detected if the insect is held up to the light. The female is usually slightly larger than the male, the wings rather rounder, and the yellowish spots, are, as a rule, distinctly larger. The typical or southern form of this butterfly has the spots of a tawny colour, but it does not occur in Britain. Our form, in all its modifications, belongs to _egerides_, Staudinger. Occasionally, in the south of England, specimens are found in which the spots are tinged with fulvous; others have almost white spots. The spots are sometimes much reduced in size in the male, or greatly enlarged in the female. The egg is pale greenish, finely reticulated; as the caterpillar matures within, the shell becomes less glossy than at first, and the upper part is blackish. The caterpillar has a green head, which is larger than the first ring of the body (1st thoracic), covered with short fine whitish hairs, with which are mixed a few dark hairs. The body is rather brighter green, with darker lines, edged with yellowish, along the back and sides; the skin is transversely wrinkled, the rings being subdivided, and the whole of the body is clothed with fine whitish hair and a few dark hairs arising from warts; the anal points are whitish and also hairy. It feeds on various grasses, among which are _Triticum repens_ and _Dactylis glomerata_. [Illustration: _Pl._ 80. =Speckled Wood.= _Spring Brood:_ 1, 2 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. _Summer brood:_ 4, 6 _male_; 7 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 81. =Speckled Wood.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The chrysalis is pale green, tinged with yellowish or whitish; the edges of the wing covers are brown, and there are whitish dots on the body. According to Hellins the colour varies, and green chrysalids may be covered all over with very fine smoky freckles. Barrett states that they are occasionally brownish with darker brown lines. Suspended by the cremaster from a silken pad. From eggs laid in early May butterflies were reared at the end of June; and from eggs laid at the end of June butterflies resulted during middle August. Early July eggs produced perfect insects in early September, and from caterpillars fed up in October butterflies were obtained in November. These observations were not all made in the same year. Barrett writes, "In the south of Surrey in 1862, the first emergence took place in April in abundance, these specimens became worn and disappeared, and a second emergence took place at the end of May, a third at the end of July, and a fourth in September; the next year the first emergence was in the third week in March, and again four broods were observed, but this is not the case every year, three emergences being probably the rule." Mr. Joy has recorded that of caterpillars, resulting from a pairing induced in captivity, in August, eighty per cent. hibernated as pupæ, twenty per cent. as half-fed caterpillars. Butterflies from the winter pupæ emerged in May, but the caterpillars that had gone through the winter in that state did not produce butterflies until June. Possibly something of this sort occurs in the open, and we may suppose that the early and late spring butterflies are not separate broods, but early and late emergences of one brood. Butterflies seen on the wing in November may be a few individuals that, owing to favourable weather, have emerged from chrysalids which under ordinary conditions would have remained as such during the winter. Shady lanes, rides in woods, as well as the borders of the same, are its favourite haunts. It is not a sun-loving butterfly, but is generally found to frequent places where the sun's rays are more or less intercepted by a leafy screen. It seems to be more abundant in wet seasons than in dry ones. It is generally distributed throughout England and Wales, but more plentiful in southern and western counties than in the eastern and northern. In Ireland, Kane says, it is "everywhere abundant and double brooded." It is local in Scotland, and rare north of the Caledonian Canal. Abroad our form of the butterfly _egerides_ is found commonly in Central and Northern Europe, except in the extreme north, and in Northern Asia Minor and Armenia. The typical form, _egeria_ proper, occurs in South-Western Europe, North Africa, and Syria. The Wall Butterfly (_Pararge megæra_). The butterfly now under consideration is figured on Plate 82. It is bright fulvous in colour, with blackish-brown veins, margins, and transverse lines. There is one white pupilled black spot on the fore wings, and four of such spots on the outer area of the hind wings; the fourth, which is generally blind, is placed at the end of the series near the anal angle. The male has a very conspicuous sexual brand on the central area. The under side of the fore wings is paler than above, but the markings are similar, except that the brand is absent and the margins are greyer; the hind wings on the under side are greyish marked with brown and traversed by dark lines; there is a row of six eyed spots on the outer area; that nearest the anal angle is double. The female has more ample wings, and as the brand is absent on the fore wings in this sex, the central black transverse lines are more distinct. [Illustration: _Pl._ 82. =Wall Butterfly.= 1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4, 6 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 83. =Wall Butterfly.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: FIG. 26. The Wall Butterfly just emerged from the Chrysalis, and with wings distended.] Variation is chiefly in the size of the eyed spots; sometimes the apical one of the fore wings has a smaller one attached to its lower margin, or in the interspace (_i.e._ between the veins) above it or below it; or both extra spots, which are usually without white pupils, may be present. Very rarely the apical spot may be almost absent on one fore wing, but well defined on the other. The central transverse lines on the fore wings of the female are sometimes broad, and very occasionally the space between the lines is blackish; blackish-banded male specimens are also found in some localities, such as the slopes of Dartmoor, Devon, as mentioned by Barrett. The ground colour varies in tint, darker or lighter than normal, but specimens of a bright golden yellow-brown, straw colour, or whitish are known to occur, although such extreme aberrations are exceptional. The egg is pale green when first laid, and in shape it is almost spherical, but rather higher than broad; it is finely ribbed and reticulated, but unless examined through a lens it appears to be quite smooth. The caterpillar when full grown is whitish-green, dotted with white. From the larger of these dots on the back arise greyish bristles; the three lines on the back (dorsal and subdorsal) are whitish, edged with dark green; the line on the sides (spiracular) is white, fringed with greyish hairs; anal points green, hairy, extreme tips white. Head larger than the first ring (1st thoracic segment), green dotted with white and hairy, jaws marked with brownish. It feeds on grasses. The chrysalis is green, with yellow-tinted white markings on the edge of the wing covers and ridges; the spots on the body are yellowish, or sometimes white. Occasionally the chrysalids are blackish, with white or yellow points on the body. There are certainly two broods of this butterfly in the season, and in favourable years there may be three broods. In an ordinary way the first flight is in May and June, and the second flight in July and August. The caterpillars feed on _Poa annua_, _Dactylis glomerata_, etc. Those hatched in autumn hibernate more or less completely, and become full grown in early or late spring according to the season. Sometimes, however, they seem to feed during the winter, and assume the chrysalis in March. Probably it is from such precocious caterpillars that the butterflies sometimes seen in April result. [Illustration: _Pl._ 84. =Meadow Brown.= 1, 2, 3, 4 _male_; 5, 6, 7 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 85. =Meadow Brown.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] The Speckled Wood, it was noted, prefers shady places; the present butterfly is more partial to sunshine and plenty of it. As its English name suggests, it is fond of basking on walls, but it does this also on dry hedge banks, sides of gravel pits, tree-trunks--in fact, wherever it can enjoy the full sunshine. It is not at all shy, and will be pretty sure to introduce itself to the notice of the collector as soon as he enters its domain. Although it now seems to be absent from certain districts in which it was once abundant, it may still be regarded as a generally common species in England and Wales, and even plentiful, in some years, in the southern, eastern, and western counties; it appears to be more local in North England. In Scotland it seems fairly distributed, and not scarce in the south; its range extends to Aberdeenshire. Kane states that it is everywhere abundant throughout Ireland. Abroad it is common throughout Europe, except the extreme north, and extends into North Africa, Asia Minor, and Armenia. The Meadow Brown (_Epinephele ianira_). The female is the _jurtina_ of Linnæus, and as he described this sex before the male, under the impression that they were distinct species, the law of priority, we are told, must be observed and the earlier name be adopted. This fuscous-brown butterfly of the meadows is marked, especially in the female, with dull orange. The male, of which sex three specimens are shown (Plate 84, Figs. 1-3), has a broad black sexual brand on the central area of the fore wings, and a white pupilled black spot towards the tips of the wings; this spot is usually encircled with orange, and there is often more or less of this orange colour below it (Fig. 2 typical). The under side of the fore wings is orange with the costa narrowly, and the outer margin broadly, greyish-brown to match with the colour of the under side of the hind wings. The female is without the black brand, and is more ornamented with orange, which generally forms a broad patch on the outer area of the fore wings (Fig. 6), but it is sometimes continued inwards, so that almost the whole of the discal area--that is, nearly all but the margins, appears to be orange (Fig. 7); the hind wings have an indistinct paler band on the outer area, and this is sometimes suffused or clouded with orange. On the under side the pale band is more defined (Fig. 5). The apical spot of fore wings is sometimes double, and a tendency to this variation is shown in Fig. 6, but in the complete form there are two white dots (bi-pupillated). At the other extreme, and generally in the male, the apical spot is entirely absent (var. _anommata_), or is greatly reduced in size, and is without the white pupil. Spots on the under side are as often absent as present. They may be from one to five in number, and either simply black dots or ringed with orange, as in Fig. 4. Occasionally the orange on the upper side of the female gives place to a pale straw or even whitish colour; and on the under side to whitish-grey. Not infrequently a greater or lesser area of the wings is "bleached," and this seems to be due to absence of pigment in the scales on such parts. This bleaching may affect the whole or a portion of one wing only, or it may take the form of symmetrical blotches on each wing. All such abnormal specimens of this, and of other species similarly affected, are certainly of value to those who are interested in teratology, but they seem to be out of place in a collection of butterflies where the aim should be to show the true variation of species rather than "freaks," which are the result of accident or disease. The egg, laid on a blade of grass as shown (Plate 85), is upright and ribbed; the top is flattened, with an impressed ring thereon. Colour, whitish-green inclining to brownish-yellow as it matures, and marked with purplish-brown. The caterpillar is bright green, clothed with short whitish hairs; there is a darker line down the back, and a diffused white stripe on each side above the reddish spiracles; the anal points are white. Head rather darker green, hairy. [Illustration: _Pl._ 86. =Gatekeeper.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 87. =Gatekeeper.= 1, 2, 6, 7 _male_; 3, 4, 5 _female_.] The chrysalis is pale green, marked with brownish on the wing-covers, the thorax is spotted with blackish, and the points on the body are brownish. Suspended, and with the old skin attached, as shown in the figure. From its wide distribution and general abundance, this may be said to be our commonest butterfly. It appears to be always on the wing, in dull weather as well as in sunshine, and, except for a short interval in early August, it is to be seen in hayfields, open places in woods, on grassy slopes, or borders of highways and byways from June to September. Although quite fresh specimens are fuscous-brown, the butterfly, after a short time on the wing, loses the dusky tinge and becomes brown. It is, therefore, always desirable to rear specimens for the cabinet from caterpillars. These feed on grasses of various kinds in May, are easily managed, and may be found in most hay meadows at night, when, of course, a lantern will be needed to throw a light on the business of collecting them. The not infrequent occurrence of fresh specimens in the autumn is strong presumptive evidence of at least an occasional second brood. Perhaps, as has been suggested by Mr. R. Adkin, "a late emergence of _Epinephele ianira_ is the rule rather than the exception," especially in the warmer parts of the country. The butterfly is found throughout England and Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, including Isles of Lewis and Orkney. Abroad it occurs in all parts of Europe except the most northern, Asia Minor, Armenia, North Africa, and the Canary Isles. The Gatekeeper (_Epinephele tithonus_). Other English names in use at the present time for this butterfly (Plate 87) are "Small Meadow Brown," "Hedge Brown," and "Large Heath," but the latter is more often applied to another species which will be referred to later. Petiver called it the "Hedge Eye." The general colour is brownish-orange, and the margins are fuscous-brown; there is a black spot towards the tips of the fore wings, and this, as a rule, encloses two white dots; one or both of these dots sometimes absent in the male. The male differs from the female in its rather smaller size, and in having a fuscous band on the central area; the latter is broadest towards the inner margin, and in this part are some patches of blackish androconial scales or plumules; at the upper end of the band there is sometimes a fuscous cloud. Occasionally, one or more small black spots, some with white pupils, are present below the apical one. Four such spots are rare, but specimens with one or with two are not uncommon. There is usually a white-pupilled black spot towards the anal angle of the hind wing, but I have several males and females that are without this spot. Sometimes there are as many as four spots on the hind wings, but this is perhaps exceptional (Plate 113, Fig. 5). On the under side of the hind wings there are often two white dots, sometimes ringed with black, towards the costa, and two or three other similar dots towards the anal angle; but the number of dots may be reduced to two, one of which is near the costa, or be increased to six. Colour changes, similar to those in the last species, occur, and the orange colour, in both sexes, may be replaced by yellow (var. _mincki_, Seebold), or by white (var. _albida_, Russell, Plate 119, Figs. 6, 7). Such aberrations are very local and rare; a few have been obtained on chalk hills in South Hampshire. In an extraordinary aberration, taken in Sussex in 1897, the whole of the dark brown colour of margins and band is replaced by pale pinkish-ochreous, but the normal brownish orange remains. Other somewhat similar specimens have been recorded. The egg (Plate 86) is pale yellowish when first laid, becoming lighter and irregularly blotched with reddish-brown, the upper blotches forming a sort of band round the egg; as the caterpillar matures the shell assumes a darker tinge, inclining to slaty, and the markings are less distinct. The caterpillar, when full grown, is pale ochreous, clothed with short pale hair, and freckled with brownish; the line down the back is darker, one on each side is paler, and that above the feet is yellowish. The head is rather darker than the body, marked with brownish, and bristly. According to Hellins, the newly hatched caterpillar is whitish-grey, with rusty yellow lines on the back. In October, after the first moult, it becomes green with a brownish head. In April the body is greenish-grey, and the head pale greenish-brown. At the end of April it moults for the last time, and is then pale ochreous generally, but some caterpillars are darker than this, and some paler with a greenish-grey tinge. The chrysalis is whitish-ochreous, with dark brown streaks on the wing-covers and some brownish spots and clouds on the back and sides. Suspended from stem or blade of grass; the old skin remains attached. The caterpillars feed at night on grasses, such as _Poa annua_, _Triticum repens_, and _Dactylis glomerata_, from September to June. The butterfly is on the wing in July and August. Although these butterflies may be seen, sometimes in considerable numbers, where the rides are grassy, in woods, they are perhaps more attached to hedgerows. Bramble flowers are their special attraction, but they are not indifferent to the blossoms of the wood sage (_Teucrium scorodonia_) or of marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_). Pretty generally distributed throughout England, it is often exceedingly plentiful in the south and also in South Wales. In Scotland the butterfly seems to be common in Kircudbrightshire, but not common in other southern counties up to Argyle and Fife. Kane says that in Ireland it is almost confined to the southern counties. Abroad it is found throughout Europe, except the North-East, and its range extends into Northern Asia Minor. The Ringlet (_Aphantopus hyperanthus_). The sombre-looking butterfly, of which several figures will be found on Plate 89, has been known by its present English name since 1778, the year in which Moses Harris published "The Aurelian." The Latin specific name was written _hyperantus_ by Linnæus, but Esper corrected this to _hyperanthus_. It has, however, been supposed that Linnæus really intended to have written _hyperanthes_ (a son of Darius), and this form of the name has been used, but Esper's emendation is here adopted. [Illustration: FIG. 27. =Var. lanceolata.=] All the wings are sooty-brown, the male when quite fresh appearing almost black, and the sexual brand is then difficult to see; there are one or more black spots with pale rings, and sometimes white pupils, on the fore wings, but these are always more prominent in the female than in the male; in the latter sex they may be entirely absent. On the under side there are generally two, sometimes three, ocellated spots on the fore wings, and there are five such spots on the hind wings, the two nearest the costa being double, and not very infrequently there is a smaller spot near or attached to the lower edge of the double one. In the matter of size of the spots on the under side there is a wide range of variation, and at one end of this is var. _lanceolata_, Shipp, and at the other var. _obsoleta_, Tutt, in which not a trace of any of the spots remains. Specimens with a varying number of white dots, with or without yellow rings, are usually referred to var. _arete_, but Fig. 6 on the Plate represents a modification of this variety, known as _coeca_. [Illustration: _Pl._ 88. =Ringlet.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 89. =Ringlet.= 1, 2, 3, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 6 _var. cæca_, _male_.] Occasionally, on the under side, there are transverse lines on the outer half of all the wings, and the space between these lines is suffused with whitish. The specimen showing these lines faintly (Fig. 3 on the Plate) is from North Cumberland. The early stages are figured on Plate 88. The egg is yellowish-white at first, but soon turns to a pale brown. As will be seen on comparing the enlarged figure of this egg with those of the two previous species, it is quite different in shape, and is pitted rather than ribbed. The eggs are not attached to anything, but are allowed to fall down among the roots of the grass over which they are deposited. The caterpillar is described by Newman as pale wainscot brown in colour, with a darker line down the back, and the head has three broad, slightly darker but faint, stripes on each cheek. According to others it is ochreous or brownish-grey, with a dark brown line on the back, a pale one with darker edge on the sides, and a whitish stripe above the feet. The chrysalis is ochreous-brown sprinkled with reddish-brown, and marked with brown on the wing-covers. It lies low down among the tufts of grass. The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are from Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies." The caterpillars feed upon various grasses, including _Poa annua_ and _Dactylis glomerata_, growing about damp places in woodland districts. They emerge from the egg in August, feed leisurely until October, when they appear to hibernate. In March they resume feeding, but do not attain full growth until June. The butterflies are on the wing in July and August, and frequent lanes and the outskirts of woods. They usually fly along the shady side, but they are not averse to the nectar of the bramble blossom, and I have seen them taking a sip here and there although they were fully exposed to sunshine all the time. Wherever there are suitable haunts the butterfly may be found throughout the greater part of England and Wales. It seems, however, to have disappeared from some districts in Lancashire and Yorkshire where it was formerly common. It is fairly plentiful in most of the southern counties of Scotland, and its range extends north to Aberdeen. In Ireland it is abundant in the south and the west, and seems to occur in most suitable places; also common in certain localities in Donegal and Antrim. Abroad it is distributed through Europe and Northern Asia eastward to Japan. The Large Heath (_Coenonympha typhon_). The butterfly now to be considered is a most variable one, both as regards colour and marking. Several of the varieties have been named, and in the time of Haworth down to Stephens, and even much later, at least three of these were regarded as distinct species. In the present day, however, it is generally accepted that all the varieties are forms of one species, although two local races are recognized. The typical form is _typhon_, Rottemburg, and _polydama_ (The Marsh Ringlet) of Haworth (Plate 90, Figs. 1, 2, 5, 7-11). The colour ranges from darkish-brown to a pale tawny; there is an ochreous ringed black spot towards the tips of the fore wings, sometimes another similar spot above the inner angle, and occasionally when both spots are present there is an ochreous spot between them; the hind wings have from one to three of these spots, but a larger number than three is exceptional. The under side of the fore wings is either bright or dull fulvous, and the spots are pretty much as above, but with white pupils, and there is a whitish band before them; the under side of the hind wings is olive brown on the basal two-thirds, covered with pale hair, and the outer third is brownish merging into greyish on the outer margin; an irregular white or whitish band limits the two areas; there are six ochreous ringed black spots, with white pupils, but they are always rather small in size. The female is much paler than the male. This is the usual form in Northumberland, Cumberland, Yorkshire, and Ireland; it also occurs in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and the South of Scotland. Var. _philoxenus_, Esper. This is _davus_ (Small Ringlet), Haworth, and _rothliebii_, Newman (Plate 90, Figs. 3, 4, 6). On the upper side the colour is dark brown in the male and rather paler in the female; the spots are very distinct, ringed with fulvous; those on the hind wings are generally three in number, and often five or six; on the under side, the bands are whiter, and often broader, and the spots are very black, large, and conspicuous. This form is found on some of the mosses in Lancashire and Westmoreland, in Delamere Forest, Cheshire, and in North Shropshire; but the most characteristic examples of the form are chiefly obtained in the first-named county, from which it was first made known, in 1795, as the "Manchester Argus," or "Manchester Ringlet." Var. _scotica_, Staudinger (_laidion_, Staud., but not of Borkhausen), Pl. 90, Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5 male, 3 female, is the _typhon_ of Haworth, as stated by Newman; the latter author, however, figures it as _davus_, Fabricius, which is doubtful. The ground colour is pale tawny, sometimes suffused with brownish, greyish on the margin, and broadly so on the outer area of the hind wings; the spots are often absent, and when present are rarely very distinct. The female is much paler than the male. The under side of the hind wings is somewhat similar to that of the typical form, but sometimes the whole area is a uniform greyish; the spots are only rarely at all distinct, and then only one, or perhaps two, on a wing, and not infrequently they are entirely absent. This form occurs in Scotland, especially in Aberdeenshire and Sutherlandshire, also in the Isle of Arran, in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, and in the Outer Hebrides. Kane states that he has met with single specimens at "Killarney, Westmeath, Galway, and Sligo." In some localities, such as Carlisle, Rotherham, and others in Yorkshire, forms intermediate between the type and var. _philoxenus_ are found; modifications of the type form in the direction of var. _scotica_ occur in Cumberland, Northumberland, and Co. Leitrim, in Ireland; and forms approaching the type more nearly than var. _scotica_ are met with in the Glasgow district, and at Pitcaple in Aberdeenshire. The egg is very pale greenish-yellow at first, but the green fades, brownish blotches appear, and some dark markings appear around the upper part a short while before the caterpillar hatches out. It is finely scored almost from the base to the top, which is depressed, and has a raised boss in the centre, as in the egg of the Small Heath. From some eggs sent to me in July, caterpillars hatched in August. They fed on ordinary meadow grass, and in September were figured, when they were about half an inch in length. Head shallowly notched in front, green, roughened with whitish dots, eyes and jaws brownish. Body green, roughened with white dots, with darker line down the back, and paler, almost white lines along the sides, anal projections reddish (these were greenish when younger). The figure of the full-grown caterpillar is after Buckler, who describes it as "of a bright green, with dark bluish-green dorsal line, edged with pale lemon-yellow, the subdorsal and spiracular lines are of the same pale yellow, but the subdorsal is edged above with dark bluish-green, and between these two lines is an interrupted streak of a darker colour, posteriorly with a slight tinge of reddish or pink, and the caudal fork is tipped with pink." [Illustration: _Pl._ 90. =Large Heath.= 1, 3, 4, 6 _male_, 2 _female (Delamere)_; 7, 9 _male_, 5 _female (Arran)_; 8 _male (N. Salop)_; 10 _do. (Ireland)_; 11 _do. (Carlisle)_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 91. =Large Heath.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] The chrysalis is bright green, with brown streaks on the edges and centre of the wing-covers, and at the tip of the tail, turning dark brown just before the butterfly emerges. (Figure and description after Buckler.) The eggs are laid in July on blades of grass, and the caterpillars hatch out in that month and August. The food of the caterpillars is said to be the beaked-rush (_Rhynchospora alba_); those that I had from Witherslack eggs fed well upon ordinary grass until October, but they died during the winter. After hibernation they recommence feeding, and are full grown in May and June, when they pupate, and the butterflies appear at the end of June and in July. Barrett, writing of the butterfly in all its forms, says, "Its most southern known locality in England is Chartley Park, Derbyshire, and it is common in all 'mosses' of Lancashire and Cheshire--all moors about Grange, and in Chat Moss, Risley Moss, Rixton Moss, Simondswood, Lindon Moss, and Carrington Moss, as well as at Delamere Forest. In Yorkshire abundant in Thorne Waste, not scarce in Wensleydale, and found on Cottingham Moor, Hatfield Moors, and elsewhere. Northward it is found in all suitable mosses and moors in Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, but seems to have been exterminated in Northumberland." In Scotland it appears to be pretty generally distributed, and occurs up to an elevation of some 2000 feet. Kane states that in Ireland it is widely spread throughout, on the bogs and mountains. It is stated to have occurred in North Wales a long time ago, but there are no recent records from that country. Abroad it is found in Central and Northern Europe, extending to Lapland, and through Northern Asia to Amurland. In North America it is represented by two forms, which are not quite like any of those occurring elsewhere. The Small Heath (_Coenonympha pamphilus_). To the ancient fathers the male of the butterfly on Plate 92 was known as the "Selvedged Heath Eye," and the female was called the "Golden Heath Eye." Harris figured it as "The Small Heath," or "Gatekeeper;" the latter name being now associated with another species, it may be allowed to drop out in the present connection. The wings are pale tawny, with a brownish or greyish-brown border, of variable width, on all the wings, and stronger in the male than the female; there is a black spot towards the tip of the fore wing. The under side resembles that of the last species in some degree, but the eyed spots of the hind wings are not always prominent, often only white dots, and may be absent altogether (Fig. 9). Variation in this species is extensive, but not striking. The tint of the ground colour may be reddish or yellowish; occasionally brownish or greyish-brown specimens of the male occur, and more rarely purplish-brown examples of the same sex have been found. Females, in all cases paler, and generally larger than the male, are sometimes whitish-ochreous in colour, and, very rarely, yellowish-white. The brown border is also a variable character, and may be very dark and broad (var. _lyllus_), or reduced to linear proportions. The apical spot on the fore wings may be of fair size and very black, very pale and indistinct (Figs. 8, 12), or entirely absent; it does not seem to be pupilled with white (as it is on the under side), but sometimes there is a pale speck in the centre. On the under side of the hind wings there is variation in the width of the central whitish band-like patch, in some specimens with unusually dark ground colour this patch is very broad; in other examples, of normal coloration, the band is complete, and extends to the inner margin. The white dots that normally do duty as ocelli are not infrequently set in reddish-brown spots, and then become rather more noticable (Fig. 14). This form is var. _ocellata_, Tutt. The egg is green at first, afterwards becoming whitish or bone-colour; later on a brownish irregular ring appears a little above the middle, and there are various brownish freckles. It is finely ribbed, and the top is depressed, forming a hollow with a central boss. Laid in a cluster of four on a blade of grass, but this may have been accidental. Others were deposited singly on muslin and on fine grass, all in mid-June. The caterpillar is of a clear green colour, "with darker green dorsal stripe, and a spiracular stripe not so dark; the anal points pink" (Hellins). The chrysalis is of "a delicate pale rather yellowish-green, with a faintly darker green dorsal stripe, the edge of the projecting wing-covers on each side whitish, outlined with a streak of reddish-brown; the abdomen freckled very delicately with paler green; the tip of the anal point, with a short streak of brownish-red on each side; the wing-cases faintly marked with darker green nervures" (Buckler). The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 93 are from Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies." Some caterpillars, from eggs laid in May or June, become full-grown in four or five weeks, and appear as butterflies in August, but others do not complete their growth until the following spring. Just exactly what happens in the case of eggs from autumn females does not seem to be very definitely ascertained. It has, however, been stated that caterpillars hatching from eggs laid in August, attain the size of the slow-growing contingent from May eggs, and then hibernate. Probably, therefore, it is these that produce the July butterflies, and if so, the succession of emergences may be something in this way: May and June butterflies from May and June eggs (twelve months' cycle), July butterflies from August eggs (eleven months cycle), August and September butterflies (partial second brood) from May and June eggs (four months' cycle). This interesting little butterfly is to be seen almost everywhere, but it is perhaps most frequently to be found in grassy places in lanes, on heaths and downs, railway banks, in rough meadows, etc. It occurs on mountains even up to an elevation of 2000 feet. When flying in company with the blues and coppers, all frolicking together over some patch of long grass, the colour combination has an exceedingly pleasing effect. They rest by day, and sleep at night on grass or rushes. A common species throughout England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, as far north as Nairn, also in the Outer Hebrides. Abroad its distribution extends over Europe to South-West Siberia, Central and North-East Asia, Asia Minor, and North Africa. * * * * * We now arrive at the Hairstreaks, Coppers, and Blues. These belong to the Lycænidæ, a very large family of butterflies which is represented in all parts of the globe. There are eighteen species in Britain, but at least one of these is extinct and another is supposed to be so; two are very rare, and the chances of meeting with either are probably about equal. The Brown Hairstreak (_Zephyrus betulæ_). The butterfly is represented on Plate 94, Figs. 1-3. The male is blackish-brown with a faint greyish tinge, and there is a conspicuous black bar at the end of the discal cell of the fore wing, followed by a pale cloud; there are two orange marks at the anal angle of the hind wings. The female is blackish-brown, and has the black bar at end of the cell, and an orange band beyond; there are usually three orange marks on the hind wings at the anal angle, but sometimes there are only two. The under side of the male is ochreous, but that of the female is more orange; the fore wings have the black bar edged on each side with white, and there is a white-edged, brownish triangular streak beyond, the outer margin is tinged with reddish; on the hind wings there are two white irregular lines and the space between them is brownish, the outer margin is reddish, becoming broadly so towards the anal angle, where there is a black spot. Variation is not of a very striking character. The shade following the black bar at end of the discal cell on the fore wings in the male is sometimes yellowish tinged, not infrequently fairly large, and with two smaller spots below it. More rarely all three spots are distinctly ochreous-yellow (var. _spinosæ_, Gerhard). A similar aberration, but with the marks white instead of yellow, has been named _pallida_, Tutt. The orange band in the female varies in width and in length; occasionally it extends well below vein 2, and into the discal cell within the black bar. I have one specimen in which the band is broken up into three parts, and the upper one of these is but little wider than the same spot in var. _spinosæ_, the other two being almost exactly of the same size as in that variety. [Illustration: _Pl._ 92. =Scotch Large Heath.= 1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4 _female_. =Small Heath.= 6, 9, 10, 14 _male_; 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 93. =Small Heath.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The life-history is figured on Plate 95--the lower set of figures. The egg is described by Newman "as a depressed sphere and white," and he states, "it is attached to the twigs of blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in the autumn, often as late as the end of September or beginning of October; it is not hatched until the spring." The caterpillar is bright pale green, and the lines on the back and sides are yellowish, as also are the oblique streaks on the sides and the border of the ridge above the feet. There are some bristles along the ridge on the back and also on that above the feet. It feeds on blackthorn in May and June, and will eat the foliage of almost any kind of plum. I have reared fine specimens from caterpillars which fed on greengage. The chrysalis is pale reddish-brown with a dark line down the middle of the back and some pale oblique streaks on each side; the wing-cases are freckled with darker brown. Barrett, quoting Fenn, says, "Suspended by the tail and a silken girth to the stem of the food-plant close to the ground." Those that I have seen pupated on or under leaves, and so far as I could observe without any girth, and certainly not suspended. Nearly two hundred years ago the male of this butterfly was known as the Brown Hairstreak, whilst the female was called the Golden Hairstreak. The caterpillar seems to have been observed in quite early times. It has always been a local species, and although it appears to frequent hedgerows occasionally, its haunts generally are open grounds in the neighbourhood of woods, where blackthorn or sloe is plentiful. August and September are the months for the butterfly, but it does not seem to be very often observed on the wing, even in places where the caterpillars are known to occur. When seen it is generally high up on, or around, some oak tree. Occasionally, however, it visits the bramble blossoms, and at such times becomes a fairly easy prey. The caterpillar is obtained by beating sloe bushes. Barrett, who seems to have worked out its distribution in England and Wales pretty closely, remarks, "In the eastern counties it has been taken occasionally in Norfolk and Suffolk, more frequently in Essex, where, in Epping Forest, it has been fairly common; also in Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire, in some plenty. In very few localities in Kent, Sussex, Hants, and Dorset; rarely in Gloucestershire, and possibly Somerset; but found in many Devonshire localities, especially in the sheltered valleys around the Dartmoor range, and in the charmingly wooded districts about Axminster and Sidmouth; becoming common towards Dartmouth. It has also been found commonly near Marlborough, Wilts, and plentifully in some parts of North Wales; apparently rare in South Wales, but certainly existing in some parts of the wooded districts skirting Milford Haven. Also recorded from Worcestershire, and Cannock Chase in Staffordshire; and northward in the favoured districts of Grange and Silverdale in North Lancashire, and Witherslack in Westmoreland." As Surrey is not quoted in the foregoing, it may be mentioned as one of the counties in which the species is found. In Ireland Kane says that it is "abundant in certain localities in Munster; and in Co. Galway at Claring Bridge, and Oranmore; Cork; Killoghrum Wood, Enniscorthy; Blarney, Killarney." [Illustration: _Pl._ 94. =Brown Hairstreak.= 1, _male_; 2, 3 _female_. =White-letter Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 95. =White-letter Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ =Brown Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] It is distributed throughout Central and Northern Europe, except the Polar region, and its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, Ussuri, and China. The Purple Hairstreak (_Zephyrus quercus_). The butterfly (figured on Plate 96) has the sexes differently ornamented, as in the last species. The male is strongly tinged with purplish-blue, the veins are blackish; the outer margin of the fore wings are narrowly, and the costa and outer margin of the hind wings are broadly, bordered with black. The female is purplish-black, with two patches of bluish-purple in the discal cell and space below; often there is a smaller patch of the same colour between them, the whole forming a large blotch interrupted by the blackish veins. Under side greyish with blackish shaded white lines; two or three blackish clouds on the outer margin of fore wings above the inner angle; these are sometimes edged with orange; a black spot on anal angle of the hind wings, with an orange one above it, and a black-centred orange spot between veins 2 and 3. Variation in this species is exceptional. An aberration known as _bella_, Gerhard, has a yellowish mark at end of the cell on the upper side of the fore wings, and at least one such variety has been taken in England. Sometimes the blotch on the female is rather blue than purple; a male specimen with blue streaks on the costa of the fore wings has been recorded, and Barrett mentions a gynandrous specimen in which the right side was that of the male. The egg is pale brown tinged with pink, and over this is a whitish network. The caterpillar is reddish-brown and downy; a black line along the back has a whitish edge, and there are whitish oblique stripes, with blackish edge, on each side of the central line; the segmental divisions are well marked, and the spiracles are blackish with pale rings. The head, which, when the caterpillar is resting, is hidden within the first body ring, is brownish and glossy, and there is a greyish shield-like mark on the second ring. The chrysalis is red-brown, with darker freckles; the body is downy, and there are traces of oblique marks thereon. It does not appear to be fastened by the tail, but the cast larval skin remains attached; there are a few strands of silk around and about the chrysalis, but these are very flimsy, although they hold it in position on the ground or under a leaf. The eggs are laid in July or August on twigs of oak, but the caterpillars, it is said, do not hatch out until the following spring. In May and early June the caterpillars are full grown, and may be obtained by beating or jarring the branches of oak trees in places where the butterfly is known to occur. They have also been found on sallow. This species frequents oak woods, or the borders thereof, in July and August, and is often more easy to see than to capture, as it has a tantalizing trick of flying around the upper branches of the trees. Occasionally it resorts to lower growing aspens, probably to feast on the honey dew, the secretions of Aphides, with which the leaves are often covered in hot summers. It seems to be pretty generally distributed in all parts of England and Wales, and in Scotland as far north as Ross. In Ireland it appears to be more local, and has only been recorded from the east and south. It is found in all parts of Europe, except the northern. [Illustration: _Pl._ 96. =Purple Hairstreak.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. =Black Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5 _female_. =Green Hairstreak.= 7 _male_; 8, 9 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 97. =Black Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ =Purple Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ =Green Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] The Black Hairstreak (_Thecla pruni_). This butterfly is figured on Plate 96. In colour it is dark brown or, when quite fresh, brownish-black; there are some orange marks on the outer margin of the hind wings, and these are most distinct in the female, in which sex there are orange spots on the fore wings also. The male has a pale sexual mark at the end of the cell of the fore wings, but this is less distinct than in the following species. The under side is brown, with a bluish-white interrupted transverse line on each wing, that on the hind wings angled before reaching the inner margin. All the wings have an orange band on the outer margin, but on the fore wings of the male this is often indistinct; there are some white-edged black spots before it, and, on the hind wings, beyond it also. The eggs are laid in July on the twigs of blackthorn, but the caterpillars do not hatch until the following spring. The egg figured on Plate 97 was reddish-brown and appeared rather shiny. The caterpillar is described as yellowish-green, with a darker green furrow and purplish ridges along the back; the latter are edged with whitish and the divisions between the rings are yellowish. The head is pale brown. The chrysalis, which is attached by the tail and has a silken thread around it, is black, marked on the head and body with yellowish-white. The caterpillars feed on blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in a state of nature, but will eat the leaves of damson in confinement. They may be obtained in May, in their particular haunts, by beating sloe bushes with a beating tray, or an inverted open umbrella, held under to intercept the evicted caterpillars, etc. This butterfly was not known as British until 1828, when a number of specimens were captured at Monkswood in Huntingdonshire. These were sold by the captor as _T. w-album_, which was then called the Black Hairstreak. As soon as the mistake was detected, it was given out that the specimens had been taken in Yorkshire, but this was only a ruse, as _T. pruni_ has never occurred in that county. It is confined, so far as Britain is concerned, to three or four of the midland counties. "Mr. Herbert Goss, who has found it at Barnwell Wold, and in other wooded districts of Northamptonshire, at intervals, for more than twenty years past, says that it is fond of sitting on the flowers of privet (_Ligustrum_), and of _Viburnum lantana_, in the woods, and sometimes is to be found in numbers. Its time of emergence is very variable, apparently regulated by the lateness of the spring--from June 17th to the first week in July. Reared specimens made their appearance from June 13th to 27th. He writes, 'It was the greatest possible pleasure to see them walking about the table while I was at breakfast.' In 1858 it was found commonly at Kettering, and in 1859 at Oundle, and has been recorded at Warboys Wood, Huntingdonshire, and in Buckinghamshire. One specimen was taken at Brandeston, Suffolk, by the Rev. Joseph Green; and Mr. Allis found it commonly in the Overton Woods and about St. Ives. There is also a record in Monmouthshire, which may require confirmation. This butterfly does not appear to be losing ground in this country, its fondness for trees and lofty bushes rendering it difficult to capture" (Barrett). A writer in the _Entomologist_ for 1874 mentions Linford Woods, in Bucks, as a locality where he had observed several specimens, mostly females, on flowers of privet. It is found throughout the greater part of Europe and also in Amurland and Corea. The White Letter Hairstreak (_Thecla w-album_). The male of this butterfly (Plate 94) is blackish, with a small whitish sex mark at end of the discal cell of the fore wing; there is a small orange spot at the anal angle of the hind wings. The female agrees in colour with the male, but the tails are longer, and there is no sex mark on the fore wings. The under side is brownish, with a white line on each wing, that on the hind wings forming a =W= before the inner margin; the hind wings have a black-edged orange band on the outer margin which is finely tapered towards the costa. Captured specimens are usually browner than those that are reared from caterpillars. The species does not exhibit much tendency to variation. The white lines on the under side may be rather broad or very narrow, and that on the hind wings is sometimes so broken up towards the inner margin that the =W= character disappears; when absence of the anal orange spots on the upper side is associated with the broken line, the form is known as _butlerowi_. I have several males without the =W=, and some of these have the orange spot above, whilst others are without it. Barrett refers to a specimen in which there is "on the under side an extension of white colour from the white line towards the margin, in the fore wings forming a broad wedge-shaped band, but in the hind wings occupying the whole space from the white line to the orange band." The egg has been described as whitish in colour, and in shape something like an orange with a depression on the top. The eggs are laid on twigs of elm in July, and, according to some writers, remain thereon throughout the winter. The caterpillar when full grown is yellowish-green and covered with short hairs; the ridges on the back are yellowish, and there are oblique whitish streaks on each side of the darker dorsal line. The head is black. When about ready to assume the chrysalis state, the whole body becomes purplish-brown. The chrysalis is brownish, sometimes tinged with purple; covered with tiny bristles except on the blackish wing cases, and there are two purplish lines on the back. It is attached by the tail, and has a strand or two of silk around it, generally on the under side of a leaf. In a state of nature the caterpillar feeds on wych-elm (_Ulmus montana_), but it will eat the leaves of the common elm (_Ulmus campestris_). It is to be obtained in May and June by beating wych-elms in localities where the butterfly is known to occur. The butterfly is on the wing in July, and usually disports itself around the elm trees, but it is fond of bramble blossoms, and may often be netted when feasting on those flowers. It is a local species, but, as a rule, plentiful enough in its localities. It is rare in Hampshire and Dorsetshire, scarce in Sussex, and not found in many parts of Kent. Ripley, in Surrey, was a well-known locality for it in the early part of the last century, and the caterpillars were found there commonly quite recently. In Essex it is generally common near Maldon. And, according to Barrett, it is "plentiful in various parts of Suffolk; very scarce in Norfolk; found more or less plentifully in Herts, Hants., Cambs., and Northamptonshire; very rare in Nottinghamshire; but again to be found in North Lincolnshire; and common in several localities near Doncaster, Barnsley, and elsewhere in Yorkshire. This appears to be its northern limit, and in this respect it contrasts curiously with _Thecla betulæ_ [The Brown Hairstreak], since it extends farther north in the east than that species; yet in the west is recorded no farther than Cheshire and Shropshire, where I found it thirty-five years ago upon Benthall Edge. In Herefordshire it is recorded but rarely; more commonly in Worcestershire; also in Derbyshire and Needwood Forest, Staffordshire; common around Burton-on-Trent and elsewhere in Leicestershire; and in Oxfordshire, Bucks, and Berks. But its metropolis seems to be Wiltshire, where Mr. Perkins has found it around Marlborough and Savernake in thousands, as well as in Gloucestershire." It has also been obtained in Monmouthshire, but its extreme western limit seems to be Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire. Abroad it is widely distributed in Europe, except the extreme north and south-west; its range extends into Asia Minor, and to Amurland and Japan. [Illustration: _Pl._ 98. =Large Copper.= 1, 4, _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 99. =Large Copper.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis._] _Thecla spini_ and _T. ilicis_, two species of Hairstreak butterflies belonging to Central and Southern Europe, have been mentioned as occurring in Britain by some of the earlier authors. There is not, however, the slightest reason to suppose that either of them ever occurred naturally in this country. The Green Hairstreak (_Callophrys rubi_). Both sexes of this butterfly (Plate 96) are brown with a faint golden tinge above, and green on the under side. The male has a dark, or, when the plumules are dislodged, pale sexual mark, which is oval in shape, and placed at the upper corner of the discal cell in the fore wings. Occasionally there are some orange scales at the anal angle of the hind wings, and more rarely, and in the female, at the extremities of veins two and three also. On the under side of some specimens, chiefly from Northern localities, there is a transverse series of white dots across all the wings; more often these are confined to the hind wings, and sometimes they are almost or quite absent from all the wings. Now and then the under side of the hind wings is found to be brown in colour, and this change in colour has been ascribed to the action of moisture. The life-history is figured on Plate 97. The egg is greenish, reticulated with paler or with whitish-green; the reticulation is somewhat rough on the side, but becomes finer towards and on the top, which has the centre hollowed. Laid on the petals of the common furze (_Ulex europæus_), and on leaves of rock-rose (_Helianthemum chamæcistus_). The caterpillar feeds in June and July. It is pale green, with a darker line along the back, and yellow oblique stripes on the sides. Among the plants that it has been found upon, or is known to eat, are dyer's greenweed (_Genista tinctoria_), needle furze (_G. anglica_), broom (_Cytisus scoparius_), dwarf furze (_Ulex nanus_), whortleberry (_Vaccinium myrtillus_); also the berries of buckthorn (_Rhamnus_), making holes through which the contents of the berry is extracted; buds of bramble (_Rubus_), and of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), are also attacked in a similar way. The chrysalis is clothed with tiny hairs, and when freshly formed is green in colour, but becomes purplish-brown after a time. It appears to be unattached to anything. I think, however, that there are generally a few strands of silk around or about it, but these are so easily broken when the chrysalids are removed that they escape observation. May and June are the months for the butterfly, which occurs in various kinds of situations, such as the outskirts of woods, high hedgerows, hill slopes, and boggy heaths. I once saw it in abundance about the entrance from Lynton to the Valley of Rocks. Its resemblance on the under side to the leaves on which it perches is as baffling to the collector as is the resting habit of the Grayling butterfly previously referred to. It seems to be pretty generally distributed throughout the kingdom, but is rather more local in Ireland than elsewhere, and it has not yet been recorded from the Orkney or Shetland Isles. Its range extends throughout the Palæarctic Region. The Large Copper (_Chrysophanus dispar_). The brilliant butterfly, figured on Plate 99, is of a coppery orange colour. In the male the fore wings have two black dots in the discal cell, the outer one linear, and the outer margin is narrowly blackish; the hind wings have a linear black mark in the cell, and the outer margin is narrowly edged with blackish and dotted with black. The female is more conspicuously marked with black; there are two, sometimes three, spots in the cell of the fore wings, and a transverse series of seven or eight beyond; the outer margin is broadly bordered with black, and there are generally two spots above the inner angle; the hind wings have a black spot in the cell, and a series of black spots beyond, but the whole basal three-fourths of these wings is often deeply suffused with blackish; the outer margin is bordered and spotted with black. The sexes are much alike on the under side, and have reddish-orange fore wings with bluish grey outer margins, and black spots as on the upper side of the female; the hind wings are bluish-grey, powdered with bluish towards the base, and with whitish ringed black spots; five of these spots are before the linear discal mark, and a series of nine or ten beyond; an orange band on the outer margin has black dots on each edge. Except as regards the size and the shape of the spots, especially in the female, there appears to have been but little variation noted in this species in England. The two fine female specimens figured on the plate have a more or less distinct wedge-shaped black spot in the basal end of the discal cell of the fore wings. Dale mentions that he has an "almost entirely black" example of the female in his collection. The var. _rutilus_, which is the continental form of our butterfly, is smaller in size, as a rule, the spots are not so large, and the orange band is always narrower on the under side of the hind wings. It has been averred that some of the British specimens are referable to this form. Newman, writing about 1870, gave the following life-history details:--"The egg is laid on the leaves of the great water-dock (_Rumex hydrolapathum_) during the month of August, and the young caterpillars (never, to the best of my belief, observed) probably emerge during the following month, and hibernate very early at the base of the petioles. "The caterpillar is full fed in June, and then lies flat on the dock-leaf, rarely moving from place to place, and, when it does so, gliding with a slug-like motion, the legs and claspers being entirely concealed. The head is extremely small, and can be completely withdrawn into the second segment: the body has the dorsal surface convex, the ventral surface flat; the divisions of the segments are distinctly marked, the posterior margin of each slightly overlapping the anterior margin of the next, and the entire caterpillar having very much the appearance of a _Chiton_; the sides are slightly dilated, the legs and claspers are seated in closely approximate pairs, nearly on a medio-ventral line. The colour is green, scarcely distinguishable from that of the dock-leaf; there is an obscure medio-dorsal stripe, slightly darker than the disk, and in all probability due to the presence of food in the alimentary canal. The chrysalis is obese, blunt at both extremities, attached by minute hooks at the caudal extremities, and also by a belt round the waist." Newman adds, "My acquaintance with the caterpillar and chrysalis was made very many years ago in Mr. Doubleday's garden at Epping, where the very plant of _Rumex hydrolapathum_, on which the caterpillars fed, is still in existence." The caterpillar was described by Stephens, in 1828, as somewhat hairy, bright green, with innumerable white dots. The same author states that the chrysalis was "first green, then pale ash-coloured, with a dark dorsal line and two abbreviated white ones on each side, and, lastly, sometimes deep brown." The figure of the caterpillar on Plate 98 is after Westwood, and that of the chrysalis after Newman ("Grammar of Entomology"). Although he refers to it as "_hippothoë_," the Large Copper seems to have been known to Lewin (1795), as he states that specimens had been taken in Huntingdonshire. Haworth (1803) mentions its occurrence in the fens of Cambridgeshire, and Stephens, twenty-five years later, wrote:--"This splendid insect appears to be confined to the fenny counties of Cambridge and Huntingdon, with the neighbouring ones of Suffolk and Norfolk, unless the account of its capture in Wales by Hudson be admitted; but this may probably be the following species [_hippothoë_], which may, moreover, eventually prove synonymous with _Ly. dispar_. In the first two localities it appears to occur in great profusion, as several hundred specimens have been captured within these last ten years by the London collectors, who have visited Whittlesea and Yaxley Meres, during the month of July, for the sole purpose of obtaining specimens of this insect." [Illustration: _Pl._ 100. =Small Copper.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 101. =Small Copper.= 1, 2 _Typical male_; 3 _typical female_; 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 _varieties_; 7 _var. schmidtii_.] Dale states that "the latest capture, consisting of five specimens, appears to have been made in Holme Fen, by Mr. Stretton either in 1847 or 1848." There is evidence that floods, which were not uncommon in the home of the Large Copper, were not really injurious to the butterfly, and therefore the occasional submergence of its feeding grounds can hardly have been the cause of its almost sudden destruction. It seems more probable that its disappearance was due to the draining of the fens, and at least it is significant that the two events were almost coincident. There are records of the butterfly having been taken in various odd localities since it was last seen in fenland, but the latest of those dates back to the year 1865. There seems to be no question that the butterfly is now extinct in England, and, lamentable to relate, the chief locality where we can hope to secure a specimen or two for our collection is in the neighbourhood of Covent Garden, where the only requirement for the capture will be a well-lined purse. The continental form _rutilus_ is found in Germany, France, Northern Italy, South-Eastern Europe (except Greece), Northern Asia Minor, Armenia, and the Altai. The Asian form _auratus_ occurs in South-Eastern Siberia, Amurland, Corea, Northern China, and Amdo. * * * * * Four other kinds of "Coppers" have been reported as occurring in England: these are _Chrysophanus hippothoë_ and _C. virgaureæ_, both of which have even had English names bestowed upon them, to wit, the Purple-edged Copper and the Scarce Copper; _C. gordius_, and _C. circe_ (_dorilis_). These are only mentioned to afford an opportunity for saying that there does not appear to be the least reason for considering either of them to be a British butterfly. Kirby, Barrett, and others, however, think it possible that the first two may have inhabited England in ancient times. The Small Copper (_Chrysophanus phlæas_). This little butterfly is very smart, in activity as well as appearance. In colour it is very similar to the last species, but both sexes are spotted with black on the fore wings, the outer series of six spots forming a very irregular row; the hind wings are black, with a wavy orange-red band on the outer margin. There is considerable variation, and it is, therefore, deemed advisable to give a number of figures representing some of the more striking aberrations. The three figures at the top of Plate 101 depict the normal male and female; the latter sex is Fig. 3. For the loan of the other specimens (Figs. 4-12) my thanks are due to Mr. E. Sabine, who has a very fine and extensive series of varieties of this butterfly. Other examples of aberration on the under side are shown on Plate 119. Blue spots are sometimes found on the hind wings; these are placed near the orange-red band, and occasionally they attain a good size. Specimens much suffused with blackish sometimes occur; these are referable to var. _eleus_, which is the usual summer form in some of the warmer countries abroad. A very rare form is that known as _schmidtii_ (Fig. 7), in which the ground colour of the fore wings and the band on the hind wings are silvery white instead of orange or coppery-red. A modification of this form which is hardly less rare has a creamy tint. Straw-coloured or pale golden specimens are rather more frequently met with. The colour of the hind wings in fresh specimens is sometimes steely-grey, but blackish is the more usual hue; the band on the outer area, which as a rule agrees in colour with the fore wings, varies in width a good deal, and occasionally is more or less obscured by the blackish ground colour. The arrangement, size, and shape of the black spots, both above and below, are subject to much vagary, sometimes of a very striking kind, as, for example, when the spots of the outer series on the fore wings are united with the discal pair and form a large irregular blotch. A remarkable specimen taken some years ago in the Isle of Wight had a small patch of copper with a black spot in it on the under side. This gave one the idea of a clumsy attempt at patching, but as I happened to take that particular specimen, I know that it had not been tampered with. Gynandrous specimens of this butterfly sometimes occur, but these are very rare. The egg is of a yellowish-white colour at first, and afterwards becomes greyish; the pattern on the shell, which resembles network, is always whiter. The caterpillar is green and similar in tint to the leaf of dock or sorrel upon which it feeds. It is clothed with short greyish hair which arises from white dots; the dorsal line is brownish-olive, and the ring divisions, especially along the back, are well defined. Head very small, pale brownish, marked with blackish, drawn into the first ring of the body when resting. The legs and prolegs are tinged with pink, and sometimes the body is marked with pink. The chrysalis is pale brown, sometimes tinged with greenish, and freckled with darker brown; there is a dark line along the middle of the thorax and body, the wing cases are streaked with blackish, and the body is dotted with black. Attached by the tail and loose silken threads around the body to a leaf or stem. There seem to be three broods of this species in most years: the first is on the wing in May, sometimes in April; the second in July or early August; and the third in early October. It is not a difficult species to rear from the egg, and as varieties appear to be most frequent in the third brood, the eggs should be obtained from females of the second brood. Dock and sorrel (_Rumex_) are the food-plants of the caterpillar, and these are most useful in a growing condition. The butterfly frequents all kinds of open situations, and is fond of basking upon flowers, more particularly those of the Compositæ, from which vantage ground it dashes with great alertness at any other small butterfly that may happen to fly that way. Whether these seeming attacks are really due to pugnacity, as has been stated by some writers, or are merely of a sportive character, is not altogether clear. As, however, the meeting of the two butterflies usually results, when both are Small Coppers, in a series of aërial evolutions by the pair, it would seem that there is a good deal of playfulness in the business. After the gambol is over, one butterfly may dart off with the other in hot pursuit, and then both move so rapidly that their course is difficult to follow. If the butterfly intercepted happens to be a Blue or a Small Heath, the Copper returns to the flower from which it started, and prepares for another raid when the opportunity offers. It occurs throughout the United Kingdom, but in Scotland it does not extend northwards beyond the Caledonian Canal. Abroad it is found throughout the Palæarctic Region, and is represented in North America by the form _hypophlæas_. The Long-tailed Blue (_Lampides boeticus_). The male is purplish-blue suffused with fuscous, especially on all margins except the inner one; there are two velvety black spots encircled with pale blue at the anal angle of the hind wings, and a slender black tail, tipped with white, appears to be a continuation of vein 2. The under side is grey-brown, with numerous white wavy lines and broader streaks; there is a whitish band on each wing before the outer margin, and black spots as above, but these are ringed with metallic blue. [Illustration: _Pl._ 102. =Short-tailed Blue.= _Eggs enlarged._ =Long-tailed Blue.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Millière)._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 103. =Long-tailed Blue.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. =Short-tailed Blue.= 4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] I have not seen any of the early stages of this butterfly. The caterpillar, which feeds upon the green seeds in pods of the Leguminosæ, including the garden pea and the lupine, is figured on Plate 102. It is described as being green or reddish-brown in colour, with a dark stripe on the back, double oblique lines on the sides, and a white line below the yellow spiracles; head black. The chrysalis is of a red or yellowish colour, and dotted with brown. It has a silken girdle and is said to be attached to a stem, as shown in the figure, but probably it is more often fixed up among the withered leaves of the food-plant. Two of the earliest known British specimens of this butterfly were taken by the late Mr. Neil McArthur on August 4th and 5th, 1859, on the Downs at Brighton; the third example was captured by Captain de Latour at Christchurch, where it was flying about a plant of the everlasting pea in his garden on August 4th of the same year. Newman has noted that in that particular year the butterfly was very abundant in the Channel Islands and on the coast of France. No other specimen seems to have been observed in England until 1879, in which year one was taken at Freshwater in the Isle of Wight on August 23rd. In 1880 a specimen was captured in a garden near Bognor, Sussex, on September 12th. On October 2nd, 1882, one was obtained at West Bournemouth. Three were netted in 1893, one of these in late August, and one in the third week of September, both in Sussex; the third was taken in Kent (inland) in September. In 1899 a specimen was found at Winchester on September 1st, and one at Deal on the 16th of the same month; each of these, curiously, was sitting on a window. On August 2nd, 1904, one example was taken in a garden near Truro, Cornwall. In addition to the above, single specimens have been reported as taken at Brighton, July, 1890, and at Heswell, Cheshire, in 1886 or 1887. It will thus be seen that the occurrence of this butterfly in England is exceedingly infrequent. The species is common in Africa and in Southern Europe; thence it extends eastward through Asia to China and Japan, and southwards to Australia. It is also found in the Sandwich Islands. It is believed to be migratory in its habits, and it is supposed that the occasional specimens that arrive in this country come to us _viâ_ the west coast of Europe. In its proper home there is a succession of broods of the butterfly, and if by chance a few females were to visit this country in the early summer, they most probably would lay eggs, and the caterpillars resulting from these would almost certainly be able to feed up and attain the perfect state here. So far there is no reason to suppose that the caterpillar has ever occurred in England. The Short-tailed or Bloxworth Blue (_Cupido argiades_). The interesting little butterfly represented on Plate 103 was not known to occur in Britain until 1885, when the Rev. O. Pickard Cambridge made the startling announcement that his sons had captured two specimens, a female on August 18th, and a male on August 20th of that year, the scene of capture being Bloxworth Heath, Dorset. Shortly after this fact was made public the Rev. J.S. St. John added a record of two males that he had discovered in a small collection of Lepidoptera made by Dr. Marsh, who stated that he had taken the specimens of _C. argiades_ in 1874, close to a small quarry near Frome. In addition to these a specimen, also recorded by Mr. Cambridge, was taken at Bournemouth in August, 1885; one is reported to have been captured at Blackpool, about 1860; and one at Wrington, about twelve miles north of Bristol, in 1895 or 1896. [Illustration: _Pl._ 104. =Brown Argus.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis; (a) Egg of "Scotch Argus" enlarged._ =Silver-studded Blue.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] [Illustration: Pl. 105. =Silver-studded Blue.= 1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_. =Brown Argus.= 10, 12 _male_; 7, 8, 9 _female_; 11, 13, 14 _male (Durham)_; 15 _male_, 16, 17 _female (Scotland)_.] The following details of the early stages are obtained from Mr. Frohawk's life-history of the species published in the _Entomologist_ for October, 1904. The egg (Plate 102, figured from a photomicrograph by Mr. Tonge) is of a pale greenish-blue, but varies both in the extent of the ground colour and in the structure of the reticulations, which are white, resembling frosted glass. The full-grown caterpillar (August 23rd) measures 3/8 inch in length. It is of the usual wood-louse shape, with only a very shallow furrow on the back, bordered on each side by a fringe of spinous bristles, which vary in length; the whole surface is densely studded with shorter but similarly formed whitish or brownish bristles. The ground colour is pale green, with a darker green stripe along the centre of the back, and fainter green oblique stripes on the sides. The head is black and shining, and is hidden under the first ring when the caterpillar is not feeding or moving about. The caterpillars hatched on July 30th, from eggs that were laid in the South of France on July 24th, and were reared on bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), of which they ate the flowers, seeds, and leaves. The chrysalis, which is attached to the food-plant by a silk pad at the tail and a thread round the body, is pale green and very finely reticulated; the wing-cases are rather whiter green, sprinkled with minute black specks, and the veins are white; there is a blackish line along the centre of the back, but this is only well defined on the head and thorax. The whole surface, except the wings, is sprinkled with slightly curved and moderately long white hairs. The butterfly emerges in about ten to fourteen days, according to temperature. The male is violet-blue with the veins rather darker; the outer margin is narrowly bordered with blackish, and there are some black dots on the outer margin of the hind wings; the fringes are white, and there is a slender tail on the hind wings. The female is brownish, tinged with violet towards the base; the hind wings have black spots on the outer margin, and some of these are inwardly edged with orange; the tails are slightly longer than those of the male. All the available information concerning the occurrence of this species in England has already been given. No doubt the localities from which specimens were recorded have been closely investigated during the past twenty years, but no further captures of this butterfly have been recorded. This seems to indicate that it is not really indigenous, but that its presence here may possibly have been due to accidental introduction. The spring form, _polysperchon_, is smaller than the specimens occurring in the summer, but so far that form has not been seen in England. The species is widely distributed over Central and Southern Europe, and its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, Corea, and Japan. It is also represented in Northern and Central America by var. _comyntas_, and has been recorded from Australia. The Silver-studded Blue (_Lycæna argus_ = _ægon_). The male of this butterfly (Plate 105) is purplish-blue with a black border on the outer margins, and sometimes black dots on that of the hind wings. The female is sooty-brown, powdered to a greater or lesser extent with blue scales on the basal area; there is generally a series of orange marks forming a more or less complete band on the outer margin of the hind wings, and sometimes on the fore wings also. The under side is bluish-grey in the male, and brownish-grey in the female; the black spots are ringed with white, and on the fore wings there is one at the end of the discal cell and a series of seven beyond; the hind wings have from three to five spots before the discal spot, and a curved series of seven beyond; there is a black-edged orange band on all the wings, and beyond this on the hind wings there is a series of metallic blue centred spots; hence the English name of the butterfly, given to it by Moses Harris, which is certainly more suitable than Petiver's "Lead Argus." In a general way the male is rather larger than the female, but this is not invariably the case. The colour of the male varies in shade, and very occasionally, perhaps, is of a lilac tint; the border varies in width, and is sometimes reduced to a mere line. In the female the orange marks may be of a brownish or yellowish tint, and now and then there may be a series of wedge-shaped blue spots above these marks on the hind wings. On the under side there is a good deal of modification of the black spots as regards size and shape, and occasionally there is at least one extra spot on the fore wings placed between the discal spot and the base of the wing; white markings sometimes appear on the fore wings between the outer series of black spots and the orange band, and with this there is generally a white band in a similar position on the hind wings. Female specimens with splashes of the male colour on one or more of the wings have been obtained, and, more rarely, examples entirely male on one side and female on the other have been recorded. Frohawk states that the egg both in colour and texture, resembles white porcelain; "all the depths produce a deep purplish-grey shade. The ova are deposited singly, and adhere firmly to the receptacle." Caterpillars hatched out from eggs, laid the previous summer, on April 1st to 3rd. They were reared on gorse (_Ulex europæus_), pupated towards the end of June, and the first butterfly, a male, appeared on July 10th. The caterpillar figured on Plate 104, when full grown, was reddish-brown, finely dotted with white, and from each dot a tiny hair arose; the stripe on the back and line on the side were black edged with white, head black and shining. This caterpillar was found on the last day of May, crawling on the ground under heather at Oxshott. It was then about half-grown, and was reared on heather, pupated in due course, and produced a female butterfly on July 11th. The chrysalis, of which two figures are given, had a pale brownish and rather shining head; the body was brown with a darker line on the back; the thorax and wing-cases dull yellowish-green, the former rather glossy. It was placed in an angle formed by a side and the floor of the cage, lying quite flat and secured by silken threads, which, owing to position, I was unable to examine. Some of the caterpillars that Mr. Frohawk reared were pale green with a dark purplish stripe on the back. Another food-plant is bird's-foot vetch (_Ornithopus perpusillus_). The butterfly is on the wing in July and August, and seems to be more often found on sandy heaths than elsewhere. It is especially common, in some years, in the heather-clad districts of Surrey and Hampshire, as well as other counties in England. In Norfolk and Suffolk it is said to be common, but scarce in Gloucestershire and Somersetshire. Its range extends through the greater part of England and Wales, and into Scotland as far as Perthshire. Specimens from the northwest coast of Wales are said to be larger than those from inland localities. As regards Ireland, there is only Birchall's record, "The Murrough of Wicklow, and near Rostrevor," in evidence of the butterfly occurring in that country at all. Abroad, it appears to range pretty well over the whole of Europe, and through Asia eastward to Siberia, Corea, and Japan. The Brown Argus (_Lycæna astrarche_). Fore wings blackish or sooty-brown with a black discal spot, and a row of reddish-orange spots on the outer margin of all the wings; the fringes are white, sometimes with blackish interruptions. The under side is greyish or greyish-brown, and the black spots are distinctly ringed with white. On the fore wing there are seven of these spots, one at the end of the cell, and the others in an irregular series beyond; the last in this series is sometimes double, or it may be absent. On the hind wings the spots comprise a series of four preceding the white discal mark, and a series of seven beyond; the second spot in this series is placed directly under the first, forming a colon-like mark, and this character will help to distinguish the Brown Argus from the blackish or brown females of the next species. The female has larger orange markings, and the outline of the fore wings is rather rounder on the outer margin, otherwise the sexes are very similar. The orange spots referred to in the male are sometimes absent towards the tips of the fore wings, and in this respect lead up to the form known as the Durham Argus (var. _salmacis_, Stephens), which is blackish above and ochreous-brown below; the black spots on the under side are much smaller then in typical specimens, and some may be absent altogether. The male has a black discal spot, and the female a white one, on the upper side of the fore wings; the hind wings have a red or orange band on both surfaces. Sometimes the male also has a white spot on the fore wings. Specimens with the orange spots on upper side almost entirely absent are referable to var. _allous_. _Artaxerxes_ is the form occurring in Scotland, and is known as the "Scotch White Spot." Both sexes have a conspicuous white discal spot on the fore wings, and the spots on the under side are white, and rarely centred with black. In var. _quadripuncta_, Tutt, all four wings have a white discal spot above. Occasionally an odd specimen with white discal spots is found in the south. Figures of the butterfly will be found on Plate 105, and of its life history on Plate 104; the upper egg is that from a typical female, and the lower one was laid by a female _artaxerxes_. The egg, which is whitish, with a faint greyish tinge, is laid on the upper side of a young leaf of the rock-rose (_Helianthemum chamæcistus_). The caterpillar has a black shining head; the body is green with whitish hairs, a pinkish line along the back, a whitish one bordered with pinkish along the sides; the green colour becomes dingy as the caterpillar matures. The chrysalis is obscure yellowish-green, the front of the thorax is edged with pinkish, and there are bands of the same colour on the back and sides of the body; the thorax and the wing-cases are rather glossy. Held in position by a few silken threads between leaves of the food-plant. The ordinary form of the butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and again in August. It is widely distributed throughout the southern half of England, and also in Wales. Although chiefly associated with rock-rose, especially in chalky districts, it occurs too among stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_), upon which plant the caterpillar also feeds, in sandy places inland as well as on the coast. Caterpillars from the first flight of butterflies may be found in July, and those from the second flight hibernate and feed up in April. The butterfly has a marked liking for roosting on the flower stems of long grasses, and quite a number may often be found resting together towards sundown, or on dull days, in sheltered hollows. Sometimes several specimens of this species and of the Common Blue may be found on the same perch. It is rather less frequently seen in the Midland counties, but it is more or less common in some parts of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Lancashire. [Illustration: _Pl._ 106. =Common Blue.= 1, 2, 7, 10, 12 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 107. =Common Blue.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] The intermediate form, _salmacis_ and its modifications, is found in the neighbourhood of Richmond, Yorks, and thence northward to the Scottish border. Var. _artaxerxes_ occurs in Scotland from Roxburgh to Aberdeenshire on the east, and from Dumfries to the Clyde on the west. Kane records four specimens from Co. Galway, and these are all that are known of the species from Ireland. This form, together with the var. _salmacis_, are not found anywhere outside the United Kingdom, and, it may be added, the latter appears to be getting scarce--at least, in some of its old haunts in Durham. The species is distributed throughout the Palæarctic Region, except the Polar parts. The Common Blue (_Lycæna icarus_). The male is blue, with either a tinge of violet or mauve in its composition. Sometimes, though rarely, it assumes the brighter shade of the Adonis Blue. All the wings are very narrowly edged with black on the outer margins; the veins are generally pale, shining blue, sometimes becoming blackish towards the outer margins, and occasionally continued into the fringes, but not to their tips. The female is most often brown, with some blue scales on the basal area of all the wings; there is a black discal spot on the fore wings, and a series of orange crescents before a row of black spots on the outer margin; the hind wings have an outer marginal row of black spots, edged outwardly with white and inwardly with orange. On Plate 106, Fig. 1 represents a typical male, and Fig. 3 a typical female, whilst the normal under sides of the sexes are shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The size of this butterfly ranges from one inch and a half to three-quarters of an inch. The large specimens at the bottom of the plate are from Scotland. Scotch and Irish males often have some black spots on the outer margin of the hind wings, as in Fig. 2, but this is from Ventnor in the Isle of Wight. The female is sometimes of a uniform brown coloration, devoid of blue scales, and, with the exception of slight traces of orange on the outer margin of the hind wings, entirely without marking. On the other hand, this sex is sometimes almost as blue as the male in colour (var. _cærulea_), but the discal spot, outer marginal borders, and orange markings are present. Occasionally the orange spots give place to yellow ones. The discal spot on the fore wings may be encircled with bluish-white scales, and now and then this spot on all the wings is surrounded very distinctly with bluish-white. I have seen the latter form from Durham and Ireland only, but it probably occurs in other parts of the kingdom. Quite a number of gynandrous specimens of this species have been recorded, some of them being male on the right side and female on the left, in others the reverse was the case. On the under side the male is greyish and the female brownish, consequently the white rings around the black spots show up more distinctly in the latter sex. A not uncommon aberration is without spots between the discal spot and the base of the fore wing; this is known as _icarinus_. Another form that occurs fairly often has the lower basal spot united with the last spot of the outer series, as in Fig. 9, this is ab. _arcua_, and a modification, with the junction bar-like instead of arched, has been named _melanotoxa_. Very rarely the whole of the under side, except the outer margins, is free of spots (Plate 119). A specimen exhibiting aberration in this direction is shown on Plate 118, Fig. 6, whilst Figs. 1 and 3 show modifications of what is known as the streaked form. I am indebted to Mr. E. Sabine, of Erith, for the loan of all the fine aberrations of the Blues figured on Plate 118. On Plate 107 will be found figures of the early stages. The egg, which is usually laid on the upper side of a terminal leaf of bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_) or on rest-harrow (_Ononis spinosa_), is whitish-green in colour, netted with glossy white. The caterpillar is green, covered with short brownish hairs, with which are mixed some longer ones; it is wrinkled on the side, ridged on the back, and the line along the middle of the back is darker. Head black and glossy. The chrysalis is green, with the head, wing-cases, and sometimes the hinder parts of the body, tinged with buff; thorax brighter green, rather shiny; a darker line down the centre of the body. The plants mentioned, and especially rest-harrow, are known to be the food of the caterpillar, but eggs have also been found, in Scotland, on red clover, plantain, burnet saxifrage, and yarrow. The caterpillars are to be found, after hibernation, in April, and a second brood in June and July. Those feeding on rest-harrow seem to prefer the blossom. This caterpillar is stated to form a cocoon, but the only approach to any such structure made by the seven individuals I had under observation was in the case of two caterpillars that pupated among leaves of _Lotus_, which were drawn together by the slenderest of threads. Four effected the change at the bottom of the cage and seemed to be quite free, one had climbed to the leno top of the cage and there spun a silken carpet under itself, which drew the leno together, and so formed a shallow cave in which the chrysalis rested. In every case the cast skin was attached to the tail, and so remained after the butterflies emerged. The butterfly is to be found almost everywhere in the country, and its distribution extends throughout the United Kingdom, except, perhaps, the Shetland Isles. There appears to be only one flight in the north of Scotland and Ireland, and this occurs in June and July. In England there are two broods, and in some years probably three in the southern counties. It may be seen on the wing, in greater or lesser numbers, all through the season from May to September. Abroad, the range extends over the whole of Europe to North Africa, and through Western and Northern Asia to Amurland and China. The Common Blue, as well as the Chalk Hill and the Adonis Blues, are to be found, often commonly and sometimes in large numbers, in their favourite haunts. Each of them is subject to a considerable range of variation on the under side, and this seems to be of a similar character in all. Very striking aberrations are, perhaps, not often obtained, but still many modifications are to be found, and the possibility of a really good thing turning up, induces one to give attention to the business of overhauling these butterflies. A very good method of conducting this kind of work is to first ascertain the places where they chiefly congregate, and then to visit there on dull days or late in the afternoon, when the butterflies are asleep or, at all events, resting. They can then be easily examined as they sit on the long grass stems, etc. (Plate 27), but only the under sides can be viewed in this way. So to avoid passing over a good upper-side variety, it will be needful to take each specimen between the finger and thumb of the right hand, seizing the closed wings gently, but firmly, near their base, and then quickly secure the thorax from underneath with thumb and index finger of the left hand, when the upper as well as the under side becomes available for inspection. There is no reason whatever to damage the insects in any way, and those that are not required may be set free again none the worse for their short detention. Work against the wind, and to avoid a second interview, turn rejected specimens to the rear. [Illustration: _Pl._ 108. =Chalkhill Blue.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 109. =Chalkhill Blue.= 1, 2, 8, 10 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 _female_.] The Chalk Hill Blue (_Lycæna corydon_). Although this butterfly (Plate 109) is, in England, fairly constant in the matter of colour, and, as regards the male especially, differences in tint are noticeable when series from various localities are ranged side by side. Silvery-blue perhaps best expresses the general colour of the male on the upper surface, sometimes very pale, and sometimes faintly tinged with greenish. The blackish border on the outer margin of the fore wings varies in width and in intensity; often there are indications of eyed spots on this margin, and occasionally these spots are quite distinct, although the whitish rings are not always clearly outlined. The black border on the outer margin of the hind wings is often narrow and external to a series of white-edged black spots, but sometimes it is broad and obscures the spots; orange markings rarely appear on this margin, but such aberrations have been taken on the Dorset coast. The fringes are white chequered with blackish on the fore wings, but with seeming continuation of the veins through those of the hind wings. The female is sooty-brown above, with a black discal spot on the fore wings, and sometimes on the hind wings also, and these spots may be ringed with blue or bluish-white; the outer marginal borders are hardly darker, and those on the fore wings are limited by a wavy pale line, which may be faintly or strongly marked with orange, but orange marking on these wings is rather the exception than the rule; on the outer margin of the hind wings there are some black spots, edged outwardly with white and inwardly with orange. The fringes are white chequered with brown, and those of the fore wings are tinged with brown. There are generally some blue scales at the base of the fore wings and over a larger portion of the basal area of the hind wings, but occasionally the whole discal area of the hind wings (Fig. 7, Plate 117), or of all the wings, var. _syngrapha_ (Fig. 8, Plate 117), is of the male colour. The former is from Eastbourne and the latter from Wiltshire. They are rather uncommon varieties, but intermediate forms are more often met with in the same localities as well as in other parts of England where the species occurs. On the coast of Dorsetshire a very unusual form occurs. The border of the outer margin is white instead of the usual black or blackish; the inner limit of this border is, on the fore wings, defined by a dusky shade, and the black nervules break up the border into six spots; on the hind wings four or five of the white spots are centred with black dots. The female has a similar border, but on the hind wings it is inwardly edged with orange. It has been named var. _fowleri_, and I have seen one example of this form without black dots in the marginal white spots of the hind wings. On the under side variation is on somewhat similar lines to that adverted to in the last species. On Plate 109, Fig. 8 represents the typical under side of the male, and Fig. 7 that of the female. It will be noticed that the male is greyer than the female. Some of the ordinary aberrations are shown on the same plate, and some rarer ones will be found on Plate 118, and of these Fig. 12, if without the basal spot on the fore wings, would represent var. _lucretia_. For figures of the early stages see Plate 108; that of the caterpillar is after Buckler. The egg is flat on the top, with a slightly darker pit in the centre (the micropyle); the sides are rounded, netted, and studded, and the colour whitish-green. The above short description was taken from one of a few eggs of this butterfly sent me in August last by Mr. Ovenden, and the same egg has been figured. Mr. Frohawk has described the egg more fully in the _Entomologist_ for 1900. With reference to the egg-laying of the butterfly he writes: "On August 13th, 1900, I watched several females in the act of depositing, on various stems of the usual stunted herbage to be found growing on chalk downs. They frequently crawled among the plants for a distance of about a couple of feet, occasionally curving the abdomen downwards among the small plant-stems and grasses, and here and there depositing an egg. I therefore dug up portions of the turf, potted it, and placed a couple of females on each lot; they deposited ova on the 14th and 15th, on the stems of various plants; a few were laid upon the brown dead trefoil leaves, as well as on the living leaves; but the site generally chosen is the intermingled stems of both plants and grasses. Another female, placed upon a similar pot of plants, deposited about fifty ova on September 10th, nearly all being placed upon the stems, and a few upon the under side of the leaves of rock-rose; in all cases the eggs are deposited singly." The caterpillars do not hatch out until the following spring. According to Buckler and Hellins, the only difference between the caterpillar of this butterfly and that of the next species, _Adonis_, is that the latter "has its ground colour deeper green, with the hairs or bristles black, while _Corydon_ has the ground colour of a lighter, brighter green (a green with more yellow in its composition), and the hairs light brown." The butterfly is common and often abundant in July and August, chiefly the latter month, on chalk downs in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex; it is also found in the Newmarket district of Cambridgeshire and on one chalk hill in Norfolk, according to Barrett, who adds: "on the oolite as well as the chalk in Wilts, Dorset, Gloucestershire, and Somerset; and on limestone at Grange and Silverdale in North Lancashire, in Lincolnshire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. It has also been taken in Essex, Hants, Cornwall, and in one locality in Glamorganshire." Mr. Sydney Webb has stated that a dwarf form occurs pretty regularly in a valley about two miles east of Dover, but that it only appears to be found at odd times in other parts of England. Abroad, the species is found in Central Europe, also in the Pyrenees, Aragonia, and the Balkan Peninsula. The Adonis Blue (_Lycæna bellargus_). The butterfly on Plate 110 is the Clifden Blue of Moses Harris (1775), so named because it was said to have been first observed at Clifden in Bucks. The male is of a beautiful bright blue colour, but as in the same sex of the previous two species, it is not quite constant in tint. In some specimens we find a distinct mauve shade, and in others, but more rarely, the blue colour is tinged with greenish (Plate 118, Fig. 11): the veins become distinctly black on the outer margins, and appear to run through the white fringes on all the wings. Often there are black dots on the outer margin of the hind wings. The female is dark brown, sometimes slaty-black, with orange spots or crescents on the outer margins; these are often only faintly in evidence on the fore wings, and sometimes this is the case on the hind wings also; there is a black discal spot on the fore wings, and the fringes of all the wings are white chequered with black. The bases of the wings are powdered with blue, but this is more noticeable on the hind wings. On the under side the fore wings of the male are greyish, and the hind wings greyish-brown; all the wings of the female are brownish, with a faint grey tinge in some specimens; the ornamentation is very similar to that of the Common Blue. The two figures on Plate 110, showing specimens with the wings closed, represent typical male and female, and the other figures of under sides on this plate exhibit minor aberrations from typical lines; examples of the more extreme variations will be found on Plate 118, where also are figured some uncommon aberrations in the colour of the male on the upper side. There is often a tendency in the female to assume the colour of the male, and this is usually seen on the hind wings, but occasionally on the fore wings also. In the extreme form of this phase of variation, var. _ceronus_, the whole of the upper surface, with the exception of the orange-spotted borders, is almost as blue as that of the male. This is a parallel aberration to that of the Chalk Hill Blue known as _syngrapha_, but it seems to be somewhat rarer in this country. Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 111. The egg is greenish-white, becoming rather greener in tint towards the top, which is depressed; the netting is whitish and shining, and somewhat rougher on the sides than towards and on the top. Buckler describes the full-grown caterpillar as deep, full green in colour, covered with tiny black speckles, bearing little black bristles, which are longest on the dorsal humps and on the yellow-edged ridge above the spiracles; on the top of each of the eight pairs of dorsal humps is a deep bright yellow longitudinal dash, somewhat wider behind than in front; these dashes form in effect two yellow stripes interrupted by the deeply sunk segmental divisions; the line along the back is darker than the ground colour, and the spiracles are black. The head is dark brown, and there are two yellow dots on the first ring of the body near the head. The chrysalis, when first formed, is greenish-brown with the wing-cases greenish, the whole afterwards becomes ochreous; the thorax and wing-cases are rather glossy, and the body is slightly hairy. Buckler states that some of his caterpillars buried themselves about half an inch deep in the loose soil, and formed a weak sort of cocoon; others, not having been supplied with soil that could be so easily penetrated, retired under the stems of their food-plants, and in angles formed by the branching stems spun a few weak threads to keep themselves in place. The food-plant is the horseshoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_). From eggs laid in August, the caterpillars appear to hatch towards the end of September, but do not feed up until the spring. Butterflies from these caterpillars are on the wing between the middle of May and the middle of June, thus occupying about nine months in passing through the various stages from egg to perfect insect. From eggs laid in May and June the butterflies appear in August and September. Although it is found in similar kinds of situations to those affected by the last species, and sometimes on the same grounds, it is more local, and almost confined to the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. It is, however, rather common at Ventnor and in some other parts of the Isle of Wight, and is found near Winchester. Barrett states that it is abundant at Corfe Castle, Dorset, and gives as localities for the butterfly Wotton-under-Edge, and near Bristol, near Torquay, Sidmouth, and Seaton. Its range abroad extends through Central and Southern Europe, to Armenia, Northern Asia Minor, and Western Kurdistan. It is also found in North-West Africa, where the males are greenish-blue with conspicuous black spots on the outer margins of the hind wings; this is the var. _punctifera_. The Holly Blue (_Cyaniris argiolus_). About the beginning of the eighteenth century this butterfly (Plate 113) was known as the "Blue Speckt," but Harris, in 1775, changed the name to the "Azure Blue." The male is a pretty lilac-tinged blue, with a narrow black edging on the outer margin of the fore wings, often only in evidence towards the tip, and a narrow black line on the outer margin of the hind wings. The white fringes of the fore wings are distinctly marked with black at the ends of the veins. The female is of the same shade of blue, or sometimes much paler (var. _clara_, Tutt), with a broad blackish border on the outer margin of the fore wings extending along the front margin to about the middle; this border varies in width and seems to be wider in summer specimens than in those of the earlier flight; the discal mark on the fore wings is black, but this is sometimes very faint; there is a series of black dots on the outer margin of the wings. [Illustration: _Pl._ 110 =Adonis Blue.= 1, 2, 4, 5, 9 _male_; 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 111 =Adonis Blue.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] Although the colour of the upper side is somewhat like that of the Common Blue, it should not be confused with that species, as the under side is very different both as regards the colour, which is bluish-white, and the arrangement of the black spots. On the outer margins of the wings in some specimens there are more or less distinct traces of blackish crescents. There is no considerable variation in this species, but the spots on the under side are subject to slight modification in the matters of size and shape; the borders also vary in width, and in the female the blue area is thus sometimes much restricted. A gynandrous specimen has been recorded, in which the right side is male. The egg (Plate 112) is described as whitish or bluish-green in colour. The full-grown caterpillar has a blackish head, the body is bright yellowish-green with paler lines; eight rings from and including the second are crested with two ridges of humps, between which lies the sunk dorsal space; the whole skin of the body is velvety, with its surface thickly covered with yellowish warty granules, each bearing a minute bristly white hair. Sometimes the humps and the middle of the back are marked with rose-pink. The chrysalis is pale brownish-ochreous with a thin blackish-brown line on the back of the brown freckled thorax; the body is marked with rather blotchy arrow-head dashes, and some larger dark brown blotches; the wing-cases are pale greyish freckled and outlined with brown, their surface is smooth and rather more glistening than the other parts, which are thickly studded with fine, short, brownish bristles. (Adapted from Buckler.) The following is a brief summary of a paper by Mr. R. Adkin (_Proc. S. Lond. Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc._ for 1896), in which he gives a most interesting account of the earlier stages of the second brood of this species. At the time when the butterflies of the second brood are on the wing, the flower-buds of the ivy (_Hedera helix_) are still young, and form compact heads. The butterfly, having selected one of these heads, settles upon its top, closes her wings over her back, and bending her abdomen down and round underneath the buds, affixes an egg to the under side of one of the slender single bud-stalks. In about a week the eggs hatch. The young larva which in colour matches the buds very closely, rests on the bud-stalk with its anterior segments, which completely cover its head, pressed closely against the bud, and looks so exactly like a slight swelling of the upper part of the stalk as to make detection a matter of great difficulty, even with the aid of a fairly powerful lens. The larva is very sluggish in its habits, seldom leaving the head of the buds on which it is hatched, so long as sufficient food remains for its nourishment, or occasionally when about to change its skin. It appears to feed only at night, and its manner of feeding, which is the same throughout its life, is to eat a round hole through the outer shell of a bud, and pressing its head forward through it to clear out the soft inside of the bud. In from four to six weeks it is full-fed; it then quits the buds, and attaches itself by slender threads to a leaf, and in a few days becomes a pupa, in which state it passes the winter. Normally the eggs of the spring butterflies are laid on the under side of the calyces of flower-buds of holly (_Ilex_). The caterpillars feed on the flower-buds and also on the young green berries. They are full grown in about a month, change to chrysalids, and the butterflies emerge in July and August. Among other pabula that have been mentioned are the flowers of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), berry-bearing alder (_Rhamnus frangula_), and spindle (_Euonymus europæus_). [Illustration: _Pl._ 112. =Holly Blue.= _Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 113. =Holly Blue.= 1, 2, 6 _male_; 3, 4, 7 _female (spring)_; 5 _male_; 8, 9 _female (summer)_.] In confinement the caterpillars will eat young leaves of holly and probably of ivy also, but where flower-buds are available they prefer them and ignore the tender leaves. The Rev. Gilbert Raynor, on May 18, 1901, observed a female deposit an egg on an unopened flower-bud of rhododendron in his garden; and he also mentions that he beat a number of the caterpillars of all sizes from holly during the first week of July in the same year. Mr. Dennis reported that on October 9, 1902, all stages of the species were to be found at Earl's Colne, Essex. Butterflies of the first flight are usually to be seen in April and May, and of the second, which is perhaps only partial and may not be represented at all, in July and August. Specimens have been observed as early as the last week of March, and, as adverted to above, as late as October. For a few years in succession the species may become increasingly numerous, and then suddenly become quite scarce for a year or two. Most probably this is the result of favourable or unfavourable weather conditions. The taller hollies, where these grow in gardens, open woody places, on hillsides, or even in hedgerows, are frequented by these butterflies in the spring; and the ivy-clad walls, etc., are their haunts in the summer. The species is widely distributed, and often common, over the whole of the south of England and Wales. North of the Midlands, as well as in Ireland, it is more local, and occurs, I believe, only in the first brood. Possibly in the South of Ireland there may be a second brood. Barrett states that there is no reliable record for Scotland. Abroad, its range extends throughout Europe and Northern Asia, except the Polar Regions, to China and Japan. It also occurs in North Africa. The Small Blue (_Zizera minima_). The butterfly on Plate 115 is sometimes referred to as the "Bedford Blue" and also as the "Little Blue." Both sexes are blackish, or sooty-brown; the male is powdered, more or less, with silvery-blue scales. The under side is greyish-white with a tinge of blue at the base of each wing, but chiefly on the hind pair; the spots are black encircled with white. As will be seen on turning to the plate, there is variation in size. Fig. 5 represents a giant race occurring in some localities, and the particular specimen depicted was taken, with many others, on the coast near Lymington, Hants; it seems to be referable to var. _alsoides_, Gerhard. Variation on the under side is usually in the direction of complete absence of spots, but Mr. Joy has recorded a specimen with the spots on the hind wings extended into streaks of considerable but varying length. Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 114. The egg is pale greenish in colour, netted with whitish; it is laid in June on the calyx of a flower-bud, generally low down, of the kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_). According to Buckler, caterpillars hatched on June 21 from eggs laid between the 16th and 18th of that month, and at once commenced to feed on the flowers of the kidney-vetch, and made their way to the seed, for which they evinced a marked preference. When full grown, the caterpillar is brownish, sometimes tinged with pink. The fine bristles are dark brown; there is a darker line along the middle of the back, and a line of dark marks on each side. The head is black and shining. The chrysalis is described by Buckler as "dirty whitish-grey, approaching to drab, palest on the back of the abdomen, greyish on the head and thorax, both of which are marked with a black dorsal stripe, which is a little interrupted; on either side is a subdorsal row of short slanting black dashes. The pale ground colour is sprinkled with some very minute black specks. The head, thorax, and abdomen are hairy with bristly whitish hairs." Although the caterpillars feed up rather quickly and are full grown and apparently ready to assume the chrysalis state, they do not effect the change until the following May or June. [Illustration: _Pl._ 114. =Small Blue.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 115. =Small Blue.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 _male vars_. =Mazarine Blue.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] The butterfly emerges in about three weeks, so it will be seen that this species continues the caterpillar existence for something over ten months. On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and in England there appears to be a partial second flight in some years, as, for instance, in 1901, when captures in August were reported from Herts, Kent, Surrey, and Wilts. Its haunts are warm and sunny grassy hollows and slopes, and it is often common in such places on the chalk hills in the south, from the end of May to the end of June. According to Barrett it is scarce in the Eastern Counties; widely distributed but local in the Midland and Western Counties, even to Devon, and in Wales, where chalk or limestone is found; also in extremely restricted localities in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Durham, and in various places in Scotland, extending as far north as Aberdeen. In Ireland it is much more plentiful, especially on the limestone of the west and on the coast hills near Belfast, and even frequents the sand-hills of the Dublin coast. It is widely spread over Europe, except the Polar parts, and, apparently, the south of Portugal and Spain; its range extends eastward to Amurland, Mongolia, and China. The Mazarine Blue (_Nomiades semiargus_). The male is dull purplish-blue, narrowly bordered with blackish on the outer margin; the female is dark brown. On the underside both sexes are pale greyish-brown, with a bluish tinge at the base; there is a black discal spot and a series of black spots beyond, all ringed with white. The egg is described as being white in colour and small, and round in shape. The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish-green, with darker lines on the back and sides; there are fine hairs on the body, and the head and spiracles are dark brown (Rühl). It feeds in July and August on the flowers and seeds of thrift (_Armeria vulgaris_), kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_), and melilot (_Melilotus officinalis_). The chrysalis is rather oval in shape, pale olive-green in colour when first formed, in September, but olive-brown later; it is attached by the tail to a stalk of the food-plant and has a silken girdle (Rühl). This butterfly (Plate 115) is the _cymon_ of Lewin, who, writing in 1795, considered it very rare. In 1828 Stephens refers to it as scarce and local, "found in chalky districts in Norfolk, Cambridge, Yorkshire, and Dorsetshire; also near Brockenhurst and Amesbury, Hants; and on Windlesham Heath, Surrey, towards the end of May and of July." Newman (1871) adds Warwickshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire, Glamorganshire, Somersetshire, and Lincolnshire. Curtis gives Leicestershire and Worcestershire. It seems to have been fairly common, and even plentiful in some years around Glanville's Wotton, Dorset, but has not been seen in that district since 1841; at Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucester, it was not uncommon up to 1858; as late as 1864 it occurred at Epworth, North Lincolnshire. Probably the latest captures in Britain were the specimens taken in Glamorganshire in the years 1874-77. Tutt mentions that the butterfly was taken near Cuxton in Kent, some thirty-five years ago, but it has not since been seen in that locality. Occurs in May and June and again in July and August over the greater part of Europe; its range extends to Asia Minor, and eastward to Siberia, Mongolia, and Amurland. [Illustration: _Pl._ 116. =Large Blue.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 117. =Large Blue.= 1, 5 _male_; 2, 3, 4, 6 _female_. =Chalkhill Blue vars.= 7 _female_; 8 _do. var. syngrapha_.] The Large Blue (_Nomiades arion_). The butterfly on Plate 117, Figs. 1-6, is the largest "Blue" found in this country. All the wings on the upper side are deep blue, and their outer margins are bordered with blackish; the discal spot, and a row of spots beyond, are black; the hind wings have a row of black dots on the outer margin, and sometimes, and especially in the female, there is a series of black dots just beyond the central area; the fringes are white. The under side is greyish tinged with blue towards the base of each wing, but covering nearly the whole of the basal third of the hind pair; the spots are black ringed or edged with white; on the fore wings there are two in the discal cell and a row of six beyond; on the hind wings there are four or five before the discal spot, and a series of seven beyond; all the wings have a double marginal series, and some black dots at the ends of the nervules. Sometimes the wings have a purplish tinge, and this is more usually so in Gloucestershire specimens. The chief variation is in the number and the size of the spots; these are occasionally only faintly in evidence, but more rarely perhaps those beyond the discal spot on the fore wings are of large size and bar or wedge-like in shape; the smaller cell-spot is often absent. A dwarf form is stated to occur at times in all localities. The complete life-history of this species has yet to be ascertained; no one seems to be acquainted with the caterpillar after hibernation. Pretty much all that is known of the early stages has been worked out by Mr. Frohawk, who has published some very interesting accounts of his observations in the _Entomologist_ for 1899 and 1903, and from these the following details have been obtained. The egg (Plate 116) is bluish-white in colour, and is laid singly among the buds of wild thyme (_Thymus serpyllum_). Caterpillars hatched on July 10 from eggs received the previous day; they were placed upon thyme blossoms and soon commenced to feed, one being observed to eat its way into the base of the calyx so that the forepart of the caterpillar was hidden. In its colouring and downy covering the caterpillar so closely resembles the flower-buds of the thyme that it is very difficult to detect. After the third moult (July 26) the colour is a uniform, dull, ochreous-pink; there are four rows of long curved hairs, each row composed of a single hair on each ring from the fourth to the ninth inclusive; the first three rings have each a set of three subdorsal hairs, those on the first ring curving forwards; the bases of the hairs resemble glass-like pedestals with fluted sides. The head is ochreous with dark brown markings in front. The caterpillar at this stage develops an aversion to thyme or any other plant offered to it, and seems to be anxious to hide itself in the ground. The chrysalis, which is figured on Plate 116 (after Frohawk), is ochreous when first formed, but becomes darker gradually; the wing-cases, however, remain of the original colour, but their hind margins darken. From a chrysalis found on July 12 the butterfly emerged on July 16. There is some evidence in favour of the supposition that this caterpillar is in some way dependent upon ants for nourishment after the third moult, if not before, but what the exact requirement may be is not known. Probably the circumstances connected with the discovery of the chrysalis in 1905 by Messrs. Frohawk & Rayward may afford a valuable clue to the direction in which their future investigation will have to be conducted. We may hope, therefore, that the mystery that has so long hung over the last stages of the caterpillar will be solved before very long. Lewin (1795) and Donovan (1796) both refer to this as a rare English butterfly. The former states that it is on the wing in July, and is found on high chalky lands in different parts of the kingdom, having been taken on the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Dover, Marlborough Downs, the hills near Bath, and near Clifden in Bucks. Stephens, in 1828, wrote of it as "an insect of great rarity." He mentioned the localities given by the older authors, and added that it had been taken in the Mouse's Pasture, near Bedford, in rocky situations in North Wales, and had been plentiful near Winchester. Newman (1871) wrote, "Its 'metropolis,' if I may borrow an expression from the revered fathers of British entomology, is in South Devon; it has occurred in some abundance in Somersetshire, and on the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire; from Gloucestershire we ascend to a Midland county, Northamptonshire, in which county (at Barnwell Wold) a considerable number have been taken." One specimen was reported from Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and the butterfly has also been recorded from Herefordshire, but these are matters of ancient history. At the present time the species is only to be found in limited numbers in the Cotswolds; it seems to have become much rarer than formerly in its South Devon locality, _i.e._ Bolthead, near Plymouth; one never hears of it now from Clovelly, in North Devon, where, according to Dale, it was once reported to be abundant. In 1891 Messrs. Waterhouse obtained a fine series of specimens in West Cornwall, and since that time the district has been annually visited by an increasing number of entomologists. Judging from the "big bags" that are made each year it would seem that the butterfly has a very strong and widely distributed settlement in those parts. Abroad it is distributed throughout Europe, except the Polar and the south-western parts, and is also found in Armenia, Bithynia, and South Siberia. * * * * * Our next species belongs to the Nemeobiinæ, a sub-family of Lemoniidæ = Erycinidæ. Only one member of the family is known to occur in Europe; this is _Nemeobius lucina_. As the fore legs of the male butterfly are aborted, and are therefore useless for walking, the species would seem to come near the Nymphalidæ, in which the fore legs of the butterflies, in both sexes, are reduced. In its early stages, however, the species seems to be most nearly related to the Lycænidæ. The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (_Nemeobius lucina_). This butterfly is figured on Plate 120. The male is black, with three transverse tawny bands on the fore wings; these are crossed by the black veins, and so form series of irregular spots. Those on the outer margin have black centres; on the hind wings there are three or four tawny spots on the disc, and a series of black centred tawny spots on the outer area. The female is similar to the male, but the tawny markings are wider, so that the fore wings appear to be of this colour, with a black patch at the base, two black irregular lines, and a series of black spots on the outer margin. On the under side of the hind wings there are two transverse series of whitish spots, and a series of black spots on the outer margin. The wings of this sex are always broader than those of the male, and the apex of the fore wings is not so distinctly pointed. Variation is not usually of a very pronounced character, and in a general way it consists mainly in a greater or lesser amount of black in the male, and this more particularly on the hind wings, and an increase in the tawny colour in the female; in the latter sex, outer marginal black spots are sometimes absent from all the wings. Barrett mentions two extreme aberrations. In one, a female, the usually dark spaces, bands, and veins are of an exceedingly pale brown, suffused with fulvous, so as to be comparatively indistinct; another example, a male, has the basal area of the fore wings pale, and the first transverse dark band absent. [Illustration: _Pl._ 118. 1, 3 =Common Blue vars.=, _male_; 6 _do. female_. 2, 5, 8, 11 =Adonis Blue vars.=, _male_; 4, 7, _do. female_. 9, 10 =Chalkhill Blue vars.=, _female_; 12 _do. male_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 119. 1, 2, 3 =Small Copper vars.=; 4 =Adonis Blue var.= 5 =Common Blue var.=; 6, 7, 8 =Gatekeeper vars.=] The eggs of this species are to be found at the end of May on the under sides of the leaves of the cowslip (_Primula veris_), sometimes as many as ten on one leaf, but as a rule there will only be one or two on a plant. When laid, the egg is very glassy in appearance, but it gradually turns to a pinkish-grey; and when the caterpillar is formed inside, the shell becomes transparent, and its occupant can be clearly seen. It eats a considerable portion of the shell in making its exit therefrom, and afterwards consumes the remainder of the shell. When in its last skin the caterpillar is brown, covered with short whitish hair, among which are some longer dark brown or blackish hairs; the lines on the back and sides are blackish, and there are black dots on the front part of each segment or ring. Head, honey brown, notched on the crown; eyes and jaws, brownish. It feeds from June to August on cowslip, but will also eat primrose (_Primula vulgaris_), and hides among dead and withered leaves beneath the food-plant (Plate 121). The chrysalis is pale whity-brown, hairy above, with black dots; head and the upper edge of the wing-cases streaked with black. Occasionally a few butterflies emerge in August, but they usually remain in the chrysalis until May or June. This is a woodland species, and prefers the sunny but sheltered nooks and glades, but also resorts to the broader rides and pathways. Flowers do not seem to have any strong attraction for it, but it may often be seen sitting on the foliage of a bush or sapling tree. It appears to be pretty widely distributed, although to a certain extent local, throughout the southern half of England, but seems to have almost or quite disappeared from the counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Essex. Dumfries is the only locality in Scotland from which it has been reported. Its distribution abroad is limited to Central Europe, Denmark, Livonia, Southern Sweden, Central Spain, North Italy, and the Balkans. Now follow the Skippers (Hesperiidæ), of which kind of butterfly we have eight species in England. Of these the first two belong to the Hesperiinæ and the others to the Pamphilinæ. The Grizzled Skipper (_Hesperia malvæ_). The wings of the butterfly figured on Plate 122 are blackish, ornamented with numerous white spots, which are more or less square in shape, on the fore wings. The fringes are chequered black and white. The male differs from the female in having the front edge of the fore wings folded towards the base, and these wings have scattered greyish scales on the basal area; the central series of spots on the hind wings are also more in evidence, and not infrequently unite and become band-like. Variation consists in modification of the markings, chiefly in a tendency of the spots to run together, culminating in var. _taras_, Bergstr., in which the white spots of the fore wings are confluent and form a large blotch. This variety was figured by Petiver in 1717, but was not named by Bergsträsser until 1780. Haworth described it as _lavateræ_, and Newman figured it under the same name. On a small plant of Alpine strawberry, sent by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, were three eggs of this butterfly. These were pale green in colour, ribbed, and delicately netted with cross-lines. On June 26, three caterpillars were noticed on the upper side of the leaves, each on a separate leaf, and under cover of a few coarse silken threads. They were pale steely-grey, with black heads, and plates on the first and last segments of the body. As the supply of strawberry foliage was failing, the caterpillars were given bramble on July 21, and the next day each was found enclosed in a sort of envelope formed of a bramble leaf. They were then seemingly in their last skin, whitish-green in colour, and covered with short whitish hair; a whitish edged dark olive-brown line along the back, and similar lines on the sides; between the rings the colour was pale ochreous. The date of pupation was not noted, but on September 9, one of the spun-together bramble leaves was opened, and a chrysalis found within. This was pale brown, with dark brown or blackish marks along the back and sides; the head and back were covered with dense pale reddish-brown bristles; the wing, leg, and antennæ cases were greenish, smooth, and shaded with brownish. Between the head and first ring of the body above there was a deep furrow, with a black-centred white spot on each side of it (Plate 123). [Illustration: _Pl._ 120. =Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= 1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. =Milkweed Butterfly.= 6 _male_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 121. =Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] Besides the plants adverted to above, the caterpillars will eat raspberry (_Rubus idæus_) and cinquefoil (_Potentilla fragariastrum_ and P. _reptans_). The butterfly is pretty generally distributed in Great Britain, but does not seem to be common in Ireland, as Kane only mentions two examples, from Killarney. It is found in May and June on chalk downs and other hillsides, especially in the hollows and sheltered nooks, also in and around woods, and in rough fields. On dull days and at night it may be found sitting, with the wings erect over the back, on various seed-heads, etc. The species is double brooded on the Continent, and occasionally a few butterflies will appear in August, but such emergences depend on a combination of favourable circumstances. In very forward seasons it has been seen on the wing during the last week in April. Its range extends over Europe and into Northern Asia. * * * * * As Barrett refers to the capture in Norfolk (May or June, 1860) of several specimens of the Central and South European species, _H. alveus_, Hüb., it maybe well to mention it here, if only for the purpose of quoting his remarks thereon. After detailing the facts connected with the occurrence, he states, "It seems undesirable now to introduce the species to a place in the British list, but rather to record the captures in question as specimens accidentally introduced with plants, or else the result of a very exceptional act of migration." The Dingy Skipper (_Thanaos tages_). The wings are fuscous, with darker fuscous transverse bands on the middle third of the fore wings; the space between these is sometimes, and in both sexes, whitish; there are some whitish spots on the outer band, usually towards the costa, but occasionally on the middle also, and a series of white points on the outer margin of all the wings. The hind wings have a whitish discal dot and a band beyond the middle, which is almost parallel with the outer margin. The male has a well-marked fold on the costa (Plate 122). The egg is whitish-green when freshly laid; it afterwards changes in colour to orange. The caterpillar is yellowish-green with a darker line along the back and a paler line on each side; the spiracles are red and edged with whitish. The head is pale brown, striped and marked with purplish-black. The body, together with the head, is covered with a short whitish pile. It feeds on bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_) from June until August, when it hibernates. I have not seen the chrysalis, but it has been described as dark green with the body tinged with rosy red. The butterfly is on the wing in May and June; in some seasons it has been seen as early as the end of April. Very occasionally, perhaps, there is a partial second flight in August. It has been reported as plentiful at Lyme Regis in August. I took one or two specimens about the middle of August, 1903, in the New Forest district, and in the same month of 1905 one of two caterpillars sent to me by Dr. Chapman pupated in August, and the butterfly emerged some time in the autumn, as I found it dead in the box early in October. Both the caterpillars had spun together sprays of the food-plant as shown in the figure, Plate 123. One was removed for its portrait to be taken, and it was supposed that the other bundle contained a caterpillar also, and was not examined. [Illustration: _Pl._ 122. =Grizzled Skipper.= 1, 2, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 3 _var. male_; 6 _do. female_. =Dingy Skipper.= 9, 10, 12 _male_; 11, 13, 14 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 123. =Dingy Skipper.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and its shelter._ =Grizzled Skipper.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and shelter; chrysalis in cocoon._] The butterfly affects open places in, or the edges of, woods in chalky districts, also the slopes of chalk downs and other hillsides, as well as railway banks and even rough fields. It evidently delights in sunshine, and may often be seen basking on a stone or the bare earth. When at rest at night or on dull days it sits on a dead seed-head or grass glume, with the wings closed down over its back like a noctuid moth, and is then difficult to detect until the eye becomes accustomed to its appearance. It is widely distributed in Great Britain, but it is more at home on chalk and limestone than elsewhere. In such localities as the fens of Norfolk and Cambridge it is scarce, and seems to have a rather limited distribution in Ireland, in which country Galway is its headquarters, according to Kane. Abroad, it is found throughout Europe, and its range extends to Western Asia. The Small Skipper (_Adopæa thaumas_). All the wings are brownish-orange, with the veins darker and becoming black towards the outer margins, especially on the fore wings. The male has a black sexual mark (Plate 125). Except that the colour varies in the direction of a pale golden tint there is little in the way of aberration in this butterfly. At least one gynandrous specimen has been recorded. The following descriptions of the early stages (Plate 124), as well as the figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis, are from Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies":-- The egg "is of a long oval figure, half as long again as wide, the shell glistening, devoid of ribs or reticulation; at first white, then turning dull yellowish, and at last paler again, with the dark head of the caterpillar showing through. The young caterpillar eats part of the empty egg-shell." The full-grown caterpillar is of a delicate light green, the stripe along the back is rather bluish-green, with paler green central and side lines; the spiracles are flesh-coloured, and below these there is a somewhat creamy-white stripe. The head is deeper green than the body, and roughened with minute points. It feeds in June on _Holcus lanatus_, _Brachypodium sylvaticum_, and probably other kinds of soft grasses, and its assimilation, both in colour and texture, with the blades of grass is remarkable. Before changing to the chrysalis it encloses itself within two or sometimes three leaves of the grass, joined together longitudinally by lacing or spinning with white silk, the edges more or less close to each other, and becomes completely hidden. The chrysalis is secured in the silken chamber, head upward, by an oblique cincture behind the thorax, and the anal tip fastened by a fan-like spread of fine hooks at the extremity fixed in the silk. The colour is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are fairly in evidence. Caterpillars that spun up on June 18 to 23 produced butterflies on July 15 and 16. Hellins states that eggs were laid in a row in a folded blade of grass about July 29, and that the caterpillars hatched out on August 12. According to Hawes, the caterpillar of this species does not hatch from the egg until the following spring. Although it does not seem to be very plentiful in fenlands, this butterfly certainly has a partiality for damp places, whether in the rides, or on the sides of woods, on hill slopes, or waste ground. Wherever there is a fairly large growth of the taller soft grasses that the caterpillars feed upon, there the butterfly may be found in July and August throughout the greater part of England and Wales. Reported from the Edinburgh district in Scotland; and in Ireland from Powerscourt and near Cork. [Illustration: _Pl._ 124. =Small Skipper.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis._ =Essex Skipper.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ =Lulworth Skipper.= _Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] [Illustration: _Pl._ 125. =Small Skipper.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_. =Essex Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. =Lulworth Skipper.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] The Essex Skipper (_Adopæa lineola_). This butterfly is very like the Small Skipper, but may be separated from it, in both sexes, by the black under sides of the knobs of the antennæ. The black sexual mark in the male is finer, shorter, and much less oblique (Plate 125). The egg (Plate 124) is pale greenish-yellow, oval in shape, flattened above and below; the top is slightly depressed. The eggs are deposited in July or August, in dried grass seed-heads and inside the sheath of a leaf, and the caterpillars, according to Hawes, do not hatch until April. The caterpillar is green, with the incisions between the rings yellowish; there is a darker green stripe on the back, and the lines on the sides are yellow. The head is pale brown and striped with darker brown. It feeds from April to June on coarse grasses, such as _Triticum repens_. When full grown "it spins together the stems of the grass low down, with a network of white silk for pupation" (Hawes). The chrysalis is described as being long, yellowish-green in colour, and retaining the dark dorsal stripe seen in the caterpillar. No doubt this butterfly has been with us all the time, but it appears to have escaped detection until the year 1888, when Mr. Hawes, in July of that year, met with it in Essex. He, however, did not then consider the three specimens that he had taken with _A. thaumas_ anything more than queer varieties of that species, and it was not until January, 1890, that the fact of _A. lineola_ being British was published. Since that time this Skipper has been found in a great many parts of Essex, but chiefly along the coast, and in such localities as Benfleet, Canvey, Dovercourt, Shoeburyness, Southend, etc. At Hadleigh it is often very abundant. Other localities are Sheerness, Cliffe, and Gravesend, in Kent. It has also been reported from near Sudbury, and from Harwich, and Chappel in Suffolk; from Ashton Wold in Northamptonshire. In 1898 five specimens, identified by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, were taken near Bedford. Barrett, who mentions Wicken Fen and Burwell among other localities, says that it has a "partiality for the embankments which protect the cultivated land from the inroad of the high tides which flood the salt marshes. Here it flits about, or sits on the coarse seaside grasses or on blossoms of thistle, or _Lotus corniculatus_, indicating rather sluggish habits, yet flying swiftly when disturbed. Further inland it seems to frequent chalky hillsides and marshes." It is on the wing in July and August. The species is found in all parts of the Palæarctic Region except the most northern and the Canary Isles. The Lulworth Skipper (_Adopæa actæon_). Compared with the other two species on Plate 125, the coloration of this butterfly is somewhat dingy; it is, however, enlivened, especially in the female, by a short dash and a curved series of orange spots in the upper half of the fore wings. The male has a black sexual mark which is very similar to that of the Small Skipper. There seems to be very little to note in variation, except that the orange markings referred to are subject to modification, and in the male may be altogether absent. An example taken at Swanage, in 1903, had the wings on the left side male, and those on the right side female. The egg, figured, from a photograph, on Plate 124, is whitish, faintly tinged with yellowish. The mature caterpillar is pale greyish, or yellowish, green, with the dorsal vessel darker, and edged with a slender pale yellow line on either side, and enclosing a pale longitudinal line along its middle. A narrow yellowish line runs above on the side and a broader one below. The two dorsal lines are prolonged as far as the middle of the head, and run to the end of the flat anal shield, which is narrowly edged with pale yellow. The head is greenish with two yellowish lines. The two snow-white patches on the under side of the ninth and tenth rings of the body are conspicuous as in _lineola_, _sylvanus_, and _comma_. This white substance is spread out at the tail end of the caterpillar of _actæon_, when it has formed its chrysalis case (Zeller). Buckler, referring to four caterpillars found on _Brachypodium sylvaticum_, June 11, states that they completed their growth on a diet of _Triticum repens_. They ate out wedge-shaped portions from the sides of the grass blades, and when they had finished their repast, they crawled down to the middle of the blade, and there spun a coating of white silk from one side to the other, causing the two edges of the blade to draw together a little, and then in the silk-lined hollow they rested until hunger obliged them to ascend the blade again for another meal. About June 23 they had ceased to feed, and were beginning to fasten themselves within more closely constructed retreats, formed where two blades of grass obliquely crossed each other. The colour of the chrysalis is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are faintly traceable. The butterflies appeared July 14 to 18, emerging at night, and ready for flight in the morning. This insect received its English name in 1832, when it was first discovered in this country at Lulworth Cove, in Dorsetshire. It has since been found to occur at Durdle Cove, and the Burning Cliff, Weymouth, and the latter locality appears to be its most eastern limit. Its range extends westward along the coast of Dorsetshire and Devonshire to Sidmouth, Seaton, and Torquay; and there are records of its having been observed in Cornwall. According to Mr. E.R. Bankes, as quoted by Barrett, this butterfly is not confined to the coast line in Dorset, but is to be found in two or three spots along the chalk range of the Purbeck Hills, at a distance of four or five miles from the sea. He also states that the species is only single brooded, that the best time for it is from the beginning of July to the middle of August, and that the food-plant of the caterpillar is _Brachypodium pinnatum_. The blossoms of rest-harrow (_Ononis arvensis_) are said to be the particular vanity of the butterfly, and it is seldom found visiting any other flower. Abroad the species is not especially attached to the sea-coast, but occurs inland throughout Central and Southern Europe, its range extending to Asia Minor and Syria, and also to North-West Africa. The Large Skipper (_Augiades sylvanus_). The male has the discal area of the fore wings bright fulvous, and the outer area broadly brown; the sexual mark is black; the hind wings are tinged with fulvous on the disc, and have brighter fulvous spots. The female is brown with a fulvous discal wedge on the fore wings, and an angulate series of fulvous spots beyond; hind wings as in the male, but spots rather more defined. In some examples of this sex the spots on the fore wings are confluent, and the discal area is then fulvous as in the male (Plate 126). The egg is whitish or greenish-white, and is laid on a blade of grass. Hellins states that from eggs laid about July 1 the caterpillars hatched on July 13; they chose cocks-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) for food, and rested in the middle of a blade, fastening its edges across with five or six distinct little ropes of white silk. The young caterpillar figured on Plate 127 was on September 11 about half an inch in length, and had been removed from the grass tube, also shown, to be figured; the head was then pale brown, bordered and lined with purplish brown; the body was darkish green, paler on the last ring, and with darker lines on the back and sides. After hibernation (the figure of this stage of the caterpillar is from Buckler), in May, the caterpillar is about one inch long, pale green in colour; the skin is thickly covered with very short dark brown bristles, "the head dirty white with a dark brown stripe down the outer edge of each lobe, the neck whitish-green" (Hellins). The chrysalis was formed in the grass cocoon shown with it. The general colour was brown with the wing-cases darker, and a darker suffusion on the back. The egg-laying of this butterfly has been observed by Mr. Ullyett, who states that the female, having selected a suitable grass-stem, deposits eggs in a line in a sheath formed by the leaf round the stem. The caterpillars hibernate in tubes of grass, and feed up in the spring. This butterfly has been supposed to be double brooded, but there does not seem to be any direct evidence that this is so. It is on the wing in grassy places on the slopes of downs and other hillsides, also in rides, and on the margins of woods, from early June until well into July, and sometimes even later in the year. It is found in most of our English counties, and also in Scotland, south of the Forth. In Ireland it is not uncommon in a meadow in Lord Kenmare's demesne, Killarney, and has been recorded from the Morrough of Wicklow. Abroad its distribution extends through Europe and Northern Asia to China and Japan, and also to North Africa. The Silver-spotted Skipper (_Augiades comma_). This butterfly is very similar on the upper side to the Large Skipper, but the spots, especially those nearest the front edge of the fore wings, are yellower. On the under side the greenish tinge of the ground colour, and the silvery spots, make the identification quite easy. The black sex mark in the male is very similar to that of the last species (Plate 126). The males vary a little in the width of the marginal border, and in some females there is almost as much fulvous on the discal area of the wings as in the male; in the darkest females the spots always appear paler than in fulvous specimens. On the under side the ground colour is sometimes olive-brown rather than green. The following account of the life-history of this butterfly is adapted from Mr. Frohawk's article on the subject published in the _Entomologist_ for 1901:-- In August, whilst watching some of the butterflies on the wing over a patch of chalky ground covered with a short dense growth of various grasses, etc., he noted a female hovering close over the plants. Presently it settled on a tuft of hair grass (_Aira cæspitosa_), and after walking over and among it a little time, she curved her abdomen down, and deposited a single egg on one of the fine hair-like blades, or, rather, spines, and close by, within an inch, another egg was found. Afterwards some plants of this grass were potted up, and some females placed on them. These deposited a large number of eggs upon the grass-stems and blades. The egg when newly laid is pearl white with the slightest yellowish-green tinge, which very gradually turns deeper in colour, assuming a pale straw-yellow on the sixth day, and so it remains until January, when it becomes paler. The caterpillar hatches out at the end of March or early in April. It does not eat the empty egg-shell, but directly after leaving the egg it starts spinning the fine grass together into a somewhat dense cluster an inch or two above the ground. In this compact shelter the larva lives and feeds upon the grass surrounding it, remaining almost always completely hidden. Sometimes as many as three or four live together. When full grown and about one hundred days old, the caterpillar is of a dull olive-green colour, with a black collar on the first ring, and the entire surface densely sprinkled with minute shining black warts, each emitting a tiny amber-coloured spine with a cleft knobbed apex. The head is blackish marked with ochreous lines. It still resides in a tube of grass spun closely together, and feeds on any other kind of grass that happens to be interwoven with the _Aira_. Just before pupation the caterpillar often crawls restlessly about, but in some instances it does not leave its place of feeding, and spins a strong, coarse network cocoon among the grass close to the ground, weaving the gnawed loose pieces of grass with the fine stems and blades, and therein pupates during the latter part of July. [Illustration: _Pl._ 126. =Large Skipper.= 1, 3, _male_; 2, 4 _female_. =Silver-Spotted Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. =Chequered Skipper.= 9, 10 _male_; 11 _female_.] [Illustration: _Pl._ 127. =Large Skipper.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars, chrysalis and cocoon._ =Silver-spotted Skipper.= _Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ =Chequered Skipper.= _Egg enlarged and caterpillar._] The chrysalis is secured in the cocoon by hooks at the tail and by hooked bristles on the head; the head and thorax are pale olive mottled with blackish; the body olive, spotted with dark olive, and inclining to yellow on the ventral surface; below each spiracle is a short longitudinal mark; the spiracles are amber-brown. The butterfly is to be found in August on most of our chalk hills, but has not been recorded from either Scotland or Ireland. It is a very quick flyer and difficult to capture when on the wing, but it is fond of sitting on low-growing thistles, and is then sometimes easy to take. Abroad it occurs throughout Europe and Northern Asia to China and Japan. The Chequered Skipper (_Carterocephalus palæmon_). The well-defined yellow or orange spots on the blackish-brown ground colour distinguish this butterfly from all other British Skippers. The variation is only of a minor kind, and chiefly in the direction of an increase or a decrease in the number and the size of the spots. Occasionally those on the central area of the fore wings are much enlarged and more or less confluent; and the spots on the outer margin of the hind wings are sometimes very small or entirely absent. The following particulars of the early stages are abstracted from Mr. Frohawk's life-history of the species (_Entomologist_, 1892):-- Living females received in June were placed on a growing plant of brome grass (_Bromus asper_), and a few eggs were deposited, some upon the blades of grass, others upon the gauze-covered glass jar in which the plant was placed; they were laid singly, firmly adhering to whatever laid upon. The first lot of eggs were deposited on June 14. The egg has a pearly appearance, being whitish or yellowish-white in colour. Ten days after the egg is deposited the young caterpillar emerges by eating away the crown. Soon after hatching out the young caterpillar makes a little tubular dwelling, drawing together the edges of the grass-blade by spinning about three or four stout cords of silk, which quickly contract, causing the edges to draw together, and sometimes to overlap, forming a compact short tube; generally before spinning it nibbles off the extreme edge of the blade where the silk is afterwards attached. It feeds upon the blade both above and below its abode, devouring so much that frequently only the midrib of the blade remains, and the tube only just long enough to conceal it; it then shifts its quarters, and prepares a new home. On October 3, when one hundred and one days old, the caterpillar was pale primrose-yellow, and the stripes of a slightly darker hue, the white lateral line showing clearly, and spiracles brownish; the head pale buff with a faint lilac tinge, with a black patch above the mouth and brownish at the sides. In the previous stage the caterpillar was whitish-green with a rather dark green line along the middle of the back, this line bordered on each side by an almost white, very fine line, followed by alternate darker and lighter lines, the lightest being extremely fine; "then a subdorsal darker green line, bordered laterally by a conspicuous whitish line, which is again bordered below by a paler and indistinct green line, and a very faint spiracular whitish stripe, on which the spiracles are placed; they are white, outlined by a dark but indistinct ring; the under surface is whitish-green." About the middle of October the hibernaculum was formed by spinning two blades of grass together at the edges, so making a tube, in which the caterpillar remained during the winter. On March 21 it left its retreat, but did not seem to feed, and generally remained quiet, lying along a grass-blade. On April 3 "it had drawn together with silk six blades of grass at the ends, forming a tent-like structure, and along the surface of one of the broadest a little carpet of silk was spun, upon which it rested with its head uppermost; a silk cord also encircled its body round the fourth segment." It assumed the chrysalis state on April 8, and had then passed two hundred and eighty-nine days in the caterpillar condition. The chrysalis measures five-eighths of an inch in length, is fairly cylindrical, but tapering to the tail. "Dorsal view: the head is pointed in front in the form of a short conical beak; the eyes are rather prominent; the thorax is swollen in the middle, the widest part, and then gradually tapers towards the last segment, which is elongated and flattened. Lateral view: the beak is slightly upturned, the thorax convexed, and the segment next to the thorax is rather swollen in the middle, so forming a rather decided depression at the base of the thorax, where the silken cord passes round; the body gradually tapering to the last segment, which terminates in a long compressed curved process furnished with long hooks; the wing-cases extend down two-thirds its length, and only very little, if at all, swollen; the antennæ and legs are but feebly modelled; the tongue is well defined, it is dusky at the base, blending into black at the apex; the colour is of a very pale primrose-yellow, shading into pearly grey, and semi-transparent on the head, wings, and flap; a dark medio-dorsal line commences at the base of the beak, and passes down the entire length, gradually fading off in the anal extremity; it is blackest on the head and first abdominal segment, and palest on the thorax, where it is light brown; there are two rust-red subdorsal lines, which run parallel from the base of the antennæ to the last segment; another similar line, united along the inner margin of the wing, passes over two spiracles, and then runs parallel with the subdorsal lines.... The antennæ and wings are faintly outlined with dusky brown. In general appearance and colouring the pupa closely resembles a piece of dead withered grass." A female butterfly emerged on May 20, the transformation from egg to perfect insect thus occupying about eleven months. This local butterfly is on the wing in June; sometimes it is seen in the latter part of May, and, more rarely perhaps, in July. This species appears to have been first noticed as an inhabitant of Britain in 1798, in which year specimens were taken in Clapham Park Wood, Bedfordshire, by Dr. Abbott, who, four years later, also reported the butterfly from White Wood, Gamlingay, Cambridgeshire. In 1823 it was found to occur at Castor Hanglands, near Peterborough; and in 1841 Doubleday met with it, in large numbers, in Monk's Wood, Huntingdonshire. Among other localities from which it has been reported are Ropsley Wood, near Grantham, Notts, and Wychwood Forest, Oxfordshire. In its special localities, which, at the present time, are chiefly the larger woods in Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Buckinghamshire, it frequents the flowers of ground ivy (_Nepeta glechoma_) and of the bugle (_Ajuga reptans_). Abroad it is locally common in various parts of Central Europe; also occurs in Finland, Central and Northern Russia, Dalmatia, Piedmont, and in Labrador, and other parts of North America. A CLASSIFIED LIST OF THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES =Papilionidæ.= PAPILIONINÆ Papilio machaon PIERINÆ Aporia cratægi Pieris brassicæ " rapæ " napi " daplidice _Pontia daplidice_ Euchloë cardamines Leucophasia sinapis _Leptidia sinapis_ Colias hyale _Eurymus kirbyi_ Colias edusa _Eurymus hyale_ Gonepteryx rhamni _Colias rhamni_ =Nymphalidæ.= APATURINÆ Apatura iris NYMPHALINÆ Limenitis sibylla _Limenitis camilla_ Polygonia c-album _Grapta c-album_ Vanessa polychloros _Eugonia polychloros_ Vanessa urticæ _Aglais urticæ_ Vanessa io " antiopa _Euvanessa antiopa_ Pyrameis cardui " atalanta Argynnis paphia " adippe " aglaia " lathonia " euphrosyne _Brenthis euphrosyne_ Argynnis selene _Brenthis selene_ Melitæa athalia " cinxia " aurinia DANAINÆ Anosia plexippus SATYRINÆ Melanargia galatea Erebia epiphron _Melampias epiphron_ Erebia æthiops Satyrus semele _Hipparchia semele_ Pararge egeria " megæra _Satyrus megæra_ Epinephele ianira _Epinephele jurtina_ Epinephele tithonus Aphantopus hyperanthus _Hipparchia hyperanthus_ _Enodia hyperanthus_ Coenonympha typhon _Coenonympha tiphon_ Coenonympha pamphilus =Lycænidæ.= LYCÆNINÆ Zephyrus betulæ _Thecla betulæ_ Zephyrus quercus _Thecla quercus_ Thecla pruni " w-album Callophrys rubi _Thecla rubi_ Chrysophanus dispar _Polyommatus dispar_ _Lycæna dispar_ Chrysophanus phlæas _Polyommatus phlæas_ _Lycæna phlæas_ Lampides boeticus _Lycæna boeticus_ Cupido argiades _Lycæna argiades_ Lycæna argus _Lycæna ægon_ _Plebeius argus_ Lycæna astrarche _Lycæna agestis_ Lycæna icarus _Plebeius alexis_ _Polyommatus icarus_ Lycæna corydon _Polyommatus corydon_ Lycæna bellargus _Lycæna adonis_ _Polyommatus thetis_ Cyaniris argiolus Zizera minima _Lycæna minima_ Nomiades semiargus _Lycæna acis_ _ " semiargus_ Nomiades arion _Polyommatus arion_ _Lycæna arion_ =Lemoniidæ.= NEMEOBIINÆ Nemeobius lucina =Hesperiidæ.= HESPERIINÆ Hesperia malvæ Thanaos tages _Nisoniades tages_ PAMPHILINÆ Adopæa thaumas " lineola " actæon Augiades comma _Erynnis comma_ Augiades sylvanus Carterocephalus palæmon _Pamphila palæmon_ INDEX. * Species so marked in this Index are _reputed_ British. Adonis Blue, 170. _Plates_ 110, 111, 119 _Adopæa actæon_, 190, _Plates_ 124, 125; _lineola_, 189, _Plates_ 124, 125; _thaumas_, 187, _Plates_ 124, 125 Ammonia jar, 19 Androconia, 14 Angles of wings, 12. Fig. 9 _Anosia menippe_, 106; _plexippus_, 106, _Plates_ 72, 120 Antennæ, 4, 9 _Apatura iris_, 56, _Plates_ 28, 29, 31; var. _iole_, 57, _Plate_ 31 _Aphantopus hyperanthus_, 130, _Plates_ 88, 89; var. _arete_, 131; var. _cæca_, 131, _Plate_ 89; var. _lanceolata_, 131; var. _obsoleta_, 131 _Aporia cratægi_, 32. _Plates_ 4, 5 _Argynnis adippe_, 87, _Plates_ 53, 54, 57; var. _cleodoxa_, 88; var. _locuples_, 89; _aglaia_, 89, _Plates_ 55, 59, 61; var. _charlotta_, 90; _euphrosyne_, 94, _Plates_ 56, 64, 65; _lathonia_, 91, _Plates_, 58, 63; _niobe_,* 88; _paphia_, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51, 52, 57; var. _valesina_, 84, Plates 52, 57; _selene_, 96, _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 Armature, 2 "Arran Brown," 117 _Augiades comma_, 193, _Plates_ 126, 127; _sylvanus_, 192, _Plates_ 126, 127 Bath White, 41. _Plates_ 12, 14 Benzine, 28 Black Hairstreak, 143. _Plates_ 96, 97 Black-veined White, 32. _Plates_ 3, 4 Bloxworth Blue, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103 Board for Flat-setting, 22. Figs. 15-17 Brace and Band Modes of Setting, 24. Fig. 20 Brimstone, 54. _Plates_ 25, 26 Brown Argus, 161. _Plates_ 104, 105 " Hairstreak, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95 _Callophrys rubi_, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 Camberwell Beauty, 73. _Plates_ 41, 42, 43 _Carterocephalus palæmon_, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 Caterpillar stage, 2 Chalk Hill Blue, 127. _Plates_ 108, 109, 117 Chequered Skipper, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 Chloroform Bottle, 19 Chorion, 1 Chrysalis, 6 _Chrysophanus dispar_, 148, _Plates_ 98, 99; var. _rutilus_, 149; _circe_,* 152; _dorilis_,* 152; _gordius_,* 152; _hippothoë_,* 152; _phlæas_, 152, _Plates_ 100, 101, 119; var. _eleus_, 152; var. _schmidtii_, 152, _Plate_ 101; var. _hypophlæus_, 154; _virgaureæ_,* 152 Classification, x Clouded Yellow, 51. _Plates_ 22, 23, 24 Clubs of Antennæ, 9. Fig. 7 _Cænonympha pamphilus_, 136, _Plates_ 92, 93, var. _lyllus_, 136; var. _ocellata_, 137, Plate 92; _typhon_, 132, _Plates_ 90, 91, 92; var. _davus_, 133; var. _laidion_, 133; var. _philoxenus_, 133; var. _rothliebii_, 133; var. _scotica_, 133 _Colias edusa_, 51, _Plates_ 22, 23, 24; var. _helice_, 52, _Plate_ 24; _hyale_, 48, _Plates_ 20, 21 Collecting, 16 Comma, the, 62. _Plates_ 32, 35 Common Blue, 163. _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119 Compound Eye, 9 Cremaster, 6. Fig. 5. _Cupido argiades_, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103; var. _comyntas_, 158; var. _polysperchon_, 158 Cyanide Bottle, 19 _Cyaniris argiolus_, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 Dark Green Fritillary, 89. _Plates_ 55, 59, 61 Dehiscence, 7 Dimorphism, viii Dingy Skipper, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 Drying House, 26 Duke of Burgundy, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 Ecdysis, 5 Egg-stage, 1 Emergence of a Butterfly, 7 _Epinephele ianira_, 125, _Plates_ 84, 85; _jurtina_, 125; _tithonus_, 127, _Plates_ 86, 87, 119; var. _albida_, 128, _Plate_ 119; var. _mincki_, 128 _Erebia æthiops_, 113, _Plates_ 76, 77; var. _obsoleta_, 114; var. _ochracea_, 114; _blandina_, 113; _epiphron_, 111; var. _cassiope_, 111, _Plates_ 76, 77; var. _obsoleta_, 112; _ligea_,* 117 Essex Skipper, 189. _Plates_ 124, 125 _Euchloë cardamines_, 43, _Plates_ 15, 17; var. _hesperidis_, 44 Eyes or Ocelli, 4 False legs of caterpillar, 4. Fig. 2A Feelers, 4, 9 Feet, 3 Gatekeeper, 127. _Plates_ 86, 87, 119 Glanville Fritillary, 101. _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 _Gonepteryx rhamni_, 54. _Plates_ 25-27 Grayling, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 Green Hairstreak, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 Green-veined White, 38. _Plates_ 10, 13, 14 Grizzled Skipper, 184. _Plates_ 122, 123 Gynandromorphism, viii Head of Butterfly, 8, Fig. 6; of Caterpillar, 4, Fig. 3 Heath Fritillary, 98. _Plates_ 67, 68 Hermaphrodite, viii _Hesperia alveus_, 185; _malvæ_, 184, _Plates_ 122, 123; var. _lavateræ_, 184; var. _taras_, 184 Heterocera, vii High Brown Fritillary, 87. _Plates_ 53, 54, 57 Holly Blue, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 Horns, 9 Instar, 5 Killing, 18 Kite net, 7. Fig. 13 Labium, 4 Labrum, 4 _Lampides boeticus_, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 Large Blue, 179. _Plates_ 116, 117 " Copper, 148. _Plates_ 98, 99 " Heath, 132. _Plates_ 90, 91, 92 " Skipper, 192. _Plates_ 126, 127 Large Tortoiseshell, 65. _Plates_ 34, 36 " White, 34. _Plates_ 5, 6, 9 _Leucophasia sinapis_, 46, _Plates_ 16, 18, 19; var. _diniensis_, 46; var. _erysimi_, 46; var. _lathyri_, 46 _Limenitis sibylla_, 59, _Plates_ 30, 31, 33; var. _nigrina_, 59, _Plate_ 31 Lingua, 4 Long-tailed Blue, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 Lulworth Skipper, 190. _Plates_ 124, 125 _Lycæna adonis_, 170; _ægon_, 158; _argus_, 158, _Plates_, 104, 105; _astrarche_, 161, _Plates_ 104, 105; var. _artaxerxes_, 161; var. _salmacis_, 161; var. _quadripuncta_, 162; _bellargus_, 170, _Plates_ 110, 111, 119; var. _ceronus_, 170; _corydon_, 167, _Plates_ 108, 109, 117, 118; var. _fowleri_, 168; var. _lucretia_, 168; var. _syngrapha_, 168, _Plate_ 118; _icarus_, 163, _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119; var. _arcua_, 164; var. _coerulea_, 164; var. _icarinus_, 164; var. _melanotoxa_, 164 Mandibles, 4, 10 Marbled White, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 Margins of Wings, 12. Fig. 9 Marsh Fritillary, 103. _Plates_ 65, 70, 73 Marsh Ringlet, 132 Maxillæ, 4, 10 Mazarine Blue, 177. _Plate_ 115 Meadow Brown, 125. _Plates_ 84, 85 _Melanargia galatea_, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 _Melitæa athalia_, 98; _Plates_ 67, 68; var. _corythalia_, 98; var. _eos_, 99; var. _navarina_, 98; var. _niphon_, 100; var. _obsoleta_, 98; var. _pyronia_, 99; var. _tessellata_, 99; _aurinia_, 103; _Plates_, 65, 70, 73; var. _præclara_, 104; var. _scotica_, 104; _cinxia_, 101, _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 Micropyles, 1 Milkweed Butterfly, 106. _Plates_ 72, 120 Monarch Butterfly, 107 Mould and Mites, 28 Moulting, 5 Naphthaline, 27, 28 _Nemeobius lucina_, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 Nervures and Nervules, 13 Nets, 16 Nomenclature, x _Nomiades arion_, 179, _Plates_ 116, 117; _semiargus_, 177, _Plate_ 115 Ocelli, 4 Orange-tip, 43. _Plates_ 15, 17 Painted Lady, 78. _Plates_ 44, 45, 49 Pale Clouded Yellow, 48. _Plates_ 20, 21 Palpi, 5, 10 _Papilio machaon_, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 _Pararge egeria_, 120; var. _egerides_, 120, _Plates_ 80, 81; _megæra_, 122, _Plates_ 82, 83 Peacock, 70. _Plates_ 39, 40, 41 Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 94. _Plates_ 60, 64, 65 _Pieris brassicæ_, 34, _Plates_ 5, 6, 9; var. _chariclea_, 34, _Plate_ 6; _daplidice_, 41, _Plates_ 12, 14; _napi_, 38; _Plates_ 10, 13, 14; var. _bryoniæ_, 40; var. _flava_, 39; var. _napææ_, 40; var. _orientis_, 41; var. _sabellicæ_, 39; var. _rapæ_, 36, _Plates_ 7, 8, 11; var. _metra_, 37; var. _novangliæ_, 37 Pinning, 20; Pinning stage, 21, Fig. 14 Pins, 21 Plumules, 14 _Polygonia c-album_, 62, _Plates_ 32, 35; var. _hutchinsoni_, 63, _Plate_ 35 Proboscis, 4, 9 Prolegs, 2 Purple Emperor, 56. _Plates_ 28, 29, 31 Purple Hairstreak, 141. _Plates_ 96, 97 _Pyrameis atalanta_, 81, _Plates_ 46-49; var. _klemensiewiczi_, 82; _cardui_, 78, _Plates_ 44, 45, 49; _huntera_,* 81; _virginiensis_,* 81 Queen of Spain, 91. _Plates_ 58, 63 Rearing from the Egg, 28 Red Admiral, 81. _Plates_ 46-49 Rhopalocera, vii Ringlet, 130. _Plates_ 88, 89 Saddles, 24. Fig. 18 _Satyrus semele_, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 Scales, 13. Fig. 10 Scotch Argus, 113. _Plates_ 76, 77 Seasonable Dimorphism, viii Segments, 2 Setting, Methods of, 22-24 Sexual Dimorphism, viii Silver-studded Blue, 158. _Plates_ 104, 105 Silver-washed Fritillary, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51 Small Blue, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 " Copper, 152. _Plates_ 100, 101, 119 " Heath, 136. _Plates_ 92, 93 " Mountain Ringlet, 111. _Plates_ 76, 77 " Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 96. _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 " Skipper, 187. _Plates_ 124, 125 " Tortoiseshell, 68. _Plates_ 37, 38 " White, 36. _Plates_ 7, 8, 11 Speckled Wood, 120. _Plates_ 80, 81 Spinnerets, 4 Spiracle, 3 Stadium, 5 Subsegments, 3 Swallow-tail, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 Thanaos tages, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 _Thecla ilicis, spini_,* 147; _pruni_, 143, _Plates_ 96, 97; _w-album_, 144, _Plates_ 94, 95; var. _butlerowi_, 145 Thoracic legs, 2 Tracheæ, 3 Tubercles, 2 Vanessa _antiopa_, 73, _Plates_ 41, 42, 43; var. _hygiæa_, 73; var. _lintneri_, 73; _io_, 70, _Plates_ 39, 40, 41; var. _belisaria_, 71, _Plate_, 41; var. _cyanosticta_, 71; _polychloros_, 65, _Plates_ 34, 36; var. _testudo_, 66; _urticæ_, 68, _Plates_ 37, 38; var. _ladakensis_, 69; var. _polaris_, 69 Venation, 12. Fig. 9 Wall, The, 122. _Plates_ 82, 83 White Admiral, 59. _Plates_ 30, 31, 33 White-letter Hairstreak, 144. _Plates_ 94, 95 Wings, 11. Fig. 9 Wood White, 46. _Plates_ 16, 18, 19 _Zephyrus betulæ_, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95; var. _pallida_, 139; var. _spinosa_, 139; _quercus_, 141, _Plates_ 96, 97; var. _bella_, 141 _Zizera minima_, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 THE END. * * * * * +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's notes: | | | | Fixed various punctuation. | | P. 71. 'wing' changed to 'wings'. | | P. 137. 'emergencies' changed to 'emergences'. | | P. 168. 'localties' changed to 'localities'. | | P. 197. 'next to the thorax'. Added 'to'. | | Emphasis Notation: _Italic_ and =Bold=; | | Mathematical Notation: Whole and Fractional Part: 3-5/8. | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ 
40214	----	[Illustration: THE BOYS HAWKING ON THE BROAD.] THE SWAN AND HER CREW, _OR THE ADVENTURES OF_ THREE YOUNG NATURALISTS AND SPORTSMEN _ON THE BROADS AND RIVERS OF NORFOLK_. BY G. CHRISTOPHER DAVIES, AUTHOR OF "MOUNTAIN, MEADOW, AND MERE;" "RAMBLES AND ADVENTURES OF OUR SCHOOL FIELD CLUB;" "ANGLING IDYLLS;" ETC., ETC. SECOND EDITION. _WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS._ London: FREDERICK WARNE AND CO., BEDFORD STREET, STRAND. NEW YORK:--SCRIBNER, WELFORD AND ARMSTRONG. LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET. PREFACE. A preface is like the bow of an actor when he comes on the stage, or like the hand-shaking of two friends when they meet--the prelude to the entertainment, or the friendly conversation. I suppose, therefore, I must follow the fashion, and say, "How d'ye do?" in this way. I hope the answer will be, "Quite well, thank you, and much the better for seeing you." In a book of similar character to this one, which I published a short time ago, I offered to reply to any questions which any of my young readers, who wished for further information upon any of the subjects mentioned in that book, might put to me, by means of letters addressed to me, to the care of the publishers. I then had the pleasure of answering many such letters, and I now repeat the offer to the readers of this book. I am indebted to my friend Mr. William Whitwell, of Oxford, who is, like myself, a lover of boys, for the chapter on the "LIFE OF A FERN." CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I. Greeting.--The Broad District.--Hickling Broad.--Felling a Tree.--Dodging the Swallows.--Shooting the Crossbills.--The Boat-house. 1 CHAPTER II. Stuffing the Crossbills.--The proposed Yacht.--An impaled Woodcock. 8 CHAPTER III. A Momentous Decision. 13 CHAPTER IV. Digging for Pupæ.--Dick Carleton.--Metamorphoses of Butterfly. 14 CHAPTER V. Building the Yacht.--The Launch.--Great Crested Grebe's nest.--A floating Coot's nest.--Golden Crested Wrens.-- Their Migration.--The Flight of a Heron. 20 CHAPTER VI. Mr. Meredith.--"Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might."--A Botanical Lecture.--The Goat Moth.--Blowing up a Tree.--An astonished Cow.--Caterpillars in the Wood. 31 CHAPTER VII. A Trial Sail.--Preparing for a Cruise.--Charging a Reed Bed.--An explosion of Birds.--The First Adventure.-- Orange-Tip Butterfly.--No Salt.--How Salt is obtained. 36 CHAPTER VIII. An Eerie Night.--A Ghostly Apparition.--The Barn Owl.--A Will-o'-the-Wisp.--The Ruff and Reeve.--Snaring Ruffs.--A Nest.--Wroxham Broad.--Mud-boards and Leaping-pole.--Wild Duck's Nest in a Tree. 43 CHAPTER IX. Chameleon.--Light-coloured Eggs.--Sitting Birds have no Scent.--Forget-me-nots.--Trespassing.--The Owner.--A Chase.--Capture.--Pintail Duck.--Drumming of Snipe.--Swallow-tail Butterfly.--A Perilous Adventure. 51 CHAPTER X. Moonlight.--Instinct and Reason.--Death's Head Moth.-- Bittern.--Water-rail.--Quail.--Golden Plover.--Hen-Harrier and Weasel.--Preserving Bird-skins. 63 CHAPTER XI. To the Rescue.--A Long-tailed Tit's Nest.--A Shower of Feathers. 75 CHAPTER XII. Yarmouth.--The "Rows."--A Stiff Breeze.--An Exciting Sail.--Sparrow-hawk's Nest.--A Nasty Fall.--Long-eared Owl.--Partridge.--Sandpiper. 79 CHAPTER XIII. A Grizzly Bear.--Gossamers.--Strike only on the Box. 88 CHAPTER XIV. Oulton Broad.--Lateeners.--Lowestoft.--Ringed Plover's Nest.--Oyster-catcher.--Shore-fishing.--A Perilous Sail. 92 CHAPTER XV. Animals which never die.--A Wonderful Tip to his Tail.-- Thunderstorm.--Swan's Nest.--Bearded Tit.--Reed-wrens and Cuckoo. 97 CHAPTER XVI. Old School-fellows.--Tom-Tit's Nest in Boot.--Nuthatch.-- Wryneck.--Ant-hill.--Marsh-Tit.--A Comical Fix. 104 CHAPTER XVII. The Boat-race.--Winning.--Mr. Marston.--Nightingale and Nest.--The noise of the Nightingales. 113 CHAPTER XVIII. A queer Umbrella.--Visit to Scoulton Gullery.--Driving Tandem.--Running away.--Black-headed Gulls.--Collecting the Eggs.--Carp.--Wood Argus Butterfly.--Scarlet Pimpernel.--Grasshopper Warbler.--Chiff-Chaff.--Gall-Fly.-- Robins' Pincushions. 121 CHAPTER XIX. Back again.--Taken in Tow.--Bobbing for Eels.--Glow-worms.-- Home.--Urticating Caterpillars. 132 CHAPTER XX. Golden Oriole.--Landrail.--House-martins in Trouble.-- Siskin.--Peacock and Red Admiral Butterflies.--Winchat's Nest.--Bitten by a Viper.--Viper and Snake.--Slow-worm. 137 CHAPTER XXI. Fishing.--Jimmy's Dodge.--Bream-fishing.--Good Sport.-- Fecundity of Fish.--Balance Float.--Fish-hatching.--Edith Rose.--A Night Sail. 149 CHAPTER XXII. Calling for Landrails.--Landrail Shamming Death.-- Yellow-Under-wing Moth and Wasp.--Dragon-Fly and Butterfly.--Stink-horn Fungus.--Sundew. 158 CHAPTER XXIII. Setting Night-Lines.--An Encounter with Poachers. 161 CHAPTER XXIV. Water Insects.--Aquaria. 165 CHAPTER XXV. Making a Fern Case.--Ferns.--Harvest Mouse.--Mole.-- Ladybird.--Grasses. 176 CHAPTER XXVI. The Life of a Fern. 185 CHAPTER XXVII. On the "War-path."--Rabbit-shooting.--Flapper-shooting.-- Duck-shooting.--Wood-pigeons.--Life in an Oak-tree.-- Burying-beetles.--Lace-wing Fly.--Stag-beetle.--Hair-worm. 194 CHAPTER XXVIII. Purple Emperor.--His taste for Carrion.--Woodpecker.-- Blue and Small Copper Butterflies.--Buff-tip Moth.--Moths at Ivy.--Strange-looking Caterpillars. 202 CHAPTER XXIX. How to Attract Perch.--Perch-fishing.--Pike.--Good Sport.--Plaster Casts.--Model Eggs. 209 CHAPTER XXX. Eel-fishing.--Setting the Nets.--Elvers.--The Merivale Float. 214 CHAPTER XXXI. Hawking. 220 CHAPTER XXXII. Heron-hawking.--Great Bustard.--Stock-Dove in Rabbit-hole.--"Dowe" Dogs.--Search for Bustard's Egg. 227 CHAPTER XXXIII. Water-hen swallowed by Pike.--Casting-net.--Trapping Water-hen for Bait.--A Monster Pike. 235 CHAPTER XXXIV. Fishing on Stilts.--A Capsize.--Wild-fowl Shooting.-- A Flare-up. 239 CHAPTER XXXV. Punt-shooting on Breydon.--A Narrow Escape. 242 CHAPTER XXXVI. Drifted to Sea.--A Perilous Position.--Rescue. 246 CHAPTER XXXVII. The Broad Frozen.--Skating.--Fish Frozen in Ice.--Birds Frozen to the Ice.--Ice Ships. 249 CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Thaw.--Cromer.--Prehistoric Remains. 251 CHAPTER XXXIX. The Boys' Note Book. 253 CHAPTER XL. The Regatta.--The "Waterlog's" Victory. 259 CHAPTER XLI. The Conclusion. 264 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE THE BOYS HAWKING ON THE BROAD _Front._ CROSSBILL 9 WOODCOCK 12 METAMORPHOSES OF BUTTERFLY 16 THE PARK IN SUMMER 17 WHITE HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY 19 BUILDING THE BOAT 22 A YARMOUTH YAWL 24 THE COMMON COOT 28 COMMON WREN AND EGG 29 HERON 30 ORANGE-TIP BUTTERFLY 40 THE BARN-OWL AND EGG 44 WILD DUCK 50 ROACH 52 CHAMELEON 53 REDBREAST AND EGG 55 YACHT 57 COMMON SNIPE 60 SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY 61 MOONLIGHT SCENE 64 DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH 65 BITTERN 66 WATER-RAIL 68 AFRICAN BUSH QUAIL 69 NEST OF GOLDEN PLOVER 71 HEN-HARRIER 74 WEASEL 74 LONG-TAILED TIT AND EGG 78 SPARROW-HAWK 82 LONG-EARED OWL 84 COMMON PARTRIDGE 85 EGG OF COMMON PARTRIDGE 86 COMMON SANDPIPER 87 LATEEN SAIL 92 RINGED PLOVER 94 OYSTER-CATCHER 95 SWAN'S NEST 100 SWAN 101 CUCKOO AND EGG 103 TOM-TIT AND EGG 106 NUTHATCH 107 WRYNECK 108 WORKING ANT AND PORTION OF ANT-HILL 109 EGG OF WRYNECK 110 MARSH-TIT AND EGG 111 PAIR-OARED BOAT 116 MR. MARSTON'S HOUSE 117 NIGHTINGALE 119 NIGHTINGALE'S NEST 120 COMMON GULL 126 YOUNG GULLS COVERED WITH DOWN 127 CARP 128 CHIFF-CHAFF 130 OAK-GALL FLY 131 GLOW-WORM 136 ORIOLE 138 NEST OF AMERICAN SPECIES OF ORIOLE 139 LANDRAIL OR CORNCRAKE 140 HOUSE-MARTIN 141 SISKIN 141 PEACOCK BUTTERFLY, CHRYSALIS, AND CATERPILLAR 142 RED ADMIRAL BUTTERFLY 143 WINCHAT AND EGG 144 VIPER 145 COMMON RINGED SNAKE 146 SLOW-WORM 148 BREAM 150 ANGLING 153 TROUT 155 DRAGON-FLY 159 METAMORPHOSES OF FLESH-FLY 166 WATER-BEETLE 166 PUPA AND COMPOUND EYE OF DRAGON-FLY 167 LARVA OF GNAT. ESCAPE OF GNAT FROM ITS PUPA-CASE 167 METAMORPHOSES OF PLUMED GNAT 168 PUPA-CASE, LARVA, AND FLY OF CADDIS-WORM 169 MINNOW 170 SMOOTH NEWT 171 METAMORPHOSES OF NEWT 172 WATER-FLEAS AND ANIMALCULÆ IN DROP OF WATER AS SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 173 FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM 174 METAMORPHOSES OF FROG 175 SEA-WATER AQUARIUM 176 WALL SPLEENWORT 177 FORKED SPLEENWORT 177 GREEN SPLEENWORT 177 OAK FERN 178 FRUCTIFICATION OF FERNS 179 WALL RUE, JERSEY FERN, MARSH FERN 180 HARVEST MOUSE AND NEST 181 MOLE 182 LADYBIRD AND ITS STAGES 183 FERN SPORES 187 SCALY SPLEENWORT OR "RUSTY BACK" 191 WILSON'S FILMY-FERN, TUNBRIDGE FILMY-FERN 192 WILD RABBITS 195 WOOD-PIGEON 197 SUSPENDED LEAF TENTS 198 LACE-WINGED FLY 200 STAG-HORNED PRIONUS AND DIAMOND BEETLE 201 GREEN WOODPECKER 204 BLUE BUTTERFLY 204 THE HAUNT OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR 205 PERCH AND GUDGEON 211 PIKE 212 EELS 218 APPARATUS USED IN HAWKING 221 COMMON HERON 228 GREAT BUSTARD 230 DOVES 231 WILD DUCK SHOOTING 244 MOLE CRICKET 254 COMMON LIZARD 255 OSPREY 256 GREAT CRESTED GREBE 256 WHITE ANTS' NEST, ANTS, ETC. 257 HEDGEHOG 258 HONEY BUZZARD 258 The Swan and her Crew. CHAPTER I. Greeting.--The Broad District.--Hickling Broad.-- Felling a Tree.--Dodging the Swallows.-- Shooting the Crossbills.--The Boat-house. With the same feeling of pleasure which one experiences when one writes to an old friend, I commence to write this new book, which I hope will be read by many a boy friend. It is very pleasant to an author to feel that he has a large circle of acquaintances whom he has never seen, and who know him only through his books. It should be his aim and endeavour to extend that circle of friends, and to increase the good feeling which they bear towards him. Therefore, my dear boys, I hope that after reading this book which I now submit to your approval, you will conceive as affectionate a regard for me as I have for you. This is a story of sport and adventure, natural history and science, and the movers in it are three boys just like yourselves; and that you may understand the better what they did, I shall first describe the scene of their exploits. It is the eastern part of Norfolk, and no better place could be found as a field for the doings of three enterprising young naturalists and sportsmen. It is known as the "Broad District," and it consists almost entirely of lake, river, and marsh. If we take Yarmouth on the sea-coast as the starting-point, and look inland, we shall see first of all a large tidal lake known as Breydon Water. From this radiate three rivers going north-west, west, and south-west. The chief of them is the Yare, which winds for thirty miles inward to the old city of Norwich. On our right is the river Bure, or North River, which after a very long and winding course leaves the marsh, and enters a richly-wooded country. To the south is the Waveney, a clear and beautiful stream, which flows past Beccles and Bungay, two towns in Suffolk. All these rivers are slow of current, wide and navigable not only for yachts, but for vessels of large burden, such as wherries, billy-boys, and small steamers. The banks of the rivers are fringed with tall reeds, and they flow through miles of level marsh, where, as far as the eye can reach, there is nothing to be seen but the white sails of the yachts and the dark sails of the wherries, and occasional windmills which are used for pumping the water out of the drains into the rivers. In order to deepen the channel of the river for the purposes of navigation, the embankments have been raised so high that the surface of the water is much above the level of the drains which carry the water off the surrounding marshes, and so the water has to be pumped into the river out of the drains by means of pumps set in action by windmills. Here and there amid the wide extent of marsh are large lakes or lagoons, which are locally termed "broads." These are very numerous and many of them very large. Most of them are connected with one or other of the rivers. Those on the Yare, are Surlingham and Rockland Broads; on the Bure, or connected with it by long dykes, are Filby and Ormesby Broads, Walsham, Ranworth, Hoveton, Wroxham, Barton, Martham and Hickling Broads, and Heigham Sounds. All these broads are full of fish, large pike and perch, and shoals of enormous bream. They are all very shallow, and are surrounded by dense aquatic vegetation, reeds, rushes, flags and bulrushes, and these are the haunts of many rare birds, and swarm with wild-fowl. The great characteristic of this part of the county is its utter loneliness and wildness, both qualities which are of especial interest to the sportsman and naturalist. As it is also the most eastern county of England, it is the first to receive many of the rarer migrants on their passage to our shores, and more rare birds are caught there each year than in any other part of our "tight little island." It is on the shores of Hickling Broad, and on a bright December day, the first of the Christmas holidays, that our story opens. A tall large-limbed boy, about sixteen years of age, yellow-haired, and blue-eyed, stands with his hands in his pockets, looking over the waste of waters on which the wavelets are dancing before a fresh breeze. His name is Frank Merivale, and he appears deep in thought. The broad waters he is gazing over are lonely and deserted save for occasional flights of wild-fowl, a marshman slowly pulling his boat across, and a wherry (as a Norfolk sailing barge is called) beating to windward along the broad, making very slow tacks to and fro, the reason of which would not be apparent to one who did not know the broad. Why does she not take long stretches which would take her more swiftly on her course? The reason is this, the broad is not more than three feet deep all over, save for a narrow channel in the middle, which is marked out by posts at long intervals, and if the wherry forsook this channel she would run aground. The Norfolk wherries are of very peculiar build and graceful appearance. They are long, low, and shallow, rather flat-bottomed, but fine and sharp in the stem and stern, which gives them a good hold of the water. They have one mast, stepped well forward and weighted at the foot so that it can be lowered to pass under bridges, and be easily raised again. This mast supports one immense sail, tanned black or red-brown. They sail wonderfully fast, even rivalling the yachts in their speed, and they can go very close to the wind. They are generally worked by two men, who live and sleep in the little cabin astern. We left Frank Merivale very much absorbed in thought. All at once a happy thought seemed to strike him, for he started from his reverie, and began to execute a step something between a walk and a war-dance. A clump of rushes put an untimely end to this by tripping him up, and causing him to measure his length upon the ground. With philosophical composure he picked himself up, and walked off, whistling merrily, towards a fir copse which stood upon the crest of a rising, lying above. We should say that while the flat marsh stretches between Hickling Broad and the sea, to the westward and inland the country is diversified with woods, and slight elevations forming a very pretty sylvan district. Reaching the fir-wood Frank entered it, and after looking about for a little time, he fixed upon a tall slender young larch-tree. He walked round and round it, and examined it critically, finally lying down on his back at its foot, and, with his eye close to its stem, glanced up it to see if it were perfectly straight. Satisfied on this point, he took out a large clasp-knife, and marked the trunk with a huge cross. Then he crossed the hedge and took his way through a large park, until he came to a paddock and pleasant house nestling among some large lime-trees, and surrounded by croquet lawns and well-kept gardens. It was an old house, built with many wings and projections and in many styles of architecture, the most prominent of which was a heavily-timbered Elizabethan style. Around the two principal sides of the house ran a wooden veranda, which in summer was luxuriantly hung with roses. This was Frank Merivale's home, and vaulting over the gate which separated the paddock from the lawn, he went into the house. Coming down the broad staircase into the hall, he met his two sisters; the eldest, a girl of thirteen, was like her brother, blue eyed and yellow-haired, with a face full of fun and mischief. Her name was Mary. The younger sister bore the same strong family likeness and was barely eleven. "Well, merry Mary Merivale," said Frank, "is the pater in?" "Yes, Frank, he is in the library." "That's all right; and where are you going?" "We are going to dig pupæ for you," answered Mary. "Then you are a good little woman," replied Frank, catching her round the waist, and giving her a kiss. "Have you got a mat to kneel upon, so as not to catch cold?" "Yes, we have got a mat and a trowel, in this basket, and we mean to get you a lot of moths. Don't we, Florrie?" "Yes, ever so many." Frank went along the passage, and entered the library. Mr. Merivale was seated at the table writing. He was a pale and studious-looking man, with a very kind and genial expression of face. He owned a small estate on the shores of the Broad, and was a deep thinker and scholarly writer, writing books which were intended chiefly for college libraries. He looked up as his son entered, and said,-- "Well, Frank, what is it?" "Please father, my birthday is next week." "I had not forgotten it, my boy." "Well, sir, I suppose you are going to give me a present of some sort as usual, and I thought, if you don't mind, that I should like to choose my present this time for myself." "If you choose wisely, you shall have what you wish, Frank." "Well, sir, all that I want is that you should let me have one of the straight young larches by the Broad. I want to cut it down at once that it may season by the spring." "It is rather a strange birthday present, Frank, but you may have it, in addition to the one your mother and I were about to get you, which was Morris's _British Birds_." "Oh, father, I am so glad. That is just the book I have been wanting." Mr. Merivale did not ask his son what the larch-tree was for. He thought that if Frank wished him to know he would have told him at once. He had a most perfect trust in his children, and he delighted to let them see that he had this trust in them. Hence it was their pride to deserve the confidence placed in them, and a happier family was not to be found in all Norfolk. Mr. Merivale supposed his son had good reasons for not making him a confidant in the matter of the larch-tree, so forbore to ask him. Frank quickly made his way to the outbuildings, where he obtained a couple of axes and a long rope. Laden with these he set off along a thickly-hedged lane until he came to a cottage, set far back in an old-fashioned garden. Here lived Jimmy Brett, his great friend, a boy about the same age as himself, who lived with his grandmother, Mrs. Brett, in this quiet little cottage. As Frank went up the garden walk he saw Jimmy perched on a ladder, engaged in painting a long board, a foot wide, which he had fixed up the whole length of the front of the cottage, just below the bed-room window. "What on earth is that for, Jimmy?" cried Frank, in astonishment. Jimmy turned round, revealing himself as a slight, pale-faced lad, with an eager and intelligent countenance, and replied-- "Well, you see, the swallows build in such great numbers in these wide old-fashioned eaves that they are rather a nuisance, and grandmother does not like the mess they make of the door-steps and windows below, so I thought if I put a board all the way along beneath their nests it would do away with the nuisance." "That is a clever idea, Jimmy; but do you not think that the swallows will build _below_ the board next year. They will think you put it there just on purpose for them." "I never thought of that, Frank," replied Jimmy, looking rather blank; "but now you mention it I think it is likely enough they will;" and by way of parenthesis I may say that next spring the swallows and house-martins did build under the new board in great numbers, and so frustrated Jimmy's plan altogether. "What are you going to do with those axes and that rope, Frank?" "Come and see; but first finish your painting, while I go in and see the grandmother." As the two boys walked off to the fir-copse, Frank told his friend that he meant to cut down the tree, but he would not tell him what it was that he wanted it for, and Jimmy's curiosity was provoked to a great degree. When they reached the wood they proceeded to the tree which Frank had marked, and Jimmy was sent up to fasten the rope to the top of it. Then while Frank took off his coat and applied the axe vigorously to the bottom of the tree, making the chips fly in all directions, Jimmy took the other end of the rope over the fence, and kept a steady pull upon it. At last the tree began to creak and groan, and then fell over with a crash. Jimmy then took the other axe, and the two began to lop off the branches. This was a long job, and when it was finished they were very warm and tired, and sat down to rest for a while on the fallen tree. A clicking and cracking sound in the wood about them now became audible to their quick ears. It might have been heard before had it not been drowned by the noise of the axes. They looked up, and to their great delight they saw a small flock of birds larger than a green linnet, and with plumage of red, brown, and yellow. They were flitting about the fir-trees, cutting off the fir-cones with their bills, and then holding them on the branches with their claws, and cracking them, and picking out the seeds, producing at the same time the noise which had attracted the attention of the boys. "What are they?" exclaimed Jimmy; "their beaks are hooked, and cross each other. I never saw birds like them before." "They are crossbills, as sure as we are here!" said Frank, excitedly. "Run to the boat-house as quick as you can, while I watch them, and bring the gun." Brett sped off like a deer, while Frank followed the movements of the strange birds with interest. Jimmy returned with the gun, and quite out of breath. "Now," said Frank, "from the difference in colour there are evidently males and females here, and we must get one of each; and we must do it without disturbing the others, as if we don't frighten them they may stay here and breed." They watched for some time before they could get the desired chance, and then two birds flew, toying with each other, to some distance from the rest. They were evidently male and female. Frank put the gun to his shoulder, a report rang through the wood, and both the crossbills, for such they were, fell dead to the ground. Frank might have shot many more, but he was a thorough naturalist, and, as such, he disliked the idea of indiscriminate and useless slaughter. He had procured specimens sufficient, and he humanely let the others go. "Now, Jimmy, we have got a prize. Crossbills are not seen every day. Let us go to the boat-house and skin them, and read something about them in our books." The boat-house, which belonged to Mr. Merivale, stood at the edge of a little bay of the Broad. It was a large, substantial structure, projecting out into the water, and having a large room above, approached by a staircase. This had been appropriated by Frank as his "den," and here it was that he and his friend transacted all their private business, held their natural history meetings, skinned and stuffed birds, and kept their collection of birds' eggs and butterflies. CHAPTER II. Stuffing the Crossbills.--The proposed Yacht.--An impaled Woodcock. Frank led the way up stairs, and unlocking the door they entered the room, and piling up some brushwood in the grate they lit it, and soon had a roaring fire. The room now presented a very cheerful appearance. A large window at one end looked out over the glittering Broad. The room itself was plainly furnished with a few deal chairs and a table, and at one side of it was an old-fashioned bureau, in the drawers of which the boys' natural history collections were stored. Around the room were several shelves, on which were some very creditably stuffed birds, flower-pots filled with mould and covered with gauze bent over cane arches, the use of which will presently appear, and a good number of books on natural history, chiefly of a cheap and popular kind. Frank got out a box containing knife-blades of various sizes fastened into handles of wood, two pairs of scissors, pliers, and other tools useful or necessary for skinning or stuffing birds; while Jimmy Brett took down a book on birds, and turned to the account of the crossbill; and as Frank was busy at one end of the table skinning the birds, Jimmy at the other end kept up a running commentary on his book for the benefit of his friend, in the following manner:-- "There is a lot about crossbills here, Frank. They are rare, but they have been found at different times and in different months of the year in many parts of the kingdom. They vary greatly in size as well as in colour, according to age, sex, and the time of the year. They are yellow, red, green, or brown at different times, so if it were not for their cross bills it would be rather hard to distinguish them. There are two pictures of them here; one has a rose-coloured back and red-brown wings, and the other has a green back and brown wings. The beaks curve and cross each other, and appear to be particularly suited for breaking open the cones of fir-trees and picking out the seeds, and they will cut open apples and other fruit to get at the pips. They come generally in the winter, but often stay until the spring, and then they may breed here, although it is very seldom that their nests are found. They breed in Norway and Sweden, and nest very early in the year, and their nest seems to be like a missel thrush's, and is placed in fir-trees. Their eggs are white with just a touch of blue or green, and spotted with brown spots." [Illustration: CROSSBILL.] "There, that is all that seems to be worth noticing, but we have got a prize worth having. I am afraid they will not stop and breed. There are not enough pine woods about, and they appear to be fond of going from place to place, so that it is not likely they will be here in the spring." While he talked, Frank quickly and skilfully skinned and cleaned the birds, and then he painted the inside of the skins with a solution of corrosive sublimate dissolved in spirits of wine, which is a most excellent preservative and much more cleanly to handle than arsenical soap. Then he loosely stuffed them with cotton-wool, smoothed the feathers, and placed them on a shelf to dry. "Now, Frank," said Jimmy plaintively, "what _are_ you going to do with that young larch-tree? I have been very patient all this time, so you may as well tell me now." "Well, Jimmy, I have thought of a grand idea. You are the inventive genius of us two, and I usually carry things out; but I have invented something now which we must both help to carry out. What do you think of having a yacht, Jimmy--a large yacht, so that we could sail all over the Broad, and down the rivers, and all over the country, and fish and birdnest, and naturalize, and shoot wildfowl to our hearts' content? What do you think of that, my boy?" "It would be an awfully jolly thing, no doubt; but as far as Hickling Broad goes, it is too shallow for any yacht. Why, except in the Channel, it is not more than four feet deep in any part, large as it is; and parts of it are only two feet deep, so that if we had a yacht we should stick fast directly. Besides, how are we to get a yacht?" "Make one." "How? It will be impossible." "We could not make a yacht of the usual shape, and if we could, it would not suit our purposes. What I propose is that we should build a double yacht. Just listen while I explain, and don't interrupt. We will make two long pontoons, pointed at both ends, and connect the two by cross-pieces, on which we can lay a deck and build a small, low cabin. Such a boat would not draw more than a foot of water, and to make her sail to windward we should have a drop keel or centre board, which we could let down or draw up according to the depth of the water. Then I think a lug sail and mizen would suit her best. We will build her ourselves. And inch deal is cheap enough, so it cannot cost so much. I have saved my pocket-money to buy a lot of books, but I can do without them for a time"---- "I have a couple of sovereigns," eagerly interrupted Jimmy. "That is right; then we can do it swimmingly. We will build her in old Bell's yard, and he will lend us what tools we have not got." Jimmy warmly welcomed the idea, and, getting out some paper and pencils, they began to draw plans and estimates of cost with great enthusiasm. "And now," said Frank, "we will go and see Bell and ask him what he thinks of it." Bell was a very eccentric old man, who lived on the shores of a small and winding creek, which ran up from the Broad. By trade he was a tailor, but he united to this the very different occupation of a boat-builder, and filled up his spare time with fishing and shooting wildfowl. He was a close observer of the habits of beasts, birds, and fishes, and was a great favourite with the boys, whose visits he liked and encouraged. Stepping into the boat that lay moored in the boat-house, the two boys rowed across a bend of the Broad and up the creek to his cottage. The old man was at work in his yard, repairing the bottom of a boat, while his old wife might be seen at the window of the house putting the finishing-touches to the Sunday coat of some village beau. "Good morning, Bell; it is a fine day." "Good morning, young master. Yes, it is a fine day, but it will be finer to-morrow. Yon robin sings higher in the poplar this afternoon than he did this morning, and that is a sure sign that finer weather is coming." "I never knew that before," said Frank. "No, you have not lived so long in the world as I have," replied Bell; "but I am glad you have come, for I have a very strange sight to show you. Look here." He went into the cottage, and returned, bringing with him a dry and withered branch, one end of which had been torn and slit, probably by the wind, so that it was a sharp and jagged spike. On the end of this was impaled a fine woodcock, dead of course, and with the sharp piece of wood imbedded in its breast. "Poor thing, how did it get into that fix?" Jimmy exclaimed. "Well, sir, you see it was in this way. The birds, as you know, are now coming from abroad--I can hear great flocks of them at night sometimes as they fly overhead calling to one another--and last night you know was pitch dark, so that this woodcock, coming over at a great speed, flew against this sharp branch in the dark and spiked itself. When I got up this morning I saw it in that oak-tree, and I sent my boy up to cut off the branch, and knowing you would like to have it, I kept it, just as it was." "We are very much obliged to you, Bell, and we will mount it and stuff it, just as it is. It will be an interesting thing to add to our museum, won't it, Jimmy?" "I have often heard of birds flying against the telegraph wires and being killed in the dark, and of their dashing against windows, either attracted by the light, or not seeing the glass, but I have not heard of anything so curious as this. One cannot help feeling sorry for the poor bird. After a long and tiring journey, and expecting to find all its troubles over, to meet with a sad end like this!" [Illustration: WOODCOCK.] The boys then unfolded their plan to Bell. Anything out of the common was sure to interest him, and hence, though he was not so sanguine of success as the boys were, yet he thought it might be done, and offered to help them as much as he could, and to let them use his yard. "There is nothing like making a beginning," said Frank, who was quick and impetuous in action, and he took off his coat and set to work vigorously to clear a space close by the water's edge, where the keel of a yacht might be laid, while Jimmy went through their calculations of cost with Bell. CHAPTER III. A Momentous Decision. When Frank went home one of the servants told him that his father particularly wished to see him in the library as soon as he came in. He went into the library, and found his father and mother both there and looking rather serious. "Sit down, Frank," said his father. "We have something to say to you about which we wish you to think carefully before you decide. Sir Richard Carleton has been here. He is not only a neighbour but a friend of mine, although as I do not go out much we seldom meet each other. He is a widower with one son, a boy about your age. Do you know him?" "Very slightly, sir." "Well, this son of his, Dick Carleton, is very delicate; he has grown very tall and beyond his strength, and the doctor says he must not be sent to a public school. Now at home he has no boy companions, and he is moping himself to death. Sir Richard says he takes no interest in anything; he won't ride or work, and if he goes on like this it will end in a serious illness. What his father wants to do is to arouse in him some interest in his life, and to awake him out of the deadly apathy he is in at present. Sir Richard knows your healthy outdoor mode of life, and your fondness for Natural History and sport, and he thinks you might, if you chose, be the means of making his boy take some interest in the same sort of thing, and if you did so you would in all probability save his son's life. Now what he proposes is this: That you should leave the Grammar School at Norwich, and that his son and you should be placed under the tuition of our Rector until it is time to go to college. Your education would be as well attended to as at Norwich, and your mother and I could have no objection to the arrangement, but we wish you to decide for yourself." Frank's decision was made at once. The life at the Grammar School was very jolly, with its cricket and football and the rowing matches on the river, but if this new arrangement were carried out there would be far better opportunities of building and sailing the projected yacht, and of sporting and naturalizing on the broads and rivers, so he at once answered-- "I shall be very willing to try it, sir; but Jimmy Brett must be included in the arrangement. I could not desert him, and he would be miserable without me at school. It would never do to separate us now, father." "Well, but do you think his grandmother can afford it? It will be more expensive than being at the Grammar School." "Then I tell you what, father and mother: the Rector must only charge Jimmy the same as the Grammar School, and you must make up the difference to him, and I will do with less pocket-money." "You shall not make that sacrifice, darling," said Mrs. Merivale; "we will put that all right, and I will go and see Mrs. Brett in the morning." And so the matter was finally arranged, and that the boys might become well acquainted with each other, Dick Carleton was invited to stay at Mr. Merivale's. But before he comes we will just go back a few hours and follow merry Mary Merivale, as her brother called her, and her younger sister Florrie, on their search for pupæ. CHAPTER IV. Digging for Pupæ.--Dick Carleton.--Metamorphoses of Butterfly. About two miles further inland from Mr. Merivale's and in the midst of a fine and well-wooded country, was Sir Richard Carleton's house. Around it was a park with larger timber trees than were to be found in the rest of the countryside. Mary and Florence Merivale had fixed on this spot as the scene of their labours in the cause of science, as represented by the collections of their brother and Jimmy Brett. Leaving the path, they trespassed boldly in search of suitable trees for their purpose. Frank had told them that the vicinity of houses was the best, because moths, in all probability attracted by the lights, laid their eggs on trees and shrubs near houses. So the two girls went up as near the large house as they thought they might venture without being seen, and commenced their search. A tall youth strolling languidly down a path through the woods saw two kneeling figures in red cloaks at the foot of a large willow-tree, and their movements aroused his curiosity, and while he stands looking at them let us say what manner of boy Dick Carleton is. He is very tall and thin, but he has a figure that only wants filling out to be handsome. He has a very beautiful face and head, and curly brown hair. His large dark eyes and pale complexion make him look more delicate than he really is, but he is afflicted with a listless melancholy that shows itself in every movement. It was this melancholy which had aroused his father's fears, and it was plain that if it were not checked in time grave results might follow. He stood for some time looking at the two girls, wishing to ask what they were doing, but too shy to do so. At last Mary caught sight of him, and rising, she said-- "I hope we are not trespassing?" "You are trespassing, but it does not matter," replied Dick, taking off his hat. "But may I ask what you are doing?" "We are digging for pupæ," answered Mary. "And what are pupæ?" "Don't you know?" asked Mary in surprise. "No." "Why they come into moths. The moth lays its egg, the eggs turn into caterpillars, which feed on leaves and trees, and then turn into these things," and she then showed him five or six large red cylindrical objects which she had in her basket. "When the spring comes these will turn into moths." "How wonderful," said Dick. "I did not know that before; but if the caterpillars feed on leaves, how is it that you dig those from the ground?" "The caterpillars of some moths go into the earth before they change into the pupæ state. I do not know why: I suppose they think it safer." "Where did you learn all this?" said Dick, his eyes lighting up with a new life and interest at this first glimpse of what was to him a new and strange world. "From my brother Frank and Jimmy Brett. They are making collections, and we are helping them as much as we can. My brother is Frank Merivale, and I am Mary Merivale." "And my name is Carleton; but please tell me more about these things. Will they turn into white butterflies?" "They won't turn into butterflies at all, but into moths, great ugly things with thick bodies; only Frank and Jimmy like them." [Illustration: METAMORPHOSES OF BUTTERFLY.] "I should like to find some if you will show me how to dig for them. I suppose if I keep them they will turn into moths some time." [Illustration: THE PARK IN SUMMER.] "Yes; put them into a flower-pot full of mould and keep it rather damp, and put something over so that the moths sha'n't fly away, and in the spring they will come out; but it is prettiest to see butterflies come out. They split open the chrysalis at the back of its neck and creep out, but their wings are all shrivelled up to nothing, and they climb up the side of the box, and then their wings spread out, and get so large and beautiful! I could find you plenty of the chrysalides of the white butterflies by your greenhouses, but if you want moths, take this trowel and dig around the other side of this tree about three inches from it and three inches deep. They do not breed on all trees; we have tried five to-day and found nothing, but at this one we have got twelve." More amused and interested than he had ever been before, Dick knelt down and began to dig. Very soon he found a large chrysalis, and, encouraged by this success, he dug more vigorously, and very soon he had found five, while the girls had increased their spoils to sixteen. "Now, Miss Merivale, will you come to the greenhouses and show me how to get some butterfly chrysalides? I shall be very glad if you will, and I should like to introduce you to my father, and I will ask him to ask your brother here, then he could tell me more about these things." [Illustration: WHITE HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY.] Mary hesitated, but Florrie said, "Oh, do go, Mary;" so she consented, and they walked up through the gardens, and Mary showed Dick where to look for the chrysalides of the common white butterfly, which are to be found through the winter attached by a silken thread to the sheltered sides of walls, and under the coping of greenhouses and buildings near the gardens where the caterpillars have fed on the lettuces and cabbages. Sir Richard Carleton was in one of the conservatories, and seeing him, Dick cried out-- "Father, these red things will turn into moths, and these greenish-white ones into butterflies." "Yes, Dick, I know they will." "But you never told me so before, father." "Well, my boy, I never thought it would interest you, but I am very glad it does interest you. This is Mary Merivale, I think. How do you do, my dears? Come into the library all of you, and I will show you some books on butterflies." They went into the house and had some tea and cake, and turned over the pages of a book on entomology with coloured plates, which had lain dusty and forgotten on the shelves until now, and Mary and her sister pointed out to Dick moths and butterflies which their brother and Jimmy had in their collection. Sir Richard saw with delight that the right chord had been touched in his son's mind, and he no longer doubted the success of the experiment he had urged Mr. Merivale to try. The time slipped rapidly away, and when it was high time to go, Mary and Florrie were driven home by Sir Richard's groom, charmed with their visit, and full of praises of Sir Richard and his son. Dick Carleton was eager to know more of entomology, and set to work at once to read about it with an energy he had never displayed for anything before, and the father wrote off to his booksellers to order a newer and more reliable book upon the science than the one he possessed, to be given to Dick. CHAPTER V. Building the Yacht.--The Launch.--Great Crested Grebe's nest.-- A Floating Coot's nest.--Golden Crested Wrens.-- Their Migration.--The Flight of a Heron. When Dick Carleton arrived at Mr. Merivale's to commence the visit which was to initiate the friendship of the boys, Frank and Jimmy were at the boat-house; and as soon as Dick had been welcomed by Mr. and Mrs. Merivale, Mary took him off to the boat-house to introduce him to Frank and Jimmy, and see that he was shown their collections. When they opened the door they saw the two boys busy at the table, with sheets of paper and drawing instruments before them. Dick felt and looked rather shy and nervous, but Frank's hearty greeting put him at his ease. Mary proceeded to do the honour of the place, and walked Dick about from side to side of the room to show him their butterflies and birds' eggs, stuffed birds, and the other natural history curiosities which the boys had collected, while they were followed by Frank and Jimmy, who smiled at her eagerness. They had a very fair collection of eggs, including most of the common kinds, but their collection of butterflies was not so good, as neither Frank nor Jimmy cared so much for entomology as they did for ornithology. "What are all these plans and drawings for?" said Mary, pointing to the litter on the table. "Shall we tell her Jimmy?" said Frank. "Yes, why not? She will know some time, so she may as well know now. Besides, she can help us to make the sails, you know. We sha'n't do the sewing so well as the wood-work." So the great project of the yacht was explained. Mary danced about the room in glee, and already fancied herself sailing about the broad. Dick said-- "If it can be done, it would be the nicest thing one could think of." "It shall be done," said Frank decisively, and Dick looked up at him with admiring envy, and replied-- "Then I will help you all I can, and go shares with you in the expense." "You are a brick," said Frank; "come and look at our plans, and see if you can make any suggestions." Later on, when Frank and Jimmy were left alone, Frank said-- "He'll do, Jimmy." Jimmy said, "Yes," but looked mournful. "What's the matter, Jimmy?" "Two are company, but three are none; and you may like him better than me." Frank's hand descended heavily on his friend's shoulder, and he shook him roughly. "Don't be a fool, Jimmy," was all that he said, but in spite of the rude speech and the rough action, Jimmy saw a meaning beyond, and was quite satisfied. His face grew bright again, and from that time forward a warm friendship existed between the three boys, and was never broken or disturbed by any twinge of jealousy. [Illustration: BUILDING THE BOAT.] They lost no time in commencing to build the boat. The first thing to be done was to make two long pontoons or floats, on which to erect the superstructure of the yacht. This was a comparatively easy matter. They made two long wooden boxes of the following sizes and dimensions. Each box was twenty-four feet long, four feet wide in the middle portion and tapering off at each end to a fine point, and two feet six inches deep. It was made of one-inch deal, and strongly supported and fastened together by ribs and cross-pieces of wood in the interior. The seams were caulked with tow and a mixture of red and white lead, and then covered or protected by slips of wood nailed along them. These two pontoons were then laid on the ground side by side with a space of three feet six inches between their centres. They were then joined together by strong pieces of wood fastened the whole way across, every two feet. On the top of these again, a flooring of planks was laid, and neatly finished off round the edges with a bulwark of rope stretched on iron uprights. On this was erected a cabin three feet six inches in height, nine feet long and seven feet wide. This was fitted with a door at the aft end, and a row of little windows along each side. Inside were two low broad seats, which were also intended to serve as beds when occasion should require. Each pontoon was fitted with a rudder and a helm, and these were connected by a cross-piece of wood, so that both rudders were worked at once. On this cross-piece were two iron loops, that the steersman, holding on by them, might have greater power over the helm. Each pontoon had a strong keel about two inches deep to protect its bottom from injury. Such a keel was not sufficient to enable the boat to sail to windward, so two drop-keels or centre-boards were added, each about seven feet long and two feet six inches deep. These were fixed in a line along the centre two-thirds of the boat, and worked on strong pivots at their foremost corners, so that by means of chains attached to their aft corners and passing through holes in the deck they could be let down to any required depth, or hauled up in the space between the pontoons. These were intended to give the yacht a greater hold on the water when beating to windward. The main-mast was stepped close to the bows. Its lower part was weighted with lead and iron, and was so arranged that if it were requisite to pass under low bridges, the mast could be lowered and raised with great facility, working on a fulcrum three feet six inches from the deck. There was no bowsprit, but the fore-stay was made fast to the cross-piece connecting the bows. The mizen-mast was attached to a cross-piece at the stern, and the mizen-sail was worked by a sheet rove through a block at the end of a fixed boom. The main-sail was a lug-sail with a large boom, and did not require to be dipped every time a tack was made. The above is a description of the yacht when completed, but it must not be supposed that it was made straight off with no labour. On the contrary, it took an immensity of time and labour before it was completed. The three boys worked at it manfully, Frank taking the lead and doing the major portion of the work. Indeed, they would have given it up many times had it not been for his pluck and determination. Unforeseen difficulties fast presented themselves, and cost them no little thought to overcome. When they had got the two pontoons and the flooring done, they fell short of cash, and for two or three days they went about very disconsolately, until Dick informed them that his father's gardener was about to demolish a summer-house in the garden, and that they might have the wood. This enabled them to make the cabin, and by dint of keeping their eyes open, and picking up every scrap of wood or iron, and every nail or screw which they came across, they got along pretty well until Frank's quarter-day came, and he received his allowance of pocket-money. Mr. Merivale, who of course soon found out what they were after, laughingly said that they went about with such greedy eyes, and looked so suspiciously at everything, that he was afraid they might take a fancy to some part of him, as being useful for some part of their boat. [Illustration: A YARMOUTH YAWL.] At last they had everything ready but the sails, and then they had an unexpected stroke of good luck. Dick discovered in an old lumber loft, a complete set of sails belonging to a yawl-rigged yacht which was formerly the property of his grandfather. These his father willingly gave to him. Although so old they were strong, and they were speedily converted into sails for the yacht. Then the yacht was painted white, and a small flat-bottomed punt with pointed bows was made to accompany her, and all was ready for launching. By this time the land was green with spring, and the boys had commenced their studies with Mr. Meredith the Rector,--a clever, sensible Welshman, just the man to attract and manage three such boys as ours. Saturday, being a holiday, was fixed for the launching, and the boys were at Bell's yard by six o'clock in the morning, getting everything in readiness for the great event, and excited with the thought of a long day's sail in a yacht of their own making. It was a warm, bright morning. The hedges were shining with a most brilliant green, and clothed in places with the creamy white of the hawthorn blossoms. The broad lay still and placid in the sunlight, and the pairing water-birds swam in and out of its reed-fringed margin, and from one to another of its dense 'ronds,' or islands of reeds. "There is not a breath of wind," said Frank, wetting his finger, and holding it up, to feel if possible by the increased coldness on one side or another, from which quarter the wind was blowing. "I think there's a slight air from the south," he said. "Yes," replied Bell, "it will blow from the south or west to-day, if it blows at all, and I think from the look of those little fleecy clouds, that there will be a breeze before long." "Well, I am sure the ancient mariner never longed for a breeze as much as we do now to try our beautiful boat with," said Frank; "but by the way, what shall we call her? We have never thought of a name for her." Dick replied: "Call her the _Swan_, because like the Swan on 'sweet St. Mary's Lake,' she will float _double_." "Bravo! that is not bad. We will call her the _Swan_ then; but come, let us launch her." They set to work with a will, and, aided by Bell, they quickly had her on the water. Jumping on board, they felt the delight of being on board their own handiwork. They pushed the yacht along the narrow channel, which was barely wide enough for it, until they came to its outlet into the broad, and then they found their progress barred. A little promontory of rushes ran out across the dyke, and on the end of this promontory was a coot's nest containing eight eggs. It was necessary to cut away the promontory before the boat could pass into the open broad. They were loath to destroy the nest, so they carefully moved it from its position; and as it was very large and substantial, they allowed it to float, thinking the old bird would come and fix it herself. Then with beating hearts they hoisted their sails. Frank went to the helm, Jimmy took the main-sail sheet, and Dick the mizen sheet, while Bell sat on the cabin and whistled for a wind. "I am sure the leaves of the trees are rustling a little bit," said Dick. "And I think I see a ripple on the water," said Jimmy. Frank looked back and saw that they were already fifty yards from the shore, and that they were rapidly increasing the distance. "Why, look! she sails fast, without any wind at all," he said; but then they became sensible that there was a slight zephyr from the south, which increased as they got out more into the open water. A ripple arose on the water, and the yacht sailed faster. A cheer broke from the boys as they saw their efforts were crowned with success. The breeze increased, and they sped along more quickly, passing over acres of shallow water that sparkled as clear as glass over the bright yellow gravel. Immense shoals of bream and perch, and many large pike, darted away from them as they sailed on, and the _Swan_ slipped as softly through the water as they could desire. They went the whole length of the broad, and then Frank cried out-- "Stand by, we are going about; haul in her sheet;" and putting the helm over, the yacht swung round like a top, and went across on the port tack up the broad. They put about again across to the reed bed, and after one more tack they came within hail of the boat-house, where they could see Mary and Florrie waiting for them, and waving their handkerchiefs. Frank took his "line" steadily, and ran her up in the wind's eye within ten yards of the boat-house; and Dick took the punt ashore for the two girls, who were loud in their expressions of delight and amazement. With this addition to their party they cruised about the broad for some hours, learning how to handle their craft, and gaining confidence in her. Towards noon it came on to blow very hard, and they landed Mary and Florrie, and set to work to enjoy themselves the more thoroughly as the breeze grew stronger. The boat behaved admirably. She was as steady as a rock, heeling over but very slightly even when the breeze blew strong on her beam. She came about well, and if she hung fire or was in danger of missing stays they had only to haul on the mizen-sheet, and her head went round "in a jiffy." She drew little more than a foot of water, so could, when her keels were drawn up, pass over the shallowest part of the broad in safety. "I say, this is fine," said Jimmy, rubbing his hands. Frank said nothing, but his kindling eye and satisfied look showed how thoroughly he enjoyed it all. While making a long tack across the broad, they ran across a straggling bed of rushes at a shallow portion. They offered but little resistance to their passage, but as they charged through them, Frank cried out-- "I say, we passed over a great crested grebe's nest. I saw the eggs roll out into the water;" and he ran the boat into the wind and let her drift back stern foremost to the spot where the nest had been. "It was only a lump of rotting weed, all broken and dirty," said Dick. "That's what all grebe's nests look like," answered Frank; "they cover them with reeds when they leave them, so that no one can see the eggs, and few would think there were any there. Here's the place, drive the boat-hook in and hold the boat steady while I get up the eggs. There were five, but two are broken. What a pity! We don't want any for our collection, and the birds look so pretty on the broad, that it is a shame to disturb them, but we must take them now I suppose. Let's go back and see how the coot's nest is getting on." They sailed back some way, and then to their great surprise, they saw the coot's nest floating across the broad, and the old bird swimming round it, and evidently very much puzzled to know what to do. "Let us tack near her and watch," said Jimmy. So they sailed round at a distance and watched the poor bird, which followed its boat-like nest as it drifted before the wind. At length the boys were pleased to see the bird make an effort to get on the nest, and so strongly built was it that it bore her weight well. There she sat, and sailed before the wind at a fair pace. "Did you ever see the like of that before?" "No," answered Bell, "but I warrant you that the eggs must have been hard set, and near to being hatched, or she would never have done that." "She deserves to hatch them, at any rate. Had we better fix the nest or leave it alone?" "Better leave it alone; I think she will stick to it if it does not sink below her." [Illustration: THE COMMON COOT.] On Monday evening the boys sailed about the broad in search of the floating coot's nest, and found it among the reeds at the north end of the broad, and from the broken egg-shells in it they had no doubt but that the coot had hatched her young ones in safety, as she deserved to do. After landing Bell they ran the yacht into a 'rond' of reeds, and proceeded to eat their dinner, which they had brought with them, and very happy and comfortable they were. The sun shone brightly, the warm wind rustled through the reeds and flags, the sky and the water were blue, their boat was a success, and they sat and talked of cruises, and planned expeditions, and were as merry and jolly as any boys need desire to be. While they were talking, half-a-dozen tiny little gold-crested wrens alighted on the cordage of the mast. They seemed very tame and tired, and descended to the deck to eat some crumbs which were thrown to them. [Illustration: COMMON WREN AND EGG.] "What pretty little things they are, with their fiery yellow heads," said Frank. "To think a tiny bird like that could make a long migration! These birds have only just arrived, that's clear." "Do gold crests migrate?" asked Jimmy. "Yes, they go south for the winter, and come back again in the spring. I don't know how far they go, but they have been taken some distance from land. More probably, however, these have been blown from the coast, for I don't think they cross the sea as a rule." As they returned homeward, the boys in running round a point of reeds, came upon a heron, which scuttled away in great haste, and in a very undignified manner. It seemed at first as if they should catch him, as they followed him so closely, but as he got fairly away, he rose in the air and distanced them. "How slowly he flaps his wings," said Dick. "How many times a minute do you think he flaps them?" asked Jimmy. [Illustration: HERON.] "Just about forty, at the outside," replied Dick. "Well, do you count, while I time you," and Jimmy took out his watch and marked the time, while Dick counted one, two, three, &c. When he had counted 120 Jimmy said-- "Stop, the minute is up. Aren't you astonished?" "I am, and no mistake. How deceptive his flight is, and just fancy at what a pace must the wings of the smaller birds go!" They brought the yacht to anchor in front of the boat-house, and went home to relate the adventures of their voyage. CHAPTER VI. Mr. Meredith.--"Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might."--A Botanical Lecture.--The Goat Moth.--Blowing up a Tree.-- An astonished Cow.--Caterpillars in the Wood. On the morrow, after morning service, the three boys (Dick having been invited to spend the day with Frank) were walking from church and talking upon the sermon which Mr. Meredith had just preached to them. It was a beautiful morning--one of those days on which it is a treat to live. The sun shone from a sky which was brilliant in its blue and white, the waters of the lake sparkled diamond-like under the stirring influence of a warm westerly wind. The scent of the honeysuckle and the roses in the cottage gardens filled the air with pleasant incense, and from every tall tree-top a thrush or blackbird sang his merriest. "That wasn't a bad motto which Meredith took for his text: 'Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might,'" said Frank. "I think it is a motto you endeavour to carry out, Frank," answered Jimmy. "Well, I think if a fellow does that he can't be far wrong," replied Frank; "but here is the parson himself." A tall, broad-shouldered man came quickly up and said to them: "Well, boys, I hope you are applying my sermon to yourselves." "We should be glad to do so if we were quite sure about the application, Mr. Meredith," replied Frank. "Ah, you young rascal, you could not have been attending; but seriously, what I meant was this: You boys, and especially Master Frank, are very prone to take up a thing with all your might when once you begin. Now that is very right and proper. Whatever you do you should do your best to do well; but what I want you particularly to understand is that before taking up a thing, you should first of all think well and decide whether it is the right thing to do, and it is not until that question is settled that it becomes right to throw your whole heart into it. Now the immediate application of this is this: You are going head over heels into the study of Natural History, and you are making collections as fast as you can. Now it won't take you long to decide that Natural History is a very right and proper thing for you to take up, and therefore you may study it with all your might, and, I doubt not, to the praise and glory of God; but be very careful about the collecting part of the business. Don't let your zeal carry you too far. Don't let collecting be your sole aim and object, or you will become very low types of naturalists. Let it be only secondary and subservient to observation. Let your aim be to preserve rather than to destroy. Remember that God gave life to His creatures that they might enjoy it, as well as fulfil their missions and propagate their species. Therefore if you come across a rare bird, do not kill it unnecessarily; if you can observe its living motions it will interest you more and do you more good than will the possession of its stuffed body when dead." "I quite understand what you mean, sir," replied Frank; "and it is only what my father has often told me before. We will try to follow our pursuits in moderation." "Just so; then, as you have heard me so patiently, I will trouble you with another application of my sermon. Do what you are doing _well_. Don't let your observation be too cursory. Don't be Jacks of all trades and masters of none. This district is teeming with bird, insect, and animal life. You boys have peculiar opportunities for learning and discovering all that is rare and interesting. You are sharp, young, and active, and nothing can escape you. Now is the time for you to store up facts which will always be valuable. Buy yourselves notebooks; put down everything in writing which seems to you to be strange and noteworthy, and don't trust to your memories. But above all, take up some one branch of study and stick to it. It is well for you to know a little of everything, but it is better for you to know a great deal of one thing. Therefore I should advise each of you to take up a line that suits him and to pay particular attention to it. Thus you, Frank, may take up Ornithology; you, Dick, should go in for Entomology; and Jimmy, why should you not take up Botany?" The boys quite concurred in the justice of his observations, but Jimmy said: "There is nothing I should like better than to know something of Botany, but there seems so much to learn that I am almost afraid to begin." "Oh, nonsense," exclaimed Mr. Meredith; "let me give you a first lesson in it now. I suppose you know the names of all the most common flowers; but just look at their beauty. See how this hedge-bank is yellow with primroses, and yonder you see the faint blue of the violets peeping from their bed of dark-green leaves, and here is the white blossom of a strawberry, which I pluck to show you of what a flower consists. First there is the root, through which it draws its nourishment from the earth. Then there is the stem, and on the top of that is this green outer whorl or circle of leaves, which is called the calyx. Within the calyx is the corolla, which is formed of petals, which in this case are of a beautiful white. The corolla is the part in which the colour and beauty of a flower generally resides. Within the corolla are the stamens, and within the stamens are the pistils. The stamens and the pistils are the organs of reproduction, and the yellow dust or pollen which you see on most flowers is the medium by which the seeds are fertilized. Now this flower which I have just plucked is the wood-sorrel. Notice its threefold emerald-green leaf and the delicate white flower with the purple veins. It is pretty, is it not? See, if I strike it roughly, it shrinks and folds up something like a sensitive plant. It is a capital weather-glass. At the approach of rain both its flowers and leaves close up, and even if a cloud passes over the sun the flowers will close a little; and, finally, its leaves taste of a pleasant acid. There, you will have had enough of my lecture for the present, but I should like to tell you more about flowers some other time." The boys were both pleased and interested with what he had told them, and expressed their thanks accordingly; and then Mr. Meredith left them and went home to dinner. "I say, he is a brick of a fellow," said Jimmy; "if all parsons were like that man everybody else in the world would have a better time of it." They went into the boat-house and sat at the open window looking over the sparkling broad. Frank said: "I tell you what we must do. We must get Meredith to give us part of our holiday at the end of May or beginning of June, and we will take a cruise over all the rivers and broads of Norfolk and Suffolk. We could do it nicely in three weeks and scour every inch of the country in that time. What do you say? I will undertake to get my father's consent and Mrs. Brett's. What will Sir Richard say, Dick?" "If you go, Frank, I am sure he will let me go; he has every confidence in you, and that you will keep us all out of mischief." "I will try. Then it is agreed that we go." "Most certainly. Frank will go in for birds'-nesting, Dick will catch butterflies and moths, and I must try to do something in the way of botany." "And now it is time to go in; but before we go I just want to say that there is an old willow-tree down by the Broad which father thinks is an eyesore. I think that it is a likely tree in which to find the caterpillars of the goat-moth, which you know live on the wood of a willow, and eat long tunnels and galleries in it. What do you say to blowing the tree up with gunpowder?--it is only good for firewood, and perhaps we may find some caterpillars. Shall we get up early in the morning, bore a big hole into the heart of the tree, and fill it with gunpowder, set a train to it, and blow the whole affair up?" Such a proposal was sure to meet with consent, and at seven o'clock the next morning the boys were down at the tree, boring a large hole into it. The caterpillar of the great goat-moth feeds upon the wood of timber trees, notably oak, willow, and poplar. He is a smooth, ugly fellow of a red and yellow colour, with black feet and claws. He makes extensive galleries through the heart of a tree, eating and swallowing all that he gnaws away from the wood in his onward passage. During the summer he eats his way slowly through the tree, making numerous and winding galleries; but during the autumn and winter he takes a siesta, first casing himself in a strong covering made of chips of wood and the silk which he weaves. The next summer he renews his work, and so he lives and grows for the space of three years, and then turns into the pupæ state, and emerges about July a dark brown but not unlovely moth, which lives for a few weeks and then lays its eggs and dies. The boring was completed and was rammed full of coarse powder, and the mouth of the hole plugged up with a piece of wood. Through this plug a small hole was bored, and through this a long hollow straw made into a fuse was inserted. Setting fire to this, they retired to some distance to await the issue of their experiment. There was unfortunately a cow in the same meadow, and this cow was very much interested in their movements; so when they left the tree the cow approached, its curiosity the more aroused by the smoke rising from the burning fuse. "Now there is an instance of unreasoning curiosity which animals possess. That cow will poke her nose into that tree, and get blown up for her pains if we don't stop her. Let's shy stones at her." But stones in that marshy meadow were not easy to procure, so they tore up clods of earth and threw them at the cow. She scampered away, but went to the other side of the tree and again approached it. The boys dared not go any nearer to the old willow, because they momentarily expected the explosion, and they were in a great fright lest the cow should suffer damage. Just then, with a loud report and much smoke the powder exploded. They threw themselves down to avoid any errant fragments, and the cow scampered off unhurt, but exceedingly astonished and frightened, jumped the ditch which separated the meadow from the next one, and finally landed herself in another ditch, from which she had to be drawn with ropes and a vast deal of trouble by some of the neighbours. The first thought of the boys was to see after the cow, and when they saw she was in a fair way of being pulled out, they returned to their tree, and found it split and torn to pieces and thrown about in all directions. It was quite a chance whether they found any caterpillars in the tree or not, and, to tell the truth, they hardly expected to be successful in their search. What was their delight then to find, that not only were there caterpillars there, but a great number of them. Three or four they found dead and mangled by the force of the explosion, but the many perforations in the wood showed that there were many more caterpillars there. With the aid of a saw and axe they dug out several caterpillars not yet full grown, and also several pupæ which they knew would be out in two months' time. They carried some large pieces of the wood up to the boat-house for living caterpillars to feed on, and reinserted the pupæ in their wooden chambers, where they were safely kept until their appearance in July. The caterpillars of the white butterflies which Dick had collected under Mary's instructions had some time since come out, and it was a very pretty sight to see the chrysalis split at the head and the insect creep out with its wings all wet and crumpled, and then to watch them gradually expand to their full size and dry and harden, until the perfect insect was ready for flight, when with a few flaps of its wings, as if to try them, it would launch into the sunshine with a strong swift flight. CHAPTER VII. A Trial Sail.--Preparing for a Cruise.--Charging a Reed Bed.-- An explosion of Birds.--The First Adventure.-- Orange-Tip Butterfly.--No Salt.--How Salt is obtained. The project of the cruise was not allowed to drop. The more the boys thought about it the more they determined to take it. The first thing to do was to obtain the consent of their elders. Mr. Merivale had no great objection to it. Sir Richard Carleton was so pleased with the rapid improvement in the health and spirits of his son that he would have consented to anything he proposed. Indeed, he was so anxious to help the boys in all their undertakings, that he would have spoilt them too much had it not been for the advice of Mr. Merivale, who said to him-- "Don't let the boys think they can have anything they like for the asking, or you will spoil their independence of character. Depend upon it they will find far more delight in making things for themselves than in having them bought for them, and it will do them more good." Sir Richard saw the wisdom of this advice, but he insisted upon giving them a book on botany; and one day when the boys went into the boat-house they saw on the shelves a nicely bound copy of Ann Pratt's _Flowering Plants of Great Britain_ in six volumes. This was a great acquisition to them, and Jimmy, in the fulness of his delight, got upon the table with a volume under each arm, and executed a war-dance of exultation. The consent of the ladies was far harder to obtain. Mrs. Brett said she would see what Mrs. Merivale said; and Mrs. Merivale was afraid that it would not be safe, and for some days she hung back, and would not say "yes" or "no," although Frank pleaded hard with her. His mother was very much afraid of the water. She did not like to see yachts heeling over as if they were going to be upset, and she thought the boys were not old enough to manage a yacht by themselves. Frank at last persuaded her to take a sail in the _Swan_, and see for herself how safe it was, and a day was fixed when everyone should have a sail on the Broad, and try the capacities both of the yacht and of the boys as sailors. When the day arrived, however, Frank put them off, saying it was not convenient. Mr. Merivale smiled as he guessed the reason. It was blowing a stiff breeze, and sailing on such a day would not reassure a timid woman. The next day, however, was fine, and came with a gentle breeze, just rippling the surface of the water, and with a confident air, Frank got his party on board. The sail was quite a success. The yacht glided about on an even keel, and Frank, who was at the helm, carefully avoided any abrupt motion in tacking or gybing. "You see it is quite safe, mother," said he. "Yes, my dear, I suppose it is, and I suppose you must go, as you have set your heart upon it; but how can you possibly think of sleeping in that small cabin?" "One of us will sleep at each side, and the third will sleep in a hammock stretched across the middle." "But you will be suffocated, dear." "Have no fear, mother, we will see to the ventilation." So they obtained permission to go, and, as time was an object, they set to work with great vigour to prepare for their voyage. They made a hammock out of an old sail. Their beds were formed of cushions placed on the bunks on either side of the cabin. To prevent the necessity of tucking in their bedclothes they adopted a well-known dodge of yachtsmen; which is to double the sheets and blankets, and sew the sides and bottoms together, so as to form a bag into which they could creep. They took fishing-tackle with them, and also their old muzzle loader. Dick took his butterfly net, Jimmy a quantity of newspapers in which to dry plants, and Frank an opera-glass, with which to watch the movements of birds at a distance. Frank also took care to see to the eating department, and with his mother's help he got a very fair stock of provisions on board. The day at length arrived for their departure. It was the Monday in the last week of May. At eight o'clock in the morning they bade farewell to Mary and Florrie, who had come to see them off, hoisted their sails, and away they went before a light breeze from the northward. A cheer broke from them as they found themselves fairly afloat, and the boat-house grow smaller in the distance behind them, and the waving handkerchiefs of the two girls could be seen no longer. It was a beautiful morning, and their spirits were high. Holidays, sport, and adventure lay before them, a stout boat under them. There were no three happier boys in the world. They sailed slowly through the narrow outlet of Hickling Broad into Whiteslea Pool, and through another narrow passage into Heigham Sounds. A dyke called the Old Meadow Dyke ran from the Broad on the left into Horsey Mere; and Frank proposed making a detour along this and exploring Horsey Mere, but the other boys were too anxious to get on. It was too near home to begin to explore. In the middle of Heigham Sounds, which is a good sized sheet of water, was a large bed of reeds, such as is locally called a 'rond.' "Let us go slap-dash into that. We shall be sure to find some nests," said Frank. "All right," said both Jimmy and Dick. So Frank put the helm up, and the yacht drove on before the wind, surging through the rustling reeds, which bowed and bent before her, until she came to a standstill well into the heart of the rond. "Down with the sails," said Frank, and the halyards were let go and the sails came down with a run. As the yacht crashed into the rond there was quite an explosion of birds from it. Water-hens, coots, and marsh-tits flew out on both sides, and from the centre of it rose a little duck with a bright, chestnut-coloured head and neck. "That is a teal," said Frank, "we shall find her nest here, so look carefully." They jumped into the shallow water, having first taken off their shoes and stockings, and began to hunt about for nests. They speedily found several coots' and water-hens' nests, and also a dab-chick's; but they wanted none of these, and continued their search for the teal's nest. At last-- "Here it is," said Dick delightedly, and sure enough there the nest was, in a small bush which grew in the very centre of the rond, where the soil was pretty firm. The nest was large and thickly lined with feathers, and it contained twelve cream-coloured eggs. They took six of them, and then, satisfied with their spoil, they went back to their yacht, and tried to push her off again. But this was no easy task. They pushed and pushed, until they were exhausted, and the only effect their pushing seemed to have was to push their own legs deeper into the mud. The yacht refused to be moved. "Well, this is a pretty go, to be wrecked at the very beginning of our cruise! We have run her almost high and dry. How they will laugh at us at home!" said Jimmy. "They sha'n't have the chance of doing that. We will get her off somehow or other. We ought to have gone to leeward of the rond, and run her up in the wind's eye into it, and then we could have backed her off with the sails," said Frank. "Live and learn," said Dick. "I vote we strip and go overboard again and try to lift her off. We can get the oars from the boat, and use them as levers." This was undoubtedly the best thing to do, and although the water was not over warm, they took off their clothes and worked and pushed away, until they made the mud around the yacht as soft as a pudding, and themselves as black as negroes. Then the yacht moved a little, and putting forth all their strength they shoved her back into deeper water. Not waiting to dress themselves, they ran the sails up and steered away for the Kendal Dyke at the south-east end of the Broad. They meant to stay at the mouth of the Broad to bathe and dress. There was no one to see them, so it did not matter. As they neared the mouth of the dyke, to their great dismay a yacht with several people on board came out of it. The people stared in blank astonishment at the strange double-bodied yacht and her still stranger crew. Jimmy and Dick dived at once into the cabin. Frank could not leave the helm, and yet could not stay where he was; so without further thought he plunged into the water at the stern of the yacht, and, holding on by the rudder, he contrived to keep her on her course until Jimmy reappeared with something thrown over him, and took hold of the tiller. When they came to an anchorage in a secluded spot among the reeds, they bathed and dressed. "Well," said Dick, "if we go on having adventures at this rate, we shall have plenty to tell when we get home." "I like adventures, but these are not the sort I like," said Jimmy. "Well, never mind, better luck next time," said Frank, soothingly. Sailing through Kendal Dyke, which in places was so narrow that the _Swan_ brushed the reeds on both sides as she passed through, they reached the Hundred Stream, and, turning to the south-westward, they sailed, with no further adventure, until they came to Heigham Bridge, where they had to lower their masts in order to get through. While Frank and Jimmy did this, Dick took his butterfly net, and went after an orange-tip butterfly, which he saw flying past. This butterfly is one of the first which makes its appearance in the spring, and it is one of the prettiest. It looks as if a bunch of red and white rose petals had taken to themselves wings and fled. It is a small butterfly, having an orange-red tip on the ends of its forewings. The male only has this ornament. The female has only a greyish black tip. The under surface of the wings of this pretty insect is no less beautiful than the upper. It is white, with bright green marblings, or what appear as bright green to the naked eye. When looked at through the microscope it will be found that the green appearance is caused by the mixture of black and bright-yellow scales. (I suppose that most of my boy readers will know that the dust which is so easily rubbed off a butterfly's wings is in reality a coating of scales arranged one over the other like feathers and of very exquisite shapes.) The caterpillar of the orange-tip is green, with a white stripe on each side, and the chrysalis is very peculiar in shape, tooth-like, and pointed at both ends. [Illustration: ORANGE-TIP BUTTERFLY.] Dick was a long time away; and when he came back, flushed with exercise, he had no less than eight orange-tips in his net, which he proceeded to kill and set there and then. They sailed on very slowly, for the breeze had fallen, until they came to the Thurne Mouth, and then they turned up the Bure until they came to St. Benedict's Abbey, the ruins of which stand on the northern bank of the river. Here they determined to camp for the night, and accordingly ran their boat into a marshy creek, and made her fast to the reeds. They were much amused at the remarks of the people whom they passed, whether on the bank or on board the wherries and yachts. The like of the _Swan_ had never before been seen on Norfolk waters. She was a _rara avis in terris_ and excited any amount of appreciatory and depreciatory comment. After making the boat snug and comfortable, the boys proceeded to cook their dinner. They brought out from the lockers some cold beef and ham, and boiled the potatoes in a small tin saucepan over the spirit-lamp. The meal was soon ready, and they sat down to it with most excellent appetites. "Where have you put the salt, Frank?" asked Dick. "The salt?" replied Frank, thoughtfully. "Yes, the salt." "Well, let me see. Dear me, we must have forgotten it." "But Frank, how can you--how can anybody eat beef without salt?" said Jimmy reproachfully. "Never mind, we will get some to-morrow," said Frank, looking guilty. "There are no shops about here, and there are no salt-mines in the marsh," said Jimmy, who refused to be comforted. "Talking about salt-mines, have you ever been down one?" said Frank, who was eager to turn the subject. "No; have you?" "Yes, and a jolly sort of place it is." "Then tell us all about it as a punishment." "It was at Northwich, in Cheshire, last year, when I was on a visit to my uncle. We drove over one day to look at the mines. They get an enormous quantity of salt from that district, and it is of two kinds, the white table salt and that dark lumpy salt they put in fields for cattle. They get the white salt from brine-pits, which are full of salt water. The water is pumped up and put into basins until it evaporates, and the white salt is left behind. There must be big holes in the earth filled with salt water, for as it is pumped away the surface of the earth caves in, and the houses lean against each other in a very tumble-down sort of fashion. The brown or rock-salt is dug out of mines, and we went down one of these. My cousin and I went down in a tub hardly large enough to hold us, and a workman clung to the rope above our heads. The shaft was dirty, narrow, and crooked, and we bumped finely against the sides. I didn't like it at all, I assure you; and when we cleared the shaft and hung suspended over a vast cavern, at the bottom of which were some dim lights, I felt rather in a funk. The man below reached up to us with a long pole, and pulled us away from the end of the shaft for fear of falling stones, and then we were lowered to the ground, and stepped out of the bucket and looked about us. We were in a very large cave, the roof of which was supported by immense square pillars of the salt rock. It was brown, of course, but it was quite translucent, and the light gleamed from it very prettily. Our guide lit a piece of magnesium-wire, and I never saw anything so magnificent in my life. The whole place seemed set with precious stones, and the dirty, half-naked men, leaning on their tools, looked as picturesque as you could well imagine. Then one of the men had finished boring a blast hole, and we waited while he filled it with powder and fired a shot. We all huddled in one corner of the cave, and then there was such a roar and smoke! The rock under our feet heaved and shook, and pieces of rock and stone flew about far too near for my liking." "I never knew how salt was got before," said Dick. "Nor I," said Jimmy; "and as Frank has told us so well we will forgive him for forgetting the salt." CHAPTER VIII. An Eerie Night.--A Ghostly Apparition.--The Barn Owl.-- A Will-o'-the Wisp.--The Ruff and Reeve.--Snaring Ruffs.-- A Nest.--Wroxham Broad.--Mud-boards and Leaping-pole.-- Wild Duck's Nest in a Tree. As the night fell the wind rose and moaned dismally over the marsh, and black clouds covered the sky, so that the night promised to be dirtier than usual at this time of the year. Lonely marshes stretched far and wide, with nothing to break their wild monotony save the ghostlike ruins of the Abbey in the foreground. It was not a pleasant night for the boys to spend out for the first time alone, and an eerie sort of feeling crept over them in spite of their efforts to appear at ease. At length Dick said-- "I feel as if wild beasts were prowling about on the watch for us, and that if we went to sleep we should be eaten up alive." "So do I," admitted Frank; "but I suppose it will wear away in time. But what is that?" he exclaimed, in a startled tone, as an unearthly cry sounded among the ruins of the Abbey, and a white shape was dimly seen gliding between the broken windows. The boys gazed in breathless silence at this apparition. The cause of their alarm, however, was made plain to them, as a white owl came forth on noiseless wings, and fluttered stealthily over the marsh. They laughed heartily at their fright, but their laugh sounded forced and unnatural. It was so weird and lonely outside, that they went into the cabin and lit the lamp, and strove to make a cheerful supper. Then they undressed and tried to make themselves comfortable for the night. Frank took the hammock, and Dick and Jimmy the berths at each side. They left the lamp burning dimly for company's sake, but they could not go to sleep. The water lapping against the planks of the yacht and amid the stems of the reeds, the wind sighing over the waste fen, and the strange cries of the night-birds--the call of the water-hen, the hoarse bark of the coot, the cackle of wild ducks, and the host of other noises which they could not account for, kept them awake and on the _qui vive_. "What's that?" said Dick, after they had been quiet for some time. [Illustration: THE BARN OWL AND EGG.] A noise like a clap of thunder was to be heard, repeated at regular intervals, and growing louder, as if approaching them. They rushed on deck to see what was the cause of it, and were relieved to find that it was only a belated wherry beating up to windward, her canvas flapping each time she put about on a fresh tack. The men on board of her shouted "Good night" as they passed, and after this the boys felt more comfortable, and again courted sleep. They were just dropping off, when "patter, patter," went something on deck. Some one, or some thing had boarded them, and Frank went out to see what it was. A coot had come aboard to see if there might be anything eatable there, and she flew away as Frank appeared. He looked about ere he went down again, and to his astonishment he saw a spot of light dancing about on the marshes in a place where he thought no human being could be at this hour. "I say, Dick and Jimmy, here is a will-o'-the-wisp dancing about on the marshes." They came quickly on deck, and watched the strange light, which now and then disappeared, and then again became visible. It now shone bright, and then faint, and an uncertain glimmer beneath it showed that it hovered over the water as well as over the marsh. "There is no such thing as _ignis fatuus_ nowadays," said Jimmy, "so what can it be?" "I vote we go and see," said Frank. "You will only get bogged if you do. It is dangerous enough to walk on the marsh in the daylight, and almost impossible by night." "It strikes me there is a narrow channel, or dyke, leading from the river, which may lead to where that light is. I saw a line of water about twenty yards off. We passed it as we were about to anchor. Let us take the boat and go up it, if you wish to see what it is," said Jimmy. His suggestion was approved of, and they dressed and stepped into the punt, and after a little while they found the dyke and pushed their way along it. They moved cautiously and with little noise, and at last emerged upon a small open piece of water, and as they did so, the light gleamed for a moment and went out. They peered eagerly through the gloom, but could see nothing. All was silent and still, and very uncanny. "It is no good staying here," said Frank; "let us go back and try to sleep, or we shall not be fit to be seen to-morrow when we meet the others at Wroxham." So they rowed back, wondering what the cause of the light had been. They tumbled into their berths again and got just an hour's broken sleep before the dawn effectually aroused them. It was very early, but they had no choice but to rise and get something to eat. The morning was bright and cloudless, the lark sang merrily in the sky, waterfowl swam on the quiet stretches of the river in peaceful security, the freshness and charm which always accompanies the early dawn of day in the country had its natural effect upon them; and their spirits, which had been somewhat depressed by the uncomfortable night which they had passed, rose again to their natural height. Dick now suggested that they should again explore the windings of the creek, and try to find out the cause of the mysterious light which had so puzzled them the night before. They accordingly rowed up the lane of water as they had done the previous night, until they came to the piece of open water. Just as they were about to emerge from the narrow opening in the belt of reeds which surrounded it, Frank checked the motion of the boat by clutching hold of the reeds, and warned his companions to be silent. Looking in the direction in which he pointed, they saw the most curious bird they had ever seen, or were ever likely to see. On a little hillock on the edge of the reeds was a bird with a body like a thrush, but with long legs. It had a long beak, staring eyes, brown tufts of feathers on each side of its head, and a large flesh-coloured ruff of feathers round its neck. "I know what that is; it is a ruff," said Jimmy. "Yes, yes, but be quiet and watch it." They drew back behind the green fringe of reeds and watched the movements of the ruff, for such it was. Its movements were as strange as itself. It pranced up and down on the little hillock and fluttered its wings, and uttered a defiant cry. It seemed as if it were particularly desirous of attention from one spot in the marsh, for towards that spot its glances and movements were directed. Looking more eagerly towards this spot the boys saw a smaller bird, with no ruff around her neck, and clad in sober brown. This was a female, or reeve, and the male was showing himself off before her and trying to attract her attention, while she, with the tantalising nature of her sex, appeared to be quite unconscious of his blandishments, and went on composedly picking up her breakfast from the insects and worms in the marsh. Presently another ruff appeared on the scene, and, joining his rival on the little hillock, he commenced to emulate his performances, and the two danced a war-dance in the most amusing fashion, to the great delight of the three observers. The natural consequence of this rivalry soon followed, and the two ruffs began to fight in good earnest, laying hold of each other with their bills, and striking with their wings. The one drove the other to the bottom of the hill, and was apparently master of the field; but instead of returning to his post on the top, he flew away, leaving his adversary fluttering vainly, and evidently fast by the leg. Then the rushes on the other side of the open space were pushed aside, and a man in a rude boat made his appearance, and proceeded to seize the ruff and kill it. "The mystery of the light is explained," said Frank. "Hallo! you there, what are you doing that for?" The man started and looked round, answering surlily, "What's that to you?" "Oh, don't get into a wax. We only want to know for information's sake. What will you sell that ruff for?" "Two shillings, sir," replied the man, in a much more civil tone. "Well, here you are. Are there many ruffs about here?" "No, sir, I have not seen any for the last two years until this spring. They used to be common enough when I was a lad, and I have taken a score in one morning with these snares. I have seen more than a dozen together on one hill, and twice as many reeves around looking on. Those were fine times for us fowlers, those were." The boys asked to be allowed to look at his snares. They were made of horsehair, and were set in this fashion:--A length of hair with a running noose at each end was fixed by the middle into the slit of a peg, which was then driven into the ground. A number of these were set round the base of the hill with the nooses projecting about an inch above the surface of the herbage, and as the birds were driven off the hill they were caught by them. It was necessary, the man said, to keep a strict watch on the snares, for the birds sometimes broke away, or the rats and weasels, of which there are plenty in the marshes, would be beforehand with the fowler and seize the captured birds. "I suppose you were setting your snares last night?" "Ay, sir," replied the man, laughing; "I heard you coming after me, so I put my light out. I did not know what sort of men you might be, and they make believe to preserve these marshes now, and it is hard work for us to get a living." "Don't you think there may be a ruff's nest somewhere about?" said Jimmy. "I found one this morning with four eggs in it, but they are hard sat." "Never mind that, we can blow them, if you will show us where it is." "Get out of the boat, then, and come into this rond; but mind how you walk. Put your foot on the roots of the reeds, or you will go up to your middle in mud directly." The nest was made of coarse grass, and was placed in a clump of sedges. It contained four eggs of an olive-green colour, spotted with brown. As the man said that if they did not take them he should, and sell them for what they would fetch, the boys felt no hesitation in plundering the nest of all its contents, giving the man a gratuity of a shilling for showing the nest to them. This commercial transaction completed, they returned to their yacht and made a second breakfast. They had arranged to meet their elders at Wroxham Bridge at twelve o'clock, and spend the rest of the day sailing and pic-nicking on the Broad, so about ten o'clock they started. The breeze was light, as it generally is in the summer; and as for a portion of the way they had to beat to windward in a rather narrow channel, it took them some time to reach Wroxham. They found that the _Swan_ was not so handy in tacking as a single-hulled yacht would have been, and they had to use the mizen to swing her round each time they put about. Their progress was, therefore, slower than they had calculated upon, and they did not reach Wroxham until 12.30. Their way was past Ranworth Broad and the two Hovetons, besides some smaller broads, all connected with the river by dykes, half hidden by tall reeds, and looking deliciously lonely, and inviting exploration. Although they were so close they could see nothing of the broads' surface, and their existence was only made manifest to them by the white sails of yachts which were now and then to be seen gliding hither and thither through forests of reeds. Sir Richard, Mr. and Mrs. Merivale, Mrs. Brett, Mary and Florrie, were all waiting for them on the staithe by the bridge, and hailed their appearance with joy. "Well, boys, we thought you were lost," said Mr. Merivale. "No fear, father," answered Frank; "the _Swan_ sails grandly, and we have had no end of fun." "And how did you sleep last night? Wasn't it very lonely?" said his mother. The boys unanimously affirmed that it had been most awfully jolly, and that they had been most comfortable. Whilst the party were embarking, Frank went to the village carpenter's and got a stout leaping-pole with a block of wood at the end, so that it might not sink into the mud when they were jumping the ditches. He also obtained a pair of mud boards to put on his feet when walking over soft ground. These were pieces of wood a foot long by eighteen inches wide, with rope loops to slip over the feet. He expected to find them useful while bird-nesting on the marshes. They sailed at a good pace down the river, and then, while Mary was asking where the Broad was, Frank put the helm over, and they sailed through a narrow channel, on either side of which the reeds were seven feet high, and while the question was still on Mary's lips, they were gliding over the fine expanse of water which is known as Wroxham Broad. They had a very pleasant afternoon, and as the breeze was steady and the yacht behaved herself very well, the two elder ladies lost much of the nervousness with which they had regarded the boys' expedition. Dick was much impressed with the loveliness of the Broad. On the one side the woods came down to the water's edge, and on the other the wide marsh stretched away miles on miles, with its waving reed beds, tracts of white cotton-grasses, and many-coloured marsh grasses, which varied in sheen and tint as the wind waved them or the cloud-shadows passed over them. Here and there a gleam of white showed where the river or a broad lay, but for the most part the whereabouts of water was only shown by the brown sails of the wherries, or the snow-white sails of the yachts, which glided and tacked about in a manner that seemed most mysterious, seeing that there was no water visible for them to float on. At one end of Wroxham Broad is a labyrinth of dykes and pools, between wooded islands and ferny banks. The boys took the two girls in the punt through this charming maze, and they pushed their way through the large floating leaves of the water-lily, and the more pointed leaves of the arrowhead, gathering the many-coloured flowers which nestled amid the luxuriant growth of plant-life that fringed the water, stooping to avoid the trailing branches of the trees, and enjoying themselves mightily in exploring. "Is that a crow's nest in yonder tree?" said Jimmy. "I expect so, and there is the bird on, but her head does not look like a crow's. Hit the trunk with the oar," said Frank. [Illustration: WILD DUCK.] As the blow vibrated through the tree, the sitting bird flew off, and what do you think it proved to be? A _wild-duck_! The boys were astounded. They had heard of ducks building in hollow trees, and at some distance from water, but to build a nest on the top of a high tree seemed incredible, so Frank said he would climb up and see the eggs, but-- "Let me go," said Dick, "I have never climbed a tall tree, and it looks an easy one, although it is tall, for there are plenty of branches." "Oh, please take care, Dick," said Mary. "Oh, he will be all right. You never tell me to take care, young woman," said Frank, laughing, while Mary blushed. Dick was soon up the tree, showing skill worthy of a practised climber, and rather to the surprise of his companions. "It is a duck's nest in an old crow's nest, and there are ten eggs in," shouted Dick from his lofty perch. "Bring two of them down then. We will write on them where they were found. I wonder how the old birds get the young ones down to the water? They can't fly for a long time after being hatched, and they must take to the water soon, or they will die." The question which Frank put has never been satisfactorily answered. The young ones must either perch on their mother's back, and hold on whilst they are being transported to their native element, or the old bird must seize them in her bill, like a cat does her kittens. When the others left, the boys sailed down stream again by the light of the red sunset, and as night stole over the marshes, they anchored by Horning ferry, and so tired were they that they fell asleep the moment they laid themselves down, forgetting their fears of the night before. They turned in at ten, and none of them awoke until eight the next morning. Before breakfast Frank and Jimmy spent some time in teaching Dick how to swim, and found him an apt pupil. CHAPTER IX. Chameleon.--Light Coloured Eggs.--Sitting Birds have no Scent.-- Forget-me-nots.--Trespassing.--The Owner.--A Chase.--Capture.-- Pintail Duck.--Drumming of Snipe.--Swallow-tail Butterfly.-- A Perilous Adventure. The young voyagers had by this time discovered that sailing about in the manner they were doing gave them tremendous appetites, and on this particular morning they found they had run short of bread and butter, so Jimmy was despatched to the little shop at Horning to procure some. After breakfast they were lounging on deck waiting for a breeze. Dick was sprawling on the roof of the cabin basking in the sun. Frank was fishing for roach in the clear slow stream, and Jimmy was perusing the newspaper in which the provisions had been wrapped. It was a still, lovely morning. White clouds sailed quickly across the blue sky, but there was no breeze to move the marsh grasses and reeds, or to ripple the placid stream. A lark sang merrily far above them, filling the air with melody. Small birds chirped in the sedges, and the water-hens and white-headed coots sailed busily to and fro. [Illustration: ROACH.] Jimmy looked up from his paper just as Frank pulled in a good sized roach, and said,-- "Do either of you know how the chameleon changes its colour?" Upon receiving an answer in the negative he read as follows from the paper in his hand:-- "M. Paul Bert has laid before the French Academy a _résumé_ of the observations of himself and others on the colour-changes of the chameleon. They appear to be due to change of place of certain coloured corpuscles. When they bury themselves under the skin, they form an opaque background to the cerulescent layer, and when they distribute themselves in superficial ramifications, they either leave the skin to show its yellow hue, or give it green and black tints. The movements of the colour corpuscles are directed by two orders of nerves, one causing their descending, and the other their ascending, motions. In a state of extreme excitation the corpuscles hide below the skin, and do so in sleep, anæsthesia, or death. The nerves which cause the corpuscles to go under the skin have the greatest analogy to vaso-constrictor nerves. They follow the mixed nerves of the limbs, and the great sympathetic of the neck, and do not cross in the spinal marrow. The nerves which bring the corpuscles upwards resemble in like manner the vaso-dilator nerves. Luminous rays belonging to the blue-violet part of the spectrum act directly on the contractile matter of the corpuscles, and cause them to move towards the surface of the skin." [Illustration: CHAMELEON.] "Now, can you tell me the plain English of that?" "Read it again, Jimmy," said Frank. Jimmy did so. "Well, I am no wiser. Read it again more slowly." Jimmy did so again. "I give it up," said Frank. "What a thing it is to be a scientific man!" "I take it," said Dick, rolling himself along the cabin roof towards them, "that it means that different coloured rays of light have corresponding effects upon coloured atoms in the skin of the chameleon. The rays of light will be affected by the colour of the place where the chameleon is, and the chameleon will be affected by the changed colour of the rays of light, so that if the beast were on a green lawn his colour would be green, and if on a brown tree-trunk his colour would be brown." "That is my idea," said Jimmy; "but what is the good of using such stilted language, when the same thing might have been said in simple English?" "I wonder why that water-hen keeps dodging about us in such a fussy manner," said Frank. "I don't," replied Dick, "for there is her nest not a yard from our bows." The mooring rope had parted the reeds, and discovered her nest, and Dick, on going to the bows had seen it. It contained twelve eggs, one of which was so light in colour as to be almost white, and one so small that it was only half the size of the others. Dick asked if it were because it was laid last, and if the pale one was so for a similar reason. Frank replied,-- "It may be so in this case, but it does not always happen so. Last year I tried an experiment with a robin's nest. I took out an egg each day, as it was laid, and still the bird went on laying until I let her lay her proper number, five. She laid fifteen eggs altogether, but they were all the same colour and size. So I expect that it is only an accident when the eggs are like these." "Bell told me the other day that sitting birds have no scent," said Dick. "Is that true?" "I am not quite sure, but I am inclined to think that they have not so strong a scent as at other times. This same robin which I have just been telling you about built in a hedge-bank close by a house, and cats were always prowling about, and I have seen puss walk right above the nest while the old bird was on. If birds would only have the sense to shut their eyes, we would often pass them over, but it is easy to see them with their eyes twinkling like diamonds." "How pretty that clump of forget-me-nots is on the opposite bank! They seem to smile at you with their blue eyes," said Dick, who was keenly alive to all that was beautiful. "But what is that flower a little lower down, right in the water, with thick juicy stems and blue flowers. Is that a forget-me-not?" "No, it is a brooklime, but it is one of the speedwells. There are more than a dozen sorts of speedwells, but the forget-me-not is the prettiest. Another name for the forget-me-not is water-scorpion, but it is too ugly a name for so pretty a plant," said Jimmy, full of his recent learning. [Illustration: REDBREAST AND EGG.] "Here comes a breeze at last," cried Frank, as their blue flag fluttered, and the reeds in the surrounding marsh bent their heads together and sighed. "Shall we explore Ranworth Broad?" "Yes, but let us take Hoveton Great Broad first, and then we can go to Ranworth as we come back," answered Jimmy. So they hoisted sail, and glided up stream with a freshening breeze, while swallows dipped in the river and whirled about them as they passed. While they were sailing steadily along with a breeze on their starboard beam, the flag became fouled in the block through which the halyard of the mainmast was rove, and Jimmy was sent up to put matters right. He clambered up the mast as nimbly as a monkey, and shook loose the flag from its ignominious position. When he had finished this he looked about him, and from his greater height he could see much further than his companions, whose view was limited by the tall reeds which shut in almost every portion of the rivers and broads. The boys did not know that they were near any of the latter, but Jimmy saw on their left hand a sheet of water sparkling in the sun and studded with many reedy islands. He cried out,-- "There is such a jolly broad to leeward! It looks so quiet and still, and there are no end of water-fowl swimming about in it. A little further on I can see a channel leading to it just wide enough for our yacht. What do you say to paying it a visit?" His friends had not the least objection. Its being unknown to them was an additional reason for their including it in their voyage of discovery. Jimmy said he should stay on his lofty perch for a time and take the bearings of the country, but as they neared the entrance to the broad and turned off before going down the narrow channel, the boom swung further out, and the jerk dislodged Jimmy, who was only saved from falling by clutching at the shrouds, down which he came with a run. They surged along through the dyke with the reeds brushing their bulwarks, and tossing and swaying in the eddies which followed their wake, and after several twistings and windings they emerged upon the broad. At the entrance to it was a pole with a notice-board upon it, which stated that the broad belonged to Mr. ----, and that any persons found trespassing upon it would be prosecuted. "Hallo! do you see that?" said Dick. "Yes, I see it," replied Frank, "but we could not turn back in that narrow channel, and now that we are on the broad we may as well sail about a bit. What a number of water-fowl there are!" "I know Mr. ---- by sight," said Jimmy. "He has a big blue yacht." The little lake was so picturesque with its islands and "ronds" and broad floating lily-leaves, that the boys sailed about for some time before they thought of leaving it, and when they turned their faces again towards the river, what was their surprise to see a large yacht creeping along the connecting canal between them and the river. The reeds hid the body of the yacht from them, but its sails betokened that it was one of considerable size. The boys wondered who it could be who had thought of paying the sequestered little broad a visit, never for a moment thinking of the owner, when the yacht shot out into the open water, and lo! it was a '_big blue yacht_.' [Illustration: YACHT.] "It is Mr. ----," said Jimmy. "Now we shall get into a row for trespassing," said Dick. "They have got to catch us first. If we can only dodge them, and get on to the river again, we can show them a clean pair of heels," said Frank, taking a pull at the sheet and trying to creep up to windward of the dyke. The blue yacht, however, stood by so as to meet them, and Frank saw, by the way she went through the water, even when her sails were hauled almost flat, that she could beat the Swan in sailing to windward. A gentleman stood up in the strange yacht and called out,-- "Bear, up alongside, you young rascals, and give me your names and addresses. I shall summon you for trespassing." "Not if I know it," said Frank, bringing the _Swan_ sharply round on her heel, and scudding away before the wind, followed by the other in full chase. "Now, Jimmy and Dick, stand by the sheets, and when we get opposite the bottom of that long island, we will bring her sharp round the other side, and then they can't get across and meet us, and then we'll cut and run for the dyke." They executed this manoeuvre very neatly, but the other was too quick for them, and instead of following them round the island, they turned back and made for the mouth of the dyke to intercept them, and at a much better angle of the wind than that at which the _Swan_ had to sail. "We shall come into collision," said Jimmy, as he took a hearty pull at the mizen sheet. "We cannot both get through the dyke." "Never mind. We'll cram her at it. Stand by with the boat-hook to push the blue 'un off, Dick!" but as Dick stood ready with the boat-hook to push off, a man stood in the other yacht with his boat-hook to pull them in, and as Dick pushed, his adversary pulled. The two boats ran alongside for a few yards, and then were jammed together at the mouth of the creek, and Mr. ---- stepped on board. "Now what is the meaning of this?" he exclaimed angrily. "We came into the broad out of curiosity, sir," said Frank; "and we could not see the notice-board until we were in the broad, and then we thought we might as well take a turn round before going out, but we are sorry you have caught us." "Oh, are you really! Well, I want to preserve the broad for wild-fowl, so I don't like it to be disturbed; but where did you get this strange boat built?" "We built it ourselves," answered the boys,--and then in reply to the inquiries, they told him all about it, and their object, and by the time all was explained to him they found that he was a very jolly sort of fellow, and he found that they were very pleasant, unaffected lads, and the end of it was that they lunched with him on board his yacht, and had full permission to go on the broad whenever they liked. Frank's attention was arrested by a pretty, light grey duck swimming about in the centre of the broad. "Is that a pintail duck?" he inquired of Mr. ----. "Yes, and the only one on the broad, I am sorry to say. Its mate has been killed, and my man found the deserted nest with four eggs in it, among the reeds on the other side of the broad. If he has not taken it you may have it." His man had not taken it, and in a few minutes the boys were the possessors of the eggs of this rare duck. The nest and eggs were of the usual duck type, and did not correspond in any degree with the extreme prettiness of the duck, which, with its mottled grey back and red-brown head and neck, is as fair to look at as it is good to eat. The yachts were disengaged from their position without any damage, and the boys took leave of their entertainer with a cheer, and made for the river again. "I hope all our adventures will end as nicely as that one," said Dick. The wish was echoed by the others; but that very day they had an adventure which startled them considerably, and might have had very serious and fatal consequences. But of this anon. Presently Dick said,--"I have noticed whenever we see a mud-bank that it is almost sure to be perforated by a number of small holes. What is the reason of that?" "Oh, that is done by the snipes, when boring in search of food. Woodcocks will do it as well, and the woodcock's upper bill is so long and flexible that it can twist and turn it about in the mud with the greatest ease," answered Frank, who was always ready with an answer on ornithological subjects. By and by Dick was observed to be looking all about with a very puzzled and curious air, peeping into the cabin, and scrutinizing the deck and the banks with the utmost attention. "What is the matter, Dick?" said Jimmy at length. "What on earth is that buzzing noise? It seems to be close to us, and I can't find out the cause of it. I did not like to ask before--it seemed so simple. Is it a big bee, or wasp, or what?" Frank and Jimmy laughed heartily, and the former said,-- "Look up in the air, Dick." Dick did so, and saw a bird which he knew to be a snipe, hovering somewhat after the manner of a kestrel, or windhover, as the country people sometimes call it. It was evident now that the noise came from it, but how was it produced, and why? Frank could not answer either of these questions. It was a habit of the snipes in breeding time to rise and 'drum' in that way. [Illustration: COMMON SNIPE.] "No doubt he does it for a lark, and no doubt he thinks he does it as well as a lark, but no one seems to be sure how the noise is produced. The general opinion seems to be that it is caused by a vibration of the tail-feathers." "Look!" cried Dick excitedly, diving into the cabin for his butterfly net. Over the marsh there fluttered one of the grandest of English butterflies, the swallow-tail. Large in size, being about four inches across the wings, which are of a pale creamy-yellow, barred and margined with blue and black, velvety in its appearance, and with a well-defined 'tail' to each of its under wings, above which is a red spot, the swallow-tail butterfly is one of the most beautiful of all butterflies. It is rare save in its head-quarters, which are the fens of Norfolk and Cambridge, and is justly considered a prize by a young collector. Frank immediately ran the yacht ashore, and Dick jumped out and rushed at the gorgeous insect with his net. Alas! he struck too wildly and missed it, and it rose in the air and flew far away, leaving Dick lamenting. Frank laughed and said,-- "Ah, you went at it too rashly. You should have given it him with more of the _suaviter in modo_ and less of the _fortiter in re_. Here comes another. Let me have a try!" [Illustration: SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY.] Dick yielded up possession of the net to him, and he advanced slowly and cautiously to where the swallow-tail was sunning himself on an early tuft of meadow-sweet, which the warm weather had tempted to bloom earlier than usual, and to perfume the air with its strong fragrance on the last day of May. Frank's approach had too much of the _suaviter in modo_, for the butterfly flew away long before he reached it. Frank forgot all about the _suaviter in modo_ then. He dashed after it at the top of his speed, making frantic dashes at it with his net, and jumping over soft ground, with utter disregard to all dangerous places. He followed it for some distance, and then he suddenly disappeared, and to their dismay they heard him shouting loudly for help. "He has got into a bog-hole," said Jimmy, "come along as fast as you can." They ran with breathless speed to where he had disappeared, and so deceptive are distances on flat surfaces, that they were surprised to see how far he had gone. When they reached him they saw him up to his waist in the soft bog, whose bright vivid green would have shown its danger had he not been too eager in his pursuit of the butterfly to notice it. He was rapidly sinking deeper into the mud, which held him fast with cruel tenacity, and sucked him further into its horrid embrace the more he struggled to get out of it. He had taken a big jump right into the very middle of it, and he was too far from them to reach their hands. His face was pale, but he was cool and collected. "All right," he said, "don't be frightened. I've got the butterfly, and if you will do what I tell you, I will soon get out of this fix. Dick, do you run to the yacht and get a rope, and you, Jimmy, get some reeds, and pitch them to me to put under my arms, and keep me from sinking further into this fearful mess." Dick sped off like an arrow, and Jimmy tore up a bundle of reeds and threw them to his friend, who had now sunk up to his shoulders, and as the reeds broke beneath his weight he sunk deeper still. "I hope Dick won't be long, or it will be all up with me, Jimmy," he said, and brave as he was, he could not keep his lips from quivering. Jimmy was in an agony of excitement. He took off his coat, and threw one end of it to Frank, but he could not reach him. Then he did what even raised a smile on Frank's face, imminent as was his danger. He took off his trousers and threw one leg to Frank, retaining the other in his hand. Pulling hard at this improvised rope, he held Frank up until Dick came tearing up with the rope trailing behind him. "Thank God!" said Frank, and Jimmy then knew by his fervent tone how great he knew the danger had been. Clinging to the rope, he was hauled out by his companions, and so tightly did the mud hold him, that it took all their strength to drag him out. They walked slowly and quietly back to the yacht, and Frank changed his clothes, and lay down and was very quiet for some time, and they none of them recovered their usual spirits for some time after this occurrence. The butterfly was set, and ever afterwards kept apart in Dick's collection as a memento of this time. Before they went home again they had got several specimens of this handsome butterfly, and still better, they discovered numbers of the bright green caterpillars and chrysalides on the meadow-sweet and wild carrot, which grew in the marsh, and so were able to breed several fine specimens, enough for their own collection and for exchange. CHAPTER X. Moonlight.--Instinct and Reason.--Death's Head Moth.-- Bittern.--Water-rail.--Quail.--Golden Plover.-- Hen-Harrier and Weasel.--Preserving Bird-skins. They anchored that night just inside Hoveton Great Broad. The moon rose large and round, and lake and marsh slept still in her mellow light. The boys sat on deck watching the reflection of the moon in the water, and listening to the cries of the night-birds around them and the splash of the fish in the shallow margins. Dick said,-- "Is it not wonderful that the butterfly knows on which plant she is to lay her eggs? How does the swallow-tail know that she must lay them on the wild carrot or on the meadow-sweet; the death's-head moth on the potato; and the white butterfly on the cabbage? How is it that they select these plants, seeing that it is all strange and new to them? It is very wonderful!" "Yes," said Jimmy, "and it cannot be reason, because they can have no facts to reason from, so it must be instinct." "Well, I don't like talking anything like cant, and you won't accuse me of that if I say that it seems to me that instinct is a personal prompting and direction of God to the lower animals for their good, and I don't believe we think of that enough," said Dick. [Illustration: MOONLIGHT SCENE.] Frank replied,--"You are right, Dick, and while man has only reason, animals have instinct and reason too. At least I believe that the larger kind of animals have some share of reason. I have never told you about our colley bitch. Last year she had pups, and she was very much annoyed by a cat which would go prowling about the building where the bitch was kept; so the bitch took the opportunity of one day killing the cat. Now the cat had just had kittens, and all were drowned but one. When the mother was killed, its kitten cried most piteously, and had to be fed with milk by the servants. The bitch had not known that the cat had kittens, until she heard the kitten scream, and then she showed as plainly as possible that she was sorry for what she had done, and took the kitten to her own young ones, and seemed quite fond of it. Whenever it was taken away she would go for it and take it back again, and the kitten grew up with the pups, and was inseparable from them. Now I call that reason on the part of the bitch, and the desire to make amends for the injury she had done--But hark! what is that?" A low booming sound not unlike the lowing of a bull, but more continued, resounded through the marsh and then ceased. Again the strange note was heard, and the boys looked at one another. "What can it be?" said Jimmy, as the noise again quivered on the moonlit air. [Illustration: DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.] "I know," said Frank, "it is a bittern. If we can only find its nest we shall be lucky. It does not often breed in England now, although it is often shot here in winter. Let us listen where the sound comes from." They listened intently, and after an interval the sound was again repeated. They believed that it came from a reed-covered promontory which ran out into the broad on its eastern shore. "Let us take the punt and go over," said Frank; so they rowed in the direction of the sound. They rowed round the promontory, and penetrated it as far as they could, and all was still and silent, and they discovered nothing. Early the next morning they renewed their search, and while they were crashing through the very middle of the reed bed, the bittern rose with a hoarse cry, and flew away with a dull, heavy flight. And there, as good luck would have it, was its nest, a large structure of sticks, reeds and rushes, and in it were four eggs, large, round, and pale brown in colour. It was not in human nature (or at least in boy nature) to resist taking all the eggs. [Illustration: BITTERN.] The bittern is a singular bird both in shape and habits. Take a heron and shorten its legs, neck, and beak, and thicken it generally, and then deepen its plumage to a partridge-like brown, and you will have a pretty good idea of the bittern. At one time it was common enough in England, but the spread of cultivation, the drainage of the marshes, and the pursuit of the collector have rendered it rare; and while at some seasons it is pretty common all over the country where there are places fit for its breeding-ground, in other years scarcely a specimen can be seen, and its nest is now but rarely found. Its curious note has often puzzled the country people. It has been said to put its head under water or into a hollow reed, and then to blow, and so make a noise something like that produced by the famous blowing stone in the Vale of the White Horse. The fact, however, appears to be that the noise is produced in the usual manner, and Morris says that the bittern "commonly booms when soaring high in the air with a spiral flight." When suddenly surprised, its flight is more like that of a carrion crow when shot at in the air. If wounded, the bittern can defend itself remarkably well, turning itself on its back, and fighting with beak and claws. It cannot run well among the reeds, so when surprised it takes refuge in flight, although it is not by any means a good flier; and as the reeds grow too closely together for it to use its wings among them, it clambers up them with its feet, until it can make play with its wings. It is essentially nocturnal in its habits, hiding close among the reeds and flags by day. Leaving Hoveton Broad, the boys sailed quietly down the river to Ranworth Broad, without adventure. They turned from the river along the dyke which led to the broad, and with their usual enterprise they tried to take a short cut through a thin corner of reeds growing in about two feet of water, which alone divided them from the broad. They stuck fast, of course; but their usual good fortune attended them, and turned their misfortune into a source of profit. A bird like a landrail, but smaller, flew from a thick clump of vegetation near them. "Hallo, that is not a corn-crake, is it?" said Dick. "No, but it is a water-crake, or water-rail rather, and I expect its nest is in that clump," said Frank, and his shoes and stockings were off in a moment, and he was wading to the place whence the bird had flown. "Yes, here it is, and there are eight eggs in it, very like a landrail's, but much lighter in colour and a little smaller. I say, if we hadn't seen the bird fly away we should never have found the nest, it is so carefully hidden. I shall take four eggs. They are not sat upon, and she will lay some more until she makes up her full number, so it is not a robbery." The water-rail is one of the shyest of water-birds. It creeps among the herbage like a rat, and is very difficult to put to flight. When it does fly, its legs hang down as if it had not strength to hold them up, and it flies but slowly, yet during the winter time it migrates long distances. The boys spent but little time on the broad, for they were anxious to get further away from home; so, as there was a strong breeze from the west, they ran before it as far as Acle, where they had to lower their mast in order to pass under the old grey stone bridge. [Illustration: WATER-RAIL.] Leaving the yacht moored by the Hermitage Staithe, they walked to Filby and Ormesby Broads, an immense straggling sheet of water with many arms about three miles from the river. They hired a boat, and rowed about for some time, seeing plenty of wild-fowl, but meeting with no adventure worth recording. The broad is connected with the river by a long dyke called by the euphonious name of Muck Fleet, but it is not navigable, being so filled with mud and weeds. The growing obstruction of this dyke is an illustration of the process which is going on all over the Broad district day by day. Formerly a much larger portion of it must have been water, but as the reeds grew they decayed, and the rotten matter formed soil. This process was repeated year after year and is going on now. The reeds extend each year and form fresh soil each winter, and so the parts which were always very shallow become filled up, and the extent of marsh increases; and then, as the extent of marsh increases, it is drained and becomes firm, and then is finally cultivated, and waving corn-fields take the place of what was once a lake, and then a marsh, and instead of pike and wild-fowl there are partridges and pheasants. On the way back to Filby the boys took it into their heads to have a game of 'follow my leader.' Frank was chosen as leader, and he led them straight across-country, scorning roads and paths, and choosing the hardest leaps over dykes and fences. Across a meadow Frank saw a very stiff thorn fence on the other side of which was a stubble-field. Collecting all his strength, he made a rush at it, but failing to clear it, his foot caught near the top, and he fell headlong into the next field. Dick followed his leader with commendable imitation, and sprawled on the top of him; but Jimmy could only breast the hedge, and sat down on the spot whence he had taken his spring. Dick was up again in a moment, but Frank remained kneeling on the ground with something between his hands. [Illustration: AFRICAN BUSH QUAIL.] "What is it, Frank?" said Dick. "A bird. I fell upon it. It was on its nest, and I have smashed three of the eggs, but there are five left." Jimmy joined them, and asked what kind of a bird it was. It was a bird of about eight inches in length, grey in colour, plump, and with a shape which reminded them of the guinea-fowl. They looked at the poor trembling bird, and at its eggs, and came to the conclusion that it was a quail, a supposition which turned out to be right. Quails, though rare generally, were very common that year in Norfolk and Suffolk, and many nests were found, two more by the boys themselves. The nest is simply a collection of dry grass in a hollow in the ground. Morris says of the quail:-- "Quails migrate north and south in spring and autumn, and vast numbers are taken by bird-catchers. As many as one hundred thousand are said to have been taken in one day in the kingdom of Naples. Three thousand dozen are reported to have been purchased in one year by the London dealers alone. They migrate in flocks, and the males are said to precede the females. They are believed to travel at night. They arrive here at the end of April or beginning of May, and depart again early in September. Not being strong on the wing, yet obliged to cross the sea to seek a warmer climate in the winter, thousands are picked up by the shores on their arrival in an exhausted state; many are drowned on the passage, and some are frequently captured on board of vessels met with _in transitu_." I have seen them in poulterers' shops kept in large cages, until they are wanted for the table, and they seemed to be quite unconcerned at their captivity, feeding away busily. Frank said, "What shall we do with the bird? I've broken her wing, but I don't think she's much hurt anywhere else." "Here's some thin twine," said Dick. "Let us tie the bone to a splint of wood with it, and the wing may heal." They carried the suggestion out with great care, and the quail, on being allowed to go, ran away with a drooping wing, but otherwise little the worse. "I suppose we must take all the eggs," said Frank, "for she will not come back to her nest now, as it is all wet with squashed egg." "Those are not lapwings flying above us, are they?" said Dick. "No, they are golden plovers. They are not half so pretty as the lapwings. They have no crest, and are much plainer in plumage, and they have more black on them. Look out for their nests in this marshy spot." "Here is one," said Dick. [Illustration: NEST OF GOLDEN PLOVER.] "No, that is only a lapwing's, and in a very clever place too; the nest is made, or rather the eggs are placed on the top of a mud-hill, so that when the water rises the eggs will be kept dry." "Here is a golden plover's, then," said Jimmy, pointing to a depression in the ground, in which were four eggs of the usual plover type, about the same size as the lapwing's, but more blunt in outline, and lighter in ground colour. "Yes, those are they. Take two of them." It must not be supposed that I mention all the nests and eggs the boys found in their rambles. Space forbids me to notice more than those which are rare or unusual. For the nest of one rare or uncommon bird they found a dozen of the commoner sorts, for they were very quick observers. The wind had fallen, and the water was as smooth as glass. While prowling about the margin, "seeking what they might devour," Dick stooped to pick a flower which grew by the water-side, and saw the head of a large eel protruding from the mud on the bank, about two or three feet below the surface. He called his companions' attention to it, and on looking more closely they saw at intervals the heads of several more, which poked two or three inches out of the mud. If the water had not been so still and clear, they would not have been able to see them. "What are they in that peculiar position for?" said Dick. "Oh, it is a habit of theirs. They are taking it easy, and watching for any little nice morsel to float by them. When the evening comes they will come out altogether. I will show you how to sniggle them." "Do what?" said Dick. "Wait and see, old man." They went back to the Hermitage, and Frank borrowed a stocking-needle from a woman at the house. He next got some fishing-line from the yacht and whipped one end of it to the needle from the eye to the middle. He next got a long pea-stick from the garden, and dug up some lob-worms, and then went to the mud-bank where the eels were. Frank baited his tackle by running the head of the needle quite up into the head of the worm, letting the point come out about the middle. Then he lightly stuck the point of the needle into the end of the stick, and with the stick in one hand and the loose line in the other, he went quietly to the side, and selecting an eel, he presented the worm to its nose. The eel opened its mouth and took the worm in. Frank gently pulled the stick away and slackened the line, and the eel swallowed the worm head first. When it had disappeared down the eel's throat, Frank struck, and the needle, of course, stuck across the eel's gullet. Frank kept a steady hold upon him, and drew him out of his fastness inch by inch, until he was clear of the mud, and then he lifted him out of the water. It was a fine eel of two pounds in weight. "Why, what grand fun that is!" said Dick. "Let me try," and so enthusiastically did he set to work, that in an hour's time he had got eight large eels. They now went on board to make their fourth meal that day, it being then half-past four o'clock. Afterwards they all wrote their letters home. The next morning about nine o'clock they hoisted sail, and started, intending to reach Yarmouth that day. A strong breeze, almost amounting to a gale, blew from the west, and they were obliged to take in reefs in both the main-sail and the mizen, and then they spun along at a very good rate, the water foaming at their bows and surging in their wake. Above them and to the eastward the sky was blue and without a cloud, but in the west a huge black cloud was slowly rising. Against its gloom, the sunlit marsh, the windmills, and the white sails of the yachts stood out brilliantly clear, and a number of gulls which were flying over the marsh shone out dazzlingly white against it. "What bird is that? It is a hawk no doubt, but it looks so blue in this light," said Jimmy, pointing over the marsh to where a large hawk was flying in circles uttering screams, and every now and then swooping to the ground. Frank got out his glass and took a long look at it. "It must be a hen-harrier," he said. "I can see it quite clearly. It seems to be very angry with something on the ground. Run the yacht up in the wind, Jimmy, and let us watch it." "There is another harrier flying to join it as swift as the wind. It is larger and browner, and must be the female," said Frank, describing their movements as he saw them through the glass. [Illustration: HEN-HARRIER.] The second comer swooped down to the ground and rose with some long struggling object in its talons which seemed to be a weasel or stoat. Frank then through his glass distinctly saw the weasel seize the hawk by the throat, and the hawk, screaming wildly, rose high into the air--"towering," as a sportsman would say--until it was almost a speck, and its mate accompanied it, circling round it, and also uttering savage screams. Then the hawk and weasel fell through the air, turning over and over, and came plump upon the marsh. The boys landed and went to the spot, while the other hawk slowly circled far out of sight. On reaching the spot they found the hawk dead, and the weasel still alive but stunned. It was soon despatched, and they examined the beautiful hawk which had fallen a victim to its bravery. The weasel's jaws were stained with egg-juice, and not far off they found the hen-harrier's nest which the weasel had been rifling when the hawk attacked it. The nest was built on the ground, and was something like a coot's nest, large and strong in structure. It contained four bluish eggs, two of which were broken. [Illustration: WEASEL.] "I tell you what, Frank," said Jimmy, "we must stuff the hawk and weasel, and mount them just as they appeared in the air. It will make a grand group. I am sorry for the hawk, but it is a lucky find for us and our museum nevertheless." In the meantime they skinned the hawk and weasel, and simply stuffed their skins with cotton-wool and laid them by in the locker. It is not necessary to stuff birds in their natural attitude to preserve them for a cabinet. They may be loosely stuffed with cotton-wool and laid side by side in drawers and labelled, just like eggs, and if at any time afterwards it is desired to set them up in life-like positions, the skins can be softened by letting them lie for a few days in a damp place. They sailed at a great rate down to Yarmouth, and brought up just outside a row of wherries which were moored to the quay. CHAPTER XI. To the Rescue.--A Long-tailed Tit's Nest.--A Shower of Feathers. When they had made all snug, they set out for a walk through the town, and as the quay-side was not so pleasant as the open country, they determined not to sleep on board the yacht this night, but to sleep at an hotel. They therefore went to one by the beach and engaged beds. They then ordered and ate an uncommonly good dinner, at the close of which the waiter intimated to them that he had never seen any young gentlemen before who had such good appetites. After a due amount of rest they set out for a stroll. Presently they met a boy with a nest in his hand, which was evidently that of a long-tailed tit. They watched the boy join a gang of other boys, and after some conversation they took a number of tiny white eggs out of the nest, and arranged them on the ground in a row. "By Jove, they are going to play 'hookey smash' with them. What heathens!" said Frank. The boy who had brought the eggs now took a stick and made a shot at one of the eggs, and smash it went. Another boy took a stick and prepared to have his turn. "I say, I can't stand this," said Frank. "Let us make a rush and rescue the eggs," and suiting the action to the word, he ran forward, and with a well-applied shove of his foot to the inviting target which a stooping boy presented to him, he sent him rolling into the gutter. Jimmy picked up the nest and eggs, and then the three found themselves like Horatius and his two companions when they kept the bridge against Lars Porsena and his host, "facing fearful odds" in the shape of a dozen yelling street-boys. Frank was a big lad for his age, and he stood in such an excellent boxing position, his blue eyes gleaming with such a Berserker rage, and Jimmy and Dick backed him so manfully, that their opponents quailed, and dared not attack them save with foul language, of which they had a plentiful supply at command. Seeing that their enemies deemed discretion the better part of valour, our three heroes linked themselves arm in arm, and marched home with their heads very high in air, and with a conscious feeling of superiority. "What are you laughing at, Dick?" said Frank. "At the cool way in which you robbed those fellows of their eggs. You had no right to do so. They _will_ wonder why you did it." "Let them wonder. I was so savage at their spoiling those beautiful eggs in such a brutal manner. At the same time I acknowledge that it wasn't my business, no more than if it were their own ha'pence they were smashing, but all the same I feel that we have done a very meritorious action." They now found themselves at the quay-side, and they stopped there some time, being much struck by the scene which presented itself to them as they gazed out over Breydon Water. The tide was flowing in rapidly, and Breydon was one vast lake, at the further end of which, five miles away, the rivers Waveney and Yare joined it, and, at the end near Yarmouth, the Bure, down which they had just sailed. The breeze had risen to a gale, and as it met the incoming tide it raised a sharp popply sea. The sun was setting red and splendid over the far end behind a mass of black fiery-edged cloud, through rents in which the brilliant light fell upon the tossing waste of waters, and tipped each wave-crest with crimson. Above the cloud the sky was of a delicate pale green, in which floated cloudlets or bars of gold, which were scarcely more ethereal-looking than the birds which breasted the gale with wavering flight. Out of the sunset light there came a gallant array of vessels making for the shelter of Yarmouth. Dark-sailed wherries with their peaks lowered and their sails half mast high, and yachts with every possible reef taken in, all dashing along at a great pace, notwithstanding the opposing tide, and each with a white lump of foam at its bows. The parallel rows of posts which marked the sailing course stood out gaunt and grim, like warders of the sunset gates, and the whole scene was wild and impressive. It so moved Dick, that when they got back to their hotel he sat down, and tried his hand at making some verses descriptive of it. They are not good enough to quote, but Frank and Jimmy both thought them very good, only they were not impartial critics. As they were sitting in the coffee-room that evening, Jimmy said that he should like to see how many feathers the long-tailed tit's nest contained. It looked a regular hatful, and he wondered how the tiny bird could have had the patience to collect so many. So he drew a small table aside, and sat himself down at it with the nest before him, and then set to work to count the feathers, putting them in a pile at his right side as he did so. Dick joined him, and the two worked away for a long time at the monotonous task of counting. The feathers as they were piled up loosely on the table formed a big feather-heap. Frank grew tired of watching them, and a wicked idea entered his head. The window near which they sat encountered the whole force of the wind. Frank lounged up to it, and, under cover of a question, undid the latch. "How many are there?" he asked. "We have counted 2,000, and there are about 300 more. We shall soon finish." "Shall you, indeed," said Frank, as he opened the window. The wind rushed in, and catching the light feathers scattered them all over the room, which was full of people, some reading, some eating, and some enjoying a nightcap of toddy. The feathers stuck everywhere--on the food, in the glasses, sticking on hair and clothes, and tickling noses, and causing universal consternation. [Illustration: LONG-TAILED TIT AND EGG.] "Here's a pretty kettle of fish!" said Jimmy, looking up in dismay. "How could you, Frank?" But Frank had vanished out of the window laughing incontinently, and Dick and Jimmy were left alone to bear the storm of expostulations and reproaches with which they were favoured by the company, who thought the whole affair was premeditated. CHAPTER XII. Yarmouth.--The "Rows".--A Stiff Breeze.--An Exciting Sail.-- Sparrow-hawk's Nest.--A Nasty Fall.--Long-eared Owl.-- Partridge.--Sandpiper. Yarmouth is a queer old semi-Dutch town, and is often compared in shape to a gridiron, the bars of that article corresponding to the "Rows" which are such a peculiar feature of Yarmouth. These rows stretching across from the quay-side to the principal street are very narrow, yet contain the houses and shops of a great portion of the population. Many are only wide enough for foot passengers but along others, carts of a peculiar construction can pass. These carts are very long and narrow, and have only two wheels, and a stranger seeing them for the first time would wonder what they were for. Below Breydon Water the river narrows very much, and flows past numerous fish-wharves and quays to the sea. The tide rises up this narrow neck with great force, and were it not for the safety-valve which is afforded by the vast expanse of Breydon Water, where the tide can expand and waste its force, it would rush on and flood the low-lying marshes for miles up the river. The boys had resolved to start on their voyage up Breydon Water at ten o'clock in the morning, when the tide would be making and would help them on their way, but when they had staggered down to their boat in the teeth of a fierce north-wester, and saw Breydon white with foam, torn off short snappy waves caused by the meeting of wind and tide, they were rather dismayed, and held a council of war as to what should be done. Not a sail could be seen on the wide expanse of Breydon Water. The sky was of a hard and pitiless blue, and clearly foretold a continuance of the gale. "Shall we venture or not?" said Frank. "What do you feel inclined to do yourself?" asked Jimmy. "Well, I don't think there is any great risk. We will take every reef in, and the tide will be in our favour. It will be a good trial for the yacht too. If we can get to the top of Breydon against this gale we shall have every reason to be satisfied with her. I am game to try." "So am I," said Jimmy. "Then if you are, I am," said Dick. "That's right. Then do you make all snug on board, while I run back to the town. I have something to buy," and off he went. In a short time he returned with a small life-belt in his hand. "Here, this is for you, Dick. Jimmy and I swim so well that there is no danger for us, but you cannot swim so very far yet, so you had better wear this in case of a capsize, though I don't expect one. Now, are you ready?" "Yes." "Then, Jimmy, do you take the main-sheet, and you, Dick, take the mizen-sheet, and I will cast off." The sails were hoisted, and everything made taut and trim. Frank undid the moorings, and jumped on board, seizing the tiller just as the yacht's head turned from the shore, and she heeled over before the wind. No sooner was she free from the quay than she seemed to be at the opposite side of the river, at such a pace did the wind impel her. Although her raft-like frame gave her so much stability, yet she heeled over until her deck to leeward was in the water. She came back on the opposite tack with the speed of a racehorse. Frank said,-- "I say, she fairly seems to run away from us. Quick, loose the sheet, Jimmy! Here's a squall!" and the yacht ran up into the wind, and her sails fluttered as Frank kept her so until the gust had passed. They were soon out in the open water of Breydon, and were able to take longer tacks. This gave them some ease, but they found that the _Swan_ was not a "dry" boat. Her lowness and flat shape caused her to "ship" the short curling seas. They, of course, passed over her deck harmlessly, but nevertheless they made her wet and uncomfortable. As long, however, as she was safe and sailed well, the boys did not mind this at all, and they stuck to their work bravely, handling their yacht with great skill and courage. Large portions of Breydon are dry at low tide, and are there called "muds," or "flats." On these muds flocks of sea-fowl congregate. "These are capital places in the winter for wild-fowl shooting," said Frank, "we must have a day's sport here in the next hard frost. Bell will come with us, and show us some good fun, I am sure." "My father has a big swivel duck-gun somewhere about. If that will be of any use I will look it up," said Dick. "Of course it will be of use, old man. Just the thing we want. Haul in her sheet, Jimmy. We can sail a point nearer to the wind, if we choose. I say, this is fine! What muffs we were to think that there was any danger, or that the yacht could not do it. See how well she behaves! But there, I am putting her too full, and she was very nearly capsized. The man at the wheel must not speak, so don't talk to me." "This may be fine fun for you, Frank, but my hands have nearly all the skin taken off them by the rope. It is jolly hard work holding on to this, I can tell you," said Jimmy, who, indeed, had got his work cut out for him. "Same here," said Dick; "I don't care how soon it is over, for my hands are awfully flayed. I wish we could make the sheet fast." "Ah, you must not do that, or we shall be upset at the next gust," said Frank. After an hour and a half of very exciting sailing, they had sailed the five miles of Breydon Water, and ran into the smoother current of the Waveney. Here, also, they got the wind more aslant, and skimmed along at a great pace with very little labour. In this way, they sailed some fifteen miles, and at length came to anchor in a sheltered spot under a wood-crowned bank not far from Beccles. After making all snug and eating their dinner, the most natural thing to do was to explore the wood near them. They left the yacht, and crossing a meadow they entered the wood. It was a thick fir-plantation and promised well for nests. "What is that one?" said Jimmy, pointing to a nest in a tall fir-tree. "Is it a crow's, or an old wood-pigeon's, or a hawk's? Who will go up and see?" "I will," said Frank, and up he went hand over hand among the thick boughs. As he neared the top, he was obliged to proceed more cautiously, for the branches were thin, and the tree swayed in the wind. All doubts as to the kind of nest were speedily dissolved, for with a cry of rage, a sparrow-hawk came dashing up, and flew in circles around the tree, screaming angrily, and making fierce attacks at the invader of its home. Frank, nothing daunted, continued his upward way, and soon was able to see into the nest. "There are four young ones," he cried. [Illustration: SPARROW-HAWK.] "What a pity," said Jimmy. "If they had only been eggs! Look sharp and come down, Frank, you are swinging about so much that it does not seem safe up there." But Frank answered nothing, and remained on his perch. "What is the matter, Frank?" "I am thinking about something." "A tree-top is a funny place to think. Here is the other hawk coming to pay you a visit, and it is the female. She will be more savage than the other, and may attack you." "No fear," said Frank, but at that moment both hawks made a sudden onslaught upon him, and the female struck him so savagely, that she tore a big gash in his cheek. He was so startled at this unexpected and hostile measure that he lost his hold and fell. When Dick and Jimmy saw their leader crashing through the branches, and turning over and over as he fell, they could not repress a shriek, and closed their eyes to shut out the horrible accident that must happen. They waited in fearful suspense for the expected thud, but not hearing it, they ventured to look up again, and saw Frank lying on a thickly spreading branch not far below the nest. He was lying quite still, but clutching hold of the boughs with his hands. Both Dick and Jimmy flew to the tree, and commenced to climb it. With a speed that seemed wonderful to them afterwards they reached Frank. "Are you hurt, old man?" "Not at all, only all the wind is knocked out of me. I shall be all right in a minute. I say, if my mater saw that tumble, she would not let me go out alone any more, would she? That hawk was a plucky bird. I am going up to the nest again." "What for? I should think you have had enough of hawks' nests for a long time." "Yes, but I want to take two of the young ones. Two of them are much larger than the others, so they must be females. Now I'll tell you what struck me before the bird knocked me off my perch. Suppose we take these young hawks, and train them up in the way they should go--that is, let us use them for hawking." "It is a good idea and no mistake--but can we do that?" "Easily," answered Frank, gathering himself together, and resuming his ascent. "What a cool fellow he is," said Dick to Jimmy. "He does not seem to know what danger is." "He does not choose to show it, if he does. But let us go up and help him with the hawks." The young hawks were fully fledged and nearly ready to fly. They were fierce enough now, but Frank said he would undertake to tame them, and fit them for hawking before the winter, if the other boys would help him. The idea of reviving that famous old sport was a very fascinating one, and they determined to do their best to carry it out, with what result will afterwards be seen. In the meantime it was a difficult matter to dispose of the birds. They tied strings to their legs, and kept them in the cabin, feeding them, and taking as much care of them as if they were babies, until they came to Norwich, when they sent them to Bell, who took care of them until their return. After taking the hawks to the boat, the boys went back to the wood and separated, so that they might cover more ground. Suddenly peals of laughter were heard coming from the corner of the wood. Frank, pushing aside the branches to get a clearer view, was surprised to see Dick staring at a thick Scotch fir, holding his sides, and laughing until the tears ran down his cheeks. Frank hastened up to him to see where the fun was. Dick could only point, for he was too far gone for speech. Frank looked in the direction he pointed, and immediately burst into a fit of laughter far more uproarious than Dick's. Jimmy, running up as fast as he could, saw both his friends laughing and capering like mad. "What on earth is the matter? Have you both gone crazy?" They pointed to the Scotch fir. Jimmy looked, and immediately fell a roaring with laughter as hard as the others. [Illustration: LONG-EARED OWL.] This is the explanation. On a horizontal bough of the tree were seated six young long-eared owls. They were fully fledged, but unable to fly, and according to their custom they had left their nest and were perched together on this branch waiting for their parents to feed them. They looked most extremely absurd and ridiculous as they sat, each on one foot swaying to and fro after their manner on the bough, and gravely winking their large brown eyes at the intruders. It is impossible to give any idea of the comicality of the scene any more than it is possible to give a true description in words of the grotesque gestures of a clown. Of this owl Morris says,-- "It is readily tamed, and affords much amusement by the many grotesque attitudes it assumes, to which its ears and eyes give piquancy. It may often be detected that a small orifice is left through which it is peeping when its eyes would seem to be shut, and it has the singular faculty of being able to close one eye while the other is not shut, so that it may appear wide awake on one side while apparently asleep on the other, or if asleep, may be so literally with one eye open. The ears are raised by excitement; at other times they are depressed." [Illustration: COMMON PARTRIDGE.] On its head this owl has two tufts of feathers which look like donkey's ears, and give it its name. It is common in many parts of England, and frequents thick fir-woods, where it builds in old nests of crows and hawks, or even squirrels, which it lines with wool, and in which it lays two or three round white eggs. Jimmy sadly wanted to take one of the young ones home, but the hawks were as much as they could manage in the yacht, and after all, the owl would be of no use to them, and it might die, so they reluctantly left the birds on their perch to snore in peace. [Illustration: EGG OF COMMON PARTRIDGE.] "What is that partridge calling for?" said Frank. "I can't think," answered Jimmy. "It seems to come from the top of that haystack, but that is a very unlikely place for a partridge in the breeding season." "I will go up and see," said Dick, "if you will give me a back." They soon lifted him up, and as they did so, a French or red-legged partridge flew off. "Here is her nest with ten eggs in it," cried Dick, "what an extraordinary spot for a nest." And so it was, but not altogether singular, for the partridge has been known to build in a hollow tree, and in other unlikely situations. Leaving the wood, they proceeded up a small stream which empties itself into the Waveney. As they advanced, a sandpiper took short flights in front of them. It was presently joined by another, and the two seemed so uneasy, that the boys concluded that their nest could not be far off. They therefore set to work to examine every likely spot with great care. Dick was the one who found it, in fact he very nearly trod upon it. Four cream-coloured eggs with brown spots, very much pointed and very large for the size of the bird, lay in a hollow in a gravelly bank, upon a few pieces of dry grass and leaves, the birds' apology for a nest. The sandpipers flew over head, uttering their cry of "weet, weet, weet," with great anxiety, and they looked so pretty, that the boys felt sorry for them, and only took two of their eggs. The summer snipe, as this bird is also called, is well known to everyone who wanders by the side of streams or lakes. Its white stomach contrasts so prettily with its dusky back, and it walks so merrily about the water-edge, trotting over the lily leaves, and taking short flights before the angler, that it is one of my favourite birds, the kingfisher and the water-ouzel being the other two. Jimmy had gone off up a small ravine thickly covered with underwood, in search of a fern or two which he expected to find there. He had not been gone long before they heard him give a loud shout, and turning towards the spot, they saw a woodcock float out of a covert with that owl-like flight which it sometimes affect. "Here is its nest," shouted Jimmy. This news was sufficient to make the boys rush at once to the place where Jimmy stood. On the ground under a holly-bush was the nest, with four eggs in it, of a dirty yellowish white, spotted with pale brown. [Illustration: COMMON SANDPIPER.] "Well," said Frank, "I think we have had an uncommonly good day." "So do I," replied Jimmy, "and I feel uncommonly hungry. Don't you?" "It seems to me that we do nothing but eat," observed Dick. "I should like to go to bed soon. I am tired, and my ribs ache from my tumble," said Frank. CHAPTER XIII. A Grizzly Bear.--Gossamers.--Strike only on the Box. After Frank's cuts and bruises were plastered up, the boys turned into their berths and were soon fast asleep. Now the hawks had been placed in a corner at the foot of Jimmy's berth, and crouched together quiet and sullen. The foot of Jimmy's bed was only about six inches from them, and as he turned and twisted in his sleep, he pushed his foot out of the bottom of the bed, exposing his toes within tempting reach of the young hawks' talons. The natural consequence followed. One of the birds seeing this capital chance of avenging himself on his enemies, seized fast hold of Jimmy's big toe with his sharp beak. Jimmy jumped up with a loud yell, and hitting his forehead against the roof of the cabin fell down again on the floor. Frank, hearing a noise, started up not more than half awake, and fell out of his hammock on to the top of Jimmy, whom he seized by the throat. Dick awoke from a dream of Arctic exploration, and cried out,-- "Is that a grizzly bear?" "Grizzly bear!" said Jimmy, whom Frank had released. "Something ten times worse than a bear has seized my toe and bitten it off, or nearly so, and then I hit my head against the roof, and Frank half choked me. I think it is a great deal too bad." "You must have been dreaming, Jimmy," said Frank; "there is nothing here that could bite your toe." "But I can feel that it is bleeding!" answered Jimmy, in a very injured tone of voice. At that moment a noise in the corner of his berth attracted their attention. "Oh, it must have been the hawks!" said Dick, and he and Frank went off into fits of laughter, which only grew more boisterous as Jimmy proceeded to light a candle, and bind his toe up with a piece of sticking-plaster, grumbling all the time, and casting savage glances at the offending birds. The light was put out, and they once more went to bed, Jimmy taking care to tuck his feet well under him. Every now and then a smothered burst of laughter from the other berths told him that his friends were still enjoying the joke, and then, as his toe began to pain him less, his sense of the ludicrous overcame his sense of outraged dignity, and just as Dick and Frank were dropping off to sleep, they were again startled by a peal of laughter from Jimmy. "Oh dear!" said Frank, "you will be the death of us, Jimmy. Have you only now discovered the joke?" "Oh, don't make me laugh any more. My sides are aching so," said Dick. Once more composed, they went to sleep, and awoke early in the morning to find that the gale had spent itself, and that a soft air from the south blew warmly over the land. The sun shone his brightest, and the birds sang their merriest. They had a bathe in the clear river water, and dressed leisurely on the top of their cabin, while the sun, which had not risen very long, threw their shadows, gigantic in size, over the green meadows, which were covered with silvery gossamers--and then they were witnesses of a curious phenomenon. Their shadows had halos of light around them, extending about eighteen inches from each figure, all around it. The strong light from behind them, shining on the wet and gleaming gossamers, was no doubt the cause of this singular appearance. The same sight has been seen when the grass was wet with dew. "The fields are quite silvery with the gossamer," said Dick. "Is it not pretty!" "Yes, what a number of spiders there must be to cause such an appearance," answered Frank. "It always puzzles me how those spiders move about--and how is it that on some mornings they appear in such immense quantities, while on the next morning, perhaps, not one will be seen?" "I think they are always there," replied Dick, "but they are only visible when the dew is falling heavily, and wetting them so that they become visible. In the clear air, too, the sun will dry them so that we shall not be able to see them; but they will be there all the same. Let us gather a bunch of rushes with a lot of them on and examine them." He did so, and they saw great numbers of tiny spiders gliding about their tiny webs. By and by, as they watched them, the little spiders shot out long silvery threads, which floated out to leeward, and then the spiders let go their hold and launched themselves into the air, and were borne away by the faint south wind. "Oh, so that is the secret of their wandering, is it? Don't you wish you could send a long floating thread from your stomach, Jimmy, and sail away over the marshes? It would be as good as having wings." "Don't be so absurd, Frank." A wherry was being pushed up the stream by its two stalwart boatmen, by the process known in Norfolk as quanting. The men placed their long poles or quants into the river at the bow of the wherry, and, placing their shoulders against them, walked to the stern, propelling the boat along with their feet. By this laborious method, when the wind fails them, do the wherrymen work their craft to their destination. As they passed the yacht, one of them cried out-- "We have got no matches, guv'nor. Can you give us some?" "Certainly," replied Frank; and diving into the cabin, he returned with a handful. These he handed to the wherryman, who thanked him and passed on. The man stopped quanting and tried to strike a match by rubbing it on the sole of his shoe. It failed to ignite, and he threw it down. Another met with the same fate, and another also. Then he tried striking them on wood, then on iron, then on his rough jacket, but all to no purpose, and they could see him trying one after another, and throwing them down with every symptom of disgust. "Why, Frank, those matches strike only on the box," said Dick. "I know that," replied Frank, laughing quietly. "Oh, that's too bad. Fancy the fellow's disgust!" They sailed up to the pretty little town of Beccles, where they took in provisions, and Frank bought some more sticking-plaster in case of any further accident. They then had a good dinner at the principal inn, and afterwards called upon a friend, who took them over the large printing-works near the town, where many books published in London are printed. They began with the compositors' room, where, with marvellous rapidity, the workmen were selecting the letters from their respective boxes in the case of type, and arranging them in their proper order. The extraordinary illegibility of some of the MSS. from which the compositors were reading with apparent ease astonished our boys, who could make nothing of them. They then paid a visit to the reader, who has the wearisome and eye-tiring task of reading over and correcting the proofs. When the proofs have been corrected and the "revise" submitted to the author, and his corrections made, the process of stereotyping comes in. The sheet of type is covered with a layer of plaster-of-paris, which takes a perfect impression of the words on the sheet of type. From this plaster-of-paris cast another cast is taken in metal, and this forms the stereotype plate from which the book is printed. The type, which is very valuable, can then be distributed to its proper places, and used again. The stereotype plates are always kept stored in stacks, like bottles in a wine-bin. Jimmy, being of a mechanical turn of mind, was very much interested in the stereotyping process, and more particularly in the account they received of the way in which many daily papers are printed. The impression is in the first instance taken by means of a soft wet paper of sufficient thickness. This is dried, and the molten metal is poured upon it, and takes a perfect impression, without in any way spoiling the paper mould, or "matrix," which can be used again, while a plaster one cannot. Jimmy asked to be shown some wooden blocks from which wood engravings are printed, and the boys examined them curiously. They received an invitation to spend the evening at their friend's house, and after returning to the boat to feed the hawks with some "lights" bought at a butcher's shop, they had a very pleasant evening, and slept that night on shore. CHAPTER XIV. Oulton Broad.--Lateeners.--Lowestoft.--Ringed-Plover's Nest.-- Oyster-catcher.--Shore Fishing.--A Perilous Sail. [Illustration: LATEEN SAIL.] They sailed quietly down the river again, and excited much attention from the many yachts they met. They turned off along Oulton Dyke, and on to Oulton Broad. The lake was full of craft of all rigs and sizes. There had been a regatta there the day before, and the major part of the yachts still remained. There was a stately schooner, moving with dignity; a smart cutter, heeling well over, but dashing along at a great pace; a heavy lugger; and, most graceful of all, the lateeners. These are a class of boats peculiar to the Norfolk waters and to the Mediterranean. The shape of them will be familiar to all who have ever looked at a picture of the Bay of Naples. They carry immense yards, the yard of a boat thirty feet long being about sixty feet in length. Such a yard, of course, carries a very large sail. In addition to this large sail they have a fore and aft mizen astern. They sail wonderfully close to the wind, but in running before it they sometimes take it into their heads to duck under, because the weight of the sail is all thrown on the fore-part of the boat, and sometimes proves too much for it. A boat which attracted our boys' attention was a lugger, with her sails crossed by strips of bamboo, so that they looked something like Venetian blinds. These made the sails stand very flat and firm, and the boat so rigged seemed to sail very fast. The sun-lit waters of the broad, covered as they were with rapidly-moving yachts, whose white sails contrasted with the blue water and sky and the green fringe of tall reeds which encircled the lake, presented a very pretty spectacle, and one that called forth the admiration of our young yachtsmen. As they threaded their way through the numerous vessels, they saw that they themselves were an object of curiosity, and as sound travels far on the water, and people seldom think of that when they speak on it, the boys overheard many comments upon themselves. Those upon their boat were sometimes not flattering, but those upon their skill in handling her upon that crowded water were very appreciative, and at length Frank said, with something like a blush-- "Look here, this is getting too warm. I vote we moor her, and go to Lowestoft to have a dip in the sea." The others agreed to this, and having moored the yacht in a safe place, they took their departure. At the lower end of Oulton Broad is a lock, by which vessels can be raised or lowered, as the case may be, to or from Lake Lothing, a tidal piece of water, communicating with the sea through Lowestoft harbour. A brigantine collier was in the lock when our boys came up, and they stood and watched it come through, going out upon a floating raft of wood, so as to see it better entering the broad. "Why, look at her bows. They are carved all over like an old-fashioned mantel-piece." As it came through the lock, it knocked against their raft, and threatened their safety, so seizing hold of the chains that hung over its bows, they climbed on board and entered into a conversation with her skipper. He told them that his ship was 100 years old, and he considered her still stronger than many a ship of more recent build. He had on board some beautiful little dogs of the Spanish breed, pure white and curly-haired, with sharp noses, and bright black eyes. Dick insisted on buying one. "We cannot have it on board with the hawks," said Frank. "But I shall send it home by the carrier from Lowestoft," answered Dick. [Illustration: RINGED-PLOVER.] They walked along the shores of Lake Lothing to Lowestoft, and went and had a bathe. Then they walked along the cliffs towards Pakefield, and while crossing a sandy spot Dick discovered a ringed plover's nest. There were three eggs, cream-coloured, and blotched with brown. They were simply laid in a hole in the sand. They saw the old birds running along the shore before the wind, as is their habit, and looking very pretty with their grey beaks, and white stomachs, and black collars. On the shore they also saw some oyster catchers, with their plumage nearly all black, except a white belt, and white bars on their wings; and also a pair of redshanks, with their long red legs and bills, and French grey plumage; but although their nests are common enough in Suffolk (in which county our boys now were), they failed to find their eggs. The redshanks nest on the ground in marshy places, and lay eggs of a great family likeness to those of other birds which lay in similar positions. On the shore men and boys were fishing in the following manner:-- They had long lines with a number of hooks on at regular intervals, which were baited with mussels. One end of the line was pegged into the sand; the other was heavily weighted with lead. They had a throwing-stick with a slit at one end. Into this slit the line next the weight was introduced. With the aid of the stick the line was thrown out a considerable distance. After being allowed to rest some time it was hauled in, and the fish taken off. In this way they caught flat-fish and small codlings, and some of them had accumulated a large heap of fish. [Illustration: OYSTER-CATCHER.] Two boatmen came up to the boys, and asked them if they would like a sail. "We'll take you for an hour for sixpence each." "Well, it's reasonable enough," said Frank; "I vote we go." So they stepped on board and were soon tacking merrily about, a mile or two from land. "Did you ever see two uglier fellows than our boatmen?" said Dick in a whisper to Frank. "No--but what are they staring at that steamer so hard for?" A large yacht was making direct for Lowestoft harbour. "I say," said Frank, "is not that steamer standing too close in shore? There is a bank of sand somewhere about there. I remember seeing remains of a wreck there not long ago." "Hush! hold your tongue," answered the steersman. "What do you mean, sir? If she goes on in that course she'll strike." The man looked savagely at him, and replied, "Look here, young man, if she strikes there will be no harm done. The sea is too smooth, and we shall be the first on the spot to help them off, and we shall get a good long sum of money for salvage. If you hold your tongue and say nothing you shall go shares. If you don't, I'll crack your head for you, so mind you don't give her any signal." "You unfeeling fellow!" said Frank. "Shout, Jimmy and Dick, with all your might. I will settle this blackguard." Jimmy and Dick obeyed and waved their hats to the advancing yacht. The man at the helm could not let go the tiller, but his mate made the sheet fast, and rose to strike Frank. Frank seized the stretcher from the bottom of the boat and raised it in the air. "Touch me, if you dare!" he said. The brute struck at him, enraged at the prospect of losing so large a sum of money as his share of the salvage would amount to. Frank avoided the blow, and with all the strength of his lithe young body, brought the stretcher down on the fellow's skull. He dropped to the bottom of the boat, and lay there as still as a log. "Now we are three to one," he said to the steersman, "so you must do as we tell you." The man was a coward at heart, though a bully by nature, so he dared make no objection. Meanwhile the yacht sheered off, but not soon enough to avoid just touching the end of the shoal, and getting a bump, which threw the people on her deck down, and gave them a fright. They passed on without so much as shouting "thank you." They now steered for the shore, Frank retaining the stretcher in his hand, in case of an attack. The man whom he had stunned soon came to himself, and growled and swore horribly, but dared not do more. When they landed Frank said, "Now you are a pair of blackguards, and I shall not pay you anything;" and followed by his companions he turned away. Before he had gone many steps, however, he turned back and said, while he pitched them half-a-crown: "There, that's for plaster!" CHAPTER XV. Animals which never die.--A Wonderful Tip to his Tail.-- Thunderstorm.--Swan's Nest.--Bearded Tit.--Reed-wrens and Cuckoo. The next day they sailed down the Waveney, until they came to Haddiscoe, and then, instead of continuing down to Breydon Water, they went along the New Cut, a wide channel which unites the Waveney with the Yare, joining the latter at Reedham. They found the channel of the Yare very much broader than the Bure or the Waveney; and as they had a favourable breeze for the greater part of the way, and there was plenty of room to tack in the reaches where it was against them, they made rapid progress. As they sailed quietly along, Dick lay on the roof of the cabin reading a number of _Science Gossip_ which they had bought at Lowestoft. Presently he cried out,-- "Do you know that there are animals which never die?" The others laughed at the idea, but Dick proceeded to read out as follows:-- "Will the reader be astonished to hear that there are exceptions to the universal law of death, that there are animals, or at any rate portions of animals, which are practically immortal. Such, however, is really the case. I allude to a species of the genera Nais and Syllis, marine worms of no special interest to the ordinary observer, but those who have watched their habits closely, tell us of the almost extraordinary power of spontaneous division which they enjoy. Self-division, as a means of propagation, is common enough among the lower members of both animal and vegetable kingdoms, but the particular kind to which I refer now, is, I believe, peculiar to these singular worms. At certain periods the posterior portion of the body begins to alter its shape materially, it swells and grows larger, and the transverse segments become more strongly marked. At the last joint, at the point where it joins the first segment of the body, a true head is formed, furnished with antennæ, jaws, and whatever else goes to make a marine worm "perfect after its kind," and forthwith the whole drops off, a complete animal, capable of maintaining a separate existence. Whether the process goes on for ever--that is to say, throughout all generations--of course, no one can tell; but if it does--and there is no reason to suppose the contrary--then it is self-evident that the posterior portion of one of these worms is, as I observed before, practically never dying. It is simply fitted every now and then with a new head! In fact, the tail of the first Syllis ever formed, provided it has had the good luck to escape external accident, must still be in existence--a truly venerable animal, and without controversy the 'oldest inhabitant' of the seas." "It strikes me," said Frank, "that that animal would be something like the Irishman's stocking, which he had worn for a score of years. It had been re-footed and re-legged several times, yet he always asserted that it was the original stocking, although there was not a particle of the old stuff in it." "What a wonderful tip to his tail some animal has got then, if that is true," said Jimmy. I cannot say whether the statement of the writer in _Science Gossip_ is strictly accurate, for who can decide when doctors disagree; but it seems plain enough that the process of generation by sub-division is far nearer the longed-for perpetual life, than anybody has been able to get to the coveted solution of the problem of perpetual motion. "Do you know that the water we are sailing on is higher than the marshes around us?" said Frank. "Yes, and all those windmills are to pump the water up from the drains. They look very funny twirling away all by themselves." Early in the day they reached a public-house surrounded by a little grove of trees, which gave an agreeable variety to the landscape. This was Coldham Hall, and as the sky was clouding over and the wind sighing fitfully through the reeds and the trees, and there was every symptom of a violent storm, the boys decided to remain there until the morrow, and then sail up to Norwich. During the afternoon they amused themselves by fishing for eels, which were biting very freely. The heavens grew black, and the thunder muttered at intervals, but the storm held off until the evening, and then as it was getting dark it came on most violently. The rain came down in torrents. The lightning lit up the marsh for miles most vividly, and each flash was succeeded by an intenser blackness, while the bellowing of the thunder made the very earth shake. The boys stood at the door of the inn, gazing at the storm and awe-struck by its mighty power. "I don't like the idea of sleeping on the river to-night," said Jimmy. "The landlord has a bedroom vacant, and I vote we sleep here instead of going on board." The others willingly consented, and Dick and Jimmy had a double-bedded room between them, while Frank slept in a small attic. As the night wore on the storm passed away, but its mutterings could still be heard. Jimmy did not like thunder, and felt very nervous while it was about, as many otherwise brave people will. He could not for the life of him go to sleep, and lay tossing about in a most uncomfortable state for half the night, while Dick was slumbering peacefully. Jimmy could stand it no longer, and got out of bed with the intention of arousing Dick, and getting him to talk to him. He stole across the room, and by the faint starlight which came from the sky, which had partially cleared after the storm, he saw that Dick had kicked all the bed-clothes off, and lay very deep in slumber. He touched him lightly on the foot to awake him gently. To his amazement Dick lifted his leg and began to wave it slowly backwards in the air, at the same time whistling softly. Jimmy was so struck with the oddity of this procedure in a sleeping man that he burst into a peal of laughter. Even this did not wake Dick; and Jimmy, having now something to occupy his mind, went back to bed and laughed himself to sleep. When he detailed the incident to the others in the morning they would not believe him, but said that he must have been dreaming. [Illustration: SWAN'S NEST.] The morning broke sunny and with a wonderful freshness in the air, which put the boys into the highest spirits. They sailed a little way up the river to Surlingham Broad, which they wished to explore. They sailed past the main entrance to the broad, thinking there was a wider passage further on. Finding they were mistaken, they attempted to take the punt through a narrow and sinuous dyke which appeared to lead into the broad. They pushed their way along this for some distance until it became so narrow and shallow that they could scarcely get on. Just then they came round a corner of reeds, and to their dismay found that they had come suddenly upon a swan's nest. The female swan was sitting upon a huge pile of sticks placed on a small reedy island. Round this island the male swan was swimming in a very stately fashion, and when he saw the boys coming so near his beloved, he swam towards them, with his wings and tail raised and set out in a way that unmistakably told them he meant war. They hastily pushed back, but the punt stuck in the mud, and Frank had to take an oar and keep the swan at bay with it, while the others pushed the punt off and back again. [Illustration: SWAN.] "Pray, look sharp," said Frank, "I cannot keep him at bay much longer without my hurting him or his hurting me." "We're doing our best," said Jimmy, and missing his footing as he spoke he fell into the mud and water. "That's no help," said Frank, giving the swan a sharp poke with the oar. Jimmy scrambled into the boat, and the swan, satisfied that they were in full retreat, gave up the pursuit. They went back to the yacht, where Jimmy changed his clothes, and then went on to the broad by the proper channel. Their object in visiting this broad was to find the nest of the bearded tit, which Bell had told them bred there in great numbers. This beautiful little bird is now becoming very rare. Its home is among the reed-beds of Norfolk and Suffolk, but it has been so shot down wholesale by bird-stuffers, and its eggs collected for sale, that it has become exceedingly rare. It is a very pretty bird, having a long tail, fawn-coloured back, and white belly, but its distinguishing feature is that it has a pair of moustaches in the shape of black tufts of feathers depending from either side of its mouth. Very properly, too, it is only the males which have this appearance. In Norfolk it is called the reed pheasant. It is very interesting to see a flock of them flitting about the reeds. Like all the tit family, they are very lively, jerking up and down the reed-stems in all sorts of positions, and as often as not with their heads down and their tails up. Apart from the open water of the broad, there were numerous channels among the reeds which latter rose to the height of seven or eight feet above the water. Along these channels the boys made their way, listening attentively to the chirping of the birds, which they could hear but not see. By keeping very still they could at length distinguish two or three of the birds they sought, flitting about the reeds, and by the aid of their glass they could perceive the birds with great distinctness. The movements of one bird led them to its nest, and pushing their way with some difficulty they were fortunate enough to find it. It was built of dry stems of grass and sedges, and was placed about a foot from the ground (or water, for it was a compound of both), in the midst of a thick clump of reeds. It contained five eggs as large as those of a great tit, pinkish-white in colour, spotted and streaked with reddish brown, something like those of a yellow-hammer. While they were debating how many of the eggs they should take, Frank saw a tit fly from a tuft of reeds a few yards off, and on going there they found another nest with four eggs in it. This was lucky, for it enabled them to take two eggs from each nest without feeling any compunction. [Illustration: CUCKOO AND EGG.] They found several of the beautiful purse-like nests of the reed wrens attached midway up the tall reed-stems. In one of them there was a young cuckoo, the sole occupant of the nest. What had become of the little reed-wrens was plainly to be seen by the bodies which strewed the ground beneath. The poor little fledglings had been ousted from their home by the broad-backed cuckoo. I suppose we ought not to call him cruel, because it is the instinct of self-preservation which makes him behave so badly. If the young birds, the legitimate owners of the nest, had been allowed to remain, the old birds could not have fed them all, and the young cuckoo must have starved. The boys watched the nest for some time to see the old birds feed it, and they were greatly delighted to see the way in which the reed-wrens managed it. _They perched on the young cuckoo's back_ while they placed the food in its broad mouth. It was the only standing room there was, for the cuckoo more than covered the whole of the nest. "Who wouldn't be a naturalist!" said Frank, "when he can see such things as that?" Dick replied, "I did not know that life could possibly be so jolly, until I learnt something of natural history. I do wonder that so few fellows take to it. I suppose it is because books make it appear so dry. Books don't seem to me to go into the _sport_ of the thing. They only show you the surface of it, and not the life. I will try to write a book some day when--" and he hesitated. "When you get more conceited, eh, Dick?" said Frank laughingly. Then they sailed up to Bramerton, and when they brought up at the Wood's-end public-house they found a number of old school-fellows there, and the racing four-oar belonging to the school club. CHAPTER XVI. Old School fellows.--Tom-tit's Nest in Boot.--Nuthatch.-- Wryneck.--Ant-hill.--Marsh-Tit.--A Comical Fix. As the _Swan_ was brought up to her moorings at the Staithe the boys who were assembled on the green before the front of the house rushed down to inspect the strange boat and then to claim acquaintanceship with Frank and Jimmy. They were their old school-fellows, and were glad to see their old companions again. They swarmed over the yacht, criticising her, and asking questions about her and the cruise of the boys. Marston, a great big fellow, dived into the cabin exclaiming, "What a jolly little box!" and sat down on a berth to see how it felt. No sooner, however, had he sat down than he jumped up and out on deck, as quickly as a Jack in a box does when the spring is touched, at the same time uttering a howl of pain. "What is the matter?" said Frank. "I do not know," answered Marston, poking his head into the cabin again to see what was there, while he rubbed his back disconsolately. The fact of the matter was that he had sat down in the corner where the hawks were, and they, seeing an inviting bit of bare flesh between the waistband of his breeches and his jersey, had saluted him with a _one_, _two_, of very remarkable poignancy. Jimmy's delight at this incident was unbounded. He felt now that he was amply repaid for the damage to his own big toe. When the general laugh at this incident had subsided, Marston said:-- "I say, Frank, we are going to row a race with the Norwich Rowing Club. A four-oared race; it comes off the day after to-morrow; and most unfortunately our No. 3 has sprained his wrist and cannot row, and we did not know what to do. We have no other man big enough to take his place who is in condition. We were discussing the matter as you came up. Now, you are a good rower; will you row for us?" Frank was pleased at the invitation, especially as it was backed up by the others most cordially; but he said-- "I have not rowed for so long a time that I am quite out of condition." "Oh, nonsense, you look in perfect condition. If you have been out for a week's yachting you must be in capital condition. Do row, or we shall lose the race to a certainty." "You had better row, Frank," said both Jim and Dick together, but he still hesitated. "Come, Dick," said Jim, "let us go and birds'-nest in the wood while Frank listens to the voice of the charmer." So off they went, leaving Frank and the others to settle the question between them. Behind the inn there rose a steep wood-crowned bank, and it was to this that the two boys directed their steps. On their way they passed a skittle-alley, and Dick said to the man in charge-- "Can you show us any birds' nests?" "Yes, I can show you one in a very rum place. Look into that old pair of boots hanging against the wall." They did so, and to their surprise a tom-tit flew out, and upon closer inspection they found its nest in one of the boots, and in the nest twelve tiny white eggs. "These are master's marsh-boots, but when he found that the birds had begun to build in them, he gave orders that no one was to touch them until the birds had hatched off their young ones." [Illustration: TOM-TIT AND EGG.] Tom-tits have a knack of building their nests in strange places. Inside a pillar letter-box, where letters were being tossed every day; in a hole in a door-post, which was closed when the door was shut, so that the birds were shut up during the night; in the pocket of a gardener's coat hanging on a nail. Such are the places in which master tom-tit sometimes builds his nest. Even more curious, however, was a nest I read of which was built by a fly-catcher in the spring of a bell, which vibrated twenty times a day when the bell was rung. When they reached the wood, Dick's attention was attracted by the movements of a bird with a slaty blue back and fawn-coloured belly, which was flitting about the trunk of a large beech-tree. "What bird is that, Jimmy?" he asked. "It is a nuthatch. Let us watch it, and perhaps we may see its nest." [Illustration: NUTHATCH.] After a little while they saw it disappear into a hole in a neighbouring tree. Going up to this, they found that it was its nest, and that it was made after a fashion peculiar to these pretty birds. The nest was built in a hole in a tree, but the hole being larger than was required by the birds, they had built up the entrance with mud, like that which forms a swallow's nest, leaving an aperture only just large enough for the old birds to get in and out. Dick got on Jimmy's shoulders, and broke away a piece of mud, so that he could get his hand in. "There are five eggs, white with brown spots, and I have caught the old bird on." "Let her go, and take two of the eggs; I know Frank hasn't got any." Dick did so, and then moistening the piece of mud which he had removed, in a little pool which was near, he fixed it very neatly in its proper place again. Proceeding a little further, they saw a bird about as big as a nuthatch, but very different in appearance. It had a curiously mottled and brown-lined back. Every now and then it descended to the ground, and flew back again to a hole in a decayed poplar, varying the journey with wanderings up and down the trunk of that and adjacent trees. As it did so, it stretched forth its head and twisted its neck about in a very peculiar fashion. [Illustration: WRYNECK.] "That can be nothing else but a wryneck," said Jimmy, noticing its movement. "Its nest must be in that hole; but what is it picking from the ground?" [Illustration: WORKING ANT AND PORTION OF ANT-HILL.] Underneath a large fir-tree was a big conical heap of straw and leaves. Upon examination it was found to be swarming with large chestnut-coloured ants. It was a nest of the wood-ant, and thousands of the tiny creatures were busy dragging straws and sticks to build up the nest, or grains of wheat or other food. It was a grand feast for the wryneck, which had been picking up the ants' eggs, and carrying them to its young ones. The boys stood for some time looking at the busy heap, until from looking at the whole together they came to selecting particular ants and speculating on their destination, for every ant had a purpose in going and coming. One about a foot from the hill was tugging a piece of straw which was evidently too large for him to pull along unassisted, so he left it, and presently returned with a companion, and the two together managed to take the straw along capitally. Dick was much struck with this incident, which looked more like reason than instinct. And he would have stayed longer watching the ants, had not Jimmy been in a hurry to climb up to the wryneck's nest, and he could not do without Dick's help, who had to give him a back. When he got up he very nearly came down again, so startled was he to hear a loud hissing in the hole like that of a snake. The wryneck flew off, and as there could not be a bird and a snake together in the hole, he concluded that the bird had made the noise with intention to frighten him, and he boldly put his hand into the hole and popped his fingers into the gaping mouths of some young wrynecks. He nevertheless felt carefully about, in hope of finding an addled egg, and he was not disappointed. There were two addled eggs, which he brought down in safety. They were pure white, about the size of a swift's. [Illustration: EGG OF WRYNECK.] They now came to something in Dick's line. On a tall nettle-top sat a small tortoiseshell butterfly opening and shutting its wings with the fanning motion peculiar to its tribe. The rays of sunlight falling through the foliage of the trees overhead lit up the beauty of its red and black wings. Dick had not his net with him, so taking off his cap, he made after the butterfly, which launched into strong flight, and sailed away out of the wood and over the meadows with Dick in hot pursuit. Jimmy went on rambling through the wood, and presently saw a small tree which divided into two branches about a dozen feet from the ground. At this fork of the tree it was split some distance down, and, in this split, some moss betokened a nest of some kind. Jimmy threw a stone up, and as it clattered against the tree, a bird like a tom-tit, but with a black head, flew out. Jimmy watched it as it fluttered about the branches of the tree a few yards off, and soon came to the conclusion that it was a marsh-tit, and that its eggs were worth having. [Illustration: MARSH TIT AND EGG.] He accordingly climbed up the tree, and found that he could not reach the nest, which was too far down in the slit. By dint, however, of sitting on one of the forks, and pushing with all his might at the other, he succeeded in opening the crack wide enough for him to insert his hand and reach the nest. It contained eight eggs, white spotted with red. He took four of them, and sitting in the fork of the tree, he blew them and put them in his box. Then he thought of descending, and attempted to jump to the ground. To his astonishment he found himself brought up sharp, and then he saw that his trousers had caught in the slit, and that a large portion of the slack of them behind was firmly wedged in; and there he hung with his legs dangling in the air with ludicrous helplessness. He tried to haul himself up again, but he was in such an awkward position that he could not do it. He tried to open the crack with his hands, but with the weight of his body on the one side instead of in the middle, this could not be done. In despair he let go with his hands, in the hope that his trousers would tear and that he would fall to the ground; but they were too stout for that, and he only narrowly escaped turning topsy turvy and hanging in a worse position. Then he fell to laughing vigorously at the comical scrape he had got into. He did not laugh long, however, for he was very uncomfortable, and kick and struggle as he would, he could not get free. Then he felt more inclined to cry than he ever had done in his life before. It was so very humiliating to be hung up there like a cockchafer at the end of a pin. When he found he could not get down by himself he began to shout for help. "Dick, Dick, Dick!" but no Dick came. The fact was that Dick who had been unsuccessful in his chase after the butterfly, had returned to the spot from whence he started, and then not seeing Jimmy about, he concluded that he had gone back to the others--and all the time Jimmy was still up in the tree shouting lustily. Dick heard an inarticulate shouting, but never for one moment imagined it came from Jimmy. When, however, he saw that Jimmy was not with the others, he thought of the shouting; and they all went in search of the missing one, and when they found him they went into such fits of laughter that for some time no one could help him. "Oh dear, Jimmy, you will be the death of me! This is worse than the big toe affair," said Frank. "I say," said Jimmy, "don't tell anyone at home about this, there's a good fellow." "All right, I won't." Frank had agreed to row in the race, and while Jimmy and Dick sailed the yacht up to Norwich, he went for a racing spin in the four-oar, and found that he was in much better condition than he had thought. When they reached Norwich they found some letters awaiting them. Frank after reading his, said,-- "Hallo, Master Dick, you never said that you were going to send that dog you bought at Mutford to my sister Mary." "Didn't I?" answered Dick blushing. "No, of course you didn't. Well, here is a message for you from her; she says, 'Tell Dick that I am very much obliged to him for the pretty little dog. He is a sweet little dear, but he soon got into a scrape. He went into the laundry and ate up the blue-bag, flannel and all, and he isn't a bit the worse, although Florrie says she is sure his white coat will turn blue.'" CHAPTER XVII. The Boat-race.--Winning.--Mr. Marston.--Nightingale and Nest.-- The noise of the Nightingales. The next morning Frank had another row in the four-oar, and in the afternoon they practised starts. The boat went very well indeed, notwithstanding the importation of new blood into it at the last hour. The day of the race came, a beautiful summer day with a gentle breeze, and the glare of the sun subdued by light clouds. The race was at three o'clock, and a goodly company had assembled at Whitlingham to witness it. The course was from below Postwick Grove to Whitlingham, a distance of two miles, the latter part of which was a long straight course, where for nearly a mile the boats could be seen by all the spectators. "How do you feel, old man?" said Jimmy to Frank as he was in the boat-house dressing. "Oh, all right; we mean to win." "I don't know that you will though. I have seen the other crew rowing past on their way to the course. They have got such a splendid long stroke and swing so evenly." "Yes, they row well," said Marston, who was the stroke of Frank's boat, "but they have not got enough of 'go' in them. They take it too easily, and so don't get a good grip of the water; and I think they have over-trained. Still we shall have a hard job to beat them, but we all mean to try. Now look here, you fellows. This is what I mean to do. We will put on a spurt at first, and get ahead of them, and then settle down into a steady stroke." This was very good advice, for it is a well-known fact that boys row with all the more _esprit_ if they can only get a start at the beginning. They are not so good at rowing a 'waiting' race as men are, but if they can but get ahead at first they always have a very good chance against men who are much stronger than themselves. Dick and Jimmy went to their yacht, and as the wind, although light, was dead aft, they sailed down to Whitlingham before the racing-boats arrived there. There was a goodly number of spectators on the fair green meadow which lies between the river and the wood, for the race had excited some interest. The gay dresses of the ladies made the scene very lively and pretty. Dick gallantly made it known that the yacht, which they had moored by the winning-post, was at the service of the ladies, and his offer was taken advantage of, and the _Swan's_ deck was soon crowded with the fair sex. The Norwich boat was the first to appear on the scene. On they came with a long swinging stroke on their way to the starting-point. Nothing could be prettier to look at than their style of going. The crew rowed a long stroke which had every appearance of strength. They bent to and fro with the regularity of machines. The oars were pulled well home to the breast, the wrists dropped, and the oars feathered cleverly; the arms shot out, quickly followed by the body until the breast came well between the wide-open knees, but there was just one fault noticeable. The oars were put too gingerly into the water. There was no 'grip.' The men looked as if their boat were too light for them, and they were afraid of making her roll by too great an exertion of force. The men, too, looked pale and over-trained. A few minutes after they had passed, the boys came by with a quick, lively stroke, such a quick dash in it, and a firm grip of the water at the commencement of the stroke, that promised to do them good service. They did not go nearly so smoothly as their opponents; nor was this to be wondered at, seeing the change which had been effected so late in the day. Dick and Jimmy ran down the bank of the river to the starting-point, accompanied by many more. And now the boats were side by side, waiting for the signal to start. As the wind was light there was not much drifting, and a few strokes of the oars of bow and stroke kept them in position. Frank settled himself well on his seat, and waited for the word. The starter said, "I shall ask if you are ready and then say Go!" "Now mind," said Marston, "one short stroke to get her away, and then row with all your might to get her ahead." "Are you ready?" Frank grasped his oar firmly, and drew in his breath. "_Go!_" The oars flashed in the water, and then it seemed to Frank as if the other crew were fast drawing away from them. He clenched his teeth and threw all his power into the stroke, pulling with every muscle of his body from his scalp to his toes. The river was white with the foam churned by the oars. There seemed to be a deafening noise of rushing water and rattle of oars in the rowlocks. Marston's jersey had been hung on a nail, and this had caused a projection in it at the back of the neck. On this Frank fixed his eyes, neither looking to right or left of him for fear he should make the boat roll and lose time. Then out of the corner of his eye he saw that he was opposite number two in the rival boat, and he knew that they were gaining. Another dozen strokes and they were clear. Then Marston eased a bit, and the boys got into a little better time. Their coxswain tried to take the water of the other boat, and thus nearly caused a foul at the bend in the river, but Marston shook his head at him and he steered his own course. Frank had now lost his nervousness, and felt pretty comfortable and able to take a little notice of what was passing on the banks, where a small crowd was running at the top of its speed abreast of them; a noise which had been humming in his ears resolving itself into the eager shouts of the partisans of the rival crews. Dick was well in advance, saying, "Well rowed, number three; splendidly rowed, Frank;" and Jimmy was a little way behind him shouting as excitedly. Frank for a time fell into the error of thinking that he was doing the real work of the boat, and began to row somewhat too violently, when a warning voice from the bank cried out--"Steady, steady number three!" and that recalled him to himself. They were now in the straight reach, and in sight of the winning-post, and their opponents were steadily gaining on them. "Why doesn't Marston quicken?" thought Frank impatiently; but his stroke knew what he was about, and he kept on steadily until the boats were level once more. Frank's hands were becoming numbed, for he was so afraid of slipping his oar that he grasped it more firmly than was needful. His wind was going too, and his tongue seemed swollen and clove to the roof of his mouth. He ventured a side glance at number three in the other boat, and was relieved to find that he seemed in quite as bad a plight as himself. An unlucky swan got in the way, and Frank struck it violently with his oar, and very nearly caught a crab in consequence. A sudden puff of wind blew somebody's hat off, and Frank smiled as he saw it float past and knew that it was Dick's. The oars flashed with increasing quickness, the shouts on the bank grew louder, and still the long slim boats swept over the water side by side, their opponents drawing slightly ahead. [Illustration: PAIR-OARED BOAT.] "Now!" gasped Marston; and Frank knew that the time for the final spurt had come, and if the stroke had been quick before it was doubly so now. Frank felt that each stroke must be his last, but he struggled on; and just as he felt faint (for his want of training had told) and he lost sight of the other boat in a mist, he heard the sound of a pistol and knew that the winning post was reached. "Who's won?" he managed to ask. "We have, by half a length," answered the coxswain. [Illustration: MR. MARSTON'S HOUSE.] They drew close up to the bank amid the cheers of the people, and they staggered ashore; and Frank went away a little distance and leaned against a tree with his face to the wind, trying to regain his breath again. Who does not know the agony of thus fighting for breath after a severe struggle! Even the excitement of victory does not atone at the moment for the penalty of over-exertion. Dick and Jimmy fanned him with their hats--or rather Dick used his handkerchief, for his hat had gone to the bottom by this time. As soon as he had got his wind back Frank turned to the others, and was at once seized by his companions and raised on their shoulders, and then carried in triumph to a carriage where some ladies sat. A tall clergyman approached, and he said,-- "You rowed splendidly, number three; wonderful, considering, as I am told, you had no training for the race. I hope you will be none the worse for it. Will you have some champagne?" [Illustration: NIGHTINGALE.] Frank could not resist a mighty draught of the cool wine, although it is anything but a good thing to take at such a time. An orange is the best thing,--it slakes the thirst, and does no injury to the stomach. The clergyman turned out to be Marston's father, and his mother and sisters were in the carriage. They invited our three boys to dine with them that evening; and after the yacht had been taken to her moorings near the railway bridge, the boys walked a mile out of the town to Mr. Marston's house, and there spent a very pleasant evening. After dinner they played croquet, and once, when it was Frank's turn to play it was found that he was totally oblivious of the game, and had his eyes fixed on an elegant brown bird which was flitting about the shrubs in the garden. "Now then, Frank," said Marston, "it is your turn." Frank played and then asked, "Is not that bird a nightingale?" "Yes, her nest is at the bottom of that bush. Watch how she goes to it." [Illustration: NIGHTINGALE'S NEST.] The bird hopped about in a promiscuous sort of way, just as if there were no nest there, and then, when she got near it, she hopped upon it in quite an accidental manner. "She knows that we know her nest is there, because we look at it every day, but she always pretends she is only there by accident." Frank went to look at the nest. It was untidy in make, built of straw and twigs, and lined with leaves. It contained five olive-brown eggs which were near to hatching. "You must not take any of these, Mr. Merivale," said Miss Marston. "No, I do not wish to do so," said Frank, but his looks so belied his words that they all laughed at him. "There are two more nests about the grounds," said Marston, "and I have some eggs in the house which you can have." Frank thanked him, and asked if there were any more nightingales about. "There are so many about that many times I cannot go to sleep for the noise they make." "Noise!" said his sister reproachfully. "Yes, when it is dinned into one's ears so much, any singing becomes noisy." Frank thought his friend was joking, but about ten o'clock they were strolling about the grounds in the bright moonlight, and then they heard nightingales singing all round them. The boys thought they had never heard such sweet sounds. First the song would commence with an intensely sweet, low, single note or pipe. Then would follow a strong clear flood of melody which was entrancing in its richness. Then the bird would cease, and in a few seconds another bird would answer from a little distance. Then the first one would reply, and a third would take up the strain from a different quarter. The moonlight silence of the night, the ravishing strains of bird music which made the grove vocal, and the heavy fragrance of the flowers which floated on the dewy air, made the evening most perfect and beautiful. CHAPTER XVIII. A queer Umbrella.--Visit to Scoulton Gullery.--Driving Tandem.-- Running away.--Black-headed Gulls.--Collecting the Eggs.--Carp.-- Wood Argus Butterfly.--Scarlet Pimpernel.--Grasshopper Warbler.-- Chiff-Chaff.--Gall-Fly.--Robins' Pincushions. The boys slept at the Royal Hotel that night, and to their surprise found Sir Richard's groom there. He had brought the brougham to town for repairs, and had orders to wait until it was finished, which would not be until the next day but one. In the meantime his two ponies were in the stables with nothing to do. Here was a good opportunity for a long drive. Frank at once suggested that they should drive to Scoulton and see the breeding-place of the black-headed gulls. This was agreed to without hesitation. Then Frank said that as he had a pair of horses they might as well drive tandem, and he undertook to drive. Mason, the groom, objected to this, because he was afraid that Master Frank could not drive well enough; but Frank was positive that he could, although he had never driven tandem before. He said he knew the theory, and he was certain the practice was easy. At last it was agreed that the horses should be harnessed tandem, and that if Frank could not manage them he was to give the reins up to Mason. "Why do the black-headed gulls breed at Hingham, which is an inland place? I always thought they bred by the sea," said Dick. "The black-headed gulls don't. Every year as the breeding season approaches, they leave the sea and go to certain lakes or rivers, where from 'time immemorial' they have bred. Scoulton Mere near Hingham is one of these places, and they breed there in countless numbers, going there in March and leaving in July or August. It is a sight worth seeing, I can assure you. There are not many places in England now where they breed in such numbers as they do at Scoulton," answered Frank. "What a curious instinct it is which leads them there. And how funny that for half a year they should live on salt food by the sea, and then for the other half on fresh-water food," said Dick. Frank and Jimmy were standing in the archway of the Royal Hotel the next morning wondering where Dick was. It was raining heavily, and they had had to put off starting to Hingham. Presently Dick was seen running up the Walk with his coat collar turned up, evidently pretty well drenched. Under his arm however he had a very nice-looking umbrella. "Oh, Dick," said Frank as he joined them, "whatever have you been buying an umbrella for, and why, having bought one, do you not put it up when it rains?" "I believe every person I passed all the way from the top of St. Giles's Street would have liked to ask me that question. They plainly thought that I was a fool," Dick answered rather crossly. "Well, no wonder. Why didn't you put it up?" "It is not an umbrella at all, but a butterfly-net;" and he unfolded the supposed umbrella and opened it out into a good-sized butterfly-net. "I did not much like to be seen carrying a great butterfly-net through the town, so I thought this a good dodge to save appearances, and lo and behold it serves me this trick the first time I carry it." "Well, it could not help the rain, Dick," said Frank laughing. These umbrella-nets are capital things, although they are useless in a shower. The reader may easily make one for himself in this way: Get an old umbrella-stick and place the catch which holds the umbrella open, lower down, so as to increase the diameter of your net; then get two slips of strong crinoline steel, make the ends red hot, and bend them with a pliers into little loops. Then fasten one end of each to the top of the stick with a piece of wire, and the other ends to the sliding ferrule. When this ferrule is pushed up to the catch the steels form a circle, to which the net can be attached. Slip the ferrule back, and the net can be rolled up round the stick just like an ordinary umbrella, and a case put over it. A very handy and useful net is thus formed, and one which is very portable. If you do not care to make it, it may be bought from a dealer for a small sum, but I should advise every boy to make himself all the things he can. He will thus not only save his money to buy those things which he cannot make, but he will (which is far more important) learn how to turn his hand to useful purposes, and encourage habits of self-reliance which will be very useful to him in after life. In addition to this, one gets far more pleasure from using a thing one has made oneself, than one which has been bought. About twelve o'clock the rain cleared away and they decided to start. So the horses were harnessed in a dog-cart belonging to the inn, which also supplied them with the tandem harness, and the turn-out, which looked very creditable, was brought to the front of the inn, and the boys took their seats. Frank and Dick sat in front, and Jimmy and the groom behind. Frank felt nervous as he took hold of the reins, but pretended to feel quite at his ease. To his astonishment their steeds started off very quietly; and as the streets were very clear of traffic, they got out of the town without any accident. As soon, however, as they got into the open roads the leader evinced a strong desire to look about him, and presently his movements grew so erratic that Dick said he was sure he would turn round and look at them before long. Frank resented this imputation on his skill in driving by giving the leader a cut with the whip, whereupon he attempted to bolt, and it was as much as Frank could do to hold him in. Then sometimes he would hang back, so that the traces were loose, and the wheeler did all the pulling; and then he would start forward and nearly break the traces. After this sort of thing had gone on for some two or three miles, the wheeler, which had been going very steadily, began to imitate the bad example of his leader; and Frank and his companions began to wish they had let tandem-driving alone. They came to a turnpike gate and, on Frank attempting to pull in the horses in order to pay the toll, he found that they were beyond his control, and after cannoning rather severely against the gate-post, they fairly bolted, and tore away at a great pace along the road, which was fortunately pretty straight and free from vehicles. "Sit still," said Frank, "don't jump out, or you will come to grief. As long as there is nothing in the way they shall go as fast as they like. They will get tired of it sooner than I shall." Away they went like the wind, the dog-cart bounding over the ruts and small stones in the roadway so that the boys had to hold on as tightly as they could. A large waggon now appeared in sight, and they rapidly came up with it. Frank tried to turn his horses a little, but they had the bits in their teeth and would not swerve out of their course. The waggoner, seeing the state of affairs, promptly drew his horses and waggon close up to the side of the road in time for the runaways to pass them safely, but the wheels were within an inch of coming into collision. On they went until they came to a rise in the road, and here the horses, seeing that a long hill stretched before them, began to draw in. "Now," said Frank, "you have come at this pace so far for your own satisfaction, you shall go to the top of the hill at the same pace for mine." And he lashed them up and made them gallop right to the top of the hill, which was half a mile long, and then they were glad enough to be pulled up. "You will have no more trouble with them now, sir," said Mason, and he was right. The horses went as steadily as possible the rest of the way, and Frank's opinion of himself as a driver, which had been going down, again rose. Their way led through a fine and well-wooded country; and after the rain, the trees, the long stretches of corn-fields, and the meadows, shone out with their brightest emerald; and in the shady parts, where the sun had not dried up the rain-drops, it seemed as if a sheeny silk mantle had been cast over the fields. About two o'clock they reached Scoulton Mere, which lay by the road side, separated from it by a belt of trees. A keeper was entering the gate into the wood as they drove up, and Frank at once called out to him, and asked if they might go and see the gulls' nests. "Oh yes, sir, I am going to collect the eggs now, and you can come with me. Bring your horses in here. There is a shed where we can put them up." "Hurrah, we are in luck!" said Frank to his companions. They drove into the woodland glade over the softest moss and between great masses of rhododendrons which were still in flower. Leaving the horses in charge of Mason, they accompanied the keeper to the pool. It was about eighty acres in extent with a large island in the centre. As they reached the banks the air became filled with a thundering noise of wings, and as white as a snowstorm with the numbers of gulls which rose in the air at their approach. "Oh, there are thousands and thousands of them!" said Dick in amazement. "And if you look, there are as many on the water as in the air," answered the keeper. Floating with the peculiar lightness which distinguishes the gull tribe, the birds seemed to occupy almost every yard of water. "You spoke of collecting the eggs," said Dick to the keeper; "what do you do with them?" "Oh, we sell them for eating. They are as good as plovers' eggs. I can get one shilling and sixpence or two shillings a score here for them, and the men who buy them of me get a good profit in Norwich market." "How many eggs do you get?" "Oh, that depends upon whether it is a good year or a bad one. In a good year we take 12,000 eggs or more. This year we have had one take already of 2,500 in one day, and I expect to get about 1,500 to-day. You see my men are collecting already. We only take the first laying of each bird if we can help it, but nests are so close together that it is hard to remember which we have taken and which we have not. If you would like to come on the Hearth, as we call the island in the middle, you can do so, but you must put these mud boards on your feet, for it is very soft and dangerous walking." [Illustration: COMMON GULL.] They crossed to the island in a heavy tub of a boat, and were surprised to see the number of eggs and nests. The nests were not more than one yard apart, built on the ground like water-hens', but not so cup-shaped. The number of eggs seemed to be about three in each nest, and their colour was generally olive brown, blotched and spotted with darker brown, but there was a very great variety in their colour. Some were very light, some were very dark, and others were all blue like a heron's egg. The business of collecting the eggs went on very quietly and expeditiously, but the boys were almost made dizzy with the constant swooping of the gulls about their heads, and almost deafened by their cries. One part of the marshy island was so soft that no one could walk upon it, and the gulls which bred there never had their nests disturbed except by the rats and weasels, which naturally abound in such places. [Illustration: YOUNG GULLS COVERED WITH DOWN.] The black-headed gull derives its name from the black patch on its head, which, however only appears during the breeding season. "When do the gulls arrive?" the boys asked. "Well, sir, a lot of them come in March and stay for a day or two, as if to see that everything is right; and then they go away, and in a few days afterwards the whole of them come and begin to lay directly. There was some very stormy weather in March this year and they were late in coming, or most of the eggs would have been hatched by now." "And when do they leave?" "In July and August they begin to go away, and leave in the night; and by the end of August very few are left." "One would think that this small lake would scarcely afford sufficient food for them," said Jimmy. "Oh they scour the country around, sir. They follow the plough and spread over the fields like rooks. They catch moths and other insects. They eat mice, and if a young bird (not their own) came in the way they would make a meal of it." They bought a score of the eggs for the purpose of exchange, and then rowed round the pool watching the wonderful scene. There were plenty of other birds beside gulls there. Coots, water-hens, water-rails, grebes and dabchicks were in plenty. [Illustration: CARP.] "I should think that there cannot be many fish here where the gulls would eat up all the spawn," said Frank; but as he spoke Dick pointed out the backs of a couple of immense carp which were basking on the top of the water, and a little further on they saw the body of a huge eel, and they were told by the keeper that there were any number of eels there. They were invited by the keeper to take tea at his cottage, and they had some of the gulls' eggs boiled, and very good they were. After tea they went for a birds'-nesting ramble through the wood. "Oh, look here!" said Jimmy; "when we came this afternoon all this place was covered with the scarlet pimpernel, and now there is not one to be seen. They have all closed up." "Yes," answered the keeper, "they always do that about four o'clock, and all day long when the day is dull. We call them wink-a-peep, and sometimes shepherd's weather-glass." "How different to these dingy meadow brown butterflies which are fluttering all about us. I have seen them fly on the most damp and cheerless of days, when not another butterfly could be seen. I like them, although they are so dingy and ugly, because they are so hardy and homely." "What butterfly is that?" said Jimmy, pointing to one that flitted past. Dick's net was ready in a moment, and off he went in chase. Bringing back his prize, they examined it and pronounced it to be the speckled wood butterfly or wood argus. It is a common insect nearly everywhere. It has wings of a deep-brown spotted with buff, and on the wings are pure white eyes with glossy black circles around them. It may be seen in every woodland glade, and is not at all shy. "Hush!" said Frank; "is that a shrew-mouse or a grasshopper which is making that chirruping noise?" "It is neither, sir," replied the keeper; "it is a bird, and there it is creeping about the bottom of that hedge like a mouse." "Oh, I know what it is, it is a grasshopper warbler. Let us look for its nest." They searched for quite a quarter of an hour before they found it. It was placed on the ground in the middle of a tuft of grass and at the foot of a bush. It was cup-shaped, made of grass and moss, and contained six eggs which were pinkish-white in colour, spotted all over with reddish-brown. The note of this little bird seems to be of a ventriloquial character like that of the landrail or corncrake. I have searched many a time in the exact spot where the sound appeared to come from, and then perhaps discovered that the bird was on the other side of the lane. Jimmy next found a nest on the ground. It was arched over like a wren's, and was very beautifully constructed out of moss, hair, and feathers. It contained five round white eggs spotted with red. In order to identify it more positively as that of the chiff-chaff, which they suspected it was, they watched for some time, and saw the bird, a little pale-brown thing, creep up to it and enter it. I would particularly impress on my boy readers the necessity of thoroughly identifying the nest and eggs which they find. It is often impossible to tell accurately without seeing the old bird, and as the value of a collection depends upon the accuracy of its named specimens, no trouble should be spared in ensuring thorough identification. This remark applies to collections of every kind. "What is worth doing at all is worth doing well." [Illustration: CHIFF-CHAFF.] The keeper said, pointing to some red, hairy masses on a bramble bush, "We call these robins' pincushions; can you tell me what causes them?" "Oh yes," said Dick, "they are galls caused by a little grub which afterwards turns into a fly." "They are very pretty things to be caused by a dirty little grub," said Jimmy; "and pray what causes this cuckoo-spit?" pointing to one of the little lumps of water foam which are so common on plants and grasses in the summer. Dick said they were caused by the larvæ of a fly like the galls, but as they were puzzled to know how it produced this casing of spit, when they got back to Norwich they went into the library and found, in a number of _Science Gossip_, the following information about it:-- "The larvæ, as soon as it is hatched commences operations on some juicy stem or leaf, no matter what, so it be sappy enough; thrusts in its long proboscis; pumps up the sap; blows it off in small bubbles through a pipe in its tail, and so speedily constructs for itself a cool, moist, translucent home. By and by the sap dries up, and the insect changes its form and becomes winged." [Illustration: OAK-GALL-FLY.] It was now getting dusk, and the gulls were flying low over the meadows, hawking about like swallows. The boys went to see what they were catching, and saw that they were feeding on the ghost-moths which were hovering over the grass-tops with that vibrating and ghost-like flight which is so peculiar to them. Every country boy must know the ghost-moths which, large and small, white and yellow, hover over the hay-fields in the month of June. Their size alone makes them conspicuous, and they have a weird look as they flit about in the warm, still twilight. Dick got several for his collection, and then it was time to be returning; and after making due acknowledgment to the friendly keeper they drove back through the quiet night, while nightingales sang around them, and the great red moon rose over the eastern woods, and quenched the pale light of the stars. The horses went well together, and they had no trouble with them; and when they got back to the hotel they went to bed, declaring they had spent a very jolly day. CHAPTER XIX. Back again.--Taken in Tow.--Bobbing for Eels.--Glow-worms.-- Home.--Urticating Caterpillars. It will be seen that our boys had great capacities for enjoying themselves, and so oblivious had they been of the flight of time, that they had only left themselves two days in which to get home, for they felt bound not to ask for any extension of their holiday. Two days was a very short time to sail all the way down the Yare and up the Bure again; and to add to their dilemma, the wind had settled in the east, and blew light and fitfully all day until five or six, when it would drop. They could have gone back by road and left the yacht to be sent after them, but this would have been _infra dig._, and was not to be thought of while the chance remained of reaching home in a legitimate way. So they started, and with infinite labour and much tacking and clever sailing, they succeeded in reaching Brundall, about six miles down the river, by the middle of the day. "This won't do," said Frank. "Here comes a steam-wherry. I wonder if they will take us in tow." The wherry was hailed, and for a small consideration her crew consented to tow them to Yarmouth. Their sails were accordingly lowered, and a rope was made fast to the wherry; and in a few minutes' time they were being pulled along at a good pace by their great, black, ugly friend. "Now we can enjoy our _otium cum dignitate_," said Dick, throwing himself at full length on the roof of the cabin with the furled mainsail as a pillow; "and however light the breeze is to-morrow, it will take us home in time; so I shall write a note home and post it at Yarmouth." Between the waving reed-beds, through the long miles of marsh, acres of which were white with the silky globes of the cotton-grasses, by whirling wind-mills and groups of red and white cattle browsing on the reclaimed marshes, past sailing wherries that surged along before the light breeze with a lazy motion, past white-sailed yachts with gay-coloured pennants at their mast-heads and laughter-loving pleasure parties on board, underneath a bright blue sky streaked with filmy cloudlets and dotted with uprising larks, over a stream that murmured and rippled with a summer gladness, they clove their steady way. With every nerve instinct with healthy life, and hearts which had the great gift of understanding and appreciating the true and the beautiful around them, what wonder if they felt as happy as they could wish to feel, and were full of contentment with the pleasant time it was their lot to pass. They crossed Breydon Water under widely different circumstances to those in which they first crossed it. Then it was wild and stormy; now it was fair and placid. They reached Yarmouth about five, and as the wind still held they turned up the Bure with the flowing tide, and sailed on and on in that quiet peaceful evening, with lessening speed as the wind fell, until at last they barely crept through the water. Even when there was not a breath of air perceptible to the upheld hand, and the surface of the river was as smooth as glass, and the reeds were silent from their whispering, yet a magic wind seemed to fill their large sails, and still they crept on with a dream-like motion. At last that motion ceased, but then they were so close to Acle bridge that they set to work and poled the yacht along with the quants, and in another half hour they were moored by the Staithe. It was then half-past nine o'clock, but still very light; and there was a whiteness in the sky to the north-east, which told them the sun was not very far over the horizon, and that at midnight it would be but little darker than it was then. After they had had supper Frank said, "Do you remember those men whom we saw near Norwich, who sat in small boats all the night long, and with a line in each hand, bobbed for eels?" "Yes; what of them?" "Why should we not bob for eels to-night? I don't feel inclined to go to bed." "Very well," said Jimmy; "but can we get the worsted?" "I will go and ask for some at the Hermitage." "What do you want worsted for?" said Dick. "To catch the eels with; but wait a bit and you shall see. Bring the lantern and come with me." Frank marched up to the house and knocked, and when the door was opened by a woman, said, "Please can you let us have a hank of worsted? I will give you double its value." The woman looked at him in surprise, and he repeated his question. Then she went indoors, and reappeared with a hank of worsted in her hand. This she threw out to them with a frightened look, and slammed the door in their faces. "Wait, my good woman, we have not paid you," said Frank. But there was no answer. "We seem to have frightened her," said Dick. Frank put a shilling under the door, and they went away laughing heartily. Their next proceeding was to look about the damp grass and pick up the lob-worms, which were about in great numbers. When they had each collected a large number they returned to the yacht, and by Frank's directions threaded the worms on to the worsted, lengthways, with the needle they had used for sniggling. In this way they made three large bunches of worm-covered worsted. These bunches they weighted with a stone, and tied strong lengths of cord to them. "Now," said Frank, "we can begin to bob. This is the way, Dick:--let the bunch sink to the bottom and then keep the line taut. Let it lie there for some time, and when you feel some sharp quick tugs, it is the eels biting at it. Then haul it quietly on board and shake the eels off. There, I can feel them on my line now." "And I at mine," said Jimmy. "And I too," said Dick. "Then wait five minutes, and haul on board." At the end of five minutes they each hauled their lines quietly on board, and on Frank's were no less than six eels, their teeth entangled in the worsted. On Jimmy's there were two, and on Dick's three. They shook the eels on to the deck. Jimmy's two at once wriggled themselves off back into the water, and Frank and Dick had hard work to keep theirs from doing the same, until Jimmy got out the bucket they used for washing the deck, and in this they safely deposited their captives. "This is not bad fun," said Dick, as he brought up three more eels, one of them a large one. "No, is it?" answered Jimmy, as he followed Dick's example. So they went on laughing and talking and pulling in eels until two o'clock in the morning, when their bucket was so full of eels that it would not hold any more. "Now it is time to turn in," said Frank; "take up the bucket, Jimmy, and put it by the foremast with something over it to keep the eels from crawling out, while I do up the lines." Jimmy took up the bucket, and was walking aft with it, when his foot slipped on an eel that had made its escape, and was wriggling about the deck. In an instant, Jimmy, the bucket, and the eels all went into the water. Jimmy rose to the surface and swam to the yacht, and climbed on board, with the bucket still in his hands, but all the eels had of course disappeared. "What an extraordinary thing!" spluttered Jimmy, as he rose to the surface. "Very," said Frank, as soon as he could speak for laughing; "but hadn't you better dive after the eels?" "Do you mind my losing them, Frank?" said Jimmy, rather ruefully. "Not at all, old man. We don't want the eels, and a good laugh is better for us." While they were undressing, Dick was peering through one of the side lights and at length said, "I suppose it is impossible for any one to have been smoking here lately, yet there are two or three things which are like cigar-ends gleaming on the bank. Is it possible that they are glow-worms?" "Yes, of course they are," said Jimmy; "I will go and get them;" and presently he came back with the little, soft, brown things, which shed a circle of phosphorescent light for two or three inches around them. "Put them into that empty jar with some grass, and we will take them home with us." [Illustration: GLOW-WORM.] The glow-worm is the wingless female of a winged beetle. The male has a dim light, but nothing to be compared to that of his wife. The light issues from the three last segments of her body, and is of a bright yellow in colour. In general she shines from ten to twelve o'clock, but often much later, as on this occasion. Why such a brown, ugly little beetle should have such a beautiful light I do not know. Perhaps it is to guide the male to her. This beetle with the wonderful light has plebeian tastes, for she eats the flesh of snails, and, unlike our Gallic neighbours, she does not wait for the snails' decease first. The morning soon shone brightly, and again the fair east wind blew; "The sun was warm; and the wind was cool," and the _Swan_ spread her white wings to the favouring breeze and glided between the narrowing banks, where the meadow-sweet in full luxuriance waved its cloudy clusters, the forget-me-not gleamed in turquoise blue, the tall iris or white flag reared its flowers of gold over its green sword-shaped leaves, and the modest ragged-robin showed its thin red petals amid the dew-wet grass. Through Heigham Sounds and into Hickling Broad, and there at the farther end was a group of people, waving their handkerchiefs in greeting. "There they are," said Frank; "give them three cheers;" and a "Hip! hip! hurrah!" rang over the water with a hearty good will. Mr. and Mrs. Merivale, Sir Richard Carleton, and Mary, were all there to meet them. Frank brought the yacht up to her moorings in his best manner, and in a few minutes they were ashore. "Dick," said Sir Richard, "I can scarcely believe my eyes. I am delighted." There was some cause for his surprise. Dick was as brown as a berry. His form was upright and full of vigour, and his handsome face was bright with the smile of health. A greater contrast to the pale-faced delicate boy, who some months before had aroused his father's anxiety, could not well be seen. "I am glad you have enjoyed yourself, dear," said Mrs. Merivale to Frank, "but I have been very anxious about you, and it has seemed a long time." Frank laughed merrily, as he put his arm round his mother, and kissed her with all a lover's devotion. "You are like Martha, mother, who troubled herself about many things. But where is Florrie?" "Oh," said Mary, "she can't leave her room. She got a little black hairy caterpillar for you, and it has stung her. At least she has a rash all over her, and nasty little red lumps, and she suffers so much." "That must be a mistake, Mary, about the caterpillar," said Frank. "No, it is not, Frank," said Dick; "I was reading the other day about urticating caterpillars. The caterpillars of some moths will affect some people like that." "We have the creature in a glass, and you can see it, and try it, if you like, Frank," said Mary. CHAPTER XX. Golden Oriole.--Landrail.--House-martins in trouble.--Siskin.-- Peacock and Red Admiral Butterflies.--Winchat's Nest.-- Bitten by a Viper.--Viper and Snake.--Slow-worm. "Frank," said Mary at breakfast the next morning, "I have seen the most beautiful bird about the orchard and the wood next to it. It is about as big as a thrush, and is a bright yellow all over, except the wings, which are black. What can it be?" "By Jove," said Frank, "there is only one bird that is like that; but it is so very rare that very few specimens have been seen in this country, and that is the golden oriole. Come and show me where it was at once, before I go to Mr. Meredith's." [Illustration: ORIOLE.] Mary was nothing loath, and they hastily finished their breakfast and went out together. Scarcely had they got to the orchard when the gardener came towards them with a gun in one hand, and a dead oriole in the other. "I thought you would like to have him to stuff, Master Frank," said the man, and Frank took the bird and thanked him, and when they turned away Frank said, "I am awfully sorry this has happened, Mary. The idea of shooting a rare bird like this at the breeding season. It must have been nesting here, and in a few weeks perhaps, there would have been a brood of young ones about. Let us go into the wood and look for its nest." In a short time they saw its mate flying about from tree to tree, calling piteously; and after a little hunting Frank found a nest, which was like a missel thrush's, and placed in the fork of an oak branch. It contained four eggs, white in colour, covered with claret-coloured spots. Frank did not touch it, hoping that the remaining bird would sit and hatch the eggs; but she soon deserted it and left the neighbourhood, most probably to be shot, and the boys then took the eggs to add to their collection. [Illustration: NEST OF AMERICAN SPECIES OF ORIOLE.] With the same vigour which characterised their out-door sports, the boys betook themselves again to their books. In Mr. Meredith's study at the Rectory the three boys sat busily engaged in making Latin verse, an exercise which suited Dick far better than it did the others. Their brown faces and their hands, hacked and roughened as only boys' hands can become, were in great contrast to their studious occupations. Mr. Meredith looked at them with keen interest, and resolved that he would do all in his power to turn out of his workshop (as he called it) three good specimens of God's handiwork and his own, and as far as in him lay he kept his vow. Saturday was a whole holiday, and as the boys met at the boat-house to be ready for anything which might turn up, Bell came to them and said, that while cutting the hay in a small meadow which he rented, he had come upon a landrail or corncrake, sitting on her eggs, and so close did she sit that he had cut off her head with his scythe. The boys went to see the nest and found eleven eggs in it, like those of the water-rail but larger. They were hard sat, which accounted for the old bird remaining on her nest until the last; but the boys knew how to blow hard-sat eggs, and took possession of them. [Illustration: LANDRAIL OR CORNCRAKE.] Passing by Mrs. Brett's cottage they saw the old lady beckoning to them. When they went to her she explained that she wanted them to aid her swallows. A pair of house-martins were flying about their nest in the eaves, uttering cries of distress. "What is the matter? Have the sparrows taken possession of it?" said Frank. "No, dear, but it seems breaking away from the wall. There are young ones in it, and I suppose the old birds did not make it strong enough to hold their weight. I am afraid it will fall down every minute." [Illustration: HOUSE-MARTIN.] The boys undertook to put matters right, and with the aid of a ladder they climbed up to the nest, and with a hammer and nails they nailed up the nest in a broad piece of flannel. While they were engaged in doing this, the martins ceased their cries, as if they knew that a friendly act was being done for them; and when the boys left the nest the birds returned to it, and by their busy twitterings and short excited flights seemed to wish to express their gratitude. Leaving the cottage, they went for a long aimless ramble through the fields and woods, trespassing with impunity, for they were well known everywhere, and visiting every hedgerow and copse on the look-out for nests. [Illustration: SISKIN.] They came to a field round which there were hedges unusually high and thick for Norfolk, which is a county of trim hedges and clean farming. Almost the first nest they came to was that of a siskin. The old birds to which it belonged were hopping about the hedge. They were pretty lemon-coloured birds with a black patch on their heads and black on their wings. The boys watched them for some time, in order to make sure that they were indeed the siskin, for they are so very rare, especially during the breeding season, that very few nests have been found. "Well, there can be no doubt about that," said Frank. "They are siskins sure enough. What a very lucky find! Now let us have a look at the nest." Both nest and eggs were like those of a goldfinch, but the latter were much smaller than a goldfinch's eggs. The eggs were hard sat, but they took three of them and blew them safely; and as they were still doubting the reality of their good luck, when they went home they consulted their books, and Mr. Meredith, and all came to the conclusion that there could be no mistake about the birds. [Illustration: CHRYSALIS. PEACOCK BUTTERFLY. CATERPILLAR.] They found many more nests in that hedge. Most of them had young ones, for the season was now very far advanced. Dick soon found something after his own heart, and this was a large bed of nettles. Every stem was covered with large, black, hairy caterpillars. These were the caterpillars of the peacock butterfly,--that splendid insect, which with its crimson and black, and the gorgeous peacock eyes which adorn its wings, is so conspicuous an object in the country in the summer. It is a great pleasure to me to see it as it sits on its favourite perch, the top of a nettle or a bramble, and opens and shuts its wings with the fanning motion peculiar to its tribe. Dick marked this spot, and in a short time he came to gather the gilded chrysalides which on every plant shone brightly in the sunshine. These he gathered and put in a safe place, and during the summer it was a great pleasure to him to watch the outcoming of these resplendent insects. Just before they were ready to emerge, the colours of their wings could be seen through the thin case which covered them, and with this warning he was often able to catch the insect at the instant of their appearance. Not long afterwards he found a colony of the caterpillars of the red admiral butterfly, a large black insect with crimson bands round its wings, and the under surface marbled with the most delicate tracery of brown and grey. As far as size and beauty go, these two butterflies may be said to be the gems of the entomologist's cabinet. They are common enough in the south, and the young entomologist may look forward to catching or breeding them his first year. [Illustration: RED ADMIRAL BUTTERFLY.] The afternoon was exceedingly hot, and the sun blazed from a cloudless sky, and birds'-nesting and butterfly-hunting was tiring work. The scent of the hay made the air fragrant, and the sharp whisk of the scythes of the mowers in those meadows which were not yet cut, was the only sound which disturbed the evening stillness. Crossing one of the commons which are to be met with everywhere in the enclosed districts of Norfolk, they saw a little brown bird fly out of a hole in a low hedge bank. Very cleverly hidden there, in a hole covered with a clump of primrose flowers, was a winchat's nest. It contained five blue eggs spotted with rusty red at the large end. Taking two of these they went on their way, and presently entered a thick and tangled wood, where the underwood was so close that they could with difficulty make their way through it. The brambles and briars were breast high, and the ground was ankle deep in half rotten leaves of the previous year. In a bush through which Jimmy was trying to force his way he saw a nest, which he took to be a thrush's or blackbird's. He put in his hand just to see if there were any eggs in, and to his surprise he felt something cold and slimy. Before he could withdraw his hand he felt a sharp blow and a prick on his finger, and he drew back with a cry of dismay as he saw a viper uncoiling itself from the nest and wriggle down to the ground, where it was soon lost in the thick vegetation. Frank and Dick hurried up to him, and he held out his finger, in which were two small blue punctures. [Illustration: WINCHAT AND EGG.] "An adder has bitten me," he said, with blanched cheeks. Frank at once whipped out his penknife, and seizing Jimmy's hand, he made a deep cross cut over the bites, and as the blood began to flow, he put the finger to his mouth and tried to suck the poison out with all the force of his strong young lungs, only just waiting to say to Dick-- "Go at once to the village and get a bottle of olive-oil at the chemist's, and come back to the cottage at the edge of the wood. Be as quick as you can." Dick burst out of the wood and set off for the village, which was a mile away as the crow flies. As straight as an arrow and as fleet as a deer, Dick sped on his friendly errand, and in six minutes he had reached the chemist's. The chemist gave him what he asked for, saying, that if rubbed in before the fire it was the best remedy. "Are snake-bites fatal?" said Dick. "No, sir, not in England, unless the person bitten is very delicate; but they are very painful, and I should advise you to be quick back." [Illustration: VIPER.] Dick was off again at the top of his speed, and reached the cottage a quarter of an hour after he had left Frank and Jimmy. "Well done, Dick!" said Frank; "but go outside and face the wind a bit. You are dead beat." Jimmy was pale, but collected. His arm had swelled up to a great size already, and was very painful. Frank held his hand as near the fire as he could bear it, and rubbed the olive-oil in for half an hour; and then Dick and Frank walked him home between them. Mrs. Brett was naturally much alarmed, but Frank soothed her fears, and Jimmy was put to bed. "Thank you, Frank," he said, "I am awfully much obliged to you." "Then prove it by going quietly to sleep if you can. You will be all right in a day or two." "How did you know about the olive-oil being a cure, Frank?" "I was reading about it not a week ago, and as we were walking along this afternoon I was, strange to say, thinking about it, and imagining that I was bitten and curing myself, like one does make up pictures and rehearse scenes to oneself, when one has nothing better to do. It was a very strange coincidence."[1] [1] The best remedy for viper-bite is the injection of ammonia into the veins. [Illustration: COMMON RINGED SNAKE.] Frank went home with Dick, and they took a short cut through the copse. Dick was looking about him very suspiciously, seeing the coils of an adder in every twisted root. Suddenly his eye caught sight of a snake lying across the path. "There is another viper!" he exclaimed. "No, it is only a snake," said Frank, coolly stooping down and taking the snake in his hand, while it coiled about his arm. Dick looked horrified. "Won't it bite?" he said. "No, Dick. Don't you know the difference between a snake and a viper? Then I'll tell you. The viper is ash-brown in colour. Its neck is narrower and its head broader in proportion. The viper has a couple of fangs, or long hollow teeth, which lie flat along the back of its mouth, but when it is angry it opens its mouth, erects its teeth and strikes with them. They are hollow, and down through the tubes the poison comes from a bag at their roots. The snake has no such teeth, and it is harmless, for it cannot sting, as many country people think it can, with its long forked tongue which it is now shooting out. Then the snake lays eggs. I dare say if we were to dig in the manure-heaps in the farm-yard, we should find a lot of white eggs covered with a tough, soft skin and joined together with a sort of glue. The viper's eggs are hatched inside it, and the young ones are born alive." "I have read that the young ones of the viper will run down their parent's throat when alarmed for safety. Is that true?" "It seems so strange that I can scarcely think it to be true, but so many respectable people say they have seen it that one does not like to say that it is not so; and it is, of course, difficult to prove a negative. I suppose the question will be settled some day." The snake Frank held in his hand was a large and handsome one. It was olive-grey in colour, with rows of black spots on its back and sides, and greenish-yellow beneath, tinged with black. The snake changes its skin just like a caterpillar, but the skin preserves the shape of the snake, and is a very pretty object. Often have I seen a sunny corner in a quiet wood covered with many of these cast-off skins all glittering in the sunlight; and they are so very like real snakes as easily to deceive the casual observer. During the winter both vipers and snakes hybernate in holes, or under tree-roots, and require no food. The slow-worm or blind-worm is often mistaken for the snake. It is about twelve inches long, with a smooth skin, and is dull brown in colour. It possesses a curious faculty of parting with its tail when it chooses. If it is seized by the hand or otherwise annoyed, the tail separates from the body and commences a series of war-dances on its own account. While you are occupied in observing this, the body quietly and expeditiously moves away out of danger. Snakes and vipers live on frogs, small birds, &c., when they can catch them. The slow-worm lives almost entirely upon the white garden-slug. [Illustration: SLOW-WORM.] Jimmy's arm and side were very much swollen and inflamed, and it was quite a week before he was free from pain. The doctor said that if the olive-oil had not been used he would have suffered very much more from the bite, and the consequences might have been serious, for Jimmy had not a strong constitution. He was very careful after that of putting his hand into a bird's nest without getting a look into it first. CHAPTER XXI. Fishing.--Jimmy's Dodge.--Bream-fishing.--Good Sport.-- Fecundity of Fish.--Balance Float.--Fish-hatching.-- Edith Rose.--A Night Sail. It must not be supposed that the boys neglected that most fascinating of all sports, fishing. They fished in the broads and rivers whenever they had an opportunity. Pike, perch, bream, and eels--all were fish that came to their net; and now that birds' nesting was over they devoted some special days to the pursuit of the gentle art. Some years ago, and at the time of my story, the broads were as full as they could be of coarse fish, especially pike; but by the indiscriminate use of the net and the destruction of spawning fish, the poachers have so thinned the water of pike and perch, that the proprietors are preserving them, and the public are agitating for a close time at certain seasons of the year, so as to protect the breeding fish. Even at the present time, however, the bream is so abundant as to afford plenty of sport to every fisher, however poor he may be. In shape this fish is something like a pair of bellows and it is commonly met with from one to five pounds in weight. It swarms in vast shoals and when it is in the mood for biting, you may catch as many as you like--and more sometimes, for the bream is not a nice fish to handle; it is covered with thick glutinous slime, which sticks to and dries on the hands and clothes. Bream-fishers provide themselves with a cloth, with which to handle the fish and wipe off the slime. One morning Frank, while dressing at his open window, looked at the broad and was surprised to see it dotted with round, bright coloured objects. "What can they be?" he said to himself in surprise. "They cannot be trimmers. They look like bladders, but who would paint bladders red, blue, green, and yellow? I am going to see." He dressed rapidly and ran towards the water. Standing on the margin was Jimmy, his hands in his pockets and a self-satisfied smile on his face. "What have you been doing Jimmy?" said Frank. "Oh! I thought you would be astonished. I bought the whole stock of one of those fellows who sell India-rubber balloons, and I thought I would have a great haul of fish; so I fastened a line and hook to each balloon and set them floating before the wind. Don't you think it a grand dodge?" "Well, you are a funny fellow. I call it a poaching trick, of which you ought to be ashamed, Master Jimmy but I suppose you are not. I expect these balloons will burst directly a big fish pulls them a little under the water. There goes one now; I saw it disappear,--and there's another, with a pop you can hear at this distance." [Illustration: BREAM.] Jimmy began to look rather blue, and said, "Hadn't we better go off after them in a boat, or we shall lose all our lines? All we had are fastened to them." "Oh, you sinner! you don't mean to say that you have used our joint-stock lines?" "Yes, I have." "Then we had better go out at once." They got into the punt and rowed off after the toy balloons, which were floating swiftly before the breeze. The first they came up to had a small perch on. The next burst just as they reached it, and they saw the glimmer of a big fish in the water. There were twenty balloons set on the water, and it took them a long hour's work before they could recover all that were to be recovered. Out of twenty they only brought in ten. The rest had burst, and the lines were lost. Of the ten which they recovered five had small perch on, which were not worth having. So Jimmy's grand scheme turned out a failure, as so many grand schemes do. The others chaffed him very much about it, as a punishment for losing the lines, and for doing anything on his own hook without consulting the others. After a wet week in July it was resolved to have a good day's bream fishing. The broad itself was more adapted for perch and pike, for it had a clear gravel bottom; and the river was always considered the best for bream, because its bottom was more muddy, and bream like soft muddy ground. The boys collected an immense quantity of worms, and taking on board a bag of grains for ground-bait, they sailed one Friday evening down to Ranworth and selected a likely spot in the river on the outside of a curve. They proceeded to bait the place well with grains and worms, and then went to sleep, with a comfortable certainty of sport on the morrow. The white morning dawned and made visible a grey dappled sky, the silent marsh and the smooth river, off which the mists were slowly creeping. Small circles marked where the small fish were rising, but all about where the ground-bait had been put the water was as still as death. The fish were at the bottom, picking up the last crumbs and greedily wishing for more. Frank was the first to rise. "Now then, you lazy fellows, it is time to begin. There is a soft south wind and the fish are waiting. We will just run along the bank to have a dip away from our fishing-ground, and then we will begin." After their bathe their rods were soon put together. Dick fished with paste made of new bread and coloured with vermilion. Jimmy had some wasp grubs, and Frank used worms. They tossed up for stations, and Dick was posted at the bows, Jimmy, amidships, and Frank at the stern. The hooks were baited, and the floats were soon floating quietly down the stream. Frank had a float which gave him a longer swim than his companions. It was made as follows. The stem of the float was of quill (two joined together) eight inches long, and was thrust through a small round cork which was fixed in the middle of it. The upper end of the float was weighted with shots, so that it lay flat on the water. The weight at the hook end was so placed, that when a bite took place the float sprang upright and remained so, this calling attention to the fact of a bite at a great distance. Frank was thus able to let his float swim down the river much farther than he could have done with an ordinary one, because he could distinguish a bite farther off. Before the floats had completed their first swim, Dick cried "I have a bite." "So have I," said Frank. "And so have I," added Jimmy. "How absurd," said Frank, as they were all engaged with a fish at the same time. All three fishes were too large to land without a landing-net, and Dick held Frank's rod while he helped to land Jimmy's fish, and then Jimmy helped to land the others. The fishes were as nearly as possible three pounds each, great slab-sided things, which gave a few vigorous rushes and then succumbed quietly to the angler. And so the sport went on. At every swim one or the other of them had a bite, and as they did not choose to lose time by using the cloth to every fish, they were soon covered with the slime off them, which dried on their white flannels and made them in a pretty mess. "In what immense numbers these fish must breed," said Dick. [Illustration: ANGLING.] "Yes," answered Frank, "fish of this kind lay more eggs than those of the more bold and rapacious kind, such as the perch and pike. I have read that 620,000 eggs have been counted in the spawn of a big carp. You see that so many of the young are destroyed by other fish that this is a necessary provision of nature. I once saw the artificial breeding of trout by a way which I have never told you of, and it was most interesting. It was in Cheshire, where some gentlemen had preserved a trout-stream and wished to keep up the stock. Into the large stream a small rivulet ran down a cleft in the bank like a small ravine, and in this cleft they had built their sheds. The trout-spawn was placed in troughs which had bottoms made of glass rods side by side, close enough together to prevent the eggs falling through, but wide enough to let the water pass through freely. Over these troughs a continual stream of water was directed. The eggs were pale yellow in colour when alive, but if one of them became addled or dead it turned white, and it was then picked off by means of a glass tube, up which it was sucked by the force of capillary attraction without disturbing the other eggs. By and by you could see a little dot in the eggs. This got larger and larger until the covering burst, and the fish came out, with a little transparent bag bigger than themselves attached to their stomachs. They ate nothing until this dried up, and they lived upon what they absorbed out of it. When the fish were about an inch long they were put into small pools up the brook, where they were watched very carefully by the keeper, who set traps for rats and herons. Then as they got bigger they were put into larger pools, and finally into the river." [Illustration: TROUT.] "I did not know that water-rats ate fish," said Jimmy. "No, water-rats don't, although many people think they do. They live only on vegetable food, and it is a pity to kill them; but the common rat, which is as often seen by the river side as the other, will eat fish, or whatever it can get." It would be tedious to recount the capture of every fish, since one was so like another. The sport far exceeded their expectations, or anything they had previously experienced; and before six o'clock in the evening they had caught over three hundred fishes, big and little, the largest about five pounds in weight. The total weight was about twelve stone. Norfolk bream fishers will know that I am not exaggerating. "I am thoroughly tired of this," said Dick at length; "this is not sport, it is butchery, especially as we do not know what to do with them now we have caught them, except to give them to some farmer for manure." "No," said Frank; "that is why I do not care much for bream fishing, or any sport where one cannot use the things one kills; but we will give the best of these fish to old Matthew Cox and his wife, who have nothing but the parish allowance to live on. I dare say they will be glad enough of them." Cox, who was a poor old man scarce able to keep body and soul together, was glad indeed to have them, but their number puzzled him, until Mrs. Brett suggested that he should pickle them, and gave him some vinegar for the purpose. Contrary to Frank's expectation, the wind had not risen, but towards the afternoon died away, and with the exception of a shower, so summerlike that the gnats danced between the rain-drops, the day had been very fine and calm. When the boys left off fishing the water was as calm as at five o'clock in the morning, and there was not the slightest chance of their reaching home that night. This was awkward, as the next day was Sunday, and they had no change of raiment with them. They made the best of it, sending a note home by post to explain their absence. In the morning there was a debate as to whether they should go to church or not. "Let us go," said Frank. "No one will know us, so it does not matter what we have on." So to church they went, in their dirty white flannels. It was their intention to sit near the door and try to escape observation, but they found the back seats of the little church full of children, and a churchwarden ushered them all the way up the church to the front pew, which they took. Just before the service began, a lady and gentleman, and a young lady who was apparently their daughter, came into the large square pew in which our boys sat, whereupon the tanned cheeks of our heroes blushed vehemently. The young lady sat opposite Frank, and every now and then gazed at him curiously. When Frank mustered up courage to look back at her, he thought he knew the face, and as the sermon advanced he recollected that it was that of a friend of his sister Mary's, who had once stayed at his father's house. When they left the church he went up to her, and taking off his cap, said, "I beg your pardon, but are you not Miss Rose?" "Yes, Mr. Merivale, but I thought you would not have remembered me. Papa, this is Mary Merivale's brother." Mr. Rose looked rather curiously at Frank and his friends, and Frank at once answered the unspoken question by saying, "We are yachting, sir, and we are windbound, without any change of clothes. We should have been ashamed to come to church if we had thought we should meet anyone we knew." "I am very glad to have met you. You and your friends must come and dine with me," was Mr. Rose's reply. So, in spite of their slimy-covered clothes and fishy smell, they were welcomed, and had a pleasant day. Edith Rose was so very pretty and nice, that Frank began to think Dick was not quite such a goose for being spoons on his sister, as he had previously thought him. About ten they returned to the yacht, and found that the wind had risen, and was blowing tolerably hard. As they were anxious to get back in time to be with Mr. Meredith on Monday morning, they resolved to sit up until twelve o'clock and then start homeward. The night was starlight, and light enough for them to see their way on the water; and as the hands on their watches pointed to twelve they hoisted sail and glided away through the grey stillness of the night, beneath the starlit blue of the midnight sky, with no sound audible save the hissing of the water curling against their bows, the flapping of the sails as they tacked, and the occasional cry of a bird in the reeds; and about five o'clock they arrived home, and turned in on board the yacht for a couple of hours' sleep before breakfast. CHAPTER XXII. Calling for Landrails.--Landrail Shamming Death.-- Yellow Under-wing Moth and Wasp.--Dragon-Fly and Butterfly.-- Stink-horn Fungus.--Sundew. On a stile under the shade of a chestnut Frank sat, calling for landrails. Every now and then he rubbed an instrument on his thigh, which made a noise so like the cry of the corncrake that one could not have distinguished it. This instrument was very simple, and he had made it himself. It was a piece of hard wood, with a stock to it like the letter _y_. Between the prongs of the _y_ was a wooden wheel, with its circumference cut into cogs. A slip of wood was screwed to the stock, and pressed against the cogs. When the wheel was turned by being pressed against the leg, a grating noise was produced, which answered the purpose admirably. Frank sat with his gun upon his lap and called away most patiently, but not hurriedly. A landrail was answering him from the further side of the field, and was approaching nearer. At last, just as its note seemed further off, he caught sight of its long neck and head peering above the grass, which, although it was only the aftermath, had grown a good height. Frank gave another creak, and the bird ran on a few yards nearer. Frank raised his gun to his shoulder and took aim, and as the bird took fright and began to run away a report rang through the summer stillness. The corncrake ran on with one wing trailing. The distance had been too great, or Frank would not have done so little damage. Just as it seemed that the bird would get away, Dick and Jimmy appeared over the opposite hedge. The corncrake seeing them, immediately fell down and lay apparently dead. They picked it up and brought it to Frank, who laid it on the ground by his side, and went on with his calling, while the others lay on the grass and talked. A heap of hay had been left by the side of the hedge, and Dick lazily stirred it with his foot. A large yellow under-winged moth (a moth with grey upper-wings and bright yellow under-wings bordered with black and very common in our hay-fields) arose, and Dick ran after it with his hat. Another entomologist, however, was before him. A wasp pounced upon the moth, and the two fell fluttering to the ground, and Dick caught them both, and afterwards mounted them in the attitude in which he caught them. "It was a pity to kill the wasp," said Jimmy. "It was doing just the same as Frank here. I dare say that corncrake would like to see him killed." [Illustration: DRAGON-FLY.] "It is the law of nature," said Frank; "and see, there is a dragon-fly following the wasp's example." A large dragon-fly had seized a white butterfly, and then as it flew in the air, it was depriving it of its wings, which fell fluttering to the ground. Jimmy happening to cast his eyes upon the corncrake, saw it cautiously lift its head, then gather itself together, looking about, and evidently preparing for flight. "Look, Frank," he said, "the corncrake was only shamming death!" The corncrake was on its legs and running away by this time, but Frank fired and killed it. "I would have let it go for its cunning," he said, "but it would only die with a broken wing. It could not live the winter here, and of course it could not migrate. I have known the water-hen sham death in the same way, and many insects do it. I wonder if that is instinct or reason. How does it know that if it seems dead you will not touch it, and therefore it may get an opportunity to escape?" "It is very wonderful," said Jimmy; "but you will get no more birds to-day after two shots. They will be too wary. Come with me, and I will show you something equally wonderful." "What is it?" "I will not tell you. Wait and see." They followed him to the shrubbery of Mr. Meredith's garden, and he led them to a laurel-bush, and pointed out to them an upright fungus, creamy white in colour, but not by any means handsome. Dick and Frank bent forward to examine it, when suddenly they clasped their noses between their fingers, and ran away, followed by Jimmy exulting. "How terrible," said Dick, blowing his nose. "That is the vilest smell I have ever smelt," said Frank, doing likewise. "What is it?" "The common stink-horn fungus," answered Jimmy; "I thought you would like to see it." "We might have liked to see it, but not to smell it. Have not you a nose, Jimmy?" "Yes; but I wanted you to share my pleasure." "It was uncommonly kind of you, I must say." Mr. Meredith came up smiling and said, "Now, if you will come with me, I will show you a plant much more interesting, and a plant which is like Dick, in that it catches flies." In a small marsh near the end of the garden were some plants of the sundew. It is some years since I gathered one, and I have not one before me to describe, so I quote from a little book called _Old English Wild Flowers_:-- "Of all the interesting plants which grow on marsh-lands, the most singular is the sundew. Those who have never seen its white blossoms growing, can form but little idea of its singular appearance. Round the root it has a circle of leaves, and each leaf has a number of red hairs tipped with pellucid glands which exude a clear liquid, giving the leaves a dew-besprinkled appearance as it glistens in the sunshine. These have proved a fatal trap to numbers of insects. The foliage and stem are much tinted with crimson, and the plant is small." CHAPTER XXIII. Setting Night-lines.--An Encounter with Poachers. Old Cox met Frank one day, and said to him in his broad Norfolk, which would be unintelligible to you were I to render it faithfully,-- "I wish you would give me some more fish, Mr. Merivale. You catch plenty, and if you would give me some that you doesn't want, I would take them to Norwich market and sell them. I sorely want to buy a pair of blankets for the old woman and me afore the winter comes." "Well, Cox, you shall have all we catch and don't want," said Frank; and when he saw his friends he said,-- "Let us make a mighty night-line, and set it like the long lines the Cromer fishermen set for cods, and lay it in the broad for eels, and give all we catch to Cox. Two or three nights' haul will set him up for the winter." So they made a long night-line. They bought a quarter of a mile of stout cord, and at distances of a yard from each other they fastened eel-hooks by means of short lengths of fine water-cord. Cox himself got them the worms, and then one fine night they rowed the punt to the middle of the broad, and set the night-line in the deep water of the channel. "Well," said Dick, "this is the longest and most wearisome job I have ever done, and old Cox ought to be infinitely obliged to us. We have been two hours and a half setting this line." Early in the morning they went out, and took up the night-line, but to their great surprise they found but very few eels on it, and plenty of bream, which they did not want. They were much disappointed at this, and went to Bell, and asked him the reason, for there were plenty of eels in the broad. "Where did you set the line?" he asked. "In the deep water of the channel." "Then that is just the place where you ought not to have set it. At night the eels make for the shallow water to feed, and if the grass is wet they will even wriggle out among it. I have seen them myself many a time. You must set your line along the edge where the water is about a foot or two feet deep, and you will have as many eels as you can carry." They tried again, and set the line as Bell had directed them, and the next morning they began to haul it in. The first hook came up bare. So did the second, and the third. As they hauled in the line their faces looked very blank, for every hook was bare. "We are not the first," said Frank savagely, "some other fellows have been here before us, and have taken up the line, and robbed it. They must have watched us laying it. Now I'll tell you what we will do. We will set it again to-night, and watch in the yacht, and if we see any fellows touching it we will give them a drubbing. Are you game?" "Yes," answered both Dick and Jimmy readily, "we are." So the third time they set the line, and then as soon as it got dark they crept quietly on board the yacht. They had set the line within 150 yards of the _Swan_, and as there was a glitter on the water from the reflection of the stars, they could see if anyone approached it. "What shall we do if they do touch it?" said Dick. "How shall we get at them?" "I did intend to take the boat, and row after them," answered Frank; "but see, we are to windward of them, and there is a good breeze, so that if we let the yacht drift towards them until they take the alarm, and then run the sails up, we shall overtake them." "And what shall we do then?" said Jimmy, who was becoming a little nervous. "Run them down--the water is not deep enough to drown them--and take away their boat if we can, and then make them come and beg our pardon before we give it up to them. If they attempt to board us, knock them over again." Frank spoke decidedly and hotly, for he was much put out at the theft of the fish. His family had so befriended the poor people around, that it was very ungrateful of some of them to rob their line. His spirits rose, too, with a force he could not resist, at the thought of a midnight engagement, and the chance of outwitting those who had thought to outwit him. Dick and Jimmy were ready to follow their dux at any instant, and anywhere. "They won't come till about midnight," said Frank, "so we may as well take a little sleep." About two o'clock they were broad awake, and lying flat on the deck of the yacht, peering into the darkness in the direction of the night-line. "Hush," said Dick; "I heard a noise like that of oars." They listened, and sure enough they heard the noise of oars splashing in the water, and grating in the rowlocks. "Here they are," whispered Frank. "We shall soon be in the thick of it." Dick had been trembling for some time in his nervousness, and he thought somewhat bitterly, "What is the matter with me? Am I a coward?" and he felt ashamed at the thought. It was not cowardice, however, but pure nervousness, and the moment he heard the sound of the approaching voices his nervousness departed, and he felt as cool and collected as Frank. A black patch soon became visible on the water, and they could just distinguish the outline of the boat. A splash in the water told them that the mooring stone had been thrown out, and that the robbers were at work. Frank quietly slipped his mooring, and the yacht drifted quickly towards the men. They were soon near enough to see that there were two men in the boat, and they heard one of them say in a startled tone,-- "I say, Jack, that yacht's adrift." "Is there any one on board, did you see?" said the other. "No, I don't think so." "Yes, there is though. Pull up that stone and row off as fast as you can," answered his companion. "Up with the sail!" shouted Frank, as he flew to the helm. Dick and Jimmy threw themselves on the halyard, and the great sail rose with surprising quickness against the dark night. The men in the boat were now pulling away at the top of their speed, but with the wind dead aft the yacht bore swiftly down upon them. The water was only about two feet deep, and began to shallow. The yacht's centre boards were up, but still she could not go much further, and they could tell that they were continually touching the mud. "They will escape us," said Dick. "No, there is a deep bay just where they are rowing," said Jimmy. As the water deepened the yacht started forwards, and in another minute they were on the runaways. Crash went their bows against the boat: she was at once capsized, and her occupants were struggling in the water. One of them scrambled on board the _Swan_, and rushed aft with an oar upraised to strike, but Frank laid the helm over as he put the yacht about, and the boom struck the fellow on the head and knocked him overboard. Meanwhile Dick had with the boat-hook tried to catch hold of the boat. In this he failed, but he got hold of something far more important, and that was a large fine-mesh net, which the poachers had no doubt intended to use after robbing the night-line. With such nets the damage done to fishing is enormous. Shoals of fishes as small as minnows, and useless for anything except manure, are massacred with them, and it is by the constant use of such nets that the fishing on the broads falls now so far short of what it used to be. Night-lines set for eels are not poaching or destructive. The quantity of eels is so great, that, as long as the young ones are spared, either night-lines or nets of the proper kind may be used. The yacht swept on, leaving the men up to their waists in the water, and swearing horribly. Frank felt a wild impulse to return and fight them, for he was of a fighting blood, such as a soldier should have, but he thought, "If we go back there are sure to be some hard blows, and I have no right to take Dick or Jimmy into a scrimmage and perhaps get them severely hurt, for they are not so strong as I am," so he refrained, and they sailed back to the boat-house, and waited until the dawn. Their adversaries dared not attack them, but went off out of sight and hearing. In the morning they took up the line, and were well-rewarded for their previous trouble. The eels they took pretty well loaded the donkey-cart which old Cox had borrowed, and he took them to Norwich and made a good profit out of them. Having amused themselves once with the night-lines the boys did not care to use them again, for it was _infra dig._ to catch fish for profit. However the profits were good to other people, so they gave the line to old Cox, and told him that he must get some one to set it, and go shares with him. The next day Frank walked down to the village public-house and stuck up the following notice in the bar,-- "If the person to whom the nets I have belong, will call at my house and claim them, he shall have the nets and a good thrashing." Frank was five feet eleven inches high, and well built in addition, and he had always a look on his face which said "I mean what I say;" and the nets were never claimed. CHAPTER XXIV. Water Insects.--Aquaria. One July afternoon the boys had been fishing, and to seek some shade and coolness while eating their lunch, they had driven the yacht into a quiet pool among the reeds, which almost met over them. The water below them was very clear and still, and as it was only about two feet deep they could see the bottom quite plainly, and they soon found that it was well worth a close inspection. The pool was teeming with insect life. The surface of the water was covered with tiny whirligig beetles, which were skimming about in mazy, coruscating evolutions. "Those whirligig beetles," said Dick, "have their eyes made with two faces--one to look down into the water, and the other to look into the sky." "What a lot you have learnt about insects, Dick, in the course of a few months," said Frank. [Illustration: METAMORPHOSES OF FLESH-FLY.] "It is a grand study," said Dick enthusiastically; "and I have worked my best at it. When one goes hard at a thing it is astonishing how soon one picks up a lot of knowledge about it. I have read over and over again about the common insects, or those that are the most noticeable." "Well, tell us about all those insects we see now." [Illustration: WATER-BEETLE.] "Look at those long-legged narrow-bodied flies which are sliding along over the surface. These are called water-measurers. That oval beetle which is swimming on its back, and using two legs like oars, is the water boatman. It fastens on to the head of small fish, and soon kills them. It lives in the water, but if put on land it can fly. Look at that brute crawling over the mud, with its lobster-like head. It has sharp claws and a hollow snout. It lies in wait for its victims, and when it seizes them it sucks the juice out of them with its beak. It looks only of a dull brown now, but when its wings are expanded its body is of a blood red colour, and its tail is forked. It sometimes comes out for a fly at night." "And what is the fearfully ugly thing climbing up that reed-stem just out of the water?" [Illustration: PUPA OF DRAGON-FLY.] [Illustration: COMPOUND EYE OF DRAGON-FLY (SECTION).] "Oh, that is the larva of the dragon-fly. The fly is about to come out of the case. Just watch it for a while." [Illustration: LARVA OF GNAT.] [Illustration: ESCAPE OF GNAT FROM ITS PUPA-CASE.] The larva of the dragon-fly is one of the ugliest of creatures. It has a long light-brown body and six legs. It has a fierce wide mouth and projecting eyes. Attached to its head are two claws, which with a pincer-like movement, catch up anything eatable and pass it to the mouth. In its larva and pupa state it has just the same appearance, and when it is about to change into a perfect dragon-fly it climbs up out of the water and emerges out of its case, just like the butterfly, and sails away a perfect and gorgeous insect, leaving its case a transparent brown shell, still clinging to the reed or grass-stem on which it contracted its last change. "Bother the gnats!" said Jimmy brushing some off his face. "There is nothing interesting about them." "Oh yes, there is," said Dick. "They lay their eggs on the surface of the water, making a raft of them, and the larvæ escape through the bottom of each egg into the water; and I have read that it is a very pretty sight to watch the perfect insect coming out." [Illustration: METAMORPHOSES OF PLUMED GNAT.] "I would prefer their staying down below; they bite me," answered Jimmy. Crawling along the bottom were numbers of caddis-worms in tube-like cases made of sticks and stones. Inside these cases are the plump white grubs which turn into flies. "Where the bottom is gravelly these caddis-worms make their cases of little stones," said Frank. "Yes, and I read the other day that an experiment had been tried by some one, who took some out of their nests and put them into an aquarium with some finely-broken glass of different colours, and the caddis-worms made their cases of this broken coloured glass, and very pretty they looked." "Their own bodies must supply the glue which fastens the pieces of gravel or glass together?" "Yes, it does." As the fish were biting very badly the boys left the broad early and went for a stroll. While passing through the village they saw a sale of stock going on in the open space round which the houses were ranged. They stopped to look on. The goods which were being sold were the stock in trade of a chemist, and among them were three large glass bowls, such as are used for aquaria. These were put up by the auctioneer in one lot, but there was no bid for them. They were articles not in request in that rural district. [Illustration: PUPA-CASE, LARVA, AND FLY OF CADDIS-WORM.] "Will no one make me a bid? Everything is to be sold without reservation," cried the auctioneer. "Five shillings," said Frank. "Going at five shillings!--going! going!--gone!"--and the lot was knocked down to Frank. "What are you going to do with them?" asked Jimmy. "Make them into aquaria, of course. Don't you see they are just the thing. The idea came into my head as soon as I saw them." "Then we can put some water insects in," said Dick. The glass reservoirs were placed on a shelf in the boat-house, and the next morning before breakfast they were fitted up. They got a quantity of fine gravel and sand, and thoroughly washed it in water, so as to cleanse it from all mud and impurity. This was placed to the depth of a couple of inches in each vessel, and a rock-work of worn flints was built upon it. Water was poured in to within a few inches of the top, and pieces of anacharis were planted in the gravel, their roots kept down by the stones. In a day or two the water had got clear, and the plants had taken root, and the boys proceeded to stock the aquaria. The small brook near afforded minnows and sticklebacks in plenty. In a stagnant pool they got some newts and water-insects. From the broad they obtained a few small perch, roach, and bream, and an eel about six inches long. They at first put these all together without any attempt at sorting them, and then the following consequences ensued. The water-boatmen fastened on the heads of the small fish and speedily killed them, and ate them up. The sticklebacks made themselves at home at once, and proved very pugnacious, fighting each other, dashing at a stick or finger, if put into the water, but, worst of all, annoying the minnows. Each male stickleback took up a position of his own, and resented any approach to within a few inches of it. With his glaring green eyes, and scarlet breast, he would wage war against any intruder; and when an unsuspecting minnow came within his ken he would sidle up to it, till within striking distance, then dash at it, and strike it with his snout in the stomach. The perch swallowed the minnows, and when they had vanished, attempted to swallow the sticklebacks, but the spines of the latter stuck in the perches' gullets and choked them. The eel, too, would writhe and poke through the gravel and stir it up, displacing the weeds and doing a lot of mischief. [Illustration: MINNOW.] This led to a general reconstruction of the aquaria. The perch were taken out and restored to the broad, together with the eel. The roach, bream, and minnows, were put into two of the aquaria by themselves, and the sticklebacks and water-insects into the other. Many a fight took place among the sticklebacks and the water-boatmen, in which sometimes the one and sometimes the other came off victorious. [Illustration: SMOOTH NEWT.] The boys then got some caddis-worms, pulled them from their cases, and put them into a glass vessel filled with water, and having at the bottom some glass of different colours broken into small pieces. In a short time the caddis-worms had made themselves new, parti-coloured cases of glass, which were quite transparent, and through which the white bodies of the grubs could be plainly seen. Frank put these in among the minnows one day, and it was amusing to see the fish darting at the caddis-worms, thinking they would be soft, succulent morsels, and to watch their evident astonishment at being foiled by the hard cases. This suggested an idea to Frank which he afterwards carried out. None of the sticklebacks kept by the boys built nests or bred, so that they missed seeing a very pretty and interesting sight. "Fishes building nests!" I hear some of my readers exclaiming. Yes, sticklebacks do build nests, and in the number for January 1866 of _Science Gossip_ is an interesting account of this habit, which I take the liberty of quoting. When I have observed any fact in natural history myself, I describe it in my own words; but when I take it from the observation of others, it is fairer to them to use their own words, and far better in the interests of truth:-- "Two pair of sticklebacks were procured about the middle of April,--the males having already put on their spring dress of scarlet and green, and the females being full of spawn. [Illustration: METAMORPHOSES OF NEWT.] "After a few days a small hole was observed in the sand near a large stone. To this hole one of the males was paying the most assiduous and extraordinary attention. He was poising himself at an angle of forty-five degrees or thereabouts; he commenced a tremendous motion of his whole body, making the sand a pivot, and at the same time beating the water with his fins. This motion increased regularly in rapidity for a minute or so, when it ceased abruptly, and the fish darted off, either in pursuit of some trespasser whom he chastised (the females not even being exempt), or to obtain materials to increase his nest. These consisted of pieces of stick or moss, which being saturated with water, were of such gravity as to prevent their rising. He deposited these with great care, leaving a perfectly round hole in the middle, and then having procured a mouthful of sand, laid it over the looser materials to cement them together. "When completed, the nest resembled a flattened haycock. "For about a week after this completion it seemed deserted. But one morning it was found that some eggs had been laid. These for the size of the fish are very large, being about the size of a middling-sized shot. They hatched in about from ten days to a fortnight,--the young fish remaining in the nest until the yolk-bag was absorbed, when, being large enough to look after themselves, they went their way. The parent who had so tenderly guarded them took no further heed of them, and himself died--such being the case in both instances which came under notice, both parents sickening and dying from the effects of spawning and watching, or perhaps from the aquarium not being fitted for their recovery." [Illustration: WATER-FLEAS.] [Illustration: ANIMALCULÆ IN DROP OF WATER, AS SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.] Those who keep aquaria in an intelligent manner and study the habits of the creatures they imprison, will find it both interesting work, and a never-failing source of amusement. It is very little trouble. When the water is put in, and the plants begin to grow, the water need not be changed. The oxygen produced by the plants will keep the water pure, and will supply it with air. [Illustration: FRESH-WATER AQUARIUM.] The green confervoid growth which rapidly forms on the sides of the aquarium must not be all wiped off, for it assists greatly in keeping the water pure and healthy. Tie a piece of sponge to a stick, and with this you can wipe it off from that side where it obstructs the view, without disturbing the rest of the aquarium. If you have no cover, and dust accumulates on the surface of the water, it may easily be removed by means of a piece of paper laid on the surface of the water for a few minutes. The dust will adhere to this, and be taken away with it when it is removed. The confervoid growth is best kept down by the common water-snail, several of which should be kept in the aquarium. You must of course feed the fish occasionally with worms, insects, and bread; but give them very little at a time, or you will foul the water and render it muddy, and the fish will sicken and die. Keep these few hints in mind, and you will have no trouble in managing your aquarium. [Illustration: METAMORPHOSES OF FROG.] From aquaria to flowers is a sudden transition, but a bunch of violets has just been held to my nose to smell, and their sweet fragrance has borne me in thought from my study, where I am burning the midnight oil, to the green woods and fields of my boyhood, and then a sudden review of events which have happened since in my life, makes me more thankful than ever that that boyhood was, as far as natural history is concerned, a prototype to the boys of whom I am now writing, and makes me wish to urge the more strongly upon you the almost boundless advantages which follow the study to all. You will of course clearly see that my aim in writing this book is not merely to amuse, but to teach you some of the wonders which lie ready for you to explore, and the delight of seeking and discovering those wonders. I do not, however, want to moralize, because if I do you will skip my moralising, so I will pull up in time and get on with my story. [Illustration: SEA-WATER AQUARIUM.] CHAPTER XXV. Making a Fern Case.--Ferns.--Harvest Mouse.-- Mole.--Ladybird.--Grasses. [Illustration: WALL SPLEENWORT.] From ten till four the boys were engaged with Mr. Meredith, but they had a holiday on Saturday, and by rising early they could gain so many of the fairest and most beautiful hours of the day that lessons seemed but an interval between a long morning and a long afternoon. They thus made plenty of time for their numerous occupations. [Illustration: FORKED SPLEENWORT.] Mary said to Jimmy one day, "Will you make me a fern-case? Frank has so many things to do. I have been promised a lot of ferns from Devonshire. A friend of mine will send them to me by post, and I should so like to have a nice little fernery for my bedroom window." [Illustration: GREEN SPLEENWORT.] Jimmy gladly promised to make one for her, and Dick, who would have liked to have had the commission himself, volunteered to help him. They first of all made a strong deal box, about two feet six inches long, and one foot six inches broad, and six inches deep. This was lined carefully with sheet lead, which was to make it perfectly water-tight. They then made a wooden framework, with a pointed roof, to fit on the top of it. This they glazed with ordinary window-glass, and painted all the wood-work black. It was now ready for the soil. First they put a layer, about two inches deep, of broken sandstone, in order to ensure perfect drainage, and mixed with this were some lumps of charcoal to keep it pure. Then they filled up the box with earth, mixed in the proportions following:--one-third part of garden mould, one-third part of sand, and one-third part of peaty earth, with an admixture of dead leaves. In the centre of the rockery they built up a framework of curiously water-worn flints, and then they carried the affair in triumph to Mary's room, where they planted the ferns she had received from her friend--glossy, whole-leaved hart's-tongues, delicate, black-stemmed maiden-hair, ladder-like polypodies and blechnums, feathery lady-ferns, light green and branching oak-ferns, and many another species, which, notwithstanding their removal from the Devonshire lanes, grew and flourished in Mary's fern-case, and soon became a sight most pleasant to the eye. [Illustration: OAK FERN.] [Illustration: FRUCTIFICATION OF FERNS. 1. Asplenium. 2. Scolopendrium. 3. Cystopteris. 4. Blechnum. 5. Hymenophyllum. 6. Pteris. 7. Adiantum. 8. Trichomanes. 9. Woodsia.] To anyone fond of ferns nothing can be more interesting than a fern-case. Nearly all ferns grow well in them, if they are properly attended to. Whenever the soil becomes dry on the surface, they should be well watered, and this should not be done too often, or it will encourage the growth of mould. The moisture will evaporate and condense on the side of the glass, and run down again to the earth, so that there is very little waste. The plants thus create an atmosphere of their own, and will thrive in it wonderfully. [Illustration: WALL RUE. JERSEY FERN. MARSH FERN.] One day it was so intensely hot that it was impossible to do anything but lie in the shade. The boys had bathed twice, and the deck planks of the yacht were so burning hot that they could with difficulty stand upon them. They sought a shady corner of the paddock, and there underneath a tall hedge and the shade of an oak they lay, and talked, and read. Frank was teasing Dick with a piece of grass, and to escape him, Dick got up and sat on a rail in the hedge which separated them from the next field, which was a corn-field. This quietly gave way, and Dick rolled into the next field, and lay among the corn quite happy and contented. Suddenly he called out-- "Come and look at this nest in the corn-stalks! It can't be a bird's. What is it?" Frank and Jimmy went through the gap and examined it. [Illustration: HARVEST MOUSE AND NEST.] "It is the nest of a harvest mouse," said Frank, "and there are half a dozen naked little mice inside." The harvest mouse is the smallest of British animals. Unlike its relatives, it builds its nest in the stalks of grass or corn at a little distance from the ground. The nest is globular in shape, made of woven grass, and has a small entrance like that of a wren's. [Illustration: MOLE.] "And here is a mole-trap," said Jimmy, "with a mole in it. What smooth glossy fur it has! It will set whichever way you rub it." "Yes; and don't you see the use of that. It can run backwards or forwards along its narrow burrows with the greatest ease. It could not do that if the fur had a right and a wrong way." "Can it see?" asked Jimmy, pointing to the tiny black specks which represented its eyes. "Oh yes. Not very well, I dare say; but well enough for its own purposes. It can run along its passages at a great speed, as people have found out by putting straws at intervals along them, and then startling the mole at one end and watching the straws as they were thrown down." During the autumn and winter the mole resides in a fortress, often at short distances from the burrow where it nests. This fortress is always placed in a position of safety, and is of a most complex construction. It is a hillock, containing two or three tiers of galleries with connecting passages, and from the central chamber it has passages, or rows, extending in different directions. [Illustration: LADYBIRD AND ITS STAGES.] The boys returned to their couches in the long grass in the shade, and Frank was soon too sleepy to tease, but lay on the broad of his back, looking up at the blue sky through the interstices of the oak branches. Dick was studying the movements of a ladybird with red back and black spots, which was crawling up a grass-stem, and wondering how such a pretty creature could eat a green juicy aphis, as it has a habit of doing. Jimmy was turning over the pages of his book, and looking out the plates of flowers, and comparing them with some he had gathered. He was rather bewildered and somewhat discouraged at the immensity of the study he had undertaken. No sooner did he learn the name of a flower than it was driven from his head by that of another, and having attempted to do too much in the beginning, he had got into a pretty state of confusion. He had given up the idea of keeping pace with naming all the beautiful flowers he had found. He gathered and dried them, and left to the winter evenings the task of arranging and naming them. "I say," called out Frank, "around my face there are at least seven different kinds of grasses. Can you name them, Jimmy?--and how many different kinds of grasses are there?" "I can name nothing," said Jimmy dolefully, "but I will look it up in my book and tell you. Here it is, but their name seems legion. You must look at them for yourself. The plates are very beautiful, but the quaking grass, of which there is any quantity just by your head, is the prettiest." "They seem as pretty as ferns," said Frank. "I must learn something more about them." A day or two after this Mr. Meredith said to them, when they had assembled at his house in the morning: "Now, boys, from something a little bird has whispered to me, I think you stand in need of a little punishment, and I therefore mean to give you a lesson. You are by far too desultory in your study of natural history. You attempt to do too much, and so you only obtain a superficial knowledge, instead of the thorough and practical one you ought to have. You are trying to reach a goal before you have fairly started from the toe-line. I allude more especially now to botanical matters, because I know most about them, and that is all I can help you in. Therefore you will be kind enough to translate into Latin this Essay which I have written on the Life of a Fern." "That is anything but a punishment, sir," said Frank, laughing. The boys set to work with great zest at their novel lesson. I set the English of it out in the next chapter, and I particularly request my young readers to read every word of it. CHAPTER XXVI. The Life of a Fern.[1] [1] For this Chapter I am indebted to my friend Mr. William Whitwell, of Oxford. One of the most marvellous of "the fairy tales of science" has now to engage our attention for a time. The growth and fertilization of the seeds--more properly called spores--of ferns, present phenomena of remarkable singularity and interest. Growth is advisedly named first, as in the present instance it really does occur before fertilization, which is not the primary event in the life-history of a fern. But a few words must be devoted to the preliminary question: What is a fern? The vegetable kingdom is divided into two great provinces, allotted respectively to the flowering and the flowerless tribes. The flowering plants have several distinct and visible organs for the formation and fertilization of their seed, to each of which is assigned a special and necessary office. In the flowerless section, on the contrary, there are none of these visibly separate agencies in reproduction, and what are usually termed the seeds do not show any parts representative of the developed product. In the true seeds, which belong to flowering plants alone, are contained the rudiments of a stem, leaves, and root, but in the spores of the flowerless plants nothing of the kind is found. The spores, again, are microscopic, while the smallest of true seeds can be not only seen but easily picked up. You have, doubtless, met with the peculiar fungus called a puff-ball, and amused yourselves by watching the little clouds of impalpable dust which are shaken from it on the slightest motion. Those fine clouds, not nearly so visible as a film of candle smoke, are composed of innumerable spores, and such are the representatives of seeds in every member of the great section of the flowerless plants. Now it is peculiar to ferns, that the cases in which these spores are enclosed grow directly from the veins of what is usually called the leaf, but is more correctly termed the frond, and always appear upon the back or at the margin. Ferns, then, are flowerless plants which bear their spores in cases growing upon the back or margin of the leaves. In order that the phenomena of growth and fertilization in ferns may be clearly understood, it is necessary to refer to the process as taking place in flowering plants. The tulip is most appropriate for an illustration, inasmuch as its various parts will be recognised with ease. At the bottom of the blossom is a thick green oval body called the ovary, which afterwards becomes the seed-vessel. At the top, this narrows into a short column, surmounted by a three-cleft knob. Between the ovary and the gorgeously painted flower-leaves are six curious organs, termed stamens, consisting each of a long and rather slender stalk, and a head formed somewhat like a hammer. If the green oval ovary in the centre is cut in two, it will be found divided into three chambers, in one or another of which, not usually in all, will be seen a row of little knobs or buttons attached to the partition in the middle. These little buttons are ovules, or seed-germs, and the special office of the ovary is to produce these germs, and to contain them until their full development and complete ripening into seeds. But if the knobs are left just as they are, unfertilized, they can never become seeds, and the plant will fail to reproduce its kind. Turn we now to the stamens. Each of their hammer-like heads has two chambers, full of beautiful little grains which are called the pollen. Each grain is tastefully and delicately marked, and holds a transparent watery fluid, in which a number of extremely small solid particles are floating. What is required for the fertilization of the seed-germs is--that this fluid should be conveyed to and taken up by them. But they are in the centre of the thick green ovary--this in the chambers of the stamens! A simple arrangement brings all about. At a certain time we may see the black heads of the stamens covered with a fine flour, which adheres to whatever touches them. This flour is made up solely of pollen-grains, escaping in unimaginable numbers from the chambers where they are produced. At the same time the knob which crowns the seed-vessel puts forth a thick and gummy ooze. The stamens are just long enough for their heads to rise a little above this knob, upon which the pollen, when escaping as I have stated, falls in great quantity, and is there held fast. Each grain then begins to swell, and to sprout (as the Rev. J. G. Wood has it) something like potatoes in a cellar. All the sprouts, however, pierce the knob, and push downwards until they reach the seed-germs underneath. Each sprout is a tube of extreme minuteness, and when it reaches a germ, attaches itself thereto, and, through the channel so formed, the fluid is drawn out of the pollen-grain and absorbed by the embryo seed. Fertilization is thus effected, and the growth and development of the germ proceeds until it becomes a seed fully able, when planted, to reproduce a tulip. [Illustration: FERN SPORES.] In ferns, the spores ripen and are ready for dispersion and partial growth without any process of the kind. But, in truth, fertilization is as necessary to the continuance of ferns as to the perpetuation of other plants. The main difference lies in this: that the means of fertilization, and the real germs of new plants, are produced from the spores after they begin to grow. When a spore falls upon a proper place for its development, a portion of the outer membrane begins to swell, and a tongue-shaped projection is formed, which becomes a sort of root. The one chamber of the spore gradually subdivides, and becomes two, four, and so on, until for the simple spore we have a tiny leaf-like expansion, now known as the _prothallium_, or representative of a leaf. Further than this the spore alone has no power to go, and the prothallium is not truly the germ of the future plant. True germs, needing fertilization, are produced upon it, and also the means whereby they can be fertilized. These can be distinguished only by use of the higher microscopic powers. If a portion of the prothallium is examined, it will be found studded with little bladders, containing round semi-transparent bodies of a greenish hue. There may also be seen, though in fewer numbers, pellucid cells of an entirely different character, consisting apparently only of a fine membrane, forming an angular chamber, shaped in some instances like a lantern of extreme delicacy and elegance. From the top of this chamber a funnel-like shaft descends to a little germ which is situated at the bottom. This germ is the real original of the future plant, and the round bodies in their little cells, just before described, are the means whereby it is to be fertilized and receive energy to develope into the perfect fern. But how can the needful contact between the germs and the fertilizing bodies be brought about? Observation and experiment supply a strange answer to this question. The round bodies in the tiny bladders acquire a spiral or shell-like form when they become mature. If a drop of water is then placed in contact with the bladders, their contents will suddenly escape, retaining for a moment the coiled appearance, but quickly lengthening and partially unrolling. By means of hairs with which they are furnished, and which at once commence a ceaseless jerking motion, they forthwith launch out into the water, and conduct themselves therein more like creatures endowed with conscious life than mere organs of a settled and sedate member of the vegetable kingdom. These bodies, drawing near the germ-cells in the course of their travels through the, to them, vast ocean of the water-drop, have been seen arrested in their progress and passing down the funnel-shafts to the germs below--so fulfilling the purpose for which they were designed and their curious swimming powers were given. The germs, so fertilized, become the underground stems of which I have yet to speak, putting forth roots and producing the tender, rolled-up buds which finally expand into the fronds whose grace and beauty we so much admire. These germs, appearing on the prothallium or leaf-like expansion of the spore, are the true representatives of seeds, and the swimming bodies correspond to the pollen or fertilizing dust of flowers. Thus we see that germs and means of fertilization are produced in the fern as truly as in higher plants, and that the simple agency whereby the one may reach and exert the needful action upon the other, is the _dew-drop_ resting on the prothallium from which they are developed. Without the dew-drop or the rain-drop as a means of communication both must perish with their mission unfulfilled. This is, perhaps, one of the most singular instances ever to be found, of the mutual dependency of created things, or, to give different expression to the same idea, of the mode in which each link of the great network of existence is connected with every other. Returning to the fern, whose "strange eventful history" we have traced so far,--the germ enlarges and becomes what is usually called the root, but is really an underground stem. The true roots are the little fibres--often black and wiry, looking more dead than alive--which descend from this. The stem may be of two kinds--long, thin, and creeping, as in the common polypody, or short, stout, and upright, as in the common male fern. At intervals along the creeping stem, or arranged more or less regularly around the crown of the erect stem, little buds appear, which eventually form the fronds which are the really conspicuous portion of the plant, and whose aspect is familiar to us all. The buds present a character of great interest and singularity. Instead of being simply folded together, as leaves generally are,--in all but two of our British kinds the fronds are rolled up after the fashion of a crosier or shepherd's crook. In divided fronds, the sections are rolled up first, and singly, and then the whole are rolled up again, as if forming but a single piece. The aspect of some of these young fronds--in the common bracken, for instance--with their many divisions all partially unrolled, is often highly curious. But in this I am proceeding too far. The first crop of fronds, even in those kinds which when mature are most deeply cut, are usually very simple in form--almost or wholly undivided. This fact is often a source of great confusion to beginners. I well remember two perplexities of the kind in which I was involved during the earlier season of my attention to this subject. Growing upon a rock by the roadside, I found a small fern, more exquisitely beautiful than any I had seen before. I gathered and preserved it, but for many months was wholly puzzled as to its nature. Fancies arose that I was the happy discoverer of a new species,--and what if Professor Lindley or Sir William Hooker were to name it after me--Asplenium, or Polystichum, or something else, Meredithii? That would be better than a peerage. These were but fancies, and I was well pleased when further experience--for books helped me not at all--showed that it was a young plant of the common lady-fern. It was divided once only--into simple leaflets--while the fully-developed frond of the matured plant is one of the most highly subdivided our islands can produce. When I began collecting ferns, I had not seen a specimen of the rare holly-fern, and it was pardonable in me on finding some fronds which evidently belonged to the shield fern genus, and were divided into spiny leaflets only, to refer them to this species and tell a friend that I had made a great discovery. But on going to the same plant a year later, my mistake was made plain, as the new fronds were much more divided, and showed the plant to be of the common kind, the prickly shield-fern. On the rocky sides of little Welsh and Highland rivers, in glens where the sunlight seldom enters, complete series of this fern in all its stages--from the tiny simple leaf to the deeply-cut and boldly-outlined frond of nearly three feet in length--may easily be obtained, and will beautifully illustrate its varied and increasingly-divided forms. Some fronds of course, as those of the graceful hart's-tongue, are undivided even at maturity, except in occasional instances in which, like creatures endowed with more sentient life, they become erratic, and show a disposition to pass beyond the ordinary limitations. Curious examples of tendency to a greater than even their proper large amount of subdivision are occasionally shown in specimens of the lady-fern, which become forked at the extremities not only of the fronds but of the leaflets also. The manner in which the fronds divide into lobes, segments, leaflets, and so on, is of course largely dependent upon the character of the veining, which differs widely from that of the flowering plants. In these, the veins are either netted or parallel, but in ferns they are forked, each branch again forking, and so on outward to the margin. This is only partially true of the scale-fern, and not true at all of the adder's-tongue; but it is the case with all other of our native kinds. [Illustration: SCALY SPLEENWORT OR "RUSTY BACK."] Passing now to the production of the spores, and so completing the cycle of a fern's existence,--these appear in cases which spring in some instances from leafless veins or central ribs, but mostly from the veins as they usually occur, and at the back or, in the bristle-fern and filmy-ferns, at the margin of the fronds. The cases grow in clusters which are termed sori, each of which is generally protected by a covering, though in the genus of the polypodies this is entirely absent, the clusters being fully exposed to the diversities of wind and weather. In the protected kinds, the cover assumes various forms. The filmy-ferns have it as a tiny cup, enclosing the spore-cases. In the bladder-fern it is like a fairy helmet. The shield-ferns, as their name implies, produce it as a little shield, fastened by its centre. In the buckler-ferns it is kidney-shaped, in the spleenworts long and narrow, and so on. Some kinds can scarcely be credited with the formation of a real cover, but their sori are protected by the turned-down margins of the fronds. In a few sorts, separate fronds are provided for the production of the spores, and these mostly differ in shape from the ordinary or barren fronds. The spore-cases are generally almost microscopic, flask-like in shape, and encircled by an elastic ring of peculiar structure, which passes either from top to bottom like a parallel of longitude, or round the sides like the equator round the earth. The exact nature of this band,--whether its elasticity be due to the mechanical arrangement of its cells, which are narrower on the inner than on the outer side, and apparently filled with solid matter, or to a quality of its substance,--I am unable to determine. [Illustration: WILSON'S FILMY-FERN.] [Illustration: TUNBRIDGE FILMY-FERN.] When the spores are fully ripe, and ready for dispersion, the band, which has hitherto been bent around them, springs open with great suddenness and force, tearing the enclosing membrane and casting them forth upon the breeze, to undergo in their turn all the changes we have traced, or, as must be the case with multitudes, such are the countless numbers in which they are produced, to perish, humanly speaking, with all the beautiful possibilities of their nature for ever lost. The botanist is led away from care, not merely into holes and corners-- "Brimful dykes and marshes dank"-- but to glorious vales and to mountain tops, where fresh health-laden breezes play around him, and he can delight in scenes of grandeur and loveliness to a degree which only a true lover of nature knows. A poet I have read gave sweet expression to thoughts and feelings which I have often shared, when he wrote thus:-- "Oh! God be praised for a home Begirt with beauty rare, A perfect home, where gentle thoughts Are trained 'mid scenes so fair; "And where (God grant it so) the heart That loves a beauteous view, The while it grows in truth and taste May grow in goodness too. "For 'tis my creed that part to part So clingeth in the soul, That whatsoe'er doth better one, That bettereth the whole. "And whoso readeth nature's book, Widespread throughout the earth, Will something add unto his love Of wisdom and of worth." Happy are those who can find relief from the worry and turmoil of business in the observation and study of the myriad forms of life which flourish upon the earth, or whose record is laid up within its rocks. But blessed is he who, from the contemplation of objects so varied, wonderful, and beautiful, can with a full heart look upward to a God reconciled in Christ, and in reverential and loving worship exclaim, "My _Father_ made them all!" CHAPTER XXVII. On the "War-path."--Rabbit-shooting.--Flapper-shooting.-- Duck-shooting.--Wood-pigeons.--Life in an Oak-tree.-- Burying-beetles.--Lace-wing Fly.--Stag-beetle.--Hair-worm. It was a curious sight to see the boys on the "war-path." Frank generally led the way, with his eyes fixed on the hedge or tree-tops. Jimmy followed closely at his heels, and Dick brought up the rear. As their eyes were generally too much occupied in looking out for objects of interest, to take care of their feet, they lifted the latter up from the ground with an action like that of a thorough-bred colt, so as to avoid any obstacles in their path. While going along one day in this style, Frank said, "I tell you what we have nearly forgotten, and that is to go flapper-shooting." Flappers are young ducks only just able to fly, and in July it is great fun following them along the side of a dyke, the short flights of the young ones making them easy shots for a beginner. "Let us go to-morrow," said Jimmy. "You two shoot, and I will look on," said Dick, who cared very little for shooting. Dick was not by any means an enthusiastic gunner, as the following anecdote will show. He had taken the gun, saying that he was going to shoot rabbits by the Home Copse, a wood which belonged to Mr. Merivale. In a convenient spot the boys had fixed a hurdle close by a hedge-bank, and twined some brushwood through the bars. Between this and the hedge they used to take their seat, and watch for the rabbits coming out of their burrows in the evening. On a warm July evening Dick went to this spot alone, with a parting injunction from Frank not to shoot at the young ones, but to pick out the old bucks. Frank was busy with something or other, and Jimmy was away at Norwich. When Frank had finished what he was about he went in search of Dick. When he came to the edge of the field at the foot of which lay the wood, he saw numbers of rabbits skipping about close by Dick's shelter, and after waiting for some time he grew impatient, and wondered why Dick did not fire. [Illustration: WILD RABBITS.] "He must have fallen asleep," he thought; and so with infinite care and cunning he crawled down the hedge-side, and came upon Dick from behind. "Dick, why don't you shoot?" he said in a whisper. "Hush!" said Dick, "they look so pretty, I don't like to disturb them. Look at the young ones frisking about." "Give me the gun," said Frank. Dick passed it to him through the hedge, and Frank, taking aim at two fine rabbits which happened to be in a line, shot them dead. "I have had more pleasure in watching them than you have had in shooting them, Frank," said Dick. It must not be thought that Dick was mawkishly sentimental, but he had not the organ of destructiveness that Frank had, and it was, as he said, quite as much sport to him to see and watch birds and animals as to shoot them. Therefore, when the others went flapper-shooting their order of going ranged in this wise:-- Frank, armed with his double-barrelled muzzle-loader (for breech-loaders had not yet come into general use), took one side of the dyke, and Jimmy, with a single-barrel he had bought second-hand, took the other side, while Dick took the punt along the dyke ready to act the part of a retriever. It was one of those still, hot days when the distant woods lie brooding in a blue haze. The labours of the breeding-season over, the birds were resting silently, and there was no sound but the monotonous hum of insect-life. On the wide marshes all objects were distorted by the quivering of the evaporating moisture, and the long straight dykes and drains gleamed back defiantly at the sun. Frank and Jimmy trudged valiantly through the rustling flags and reeds by the water-side, and Dick pulled the punt along a little behind them. "Shooting is no fun this weather," said Frank, stopping to wipe the perspiration from his brow. Just then a wild-duck rose from the reeds, followed by half-a-dozen young ones. They rose on Frank's side of the dyke, so it was his turn to shoot. He dropped his hat and handkerchief and fired, but in his hurry he missed with the first barrel, and Jimmy, fearing they might escape, let off his big single, and one of the young ducks fell to the ground with a flop which told how fat he was. Frank winged another with his second barrel, and it fell into the water, where it was despatched by a third shot from Jimmy, who had hastily loaded. The old duck flew far away, but the young ones only flew short distances, and then settled on the dyke and hid in the reeds, one here and another there; and then for an hour or so they had good sport beating about the dykes, and flushing them one by one until they had disposed of the whole brood. "There," said Frank, as he handed the last of them to Dick in the punt, "it is too hot to shoot any more to-day. We have done enough to be able to say that we have been flapper-shooting, and that is all I care for this hot weather." "I am glad you are leaving off;" said Dick, "that villanous saltpetre smoke hangs in the air so that one can see nothing." "Then let us have a bathe, and leave the ducks until the winter-time," said Jimmy. "Yes, but we won't leave them quite yet. We must shoot them when they come to the corn-fields in August." [Illustration: WOOD-PIGEON.] And as we are now writing about wild-duck shooting we will just advance a short time in our story, and take a glance at the boys shooting wild ducks when the fields are yellow with harvest. Frank and Jimmy are perched in an oak-tree, which after many years of wrestling with the winds and storms, has assumed a very quaint and picturesque shape. Its mighty stem is riven and has great hollows in it, and its low, wide spreading branches shade more of the field than the Norfolk farmer likes. It stands in a hedge which separates the corn-field, where the stems are bowing with the weight of the ears and are ready for the scythe, from a meadow which slopes down to the marsh and the broad. Frank and Jimmy both have their guns, and Dick has been sent to the other side of the field with an old pistol, which he has been charged to let off. "Cock your gun, Dick is raising his pistol," said Frank. A puff of smoke from out the shadow of the hedge, and a few seconds after, a report, show that Dick has fulfilled his mission; and as the report reaches them, first come a number of wild-pigeons, which fly past with whistling wings. Jimmy fires and brings one to the ground. Frank has reserved his fire, and wisely, for with slow and heavy flight come four wild ducks right towards the tree. Frank gets two of them in a line and fires his first barrel. Two of them fall, and with his second barrel he wings another, which Jimmy despatches. [Illustration: SUSPENDED LEAF-TENTS.] "Come back to the tree, Dick," shouted Frank, and Dick came back. "Now if we wait here a little while, the wild-pigeons will come back, and some more ducks may come from the marsh." And so, having loaded their guns, they laid them in a hollow and made themselves comfortable, and began to chat. "Did you ever notice how much insect-life there is in an oak-tree?" said Dick. "Just watch this branch while I tap it." He struck the branch as he spoke, and immediately there fell from it scores of caterpillars, which let themselves fall by a silken thread, and descended, some nearly to the ground, others only a little distance. "I was reading the other day," said Dick, "of the immense quantity of moths which lay their eggs on the oak. There are caterpillars which build little houses of bark to live in. Others roll up the leaves and so make tents for themselves. Others eat the surface of the leaves, and so leave white tracks on their march. Others, when they are frightened, will put themselves into such queer postures: they will stretch themselves out as stiff as a twig, holding on by one end only, and you would think they were twigs; and these, when they walk, loop themselves up. They don't crawl like other caterpillars, but have feet only at each end, and so they loop up their bodies in the middle till they form the letter omega, and then stretch out their heads again and bring up their tails with another loop. And then there are cannibal caterpillars, which eat other caterpillars. Look at these little spots of bright green. See, if I make them fly, they are seen to be pretty little moths with green wings. They are called the green oak-moth." "An oak-tree seems to be a regular city," said Frank. "Look at this marvellously beautiful fly, with lace-like wings," said Jimmy. "What is that?" "That is a lace-wing fly," answered Dick. "Just put your nose as close as you can to it and smell it." Jimmy did so, and said,-- "Why it is nearly as bad as a stink-horn fungus." No more ducks came back that day, but three more wood-pigeons fell victims to their love of corn, and the boys descended, by and by, and walked home. As they were sitting on a stile, Dick pointed to the carcase of a mole which lay on the path, and to two little black beetles with yellow bands on their wing-cases, which were crawling over it. "I think those are burying beetles. Let us watch them. They lay their eggs in dead bodies of beasts or birds and then bury them, and the grub of the beetle lives on the carcase in its babyhood." They lay down on the ground by the beetles, watching them. The process of egg-laying by the female was just about being completed, and the two soon buried themselves in the earth beneath the carcase, and presently appeared at one side with a little mound of earth which they had excavated from under it. This process was repeated again and again, and very slowly the mole began to sink into the ground. The boys watched it for nearly an hour, and in that time the mole was about half-buried. One observer once kept four of these beetles in a place where he could observe them, and supplied them with carcases of small animals and birds, and in twelve days they had buried no less than fifty! [Illustration: LACE-WINGED FLY. (Manner of depositing Eggs.)] "Have you ever seen those huge stag-beetles with long horny mandibles like stag's horns?" said Frank. "Yes," replied Dick, "I caught one yesterday, and looked up all about it in my books. Its caterpillar takes four years to arrive at maturity, and it burrows in the wood of oak and willow trees. I showed the beetle I caught to our housekeeper, and she nearly went into hysterics over it. I tried to make her take it into her hand, and she said she would not have done so for 'worlds untold.'" [Illustration: STAG-HORNED PRIONUS AND DIAMOND BEETLE.] Frank stooped down to wash his hands in a small pool of water by the road-side, and he cried-- "I say, do look here. Here is a living horsehair. Look at it swimming about. It ties itself into ever so many knots in a minute, and unties them again. Is it a hair-worm?" "Yes, I have no doubt it is," said Jimmy. "Do you know that I expect that the common notion of eels being bred from horsehairs has arisen from country people seeing these long worms, and thinking they were horsehairs just come to life." The hair-worm in the first stage of its existence passes its life in the body of some tiny animal or insect. Although it lives afterwards in the water, yet it will, if put into a dry and hot place, dry up to nothing as it were; and then after a long exposure to the heat, if it is put into water again, it will swell out and resume its old proportions, and, live seeming none the worse for being baked. CHAPTER XXVIII. Purple Emperor.--His Taste for Carrion.--Wood-pecker.-- Blue and Small Copper Butterflies.--Buff-tip Moth.-- Moths at Ivy.--Strange-looking Caterpillars. One hot August day Frank and his faithful follower Jimmy were strolling arm-in-arm along the lanes to call for Dick. Presently they came upon him engaged in no very pleasant occupation. Holding his nose with one hand, with the other he was drawing along a dead dog by means of a long bramble twisted round it. The dog was highly odoriferous, and Frank and Jimmy kept at a distance while they asked him what he was doing that for. "I saw a purple emperor butterfly flying round the top of one of the oaks in the park. It is impossible to catch it with a net, but I have read that these butterflies have a taste for carrion, and will come down to it; so I just fished about until I found this dead dog, which I mean to lay under the tree as a bait." "Are you sure it was a purple emperor? They are very rare here," said Frank. "Oh yes, I saw the purple of its wings shining in the sun, and it was so large, and it flew about the tops of the oaks, and then flew higher still out of sight." The purple emperor is looked upon as the king of English butterflies. It is a large insect, with wings of dark purple bordered with white, which vary in colour like the material known as shot silk, and in the sunlight gleam most beautifully. The males only have this splendid purple gloss on their wings. The females, though larger in size, have wings of a dull brown. The purple emperor takes its station at the top of the tallest oak and rarely descends to earth. The female is more stay-at-home than the male, and is very rarely caught. The insect would be far oftener seen than caught if it were not for its habit of alighting upon carrion, and collectors take advantage of this low taste, and lie in wait for it, and catch it in the act. The caterpillar is a plump creature, with a tail running to a point, and a pair of horns or tentacles on its head. It is bright green in colour, striped with yellow down each side, and it feeds upon the willow. In the south of England this butterfly is not uncommon, but as you go north it becomes rarer. Frank and Jimmy accompanied Dick to the park where the oak-trees were, keeping at a respectable distance to windward of him. The carcase was deposited beneath the tree where Dick had seen the purple emperor, and they sat down behind another tree to wait the course of events. Two hours passed away without any sign of the butterfly, but time was no object with the boys, who found it pleasant enough to lie on the cool grass in the shadow of the oaks, and listen to the murmur of woodland sounds. Squirrels and rabbits played about them, and birds fluttered in the trees overhead. The cushat uttered her sleepy moan, and then woke up and flew away on lazy wing to the corn-fields, whence came the sound of the sharpening of scythes. The rattle of the woodpecker tapping the hollow trees was the loudest sound which disturbed the silent, broiling afternoon. The three friends were stretched on the ground talking quietly, and half disposed to doze, every now and then casting glances at the dead dog. Suddenly down a lane of sunlight there fluttered a shimmering purple thing which settled on the carcase, and stayed there, opening and shutting its wings, and sending scintillations of purple light through the green shadows. "There it is!" said Dick excitedly, and he got hold of his net. "Don't be in a hurry, Dick; wait until it feels secure and gorges itself a bit," said Frank. Dick listened to his sound counsel, and waited as patiently as he could for a few minutes, and then he raised his net, and with a single leap reached the spot where the carcase lay, and brought the net down over dog and butterfly together. [Illustration: GREEN WOODPECKER.] "I have got it!" he exclaimed. "That's right; and you have got a lot of maggots in your net as well, and stirred up the stench most tremendously. Make haste and kill the butterfly and come away, or you will catch a fever," said Jimmy. [Illustration: BLUE BUTTERFLY.] The gorgeous insect having been secured in Dick's collecting box, they went off in search of other prey. On a common just beside the wood they found abundance of the beautiful blue butterflies, which shone like flakes of summer sky, and also the small copper butterfly, which rivals the most brightly burnished copper in its sheen. These were playing about in the greatest abundance, the small coppers settling on a blue flower, or a blue butterfly on a red flower, forming most artistic contrasts of colour. [Illustration: THE HAUNT OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR.] From its throne on the top of a tall nettle, where it sat fanning the air with its black, crimson-barred wings, Dick captured a magnificent red admiral, and shortly after another of the same species. Gorgeous as the upper surface of the wings of this butterfly is, the under side is quite as beautiful in a quieter way, with its delicate tracery of brown and grey. While Dick was setting the butterfly in his box, Frank leaned against the trunk of an oak-tree, and as he did so he caught sight of a moth which was resting upon it. It was a large thick-bodied moth, and Dick on being appealed to said it must be a buff-tip moth, from the large patches of pale buff colour at the ends of its wings. Frank said,-- "I should not have seen that moth if my face had not almost touched it. Its colour suits the tree-trunk so admirably that it looks just like a piece of the rough bark. I suppose it knows that, and rests on the oak-tree for safety." "Yes," said Dick; "I have read that many moths and butterflies are so like the substances on which they rest by day, that they can scarcely be distinguished from them, and of course there must be a meaning in it. The lappet-moth looks exactly like two or three oak-leaves stuck together, and its wings are folded in a peculiar manner, so as to keep up the delusion. There are caterpillars too which can stiffen themselves and stand out on end, so as to look like sticks." "It is the same with birds'-eggs," said Frank. "Those which are laid on the ground without any attempt at concealment are of such a colour that you can hardly see them. For instance, take a partridge or pheasant. How like their eggs are in colour to the dead leaves of the ditch where they nest. The same with the lapwings, and all the plover tribe. Coots and water-hens' eggs are so like their nests, that at a little distance you cannot tell whether there are eggs in or not." "I wonder," said Dick, "if birds take any pleasure in the prettiness of their eggs. If so (and I don't see why they shouldn't), there is a reason why birds which build in bushes and branches of trees should have pretty coloured eggs, as they have, and why birds which build in dark holes should have white or light-coloured eggs, otherwise they would not see them at all." "That is a very ingenious theory, Dick, and it may have something of truth in it," answered Frank. That night was a still, warm night, and the moths were out in abundance. As soon as it became dark they all went out with a dark lantern to hunt them, and they were very successful. As they were returning home they passed by an old wall covered with huge masses of ivy. Dick going close to it said, "Do look here. There are hundreds of tiny sparkles. What can they be? Why, they are the eyes of moths. The ivy is covered with the moths, feeding on the flowers. Look how their eyes gleam." And truly it was a marvellous sight. When they turned the light of their lantern on them they saw that the moths were busy with a curious silent activity, flying from flower to flower, sipping their sweets. "There are so many that I hardly know how to set about catching them," said Dick. "Many of these must be rare and many common." "Sweep the face of the ivy all over with your net as rapidly as you can, and keep them in your net until we get home, and then we can kill and pick out all that you want," counselled Frank. Dick followed his advice, and with a dozen rapid sweeps of his net he seemed to have filled it. Closing the net by turning the gauze over the ring, they walked quickly back to the boat-house, and carefully closing the door and window, they opened the net and let them all out into the room, and then caught them singly. In a couple of hours they found that they had secured about fifty specimens, comprising twenty different species. During the summer a strange creature which fed on the potato plants had much frightened the country people, who thought it a sign of a coming plague. It was a large caterpillar, of a lemon-yellow colour, with seven slanting violet stripes on each side and a horn on its tail. The people in the neighbourhood of Hickling, knowing that Frank and his companions were fond of collecting such things, brought some to them, and by this means they became possessed of more than thirty specimens. They were the larvæ of the death's-head moth, the largest of all our British moths. It is remarkable not only for its size, but for two other things, each of which is very curious. On its thorax it has a perfect delineation in white of a skull, or death's head, with a pair of cross-bones below it. In addition to this singular mark, it--and it alone of all our moths and butterflies--has the power of making a squeaking noise, which it does when it is touched or annoyed. How it makes this noise no one seems to know. At least there are so many conflicting opinions that the matter may be said to be still in doubt. The boys fed the larvæ on potato-leaves put in a box in which there was placed about six inches of earth. When the larvæ had finished their eating, they dived into this earth and turned into the pupæ state. In the autumn the perfect moths came out, but only about half of the number reached the final stage. The others died in the pupæ state. However, Dick had plenty of specimens for his cabinet and for exchange. CHAPTER XXIX. How to Attract Perch.--Perch-fishing.--Pike.--Good Sport.-- Plaster Casts.--Model Eggs. "I say," said Frank, "you remember when the minnows ran at the caddis-worms in their transparent cases, but could not eat them?" "Yes." "And you know what shoals of perch there are about the broad, and how difficult it is to drop upon them, because the water is so shallow and clear?" "Yes." "Then what would you say to putting a quantity of minnows in glass bottles, and sinking them in the broad, in a good place, for two or three days? I think a lot of perch would collect together and prowl about trying to get at them, and then we could go and catch any quantity of them, live baiting with minnows." This project was agreed to unanimously, and after a day or two, the boys were busily engaged in collecting wide glass bottles, or wide-mouthed jars, and in fishing for minnows, of which they got a considerable number by diverting the current of a brook, and baling the water out of a pool in it. They had managed to obtain about a dozen large glass bottles or jars. They filled these with water and put a number of minnows in each, and then corked them up, making holes through the corks to admit fresh water and air to the prisoners. These bottles and jars were conveyed to a spot where perch were in the habit of congregating,--near an island of reeds, where the water was about five feet deep, with a fine gravelly bottom such as perch delight in. The large shoals of perch which roamed about the broad were very often to be met with here, and it was a favourite fishing place of the boys. One Friday night they took the yacht to this spot and moored her there in a convenient position, sinking the bottles and jars from six to twelve feet distance from her, so as just to be within easy reach of their rods. Leaving the yacht there they rowed back in the punt. The yacht was pleasanter to fish from than a small boat, and they took her there overnight to avoid making a disturbance in the morning. On the Saturday morning they rowed to the spot in the punt, armed with their rods and bait-cans filled with minnows. Getting quietly on board the yacht, so as to avoid any concussion of the water, they peered into the clear depths. Two of the jars were easily to be seen, and round each of them was a circle of perch, or rather several circles, for next to the jar were some very large ones with their noses placed against the glass. Behind these large perch were others, in circles of gradually lessening size, until they came to the very small ones, which were there, not so much attracted by the minnows as hanging on of necessity to the tails of their elders. The boys laughed quietly to each other at the success of their experiment. They had certainly succeeded in drawing the fish together. Dick was the first ready. He had baited his hook with a live minnow, the hook being run through the skin of its back near the back-fin. As the minnow sank through the water, and before the float touched the surface, there was a general rush of the perch up towards it. Dick pulled his bait out of the way of some small ones which were rushing at it, and then the largest of the shoal, a patriarch of about four pounds in weight, came hurtling at it, dashing the others to right and left of him. The poor minnow made a futile attempt to escape the wide open jaws, but it was of no use, and they closed upon it and the hook together. Dick struck and hooked the perch, which immediately made a spirited rush straight away. On being hooked it had blown the minnow out of its mouth, and it was eagerly snapped up by another perch. Dick's perch fought very gamely, and Frank and Jimmy forbore to put their lines in until it was secured, for fear of fouling. After a very sharp struggle Dick drew the perch within reach of a landing-net, which Frank slipped under it and lifted it out. It was a beauty, in splendid condition, its black bars being strongly marked across its golden scales. [Illustration: PERCH AND GUDGEON.] Frank and Jimmy now put their lines in, while Dick was rebaiting. In less time than you can say "Jack Robinson" they each had a fish on, both of them good ones. And now the sport was fast and furious. As fast as they put in they had a bite, the perch even following their struggling companions to the top of the water as they were being drawn out. The very large ones soon grew wary, but the smaller ones, fellows of about half to three-quarters of a pound, seemed not to have the slightest shyness, and rushed to their fate with the greatest eagerness. The floats lay for a very short time on the water before they went under with that quick dash which characterizes a perch's bite. "Here's a gudgeon in the bait-can," said Jimmy. "I will put it on my hook and try for a big one. It may be tempting." He did so and threw it in. Immediately the float went under water with such swiftness that he knew he had hold of a big one and he struck, to find his rod bending double and his line running rapidly off the reel with the rush of a large fish. "You have got a big one," said Frank. "Let him have line." Jimmy did so, until the line was nearly off the reel, and then he was compelled to give him the butt. The line stood the strain, and the fish was turned and came back slowly and sullenly, while Jimmy wound in his line. The fish allowed himself to be drawn up close to the yacht, and they saw it was a large pike, and then it went off again. This time the rush was not so long or strong, and after two or three rushes of lessening power, the pike was drawn within reach. Frank unscrewed the net and fixed the gaff-head on the stick, hooked Mr. Pike through, and hauled him in. It weighed nine pounds. Jimmy was proud of having conquered it with a light rod and line not very well adapted for pike-fishing. [Illustration: PIKE.] Towards noon the wind began to rise, and as the clearness of the water was then destroyed by the ripple, the big perch lost their caution in consequence. The small ones now left off biting, possibly beginning to see that it was not a profitable occupation. Presently the sport altogether grew slack, and as it was then three o'clock, and the boys had been too busy to eat anything, they left off for lunch. After lunch Frank said,-- "I am sated with slaughter; and as there is such a nice breeze, let us sail about the broad." "Frank would give up anything for sailing," said Dick laughing, as he put away his tackle. I forget how many fish they really got that day, but I know that both number and weight were very great indeed. They took up the jars and bottles the next morning when the water was clear and still, and released the prisoners which had done them such good service. It was worth while preserving a memento of a four-pound perch, and as it was a pity to spoil it for eating by skinning, it was resolved to make a plaster-cast of it, and this was done in the following manner:-- They bought some plaster-of-paris and mixed it with water until it became a thin paste. This they poured into a box, and when it began to set they laid the fish on its side in it, so that exactly one half of it was covered by the plaster. The fish had first been well oiled, so that the scales should not adhere to the mould. When the plaster was set and hard the fish was taken carefully out. Several holes about an inch deep were then bored in the plaster round the imprint of the fish. The plaster-cast was then well oiled, the fish laid in it, and more plaster poured in, until the fish was covered. When this in its turn had become hard it was taken off, and both sides of the fish were now represented in the mould. The holes which had been bored in the first mould, now had corresponding projections in the second mould. This was to insure accuracy of fit when the pieces were put together for the final cast. A hole was then bored through one side of the mould. The interior of it was well oiled, the pieces fitted together, and liquid plaster poured in through the hole. In a couple of hours the moulds were separated, and a perfect cast of the fish was the result. This Mary painted in water-colour to imitate the natural fish, and the final result was very creditable to all concerned. While upon the subject of plaster casts, I must mention an occupation which the boys resorted to in the winter-time. Their collection of birds' eggs was almost as perfect as they could hope to make it for many years to come, but at Frank's suggestion they added to it, for additional perfection, a representation of the egg of every British bird. They made these eggs of plaster and coloured them very carefully, and varnished them with white of egg. These artificial eggs could not have been distinguished from real ones as they lay in the cabinet, but each egg was marked with a label, signifying that it was only a model. I recommend this plan to all students of ornithology. CHAPTER XXX. Eel-fishing.--Setting the Nets.--Elvers.--The Merivale Float. One autumn day, when the ground was red with fallen leaves and the landscape was sodden with wet, the boys were busy in the boat-house with some of their numerous occupations, when the conversation turned upon eels and eel-fishing,--how that eels bred in the sea, and in the spring myriads of tiny eels came up the rivers; when the river was wide, ascending it in two columns, one by each bank, so thick together that you might scoop them out in bucketfuls,--and how, when they met with any obstruction, such as a weir or flood-gate, they will wriggle themselves over it; and it often happens that where it is dry they stick fast to it, and their companions make their way over them, and leave them to perish. In the autumn, too, the eels migrate to the sea in vast numbers, and are caught by means of nets placed across the river. Jimmy said,-- "I say, Frank, do you remember all those eel-nets we saw by Horning? They will be in full work now. I vote we sail down next Friday night and see them in operation." "Very well," said Frank, "I don't think we could do better. We will get a half-holiday on Friday, so as to be there in good time." Friday was wet and stormy, and the boys consulted as to the advisability of going. Frank said,-- "Let us go, as we have fixed to go. It may clear up, and if it does not, it doesn't much matter. We are used to getting wet, and it won't hurt us." The others agreed; so taking in all the reefs in their sails, they started across the broad, while the wind howled, and the rain beat with blinding force against their faces. The sky was murky with driving masses of black cloud, and the lake was lashed into angry waves. "This is a nice sort of day for a pleasure excursion," said Dick, as he placed his hat more firmly upon his head and turned his back to the wind. "Yes," said Frank. "Do you go into the cabin. I can manage the tiller and mizen, and Jimmy will take his turn at the main-sheet, and then you can have a spell by and by." "Oh no, I am not going to shirk it," replied Dick. They struggled across the broad, and into the Hundred Stream, and before very long they reached its junction with the Bure, and brought up under the lee of a sort of rough cabin which was built there. There was a bare spot among the reeds and there, upon a wooden framework, hung the eel-nets, which two or three men were busy putting in order. When the yacht was made snug, Frank went up to them and said,-- "We have come, hoping you will let us see how the eel-nets are worked; but I am afraid we have chosen a very bad night." "No, you have come the very best night you could have picked, sir," answered one of the men. "There is no moon, and the water is rising. The eels always run more freely when the night is dark and stormy." "Oh, then we are in luck's way after all," said Frank to his companions. "We shall be setting the nets directly, sir, and you had better come with us in your punt." "All right, we will." The eel-nets were like huge bags, large at one end, and narrowing rapidly. The mesh at the large end was about two inches in diameter, but it quickly lessened until it was so small that a minnow could not have got through it. The mouth of the net was made sufficiently wide to stretch across the river, and, in order to keep the body of it distended, wooden hoops were placed at intervals down it. To each hoop inside the net was attached an inner circle of net, which narrowed to a small opening, like the principle on which some mouse-traps are constructed, so that the eels having passed through the narrow inlet could not find the way back again. The end portion of the net, comprising the last four hoops, is made in a separate piece or pocket, and is only fastened to the net when it is fishing. The juncture is marked with a rope and buoy. The men now fastened a heavy chain along one half of the lower side of the mouth of the net. This was the side which was to lie along the bottom of the river, and the chain was to keep it down. The net was now taken on board the boat, and the men rowed a little way down the river, followed by the crew of the _Swan_. The net was put out so that the base rested on the bottom. Heavy weights were fixed at the two bottom corners of the net, and the two top corners were tied to posts fixed by the side of the river. The men now sounded with a pole, to see that the chain lay across along the bottom. While they did so the boat heeled over so much that Dick said,-- "Another inch and the stream would be over the gunwale, and those fellows would be pitched into the net and drowned." The net was now pulled out far down the river, and the pocket tied on, and then it was left to itself. "Don't the wherries ever do any damage to the nets?" asked Jimmy. "Sometimes, sir; but they know where they are set, and they takes care where they put their quants if they be quanting; and if they be sailing they pass over the nets without doing them any harm." After this they set another net lower down, and then they returned to the hut, and, sitting by the peat fire, they had some hot tea, and waited for an hour, knowing that the eels were rushing down stream, and into the nets. The wind howled dismally over the marshes, and the rain hissed on the water. "It's lonesome work, sir," said one of the men to Frank, who had drawn nearer the fire with a shudder. "Yes; does it pay?" "Pretty well at times, sir. This is what we should call a very fine night for our work, as the eels run so much better than they do on a calm night. It will make some pounds difference to us." "What do you do with the eels?" "Some we sells at Norwich and Yarmouth, but the most part goes to London or Birmingham. The Black Country men are very fond of a nice rich eel; but come, sir, it is time to take up the first net now." They went down the black river again, until they came to the buoy which marked the pocket, or "cod," as it is technically termed, of the net. This was hauled up and detached from the rest of the net. It was very heavy and full of eels, which were wriggling about in a black slimy mass. They put the mouth of the cod over a basket which was smaller at the top than at the bottom, so that the eels could not crawl out, and poured them into it. There were about thirty pounds weight of eels, the major part being about a pound weight each, but some were two or three pounds in weight. The cod was then tied on to the net again and lowered, and the next net was visited in the same way, and found to contain about the same quantity of eels. The nets were first laid about seven o'clock, and first taken up about eight, and at intervals of an hour through the night the nets were visited, and about the same quantity of eels taken from them each time. This lasted up to half-past one o'clock, and then there was a great falling off. "They have pretty well stopped coming down now, sir. We can leave the nets and go and have some sleep. The nets will hold all the eels which will get into them by the morning." "Did you ever meet with any accident while eel-fishing?" asked Dick. "I have only seen one, sir; but that was a bad one. It was the year before last, and my mate had had a drop too much, and he overbalanced himself and fell overboard into the net, and the stream carried him down it before I could catch hold of him. There was no one to help me, and before I could get the heavy net ashore he was dead. It was a fearful thing, and I have thought of it many a time since. I used to be fond of a glass myself at that time, but I have never touched a drop since." "Did you ever see the little eels coming up the river in the spring?" asked Jimmy, to change the subject. "Oh, you mean the elvers. Ay, and more's the pity! the people catch tons of them to feed the pigs with. If they would let them alone, they would be worth a good many pounds to some one in the autumn," answered the man. [Illustration: EELS.] "If the eels breed in the sea, Frank," said Dick, "what do the eels do which cannot get to the sea,--those which live in ponds?" "Make the best of it, I suppose, like sensible beings," answered Frank. "Do you often have such a good night as this?" asked Jimmy. "No, not very often. You see, we want so many things together--wind, rain, rising water, and no moon." After the morning dawned the nets were taken up for the day. Besides eels they contained a quantity of miscellaneous matter, such as a dead dog, sticks, weeds, old boots, a bottle or two, and various other refuse which the stream had brought down. The eels had been put overnight in the well of the boat, and now the men proceeded to sort them, separating the big ones (for which they received a larger price) from the small ones. In order to do this they constantly dipped their hands in sand, for the eels were slippery customers. The rain had ceased, but the day was dull and dreary, and the _Swan_ sailed home early, her crew satisfied with the glimpse they had had of how eels were caught for profit. In the afternoon they sailed about the broad in order to try a new float which Frank had invented for pike-fishing. They had been accustomed to trail their spinning baits after the yacht as they sailed about, but the wake left by the yacht generally disturbed the fish, so that they had to let out a very long line before they could catch anything, and the line then became fouled in the weeds. Now Frank had invented a float which did away with this drawback. You may have noticed how, when towing a boat with the tow-rope fastened a few feet from the bows, she will sheer out from you. It occurred to Frank to adapt the same principle to a float, so he cut a piece of deal a quarter of an inch thick, eight inches long, and four wide, pointed at both ends. To one side of this he attached a keel four inches deep, leaded along the bottom. This side was painted green, and the other white. To a point about one-third of the way from one end of this float was attached a rough line. To the other was fastened a shorter length of line with a spinning trace attached. When this float was laid in the water with the keel side undermost, and set in motion, it sheered out, and as the yacht sailed along and the reel line was payed out, the float swam along in a parallel course with the yacht, and as far out as they chose to let out line. It then passed over undisturbed water, and a great change was soon observed in the increased number of pike taken by the help of this float. They christened it the "Merivale float," and they were so pleased with its success as to have a dim idea of taking out a patent for it. CHAPTER XXXI. Hawking. The training of the hawks was a source of great amusement to the boys. They obtained Stonehenge's _British Rural Sports_ from Sir Richard Carleton's library, and studied the article on hawking. They found a sparrow-hawk was called a short-winged hawk, because its wings do not reach so far as the end of its tail, while a kestrel is a long-winged hawk, its wings reaching as far as the end of its tail. As a general rule, long-winged hawks are much better than short-winged ones for hawking purposes, but the sparrow-hawk is braver and better than the kestrel. Their hawks being from the nest, and not caught by a trap, were _eyasses_. Before they could fly they were _branchers_, and being reared at liberty they were _hack-hawks_. The training of a hawk is called its _reclaiming_, Fig. 3 _a_ and _b_, when it sleeps it _jouks_, its prey is its _quarry_, when it strikes it is said to _bind_. When it soars and then descends upon its quarry it _swoops_, when it flies straight after it it _rakes_. It is sent off by a _whistle_, and brought back by a _lure_. These are only a few of the technical terms peculiar to hawking. The hood, Fig. 1 and 2, which one sees so conspicuously on the heads of hawks in pictures of the sport in the olden time is not necessary in the case of the short-winged hawks, and the great object was to make the hawks as tame as possible. This the boys accomplished by continually handling them and being with them, especially at feeding-time. Around each foot of the bird they tied a soft strap of leather to correspond to a _jesse_, Fig. 4 _a b_. To these were attached some little bells _e e_, which they took off some children's toys. The jesses had also a loop _b_, to which was fastened when required a _leash_, Fig. 5, or long cord, which prevented the birds from flying away while training. They had perches with cross-bars made for the hawks, and set up at one end of the boat-house, and underneath it a tray containing a quantity of sand and a bowl of water. In a couple of months the hawks were quite tame, and then the boys proceeded to train them for sport. Every time they were fed the meat was attached to a lure, Fig. 6, which was a lump of cork with a bunch of cock's feathers attached to it. This was thrown up into the air at gradually increasing distances, and at the same time one of the boys, having the hawk ready perched on his wrist (which was protected by strong gloves such as hedgers and ditchers use), let her loose with a shrill whistle, and she was allowed to fly the length of her leash and seize the lure and the food. In a remarkably short time the birds would not only fly to the lure with alacrity, but wait until the boys came up and took them away again. When they had attained this pitch of perfection the rest was easy, and the leash was dispensed with. Then a dead bird or rabbit was fixed to the lure, and at last, one fine October day, it was resolved to try the hawks at real game. [Illustration: APPARATUS USED IN HAWKING.] "What shall we try them at first?" said Dick. "I was thinking that the best way would be to take the yacht and coast about the reeds, and try them first at the water-hens and coots. I am so afraid of someone shooting them if we take them into the meadows. If we cannot manage them with the yacht on the water, we will take them on the drained marshes," answered Frank. "I hope they will not disappoint us," said Jimmy, "for they have given us a great deal of trouble to train." "They have had very little to eat this morning, so I think they will fly at anything we show them, but it will be a sell if we lose them the very first try." There was just a light breeze on the broad, which enabled them to sail quietly about. Frank took the helm, for sailing was to him the greatest of all enjoyments, and Dick and Jimmy stood in the bows, Dick with a hawk on his wrist, ready to be flown as soon as they caught sight of anything worth flying at. Frank steered the _Swan_ so that she just brushed along the reeds, which were brown and dry, and had thinned fast under the keen October breezes. "There is a water-hen in the reeds, just before us," said Jimmy. "Drive the yacht a little further in." Frank did so, and the water-hen flew out over the broad, her legs dipping in the water. "Let her have a little law," cried Frank. "Now then!" With a loud whistle Dick let the hawk slip. She rose rapidly in the air, over the water-hen, and then swooped. The water-hen instantly dived. The disappointed hawk curved up again, just touching the surface of the water with her breast. She rose about twenty feet in the air and swooped around in small circles, her head turning this side and that, watching for her quarry. The course of the water-hen under water was marked by a line of bubbles, and Frank kept close behind her, letting the wind out of his sails in order not to overtake her and so cause her to double back. Soon she rose again to the surface, but ere the hawk, quick as she was, could reach her, she had dived again. In this manner, the water-hen rising to the surface to breathe and the hawk swooping unsuccessfully, they ran across the broad to a reed-bed, where the pursued bird remained under water so long that they knew she was holding on to the weed by her claws, with only her beak above water, as is the habit of these birds. After a little searching about they saw her yellow beak protruding above a mass of weeds. Seeing that she was discovered, she flew up uttering a despairing croak. Down came the sparrow-hawk with lightning swiftness, and struck her in the air, and they both fell into the reeds. The boys forced their way to them and the hawk allowed Dick to approach and take her in his hand. He cut off the head of the water-hen, and gave it to her to eat in the cabin, while they brought the other hawk for the next flight. "Well," said Frank, "that was as successful a flight as we could desire. There goes a water-rail. Let the hawk go." With a sharp scream the hawk dashed off in pursuit of it, and without troubling itself to soar, it struck the water-rail, and, bearing it away in its talons, it flew off to a dyke where a wherry was moored, her crew having gone ashore, and perched on the top of the mast, where it began to pick at and tear the bird. "What's to be done now?" said Jimmy. "We must try the lure," answered Frank, and taking it up he whistled and threw it in the air. The hawk dropped the water-rail and flew down to the lure and suffered herself to be taken. As a reward, she was allowed to have its head, and the other hawk was again taken out. "There is a coot swimming along yonder. Let her fly at it," cried Jimmy. As the hawk launched into the air, however, a sandpiper flew out from among the reeds, and the hawk instantly followed it. It was a very pretty sight to see the twistings and turnings of the two birds as they dashed across the broad with equal speed. Frank took a pull at the sheet so as to catch the wind, and followed them as fast as he could. The hawk had risen above the sandpiper, and was about to swoop down upon it, when the latter, to the surprise of the boys, dashed into the water and dived. "Only fancy a bird with no webs to its feet diving," said Frank. The sandpiper remained under water some time, and when it arose, which it did with great apparent ease, the sail of the yacht hid it from the hawk's sight, and it flew away unmolested. As they sailed along on the look-out for other prey, the hawk hung in the air above them, and followed, or, as it is technically called, "waited on," them in the most beautiful manner. The birds on the broad now seemed to be aware that a hawk was about, and kept close to the shelter of the reeds, so that the broad seemed quite deserted. At last, however, a coot swam out, and the hawk made a feint at it but did not strike it, and the coot swam coolly away. "Why the hawk is a coward," said Jimmy. "No, she is only cautious. You see, if she were to strike it on the water it would dive, and as it is a strong bird it would carry her under. That is the difficulty we shall meet with if we hawk on the water," said Frank, "and if we go on the land someone is sure to shoot the hawks." They called the hawk in by means of the lure, and sailed up a dyke, meaning to land and try the marshes and the low drained ground in their vicinity. They landed, and, Dick taking one hawk and Frank the other, they proceeded along a narrow drain in the hope of flushing some more water-hens. "Quick," cried Frank, "and crouch down behind these reeds. I can see a couple of wild-ducks coming towards us." They threw themselves on the ground, and soon the whirring of wings in the air told them that the ducks were coming straight towards them. On they came, within ten feet of the ground, and when they perceived the boys they turned off at a tangent with a loud quack. Both hawks were let go, and rising well in the air, one of them made a swoop on the hindmost duck and struck it, but did not lay hold. The duck swerved under the blow, but held on its course. Then while the one hawk mounted, the other, in its turn, swooped and struck the duck, so that it fell nearly to the ground. The boys ran along after the hawks and their quarry, and shouted to encourage the former. Then both hawks made a simultaneous swoop, and struck the duck to the ground. As the hawks were taken from the duck, they showed some impatience and signs of anger, so Frank said,-- "I say, they have done enough for to-day. We had better feed them, and tie them up." They accordingly gave them the head of the duck and the entrails of all the birds they had killed, and put them in the cabin, and then commenced to fish for pike. In the course of the day they caught seven, none of them over six pounds in weight; and then, when the western sky was agleam with the pink and green of sunset, they ran the yacht into the reeds while they put up their tackle. The wind had fallen to the faintest of zephyrs, which was only indicated by sudden shoots of light across the broad. The air was still, with a mellow October stillness, and flocks of starlings were wheeling in the air with unbroken regularity of rank and file, now on edge and nearly invisible; and then broadside on, and seeming as if suddenly nearer; and then settling in the reeds, where during the night they roost in vast numbers. The boys stood there talking until the gloaming was spreading rapidly over the broad, and then they made preparations for going. They had not secured the hawks, and the cabin-door had swung open. "There goes one of our hawks," cried Jimmy, as it floated out with a triumphant scream over the marsh. "Quick! get out the lure!" said Frank. But the lure was not needed. A twittering commenced among the reeds, and grew louder and more clamorous; and soon, with a noise like thunder, a crowd of starlings rose from their resting-places, and after a preliminary circle in the air they closed upon the hawk and began to mob her, screaming the while most vociferously. The hawk struck three of them down in succession, but her assailants were too many for her, and she turned tail and flew back to the yacht, where she allowed Frank to capture her, while the starlings whirled away and settled in the reeds once more. As they sailed back, Frank said,-- "Now that our hawks are trained so beautifully we shall have good sport with them." But he was doomed to be disappointed. Two days after they took them into the open country, and a rabbit darting out of a tuft of grass, they flew one of the hawks at it. It struck the rabbit, and clung to it while it ran into its burrow, and the noble bird was killed by the shock. The boys were very much grieved at this, and resolved not to fly the other hawk at four-footed game. While they were crossing Sir Richard Carleton's land they flushed a solitary partridge, which appeared to have been wounded, and flew slowly. It had doubtless been left behind by its more active companions. They let the hawk fly, and it followed the partridge around the corner of a plantation. The report of a gun followed, and, running up, they found their worst apprehensions realized. The hawk had been shot dead by one of two gentlemen, who, with a couple of dogs, were out shooting. They were guests of Sir Richard's, and when they found the hawk was a tame one they were very profuse in their apologies. The boys did not care to make very civil replies, but walked quietly and sadly away. Their cup of bitterness was for the time full. "So ends our hawking," said Frank as they separated. "Yes; this is the unluckiest day we have had yet," answered Jimmy. CHAPTER XXXII. Heron-hawking.--Great Bustard.--Stock-dove in Rabbit-hole.-- "Dowe" Dogs.--Search for Bustards' Eggs. The boys were to see a little more hawking. One of the gentlemen who shot their hawk was kind enough to give them an invitation to spend a few days at his house near Thetford, with the promise that he would show them some hawking carried on in the good old fashion, and with splendid hawks brought from Iceland. A neighbour of his cultivated hawking, and spared no expense in the noble pastime. The boys debated some time whether they should accept this invitation or not. Frank was still sore about the loss of his hawks, and hardly cared to see others more successful than himself, but Dick said,-- "Don't be selfish, Frank. When you see the sport you will forget all about our loss; and besides, the invitation is meant kindly, and we ought not to refuse it out of pique." Frank saw the wisdom of this, and so one fine November day they found themselves in company with their host, walking across the immense tract of common, or warren, which lies between Thetford and Brandon. They were on their way to "the meet." On a knoll where a single fir-tree raised its red stem in the wintry sunlight were assembled a number of ladies and gentlemen, some on horseback, and some on foot. Two men came up bearing square frames, on which were the hawks, large falcons, which had been brought at great expense from Holland and Iceland. They were hooded, and the hoods were gaily decorated with tassels and feathers. "What are they going to fly the hawks at?" asked Dick. "They won't waste the energy of such magnificent birds as those on rabbits and plovers, and I see nothing else about." "They expect some herons will pass over on their way from their feeding-grounds to the heronry," said Frank. [Illustration: COMMON HERON.] Presently the company moved forwards, as a speck on the distant horizon told of the probable approach of their quarry. As it came nearer it proved to be a heron, and its flight was directed straight towards them, and at no great distance from the ground. When the advancing bird came within one hundred yards of the group, it seemed to think there might be some danger awaiting it, and it swerved aside continuing its course so as to pass them on one side. Two of the hawks were unhooded, and the noble birds, catching sight of their quarry, launched into the air in pursuit of it. When the heron saw the hawks it uttered a cry, and immediately rose in the air and soared to a great height. The meaning of this was apparent when the hawks, instead of attacking it on a level with themselves, circled up with great swiftness, and tried to rise above the heron, so that they might swoop down upon it. The heron rose with outstretched neck, and wings which moved with great swiftness, in spite of their size; but the hawks still soared and soared in wide circles, and the party below rode and ran keeping as nearly as possible under the birds. The hawks had now risen above the heron, but still they went on circling higher and higher, until they were mere specks in the sky. Then they suddenly grew large as they swooped down, and the heron gave another cry, and half turned on his back as they struck him almost simultaneously, and hawks and heron fluttered down a struggling mass to the ground. The hawks were taken off and hooded, and after a short interval another heron came in sight, and the other two hawks were flown at it. When the sport was over, Frank got hold of one of the warreners who had come to see it and asked him if he had ever seen any great bustards about the warren, or the adjacent fens. "Oh, ay, sir, when I was a lad many and many a one have I seen, but now I have not seen one for more than three years. They be almost killed out of the land now. One is to be seen every two or three years, but it is always shot or trapped." "What sort of a bird is a great bustard?" asked Dick. "It is a game bird as large as a full-sized turkey, and far better eating. There used to be droves of them on the fens and the warrens, but they were shot and trapped right and left. I mind when I was a boy I have seen as many as twenty together on a warren, and then the warreners used to set a battery of guns, and have a long string fastened to all the triggers. Maybe the string was half a mile long, and then the men at work on the warrens, or the marshes, had orders to pull the string when they saw the bustards within reach of the guns. They used to stalk them by walking on the off-side of a horse, and, keeping it between them and the bustards, walk round and round until they came within shot." The warrener was a very intelligent man, and he told them much about the habits of this noble bird, which is now nearly extinct in England. "Have you ever found its nest?" asked Jimmy. "Yes, when I was a lad I found two or three. The eggs were good eating, so we took them, and as they were big eggs and laid on the ground, it was easy enough to find their nests if you knew where to look." "I suppose you haven't got any of their eggs now?" said Frank. "No, sir, I haven't; but I have a notion that two or three years ago I saw two or three of their eggs in a cottage somewhere over yonder." [Illustration: GREAT BUSTARD.] He pointed to the western sky, but to the boys' eyes no cottages were visible; and upon their asking him for further information, he told them that beyond a ridge of trees which crested a warren were some half-dozen cottages, and he thought it was in one of those that he had seen bustards' eggs, but he was not at all sure. "What is the meaning of this?" asked Dick, pointing to the mouth of a rabbit-hole which was barred in with sticks like a cage. Inside the sticks were the feathers and part of the skeleton of a stock-dove. The warrener replied,-- "The doves breed in the rabbit-holes, and we warreners keep a 'dowe' dog, which will tell us at once what holes have nests in them; and then, when the young ones are almost ready to fly, we fasten them in the burrow with sticks, just like that, and the old ones feed the young ones through the bars, and when the young ones are fit to eat we kill them. I suppose the man who fastened that burrow in forgot where it was, or the young one died before it was worth eating." [Illustration: DOVES.] The boys now had to go back with their host, who, by the way, made them so comfortable that they forgave him for shooting their hawk. The next day found the boys approaching the cottages where the warrener told them the bustards' eggs might be found. "Now," said Frank, as they stopped under the lee of the wood, "let us have a consultation. How had we better go to work? If we show them that we have come specially for the eggs they will ask too great a price for them. I vote we go and ask for a drink of water, and then praise the children, if any, and so get into conversation; and then ask in an incidental way about the bustards." This seemed the proper way of going to work, so they appointed Frank spokesman, and then marched up to the nearest cottage. A woman opened the door to them, and peeping in, they saw behind her half-a-dozen children, all young. "Can you give us a drink of water, ma'am?" said Frank, in his politest tone. "Oh yes, sir," answered the woman with a curtsey. "Won't you step indoors. But wouldn't you like a cup of milk better than water?" "Thank you, very much," replied Frank. "But what nice little children you have got," and he patted one on the head. "Lovely," said Jimmy enthusiastically, and picking out the cleanest he kissed it. "Well, sir," answered the woman with a smile, "they be as healthy as most, and as fine I dare say, but they are a great deal of trouble." "Ah, I have no doubt they are," replied Frank sympathizingly; and as he spoke his eyes were wandering about, looking at the ornaments on the chimney-piece to see if any eggs were there; but nothing of the kind was to be seen. "This is a fine open country, ma'am." "It is that, sir," she said. "And plenty of rabbits and plovers about." "There are that, sir." "Have you ever seen any bustards about?" "No, I have heard tell of them, but it was before my time." "And I suppose you have never seen any nests or eggs?" "No, sir, never; but my little boy has some throstle's eggs, if so be as you would like to have them." "No, thank you," said Frank; and thanking her for the milk, and bestowing a small coin on one of the children, the boys made their exit. "It is your turn to do the next kissing, Dick," said Jimmy. "All right," replied Dick cheerfully. The cottages lay at some little distance apart, and they visited them all in turn, but with the like ill success. Then, as they were thinking of giving it up as a bad job, they espied another small cottage in a little hollow, by a well. "Let us try this, for the last one," said Frank. "Very well," said Jimmy "but pray, don't ask for any more to drink. I have the best intentions in the world, but I really cannot find room for any more." Beside the cottage was a silvery-haired old man, mending a broken paling. Frank went straight at it this time. "Good morning." "Good morning, sir," replied the man, touching his hat. "Have you ever seen any bustards' eggs?" "Yes, sir, I have two in the house. Would you like to see them?" "We should." "Then step in, sirs. I can give 'ee a glass of good nettle beer." Jimmy groaned inwardly at the mention of the beer, but the sight of the eggs upheld him. "Here they be, sir," said the old man, taking down two brown eggs with rusty spots on them, off the chimney-piece. "I took them myself out of the nest in yon fen when I was a lad." "Will you sell them?" "Ay, sure. It be a wonder how they come not to be broken, for I have taken no particular heed of them." "What will you take for them?" "What you likes to give, sir." "I would rather you would fix your own price." "Well, then, if you give me a shilling, I shall be fain." "No, no, they are worth more than a shilling. We cannot afford to give you what you would get in London for them, and it is only fair to tell you so, but we will give you half-a-crown apiece for them." "I shall be very glad to have that much for them, sir, if you think they are worth it to you." So the bargain was concluded, and the boys became the happy possessors of these rare eggs. I have just been reading, in the _Field_ a very interesting account of the appearance of a great bustard in Norfolk. A gentleman there was told by one of his men that he had seen a "wonderful cur'us bird like a pelican," in a wild part of the fen. The gentleman at once went to look at it, and being a naturalist, he was much delighted to find that it was a bustard, and observation through a telescope told him that it was a cock bird. He gave strict orders that it was not to be shot, and that any prowling gunner found on his land was to be consigned without ceremony to the bottom of the nearest dyke. Then he sent for well-known naturalists from Cambridge and elsewhere, to come and watch the motions of the bird. It was feeding in a lonely part of the fen, in a patch of cole seed, and, each man being armed with a telescope of some sort or other, they had good views of it, both flying and walking. The news soon spread among the naturalists of the county, and one of them, who had some tame bustards in confinement, generously offered to give one of them to be let loose to pair with the wild cock. A female bustard was accordingly turned out into the fen as near to the wild bird as they dared to venture without frightening him away, and after a short time, they had the pleasure of seeing the two walking about together. In a day or two more the hen was found dead in a dyke. Her wings having been clipped she could not fly far enough. Another female was procured, but while seeking for an opportunity of turning it out where the wild one could see it, the wild one flew away. It was heard of afterwards in a different part of the county, and it does not appear yet to have been killed, and the landowners have given orders that it shall not be destroyed. I am looking forward with interest for further accounts of it. CHAPTER XXXIII. Water-hen Swallowed by Pike.--Casting Net.-- Trapping Water-hen for Bait.--A Monster Pike. Frank and Jimmy were punting through one of the reedy pools adjoining the broad, shooting wild-fowl, and had not been very successful, so they were disposed to shoot coots and water-hens, as well as ducks. They saw a water-hen swimming across a small pool into which they had just pushed their way, and Jimmy raised his gun to fire at it, but before he could pull the trigger there was an immense splash and swirl in the water, and the water-hen disappeared down the jaws of an immense pike. The boys stared in amazement. "That fellow must have been forty pounds in weight at the least," said Frank, as soon as he had recovered himself. "Let us row home at once and get our tackle, and fish for him." They rowed quickly back, and upon reaching the boat-house they found that Dick was there, and had just put the finishing touch to a casting net which they had been occupied in making for some time. "Bravo! that is capital!" said Frank. "We can now catch some bait with it." Before casting the net into the water they practised some time with it, for it is very difficult to throw a casting-net properly. After a little practice the boys were able to throw the net so that it described something like a circle on the ground, and then they took it to the shallow parts of the broad, and in a dozen throws they obtained a quantity of small roach and bream, as well as some large ones. Putting some of the roach into a bait-can, they rowed to the pool where the big pike lay, and first of all tried him with a live bait. But the float was undisturbed, save by the movements of the bait. Then they tried trolling with a dead gorge-bait, then spinning, and then a spoon, but with the like ill success. "I tell you what," said Frank, at length, "a big fish like that requires something out of the common to induce him to bite. Let us put a big bream on, and try and tempt him by size." So they put a bream a pound and a half in weight on the gorge-hook, and worked the heavy bait up and down every part of the pool, but still without success, and the autumn night came on and put a stop to their fishing. "We must catch him somehow," said Frank. "Let us set trimmers for him," suggested Jimmy in despair. "No, no; we will catch him by fair means if we can." The big pike, the biggest which they had ever seen, occupied their thoughts all that evening. As Frank was dressing the next morning a happy thought occurred to him, and when he met his friends after breakfast he said,-- "I have got an idea how we may catch that pike. You remember how he took the water-hen under? He decidedly prefers flesh to fish. What do you say to catching a water-hen and baiting our hook with it?" "The very thing," said Jimmy. "But how are we to catch the water-hen?" asked Dick. "I don't quite know. We must get it alive, you see." They talked it over, but could not hit upon any plan of capturing one alive, so at luncheon-time they went to Bell, and asked him if he could help them. "Well, sirs, the water-hens come to my back garden to feed with the hens and sparrows. If you could lay some sort of a trap for them like a riddle-trap for sparrows it would be an easy matter to entice one into it." "The very thing," said Jimmy. "We will put the casting-net round a wooden hoop and prop it up on a stick, and put bread-crumbs under it." So the casting-net was called into requisition, and a trap was constructed, and set in Bell's back yard, which was close to a dyke leading to the broad. The boys hid themselves in an outhouse, having a long string fastened to the stick which supported the net at an angle of forty degrees. First the hens came under it and then the sparrows, and the two began to eat up all the bread put there. At last a water-hen was seen swimming across the dyke, and with slow and cautious steps creeping up the bank towards the net. Frank took the end of the string in his hand, and peeped cautiously through a chink in the door while the others looked through a little window. The water-hen fed for some time on the outskirts of the throng of hens and sparrows, and at last ventured within the circle of the net. "Now," said Dick. "No, wait until it is further under," said Jimmy. Frank waited until the bird was fairly under the net, and then pulled the string. The trap descended upon three hens, half-a-dozen sparrows, and the water-hen. "Hurrah!" cried the boys, rushing out. It was a matter of some difficulty to secure the bird they wanted from among the struggling mass of hens and sparrows, but they did so at last without hurting any of the others, and at once pinioned it by cutting off its wing feathers. The next morning as soon as it was light they rowed to the place where the big pike lay. Everything was very still and quiet, and shrouded in a light grey mist, as they pushed their way along a narrow channel to the pool. They had brought with them their strongest rod and their stoutest line, and they carefully tried every knot and fastening of their tackle before commencing to fish. The next most important thing was to bait the water-hen or arm her with hooks properly. This was done by tying a number of hooks lightly to her with thread, and ruffling the feathers so as to conceal them. "Poor thing," said Dick, as Frank took up the rod and swung her into the pool. By keeping a slight pull on the line the bird was induced to turn in the opposite direction, and to swim towards the middle of the pool. "Another minute or two will show if our plan is successful," said Frank, "and if not, the bird shall be let loose." "I don't feel much faith in it now," said Jimmy. When the bird reached the centre of the pool she dived. "Oh dear, I did not expect that," said Frank. "What shall we do now?" "She must come up again presently. The pool is twelve feet deep, and she cannot cling to the bottom." "I felt her give such a pull just now. She is struggling hard to escape," said Frank, who was still letting out line. Two or three minutes passed away, and still the bird did not make her appearance. "Pull in the line a bit, Frank." Frank did so, and said,-- "She must be clinging to the bottom. I cannot move her," and he pulled a little harder. "I say," he cried, "I felt such a sharp tug. I do believe the big pike has got hold of her." "Nonsense!" said the others. "But it isn't nonsense," said Frank, and he held the rod bent so that they could see the top twitching violently. "It is the pike!" Frank exclaimed excitedly, and he immediately let the line run loose, so that the pike might have room to gorge his prey. "He must have seized the water-hen as she dived," said Dick. "Yes, and won't we give him plenty of time to gorge. I don't want to miss him now we have got such a chance," said Frank. And in spite of their impatience they gave the pike half-an-hour to swallow the bird, and then, at the end of that time, there were sundry twitchings of the point of the rod, and the line was taken out by jerks of a foot or two at a time. "He is moving about," said Jimmy. "It is time to strike." Frank raised his rod amid a hush of expectation. As the line tightened he struck lightly, and immediately the rod bent double with a mighty rush from the pike as he went straight across the little pool, which was about thirty yards in diameter. After this first rush the pike began to swim slowly about, keeping deep down and never showing himself. Round and round and across the pool he swam, now resting for a few minutes like a log, and from a twitching of the line apparently giving angry shakes of his head. Frank kept a steady, even strain upon him, and as the space was so circumscribed there was no danger of a breakage by any sudden rush. This sort of thing went on for half-an-hour, the line slowly cutting through the still, dark water; and Jimmy and Dick urged Frank to pull harder, and make the fish show himself. But Frank was too wise to give way, and he still kept on in a steady, cautious fashion. "If we go on much longer we shall be late for Mr. Meredith," said Dick. "Never mind," replied Frank, "he will forgive us on such an occasion as this." "Here he comes," shouted Frank, as he wound in his line. The pike came rolling up to the surface a few yards from the boat, and they caught sight of him. His proportions were gigantic, and his fierce eyes glared savagely at them. He gave a flounder on the top of the water, then sank down again into the depths. "What a monster!" In a few minutes the pike came up again, and this time more on his side, and plainly much exhausted. Three times more did he thus rise and sink again, and each time he seemed more helpless. The fourth time he remained on the surface lying on his side. Dick got hold of the gaff and held it in the water with outstretched arm, while Frank slowly drew the conquered giant towards it. Dick put the gaff under him and sharply drove it into his side, and then Jimmy and he uniting their forces, hauled the pike into the punt, almost upsetting it in their eagerness, and then threw themselves on the fish to prevent it flopping out again. They rowed home in great triumph, and on weighing the pike it was found to be 34¼ lbs. in weight, and the largest which had been caught in Hickling Broad for many years. The time it took to land it from the time it was struck was fifty-five minutes. CHAPTER XXXIV. Fishing on Stilts.--A Capsize.--Wild-fowl-Shooting.-- A Flare-up. December was ushered in with a week of storm and wet, and as the boys were shut out from outdoor pursuits they had more leisure for indoor studies; and one day a bright idea occurred to Jimmy, by the carrying out of which he said he could fish the broad without the trouble of rowing a boat. So on a Saturday afternoon, when the clouds had broken, and the rain ceased, and the still water reflected the pale blue of the December sky, Frank and Dick sat at the boat-house window watching Jimmy put his plan into execution. He had turned a couple of leaping-poles into stilts. His feet rested upon foot-rests, but were not fastened to them, so that if he fell into the water his feet would be free and he could keep himself right-end uppermost; but the crutches of the stilts which came up under his arms were lightly tied around his shoulders, to leave his arms at liberty to use a rod. And now, having been fairly started by the aid of his friends, he was stalking along like a huge heron in about five feet of water, and was spinning for pike, casting his bait to right and left of him and oftentimes behind him,--for his movements were rather uncertain and erratic; and as making a cast disturbed his equilibrium, he was obliged to execute a sort of waltz-step to recover himself. Frank and Dick were in ecstasies of laughter at his involuntary antics. "He will never catch any fish in that way," observed Dick. In a little while, however, they saw his rod bend double, and it was evident that a good-sized pike had seized his bait. Then Jimmy made a stumble, and a violent effort to recover himself, and in so doing turned his back to the pike, which resented the insult by making a savage rush, pulling Jimmy backwards. There was a violent sort of war-dance on Jimmy's part, during which one of the stilts seemed to be pointing upwards, and then Jimmy, with a last wild flourish of a stilt in the air, descended from his lofty height and disappeared beneath the waters of the broad. Frank and Dick hastened, as fast as their laughter would allow them, to the punt, and rowed to meet Jimmy, who was half wading half swimming towards them, the two long stilts trailing behind him from his shoulders, and his rod following Mr. Pike on a different course. "Swim after your rod, Jimmy," cried Frank. "Whoo, hoo! it is so cold," spluttered Jimmy. He scrambled into the punt, and, just staying to recover the rod, and with it a pike of about six pounds in weight, they rowed back, and Jimmy ran home to change. Frank afterwards said to Jimmy,-- "That stilt dodge of yours is a capital idea. You see you caught a pike directly with it. Won't you try it again?" "No, thank you," said Jimmy, "once ducked, twice shy." After a few days' fine weather a hard frost and deep snow set in. A stiff breeze prevented the broad from being frozen over, and swept the snow into drifts wherever there was anything to arrest its progress. When the snow had ceased, the wind and frost still continued, and wild-fowl in large numbers visited the broad. Dick did not care sufficiently about the shooting to make him willing to face the cold; but Jimmy and Frank had capital sport among the wild-ducks. They killed the greatest number when the ducks took their morning or evening flight across a reedy spit of land which ran out into the broad. Here the boys had sunk a large cask in the earth, and when they were both hidden in this, packed in with dry straw and a retriever with them, they were warm and comfortable. The whistle of wings cleaving the air, or a cry of wild-fowl in the starlit silence of the night, would arouse them, and, with their heads peering over the top of the cask, they had their guns in readiness to salute the dark objects passing over with a shower of shot. In the morning the retriever searched for and picked up the dead birds, and the young gunners finished off the wounded. For four successive nights they enjoyed good sport in this manner, and then it was put an end to by a singular accident. Frank lit a match to see what time it was, and a lighted splinter fell among the dry straw, which instantly blazed up. "Look out for the powder!" shouted Frank; and he and Jimmy and the dog scrambled out of the cask pell-mell, tumbling over each other in their eagerness to be away from the dangerous proximity of the fire. Frank had the powder-flask in his pocket, and fortunately no fire came near it. The boys too escaped without injury, except that their hair was pretty well singed by the rapid rise of the flame. The retriever was so frightened that he turned tail and bolted, never stopping until he reached his kennel. "This is a pretty go," exclaimed Jimmy, as with their guns under their arms they watched the tall, roaring column of flame and smoke which ascended from the burning tub. "The people all about will wonder what it is. What a pity we have nothing to hold water in, so that we could try and put it out! The tub has caught, and will be burnt up." The sound of oars was now audible across the water, and presently Dick's voice shouted,-- "What's the matter? Are you all right?" and a boat was run ashore, and Dick and Mary, well wrapped up, stepped out. Dick had been spending the evening at Mr. Merivale's, and just as he was leaving the house, the bright tongue of flame on the opposite side of the broad alarmed him, and Mary insisted upon coming with him to see what mischief her brother had been perpetrating. They rowed back, followed by the fitful glare of the fire, which shone in their eddying wake, amid the clamour of wild-fowl startled into flight by the unusual apparition. Then as Mary was silently admiring the strange weird scene, there was a blinding flash, followed by two loud reports, which made her start and scream, and then two splashes in the water, as two ducks out of a number which had been passing over the boats fell to the aim of Frank and Jimmy. CHAPTER XXXV. Punt-shooting on Breydon.--A Narrow Escape. The Christmas holidays had commenced for the boys. Frank had a consultation with Bell, which ended in Bell's borrowing a duck-shooting punt from a neighbour, and Dick's looking up the big duck-gun from his father's lumber-room. The punt was a flat-bottomed one, pointed at both ends and covered fore and aft, so as to form two watertight compartments. In the bows was a rest for the gun to lie upon. As the gun took a pound of shot at a load, Frank was rather nervous about firing it off, for the recoil, if not broken by mechanical appliances, would have dislocated his shoulder. So he bought some india-rubber door-springs, and with them constructed an apparatus to take off the recoil of the gun, and, lest it should by any chance hit his shoulder, he got Mary to make a stout cushion, which he fixed to the butt. Reports came that Breydon Water was swarming with wild-fowl, so, taking Bell with them as a guide and instructor, and with the shooting-punt in tow instead of their own, they set sail for Yarmouth, and sailing up Breydon Water they moored the yacht by the Berney Arms, a public-house situate where the Yare debouches into Breydon. As the night fell they could see and hear wild-fowl of various kinds flying to and settling on the muds. Dick preferred staying on board the yacht, for his frame was not yet so inured to winter cold as it had been to summer heat, and the other two, with Bell, set out in the punt about eight o'clock. They rowed down Breydon Water with the last of the ebb, and then floated and paddled up again as the tide rose. Bell crouched in the stern and worked the two short paddles by which the punt was propelled when approaching the birds. Frank lay in the bows, with the big gun in position in front of him, and Jimmy cuddled up in the middle, armed with Frank's light double-barrel, ready to knock over any of the wounded birds which might try to escape. The night was rather light with the brightness from the stars, which shone resplendently from the deep, dark blue, and in the east the moon lifted a faint curved horn above the trees. "There are a lot of birds on that mud-bank; I can hear them quite plainly," whispered Frank to Bell. "Hush! Don't you speak or fire until I whistle, and then pull the trigger; but have the gun ready covering the birds. They are too scattered now. Wait until the tide rises a little higher, and covers most part of the bank, and then they will huddle together, when you will kill twice as many." They waited for a quarter of an hour, gradually drawing nearer the birds, which were now collected together on a large dark patch on the mud which was still uncovered by the rippling waves. Frank had his eye on them, the gun covering them and his finger on the trigger, waiting breathlessly for the signal. A low whistle sounded behind him. A sudden silence took the place of the chattering and gobbling sounds which had before proceeded from the birds. Frank pressed the trigger. The mighty gun flashed forth its deadly contents with a tremendous roar, and Frank found himself hurled back upon Jimmy. He had incautiously put his shoulder to the gun. He was not hurt, however, for the cushion had saved his shoulder. The birds which were unhurt swept away with a great clamour, but the mud was covered with dead and dying. Two of the winged ones were swimming away, when Jimmy fired and killed them. They landed on the mud, taking care to put on the mud-boards. They picked up the dead ones, and had many a lively chase after the wounded ones on the mud and in the shallow water. They recovered five-and-twenty birds. Half of them were wild-ducks, and the rest dunlins and other shore birds. [Illustration: WILD DUCK SHOOTING.] They passed on up Breydon, but they could not get another shot of such magnitude. Another punt was on the water, and the noise of its firing and oars disturbed the birds, so that they were difficult to approach. They got, however, two more long shots, and killed six ducks at one and three at another. The tide had now covered most of the flats, and the birds had either left the water or were floating on the surface, and could not easily be seen because of the waves. Bell then said he knew of a spot where the mud had been artificially raised, so as to form a sort of island, for the express purpose of enticing the wild-fowl to gather on it as the tide rose. He therefore paddled them towards it. Some clouds had obscured much of the starlight, and the night was darker. Frank became aware of one dark patch on the water in front of them, and another to the left. He thought they were both flocks of birds, and selected the left hand one, as being the nearer. He covered it with his gun, and waited somewhat impatiently for Bell to give the signal. "Surely we are near enough;" he thought, when Jimmy crept up behind him and whispered, "Bell says that is another punt, they must be making for the mud we are, that patch in front." "By Jove," exclaimed Frank, "I was aiming at the boat, and about to fire. Perhaps they are aiming at us." "Don't shoot," cried out Bell to the other boat, and Frank immediately twisted his gun around and fired at the birds which rose from the mud-bank. "I say, you there!" cried out a man in the other boat, "that was a narrow escape for you. I was on the point of firing at you. You should give me half the birds you shot then." "All right, you shall have them, if you will help to pick them up," sang out Frank. Only a dozen, half of them dunlins, were secured and divided. "That was a danger in punt-shooting which I hadn't foreseen," said Frank to the stranger. "It was a close shave for you as well as for us. Will you come on board our yacht and have some supper?" The stranger assented, and proved to be a sporting lawyer from Yarmouth, and a very pleasant fellow. CHAPTER XXXVI. Drifted to Sea.--A Perilous Position.--Rescue. The next day Bell went off to Yarmouth to sell some of the fowl in the market, and unfortunately got fuddled, so that when the evening came he was unable to accompany the shooters. Frank and Jimmy resolved to go out by themselves. Making a mistake as to the time of the tide, they found themselves carried swiftly down Breydon Water on a tide which had yet four hours to ebb. The night was clear, cold, and starlit, with a stinging north-easter sweeping over the broad water, and whisking the snow on the land into fantastic drifts. The new moon had not yet risen, but every star was blazing brightly, and glimmering reflections shone in the water. As they listened they found that the night was full of strange noises, of quackings and whistlings, and that the air was cleft by the sweep of wings. It was a night of nights for a wild-fowl shooter, and the boys resolved to stop at Yarmouth until the tide turned. As they neared the twinkling lights of the town a flock of wild geese took wing, out of shot, and made for the estuary. "Oh, do let us follow them, they are sure to alight before they reach the bar," said Frank. "Very well; but we must take care not to drift out to sea." "There is no danger of that, we can always run ashore." So they passed by the quays and fish-wharves, and one by one the lights opened out, and passed behind them, resolving themselves into a cluster in the distance. Ghostly vessels lifted their tall spars against the sky, the water became more 'lumpy,' and prudence suggested that they should turn back; but the love of sport urged them on, and triumphed. Further still: yet the geese were nowhere to be seen, and not very far off was the white water on the bar. They were fast drifting out to sea, and thought it time to turn. They did so, but could make no headway against the wind and tide, and the shores were so white with surf that it would have been folly to have attempted to land. "I say, Frank, we've done it now," said Jimmy, as they drifted nearer and nearer to the bar. "Don't be alarmed: we are all right," said Frank,--but privately he thought they were in a very awkward fix. All the outward-bound vessels, which, had it been earlier, might have picked them up, had left at the commencement of the ebb. The punt was now in the midst of the rougher waves which broke over the banks of sand at the mouth of the estuary, and they were expecting every moment to be swamped, when Frank uttered a cry of joy, and seizing the paddle, made for a black spot which was dancing about in the foam. It was a buoy, and Jimmy seized the 'painter,' and stood up. As they neared it, a wave bore them on its summit within reach. Jimmy succeeded in slipping the rope through the ring on the top of the buoy, and in another moment they had swung under its lee. They were now safe from drifting farther out to sea, but in imminent danger of being swamped, and the time seemed very long while waiting for the tide to turn. The curling waves continually broke over them, and had it not been for the decked portions of the punt they would have been sunk by the first two or three duckings. As it was, they were kept hard at work baling with a tin scoop belonging to the punt, and fending off from the buoy. Forwards and backwards, up and down and sideways, they were tossed. A great black wall of water, with a thin crest through which the glimmer of a star could occasionally be seen, would come surging along, making their hearts sink with apprehension, and then would sometimes break and die away close by, sometimes dash them against the buoy, and sometimes with a side chop nearly fill the punt. There was a dash of excitement about it all which made it not absolutely unpleasant, as long as the sky remained clear and they could see the stars, which seemed to laugh at their puny battle with the elements. But by and by the stars began to disappear in the direction of the wind, and finally were blotted out over the whole heavens by a huge pall of cloud, and the darkness became awfully oppressive. The wind dropped, and its roar subsided into a low moaning sound. They felt the cold intensely as the snow came down quickly and silently, covering them with a white coating. A black cormorant suddenly appeared hovering over them, to be driven away with the paddle, and they could hear the swoop of gulls about them. "We are not quite food for the birds yet; but I can't stand this much longer," said Jimmy, his teeth chattering with the cold. "Hold up, old man. The tide will turn in half an hour." There was the sound of a sudden snap. The rope had parted, and a receding wave bore them away, leaving a rapidly widening distance between them and the buoy. "Keep her head to the waves," said Frank, "or we shall be upset." At this critical moment the sky cleared in one patch, and against it they saw the outlines of the dark, square sails of a schooner. The boys hailed her long and loud, and in answer came the hoarse cry, "Where away?" "Here, on your weather bow. Fling us a rope!" In a few minutes they and their punt were safe on board, and in another hour they were in an hotel at Yarmouth, dressed in borrowed suits of clothes, and enjoying a hot supper. After this, and when their own clothes were dried by the kitchen fire, they walked back to the Berney Arms by road, reached the yacht about three o'clock in the morning, to the great relief of Dick, who had been very anxious at their protracted absence. The next day they sailed down to Yarmouth in the _Swan_, picked up the punt, and went up the Bure with sheets eased out and a following wind. CHAPTER XXXVII. The Bread Frozen.--Skating.--Fish Frozen in Ice.-- Birds Frozen to the Ice.--Ice-Ships. It was dark when they sailed up the dyke leading to the broad, and the wind had fallen, so that their progress was slow. As they moved out of the dyke, where there was a gentle current, into the open broad, there was a sound of crashing and splintering at their bows, and the way of the yacht was stopped. Jimmy and Dick rushed out of the cabin, where they had been preparing supper, and said to Frank, who was at the helm,-- "What is the matter?" "Why the broad is frozen over, and we can't get any further." "Can't we break a passage through?" said Dick. "We might, but it would be a pity to spoil so much ice for skating. Let us stay here until the morning, and then we can walk across for our skates. The yacht will be as safe here as by the boat-house." They were already sufficiently wedged in by the ice to be able to dispense with the lowering of their anchor, and after supper--(which by the way consisted of, first broiled bacon, next tinned salmon, then some gooseberry-jam, followed by cheese, and finally a tin of American preserved strawberries, which they had bought at Yarmouth, the whole washed down by coffee and beer)--they turned in for a snooze. The silence of the night was broken by continual sharp, tinkling noises. It was some little time before they discovered that these arose from the ice crystals as they formed along the surface of the water, shooting out in long needles and crossing each other, until every inch of the water was covered. In the morning the ice was strong enough to bear their weight, although it bent in long waves beneath them as they hurried over it. The frost continued. The ice was smooth, and black, and hard, and perfectly free from snow. Early and late, the boys sped lightly over it on their skates, enjoying to the full this most invigorating and healthy exercise. Frank and Jimmy practised threes and eights and the spread-eagle, and the other now old-fashioned figures, with great assiduity; and Dick, having soon mastered the inside edge, tumbled about most indefatigably in his efforts to master the outside edge. The frost continued with unabated severity, and soon the ice was two feet thick, and the shallower portions of the broad were frozen to the bottom. One day Dick was skating at a good pace before the wind, when something beneath his feet in the transparent ice attracted his attention, and in his haste to stop he came down very heavily. He shouted to Frank and Jimmy to come up, and when they did so, he pointed to the ice at his feet. Midway in the water, where it was about two feet deep, was a shoal of a dozen perch, most of them good sized ones, frozen into the ice in various attitudes, betokening their last struggle to escape. The reason of their being so caught was explained by the fact that they were in a slight depression surrounded by shallower and weedy water, which had frozen so as to shut them in, and give them no means of escape before the water in which they swam became solid. "That fellow is fully two pounds weight. I wonder if they are dead," said Frank. "Of course they must be," answered Jimmy; "they cannot be frozen stiff like that and live." "I am not so sure about that," observed Dick; "caterpillars have been known to be frozen quite stiff, and to all appearance lifeless, yet they revive when they are warmed." "Well," said Frank, "I tell you what we will do. We will dig them out, and put them into water in the house, and give them a chance." They did so, and five of the perch, including the biggest and the smallest, came to life, and were subsequently restored to the broad. One day a rapid thaw set in, and the ice was covered with a thin layer of water. During the night, however, the wind suddenly changed, and this layer of water froze so quickly, that it held fast by the feet many water-fowl which had been resting on the ice. When the boys went down to the ice in the morning, they saw here and there a dead or dying water-hen or coot thus made captive, and surrounded by a group of the hooded crows, those grey-backed crows which in the winter-time are so common in Norfolk, and the rapacious birds were attacking and eating the poor held-fast water-fowl. The crowning achievement of the winter was this: They broke the _Swan_ free, and got her on to the ice; then they supported her on some runners, like large skate irons, made by the village blacksmith, and put on ordinary skates on each rudder to get steerage power, and so constructed with great ease an ice-ship after the fashion of those used in some parts of Canada. With this they sped over the ice at a far quicker rate than they had ever sailed upon the water, and they could steer her tolerably close to the wind. This amusement superseded the skating until the ice melted away, and the _Swan_ once more floated on the water and sailed in her legitimate manner. CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Thaw.--Cromer.--Prehistoric Remains. The thaw was accompanied by torrents of rain for more than a week. At the end of that time the boys were sitting in the boat-house making up their Note-book, when Mr. Meredith entered and said to them,-- "Will you drive with me to Cromer? I hear that a large portion of the cliff has fallen away and exposed a bed containing the bones and remains of prehistoric elephants and other mammalia, and all the geologists of the country are going there. I thought we might as well see these wonderful relics of the past. What do you say?" "We should like it above all things," said Frank for the others; and Mr. Merivale's horses were forthwith harnessed to the waggonette, and they started. The rain had ceased, and a cold, white sun shone out of a white space in the leaden sky. The town of Cromer is the easternmost part of England, and it is built on the summit of a gravel-hill, which the sidelong sweeping tides eat away little by little and year by year. It is said that the church of old Cromer lies buried under the sea half a mile from the present shore. Immediately in front of the village the cliff is plated and faced with flints and protected by breakwaters, but on either side the soft earth is loosened by the frosts and rains, and undermined by the tidal currents, which, running nearly north and south, sweep the débris away instead of piling it at the foot of the cliff. Putting the horses up at the principal inn, they walked to the cliff below the lighthouse, where a portion of the high cliff had slid into the sea. In one place a recent storm had swept the fallen mass of gravel away and exposed at the bottom a portion of the "forest bed." Here three or four gentlemen, presumably geologists, were freely engaged in poking and digging. One man was tugging hard at a huge bone which projected out of the cliff; another was carefully unveiling the stump of a fossil tree. Here and there were the stumps of trees--oaks and firs, and others, with their spreading roots intact, just as ages ago they had stood and flourished; and between these ancient stumps were the bones and the teeth of elephant, hippopotamus, and rhinoceros, deer of ten different sorts, bears, tigers, and many another animal, the like, or the prototype of which, are now found in tropical regions alone. The boys were very much struck with the sight of these remains of the animals which lived before the Flood, and as they wandered about, finding here a tooth and there a bone, and then the stem of a strange tree, they amused themselves by reconstructing in imagination the luxuriant woods teeming with savage monsters which once stood on a level with the shore, and speculating upon the causes which led to the piling up of the gravel strata which now cover them to such a depth. "Are these animal deposits peculiar to Cromer, Mr. Meredith?" asked Dick. "No. You can scarcely dig anywhere in Norfolk in similar deposits without coming upon these remains; this is the case in Holland and Belgium also, so that there is positive evidence that the German Ocean is of comparatively recent origin, the two countries having once been connected by a great plain, a portion of which is now covered with water. From the bottom of the sea the fishermen often dredge up bones and fragments of trees similar to those in the base of this cliff." The short winter day soon drew on to dusk, and they strolled on to the pier to see the sun set in the sea on this the east coast of England. The land so juts out, and to the northward the water so bites into the land, that not only does the sun rise from the sea, but it also sets in it. The surf-crested waves which broke heavily against the black breakwater were red and lurid with the sunset light, and in fantastic masses, flooded with red and orange, the clouds gathering about the descending sun. And then, as the strange glare faded away and the grey dusk settled over the chafing sea, a white light shot out from the lighthouse tower, and traced a gleaming pathway over sea, pier, houses, and woods, as it revolved with steady purpose. CHAPTER XXXIX. The Boys' Note-Book. A Note-book was incidentally mentioned in the last chapter. Properly speaking, it should have been mentioned long before. On the table in the boat-house lay a large folio manuscript book, in which the boys noted down whatever, in their reading or observation, struck them as noticeable or worth remembering, or of which they wished to be reminded at some future time, when they should have leisure to look up what they wished to know concerning the matter noted. Before therefore I close this "strange eventful history," I shall quote a few pages at random out of their Note-book, just to show how it was kept up. In the left-hand margin of each sheet the date of the entry was written opposite each note, and each jotting was signed by the one making it. So that the book ran after this fashion:-- "They have a novel mode of netting shore birds at Lynn. They have long nets stretched on poles about six feet high, on the sands towards dusk, one line below high water mark and the other upon the ridge."--F. M. "All grain-eating birds feed their young on insects--as a matter of course because there is no grain in the spring--so they make up for the damage they may do to the grain. I shall write a letter to this effect to the Secretary of the Sparrow Club here. The fellows in that club are as proud of their sparrow heads as a red Indian of his scalps."--F. M. [Illustration: MOLE CRICKET.] "Crickets are the thirstiest of all thirsty creatures." "Mem. How do flies walk with their heads downwards, and how do they buzz?"--R. C. "Caught a lizard in the garden to-day, and when I touched it, its tail dropped off. Curious habit some reptiles have of parting with their tails. It is done to divert attention from the body, which makes its escape."--J. B. "Our keeper set some trimmers on our little lake in the park last night, and this morning he found on one of them a great crested grebe which had swallowed the bait, and on the other an eel of four pounds weight with a kitten in its inside."--R. C. "Frank's head has a permanent set to one side, from always looking into the hedges for nests. I noticed it in church."--J. B. "You'll get a licking, young 'un."--Frank. [Illustration: COMMON LIZARD.] "Bell says that he has seen an osprey resting on one of the posts in Hickling Broad, and it was so gorged after a meal of fish that he rowed quite close to it."--F. M. "I saw a squirrel eating some toad-stools which grew at the foot of a tree near Sir Richard's house. I thought they fed only on nuts."--J. Brett. "They say that hedgehogs will go into an orchard and roll themselves on the fallen fruit, so that it sticks to their spines, and then they walk off with it. Should like to see them do it, and I wonder how they get it off again."--J. B. [Illustration: OSPREY.] [Illustration: CRESTED GREBE.] "Saw a robin kill a sparrow in fair fight this morning, and it afterwards _ate_ a portion of him! Also saw two rooks fighting like anything, and a third perched on a branch just above them, as if to see fair play."--F. M. [Illustration: 1. Nest of White Ant. 2. Suspended Wasp's Nest. 3. Common Wasp. 4. Demoiselle Dragon-fly. 5, 6. Soldiers of White Ant. 7. Hornet. 8. Worker of White Ant. 9. Wood Ant. 10. Red Ant.] "What a curious instinct it is which leads moths and butterflies, while you are killing them, to lay their eggs. It is their last will and testament!" [Illustration: HEDGEHOG.] [Illustration: HONEY-BUZZARD.] "I found a brood of caterpillars on a hawthorn-bush; they were the caterpillars of the small oak-eggar. They make a silken nest in the branches, and they come out to feed and go in to sleep. There were at the least five hundred of them. The moth, I see, is a small, dingy brown thing, with white spots on the wings."--R. C. "Bell's son took a hornet's nest the other day. He was stung by one of them, and was ill for some days, the inflammation was so bad. Bell says that hornets are much rarer now than they used to be, and a good thing too. "While going to take a wasp's nest to-day, we disturbed a large hawk-like bird, which had been digging it up and apparently eating the grubs. The wasps were flying all about it and settling on it, but it did not seem to mind them. Upon looking at our books we have decided that the bird was the honey-buzzard, one of the short-winged hawks."--F. M. CHAPTER XL. A Regatta.--The "Waterlog's" Victory. The waters of the broad once more blazed beneath the summer sun. The _Swan_ lay at anchor in a reedy bay, and the three boys were sitting on deck, busily engaged in discussing some project which seemed to interest them very much. For some years past a large yacht had been a prominent object on the Norfolk and Suffolk waters, not on account of her speed or her beauty, but because of her great ugliness of form, and her exceeding slowness of sailing. Cram on as much sail as you could, and yet the clumsiest wherry could beat her in sailing. Her owner entered her for many a race, and she was invariably so badly beaten that she became a laughing-stock. Her name was the _Waterlily_, but she was facetiously christened and universally called the "Waterlog." Her end was tragic. One time when the waters were very high after great floods, her owner sailed her into a small broad, and, not taking her off in time, the waters fell, and there was not depth enough to float her out, and she became fixed in a trap, out of which she could not be removed. She was offered for sale, but no one would buy her; so her owner, in a fit of disgust, first dismantled her and then set fire to her, and so she perished. Her nickname survived her, however, and, to the great indignation of the boys, descended upon the _Swan_, whose stiff and stately motion and peculiar appearance had made her the mark for it. They were now holding an "indignation meeting" upon the subject, and a way had just been mooted by which they hoped to sustain the dignity of their boat. "Wroxham Regatta is on the 20th of next month," said Frank, "and there is a race open to all classes of yachts except the winners of the previous races. Those will clear off the crack ships, and I don't think we need fear any of the others. I vote we enter the _Swan_ for it, and show them how she can sail. The prize is a very handsome cup." "Do you really think she will have any chance, Frank?" asked Jimmy. "Not with her present rig; but we will add a big top-sail to both main-sail and mizen. Her double shape will enable her to stand any amount of sail, and if we have a good side wind and plenty of it we shall stand a very good chance." So it was decided that the yacht should be entered for the race, and they set to work to prepare two immense yards and top-sails, and to practise sailing the yacht with them up. Mary Merivale and Edith Rose were invited to be on board during the race; the elders were to be present on board a friend's yacht to witness the regatta. The day of the regatta arrived, and a strong north-wester was raising mimic waves on the broad. The boys had taken the yacht overnight to Wroxham, and in the morning they met Mary and Edith at Wroxham Bridge, and took them on board. "Is it not dreadfully windy?" asked Edith Rose, as the wind blew her curls back from her pretty face. "It is just what we want, Miss Rose," answered Frank. "Wouldn't it be safer if we were not to be on board during the race? I am afraid you are going to be too venturesome. I heard you were going to put some more sails up, and I am sure these are large enough," said Edith. "Pray don't desert us now," said Frank, so piteously, that Edith made no more objection for fear of vexing him. Over the fence of tall reeds which now separated them from the broad they could see scores of white sails and gay pennants, and it was evident that there was a large assemblage. "Why, Frank," said Mary, "I declare you are quite nervous; I can feel your arm tremble." Frank indignantly repelled the accusation, but Jimmy, who was sitting on the roof of the cabin kicking his heels, said:-- "I am awfully, miserably nervous, and I believe we are going to make a tremendous mull of it, and we've done all we can to make ourselves conspicuous." They had entered the yacht, out of a spirit of bravado, under the name of "The Waterlog," and they had painted the name on slips of stout paper, and tacked it over the legitimate name of their yacht. "Nonsense!" was Frank's somewhat angry commentary on Jimmy's speech. They now entered the broad, which presented a lively scene. Yachts of all rigs and sizes were skimming about, with gunwales under, to the stiff breeze. When the signal for the first race was given, those yachts not engaged in it came to an anchor, and the _Swan_, on whom all eyes were turned, took up her station next to the yacht in which were Mr. Merivale and his friends. The wind continued to freshen and grow more gusty, so that of those yachts which started with their top-sails, two had them carried away in the first round, and the others had to take them down, and the yacht which won had a single reef in her huge main-sail. There were three races before the open race for which the _Swan_ was entered under her assumed name. I have not space to dwell upon the incidents of these, nor to dilate upon the glorious life and movement of the broad, with its crowd of white sails, and its waves sparkling in the sunlight. Three of the best yachts were, through being winners in the races, prohibited from sailing in the open race, but there were nevertheless a sufficient number of entries on the card of the races to make our boys dubious as to the result of their somewhat bold experiment. There were six named as to start. Two were lateeners, one a schooner, two cutters, and the sixth was the "Waterlog." The course was three times round the lake, outside of certain mark-boats; and, as the wind blew, the yachts would catch it abeam for two-thirds the course, dead aft for a sixth, and dead ahead for the remainder. As Frank said, it was a wind in every respect suitable for the raft-like _Swan_. The race excited a great amount of interest. The _Swan_ was now well known to all the yachtsmen, and her change of name provoked curiosity and interest, and as the signal came for the yachts to take their station all eyes were upon the "Waterlog" (as we will call her during the race). As the boys ran up her sails and sailed away to the starting-point, a decided manifestation of admiration arose as the great top-sails slowly ascended under the strenuous efforts of Dick and Jimmy. As they fluttered in the wind, Mary threw all her little weight on to the halyard to assist in hauling them tight and flat. Mary and Edith took up their places in the bows, where they were out of the way, as there is no jib in a lugger rig. "Now, Dick," whispered Frank, "if any accident _should_ happen--although it isn't likely--do you see to Mary, and I'll take Edith." "All right, old man." The yachts started from slip anchors, with the canvas set; and at the flash of the starting-gun, sheets were hauled in, and the six yachts which came to the starting-point bounded away almost simultaneously, the white water flashing away from their bows, and boiling and eddying in their wake. The wind was now blowing very fresh indeed, the other yachts were not only gunwales under, but the water swept all over the leeward half of their decks, and even the "Waterlog," in spite of the width of her beam and double shape, had her leeward pontoon completely submerged. On they surged, the two girls clinging to the forestay, heedless of wet feet, and breathless with the swift excitement: Frank firmly grasping the tiller, his teeth set and his blue eyes gleaming; Dick at the main-sheet, and Jimmy standing on the counter with the mizen-sheet in his grasp, both watching their captain, to be instant at his commands. The first round was quickly over, and then the position of the competing yachts was this:--The schooner was ahead, then at a little distance came the "Waterlog," and close behind her the rest of the yachts in a body. As they passed Mr. Merivale he cried out, "Well done, boys! you'll get a good place." Next they passed a small boat, in which they saw Bell, who shouted,--"Haul in your sheets a bit more,--your top-sails will hold more wind." Frank saw the wisdom of this advice, and as he followed it, the "Waterlog" shot forward and gained a little upon the schooner. "If the wind were to freshen a little we should come in second," said Frank. But as they commenced the third round the wind dropped most unexpectedly. The schooner in front rose nearer the perpendicular and her speed increased; the "Waterlog" fell back, and a large lateener behind fast overhauled her. "How dreadfully annoying," said Frank; and he hated that lateener with a very vigorous hate. They passed Bell's boat again, and the old man shouted-- "Look out, Master Frank, a squall will be on you in a minute." The sudden lull was but the precursor of a tremendously violent gust. As the yachts were beating up to round the last mark-boat before getting a straight run in to the goal, the boys saw the trees on the land bow their heads with a sudden jerk, and then the squall was upon them. It did not affect them so much when they were close hauled, but as the leading schooner rounded the boat and presented her broadside to the wind there was a great crash, and her cloud of white canvas descended upon the water. Her foremast had broken close by the deck, and in falling had snapped the remaining mast half way up, and she lay like a log on the water. The lateener, close upon her heels, heeled over so much, that she began to fill through the hatchway, and to save her from an upset her sheets were let go, and with her sails wildly fluttering she drifted on to the disabled wreck. All this was the work of a few seconds, but there was time for Frank to unloose the halyards of the top-sails, which were purposely made fast just in front of him, and to give a warning shout of "heads!" and then, to the great alarm of the girls, the sails came clattering down to leeward, and they rounded the boat in safety, though cannoning violently against the wreck as they did so. And now they were _first_! The cutter next behind them, in shooting up into the wind to save herself, lost way, and was no longer a dangerous enemy, and although the other yachts rounded the boat, yet they were far astern, and the victory of the "Waterlog" was secure. At a word from Frank the two girls, one on each side, stripped off the assumed name, and let the papers float away on the wind, and, amid vociferous cheering and clapping of hands and waving of handkerchiefs, the _Swan_ shot past the winning-post, and so gained the prize. Although gained partly by accident it was a great triumph for the boys, and the girls were quite as proud and delighted as they were. "You are a dear good boy, and I'll give you a kiss," said merry Mary Merivale to her brother, "although you would rather have one from somebody else than from me, I know." "I say, Molly, I wish you'd get her to give me one." "You will have to wait a very long time for that, Mr. Frank." "If you would give Dick one, she would give me one." "That's all you know about it, sir," said Mary, making him a saucy curtsey. CHAPTER XLI. The Conclusion. Now this chronicle of the doings of my three boys must come to an end. I have grown very fond of them, and I hope you have too. We will take a big jump from the doings recorded in the last chapter, and look in upon them at a time fraught with importance to each of them. Their pleasant school with Mr. Meredith is broken up. Frank and Dick are going to college, and Jimmy is about to be articled to a Norwich solicitor. They will always remain the best of friends, but still the new times will never again be like the old. New interests, new companions, new ambitions, all will leave their mark and have their influence, although this I am sure of, that the memory of this glorious partnership of three will always remain green and fresh with them, and have the greatest of all influences on their future lives. Mr. Meredith had invited all three of them to dinner, and when Mrs. Meredith had retired the conversation grew more personal and confidential. They looked upon Mr. Meredith as an intimate friend and counsellor, as well as a tutor and schoolmaster, and they told him their plans and hopes, just as if he were one of themselves. Presently a silence fell upon the table. Frank looked at Dick, and Dick looked at Frank, and Jimmy kicked him under the table, and at last Frank cleared his throat with a preparatory "ahem" and said,-- "I am not good at making speeches, Mr. Meredith, but we wish to express how very much obliged we have been to you for the kindness and the--in fact the--the--well, what we mean to say is--that you are a brick of a good fellow, sir." "What an awful muddle you have made of it, Frank," said Dick, in a reproachful whisper, and Jimmy launched a vicious kick at him under the table. There was a twinkle in Mr. Meredith's eye as he drank off his wine, which was partly due to mirth, and partly to a deeper feeling. He said,-- "I know what you mean, Frank, and in return I may say, that I am both glad and sorry that the hour has come for us to part for a time. I am sorry, because I have much enjoyed your companionship for the last three years, and I believe you have done me as much good as I have done you. I am glad, because you have become such fine young fellows, and I have had a hand in the making of you, and you must do us all credit. Jimmy will make a good lawyer, I think; and he must remember that the law is an honourable profession, and that lawyers take the place of the knights of old; they must do all they can to succour the widows and fatherless, and never allow themselves to be made instruments of oppression. I will give Jimmy just one piece of advice: Go straight, and never attempt to finesse. I believe that this clever finessing, and attempting to outdo other lawyers in cleverness, has been the cause of the moral ruin of many an able lawyer. Dick, I am sorry to say, will have no need to be of any occupation, but he must try to get plenty of voluntary work, nevertheless, for no man's life can be noble unless he does some of the world's work. And Frank, what are you going to be?" "I don't know yet, sir," replied Frank, "I should like to be a soldier, if I could be sure of active service pretty often." "I wish you would be a soldier in a purer army, my boy. We want some more men of your strength and energy to fight the devil with. We want men who will not only do what they have to do with all their might, but who have plenty of might to use." "I haven't the gift of the gab, sir," said Frank modestly. "That would come with practice and study, and, 'out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh.' But come, we must not leave Mrs. Meredith so long alone on this your last night here." So they went into the drawing-room and had a quietly pleasant evening. When they left, they walked together down by the broad, talking of many things. It was bright moonlight, and the _Swan_ lay still and distinct on the water. It was warm, being in the middle of summer, and it was not late; and as they stood looking at the boat which they had built, and which had served them so well, they saw Mary and Edith Rose, who was staying with her, coming towards them, and Mr. and Mrs. Merivale not far behind. "Good night," said Jimmy, "I shall see you both in the morning;" and off he went. "Poor Jimmy," said Frank, "he does not like both of us going away, and he to be left behind alone." The two girls joined them, and Frank and Edith walked off together, and Dick and Mary did the same in another direction. "Mary," said Dick, "Mr. Meredith said that I ought to do some work in the world." "So you ought, Dick," she replied; "both Frank and Jimmy are going to be busy, and I did so hope you would do something too." "I mean to do something," he replied, with a quiet smile, "but I shall not tell you what it is yet. But if I do something which will show that I am of some use in the world, and not a mere drone, will you marry me?" It was not light enough to see if she blushed, but I am sure she did so very sweetly. What she said, very naively, was this:-- "I thought you would ask me some time, Dick, but I did not want you to _quite_ ask me until you came from college. We are only boy and girl, you know." "I am quite satisfied, Mary," he said, in that quiet, gentle voice of his which made you like him so much,--and so a compact was made, which both of them faithfully kept. Frank had not dared to say half so much to Edith; but the next morning, when he was saying good bye to them all, and it came to her turn, he looked her steadily in the face as she took his hand, and, moved by a sudden impulse, she put up her face to be kissed as Mary had done, and as he gravely kissed her, he said in a low tone, designed for her ear alone,-- "I am going to do my very best, Edith, and what I do will be for your sake." These were sweet words to the little maiden; but Frank received by the next morning's post a little Testament from her, with these words written on the fly-leaf-- "Not altogether for MY sake, Frank," and the half rebuke was of great service to Frank. And so, God be with them! THE END. LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Italics are indicated by _underscores_. Small caps are indicated by ALL CAPS. Archaic spelling, and variations in hyphenation, punctuation, and use of accents appear as in the original. Several words appear both with and without hyphenation. End-of-line hyphenations in the original are rejoined here. Obvious typographical errors have been changed. Page 4: added comma ("Yes, Frank, he is) Page 26: "loth" to "loath" (were loath to destroy) Page 51: added full stop (The Owner.--) Page 54: added opening quote mark ("What a thing) Page 54: comma to full stop (said Dick. "Is that) Page 57: added comma (Mr. ----," said Jimmy) Page 80: italicized "Swan" (found that the _Swan_) Page 81: added full stop (fir-tree.) Page 81: capitalized "Is" ("Is it a crow's) Page 86: "affect" to "affects" (it sometimes affects) Page 87: removed opening quote mark (On the ground) Page 92: added full stop (sixty feet in length.) Page 93: removed comma (to or from Lake) Page 96: added comma (said Frank, "is not) Page 98: added comma (external accident,) Page 113: added comma (Frank's boat, "but) Page 122: full stop to comma (I was a fool,") Page 127: added opening quote mark ("Well, sir, a lot) Page 142: added full stop (about the birds.) Page 152: added comma ("So have I," said Frank.) Page 159: added comma (law of nature,") Page 160: removed closing quote mark (_Wild Flowers_:--) Page 164: single to double opening quote mark ("Up with the) Page 168: removed closing quote mark (its last change) Page 199: greek character to "omega" (the letter omega,) Page 227: "Heron.--Hawking." to "Heron-hawking." (chapter heading) Page 236: added closing quote mark (tempt him by size.") Page 250: "perfectlv" to "perfectly" (perfectly free from snow.) Page 253: "fastastic" to "fantastic" (in fantastic masses,) Page 258: added closing quote mark (last will and testament!") 
34131	----	available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 34131-h.htm or 34131-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h/34131-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn Transcriber's note: In this Plain Text version of the book only symbols from the ASCII and Latin-1 extension character sets have been used. Text in italic typeface is enclosed by underscores (_italics)_. Text in small capital typeface is displayed as ALL UPPER CASE. Text in bold typeface is enclosed by equal symbols (=bold=). [OE] and [oe] represent upper and lower case oe ligatures. [psi] and [gamma] represent the respective Greek letters of that name. Instances of distinctive font symbols (T, V, W, Y) which occur in the names and descriptions of several species etc. are shown in upper case. Note that numerous taxonomic names have changed since 1894. The formatting of Latin names also differs from current conventions; _e.g._, in this book species names are typically, but not invariably, capitalised. No attempt has been made to update this. Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation inconsistencies, but other inconsistent usages have been retained. Where obvious typographical errors have been corrected, these are listed at the end of the book. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British) * * * * * OUT-DOOR WORLD LIBRARY. THE OUT-DOOR WORLD; or, Young Collector's Handbook. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 12 coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. 10_s._ 6_d._ net. _To be followed by_ BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. HUDSON, F.Z.S. With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES. AND OTHER VOLUMES. London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. New York: 15 East 16th Street. [Illustration: Plate I _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] * * * * * BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British) by W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. Author of 'The Out-Door World, Or Young Collector's Handbook' [Illustration] With Twelve Coloured Plates and Numerous Illustrations in the Text London Longmans, Green, and Co. And New York. 15 East 16th Street 1894 All rights reserved PREFACE The favourable reception with which the 'Out-door World' has been greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue a series of volumes dealing in fuller detail with the various branches of Natural History treated of in that work. Necessarily each subject was only briefly touched upon, but the study is of so enticing a character that 'appetite grows by feeding,' and the students of the 'Out-door World,' having tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature, will not rest satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook. Each one will want to go deeper into that particular department which most appeals to his own inclinations. The present volume is written expressly for those who desire to extend their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera, or, to use the more popular names, 'Butterflies and Moths.' The general characteristics of this interesting order of insects are described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would be impossible to give an individual account of all the British Lepidoptera in a work of this size, so a selection has been made such as will satisfy the requirements of the great majority of those who intend to take up this particular branch of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is so limited that a place has been found for a figure and a description of every species; and, of the larger moths, many of the common and typical kinds have been included. An introduction to the study of the Micro-lepidoptera has also been added. No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly practical. In addition to the verbal descriptions of so many species, twelve coloured plates and a large number of woodcuts have been specially prepared to help the student in his work. It is believed that the extreme care with which these have been produced will render them of the greatest assistance to the collector in the recognition of his specimens. But he has not only to recognise his specimens--he must first catch them; and here full directions have been given to insure success in this part of his work, as well as in the management, preservation, and arrangement of his captures. The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of adding many happy hours--hours of the purest enjoyment--to the lives of those whom he has succeeded in luring into the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door World. CONTENTS PART I _STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_ CHAP. PAGE I. GENERAL CHARACTERS 1 II. THE EGG 16 III. THE LARVA 22 IV. THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS 40 V. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA 55 PART II _WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD_ VI. CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 63 VII. COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ 98 VIII. REARING LEPIDOPTERA 112 IX. SETTING AND PRESERVING 122 X. PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ 130 XI. THE CABINET--ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS 134 PART III _BRITISH BUTTERFLIES_ XII. THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 139 XIII. THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR 154 XIV. THE BROWNS AND HEATHS 173 XV. THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES 183 XVI. THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS 196 PART IV _COMMON BRITISH MOTHS_ XVII. SPHINGES 203 XVIII. BOMBYCES 217 XIX. THE NOCTUÆ 239 XX. GEOMETRÆ 268 XXI. THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA 290 APPENDICES I. COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA 309 II. THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR 326 REFERENCES TO COLOURED PLATES 347 INDEX 351 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS _COLOURED PLATES_ 1-7. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES _Frontispiece_ 8. LARVÆ AND PUPÆ OF BRITISH BUTTERFLIES } 9. SPHINGES } 10. BOMBYCES } _At end_ 11. NOCTUÆ } 12. NOCTUA AND GEOMETRÆ } _Full references accompany the Plates._ _ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT_ FIG. PAGE 1. SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES 1 2. PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH SOME OF THE SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED 2 3. BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE 3 4. SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT 4 5. ANTENNÆ OF BUTTERFLIES 5 6. ANTENNÆ OF MOTHS 5 7. SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY 7 8. DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY 9 9. THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY 10 10. THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Pieris Brassicæ_) 14 11. EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY 20 12. EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY 20 13. EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH 20 14. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY 22 15. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY 23 16. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR BUTTERFLY 24 17. AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_) 25 18. ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_) 25 19. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH (_Meticulosa_) 26 20. WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR 28 21. LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_) 28 22. LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH (_Pulchella_) 28 23. LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_) 28 24. CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH (_Dromedarius_) 29 25. LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_) 29 26. THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR 30 27. THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS 33 28. THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH 40 29. THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET (_Filipendulæ_) 40 30. THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_) 44 31. THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Brassicæ_) 44 32. THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Aglaia_) 45 33. THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Cratægi_) 45 34. THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH 45 35. PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_) 45 36. A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING 50 37. A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER) 57 38. A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC) 57 39. A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET 65 40. STICK FOR THE NET 65 41. THE METAL Y 66 42. PATTERN FOR THE NET 67 43. THE CYANIDE BOTTLE 68 44. SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX 70 45. THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE 72 46. } 47. } FITTINGS FOR THE COLLECTING BOX 75 48. } 49. } 50. FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS AND WINDOWS 87 51. A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS 88 52. METAL JOINT FOR LANTERN AND NET 91 53. NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH BLOSSOMS 91 54. FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET 94 55. CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES 96 56. A SUGAR TRAP 96 57. A LARVA GLASS 114 58. A LARVA GLASS 114 59. A LARVA CAGE 115 60. SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD 123 61. SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS 123 62. A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD 124 63. ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 126 64. A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVÆ 131 65. THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE 147 66. THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE 151 67. THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 155 68. THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 156 69. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 157 70. THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 158 71. THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY 159 72. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 160 73. THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 161 74. The GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 162 75. THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE 164 76. THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE 172 77. THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE 174 78. THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE 176 79. THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE 178 80. THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE 179 81. THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE 180 82. THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE 181 83. THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE 184 84. THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK 184 85. THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE 186 86. THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK 186 87. THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE 188 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE 189 89. THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE 191 90. THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE 191 91. THE CHALK-HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE 192 92. THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE 193 93. THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE 194 94. THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE 194 95. THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE 195 96. THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE 201 97. THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH 205 98. THE LARVA OF ATROPOS 206 99. THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIÆ 207 100. THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH 208 101. THE POPLAR HAWK 209 102. THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK 212 103. THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR 213 104. THE CURRANT CLEARWING 213 105. THE FORESTER 214 106. THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET 215 107. THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULÆ 215 108. THE GREEN SILVER-LINED 217 109. THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH 218 110. THE MUSLIN MOTH 218 111. THE COMMON FOOTMAN 219 112. THE LARVA OF JACOBÆÆ 219 113. THE SCARLET TIGER 220 114. THE BUFF ERMINE 222 115. THE WHITE ERMINE 222 116. THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE 223 117. THE COMMON SWIFT 224 118. THE GOAT MOTH 225 119. THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL SIZE) 225 120. THE LEOPARD MOTH 226 121. THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN) 226 122. THE BROWN TAIL 227 123. THE GIPSY--MALE 227 124. THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE 228 125. THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE 228 126. THE FEMALE VAPOURER 228 127. LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH 229 128. THE DRINKER--MALE 230 129. THE OAK HOOK TIP 233 130. THE CHINESE CHARACTER 233 131. THE POPLAR KITTEN 234 132. THE PUSS MOTH 235 133. THE COXCOMB PROMINENT 235 134. THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA 236 135. THE CHOCOLATE TIP 237 136. THE PEACH BLOSSOM 237 137. THE YELLOW HORNED 238 138. THE MARBLED BEAUTY 240 139. THE GREY DAGGER 240 140. THE POPLAR GREY 241 141. THE FIGURE OF EIGHT 241 142. THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE 242 143. THE SMOKY WAINSCOT 243 144. THE COMMON WAINSCOT 243 145. THE BULLRUSH 244 146. THE FROSTED ORANGE 245 147. THE FLAME 245 148. THE LIGHT ARCHES 246 149. THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC 246 150. THE CABBAGE MOTH 247 151. THE DOT 247 152. THE RUSTIC SHOULDER-KNOT 248 153. THE MARBLED MINOR 248 154. THE MOTTLED RUSTIC 249 155. THE TURNIP MOTH 250 156. THE HEART AND DART 251 157. THE GARDEN DART 251 158. THE FLAME SHOULDER 252 159. THE LESSER BROAD BORDER 252 160. THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING 253 161. THE GOTHIC 254 162. THE OLD LADY 254 163. THE COMMON QUAKER 255 164. THE CHESTNUT 256 165. THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW 256 166. THE DUN-BAR 257 167. THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE 257 168. THE ANGLE SHADES 258 169. THE GREY ARCHES 259 170. THE SHEARS 260 171. THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE 260 172. THE EARLY GREY 261 173. THE SHARK 262 174. THE BURNISHED BRASS 263 175. THE SILVER Y 264 176. THE RED UNDERWING 266 177. THE LIGHT EMERALD 270 178. THE AUGUST THORN 271 179. THE PEPPERED MOTH 272 180. THE WILLOW BEAUTY 273 181. THE LARGE EMERALD 274 182. THE COMMON EMERALD 274 183. THE LACE BORDER 275 184. THE RIBAND WAVE 276 185. THE BLOOD-VEIN 276 186. THE COMMON WAVE 277 187. THE CLOUDED SILVER 277 188. THE V MOTH 278 189. THE COMMON HEATH 279 190. THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE 279 191. THE CURRANT MOTH 280 192. THE SPRING USHER 281 193. THE MARCH MOTH 282 194. THE NOVEMBER MOTH 282 195. THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET 283 196. THE GRASS RIVULET 283 197. THE NETTED PUG 284 198. THE NARROW-WINGED PUG 284 199. THE BRINDLED PUG 284 200. THE SMALL SERAPHIM 285 201. THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET 285 202. THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET 286 203. THE COMMON CARPET 286 204. THE SILVER GROUND CARPET 287 205. THE GARDEN CARPET 287 206. THE YELLOW SHELL 288 207. THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX 288 208. THE SMALL MALLOW 289 209. THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH 291 210. THE MEAL MOTH 292 211. THE SMALL MAGPIE 292 212. THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL 293 213. THE GARDEN PEBBLE 293 214. THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK 294 215. GONODACTYLA 295 216. OSTEODACTYLUS 295 217. PENTADACTYLA 295 218. HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED 296 219. PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF 297 220. HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED 297 221. TRISTELLUS 297 222. HORTUELLUS 298 223. MELLONELLA 298 224. XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED 299 225. VIRIDANA 300 226. CRISTANA--ENLARGED 300 227. LECHEANA 300 228. PRUNIANA 300 229. SALICELLA 301 230. OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED 301 231. CIRSIANA--ENLARGED 302 232. POMONELLA 302 233. ZOEGANA--ENLARGED 302 234. FAGELLA 303 235. CUPRELLA 304 236. PADELLUS 304 237. NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE 304 238. GEOFFRELLA 305 239. IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED 305 240. COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED 306 241. AURELLA--ENLARGED 307 PART I STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA CHAPTER I _GENERAL CHARACTERS_ The word _Lepidoptera_, which you see at the head of this page, is the name of the order of insects to which this volume is to be devoted. It is formed from two Greek words, one (_lepis_) signifying a _scale_, and the other (_pteron_) denoting a _wing_; and was applied by the great naturalist Linnæus to the scaly-winged insects popularly known as Butterflies and Moths. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES.] Every one of my readers has undoubtedly handled some of the interesting creatures of this group--having been led to do so either by the extreme beauty of their clothing, or, perhaps, from a murderous intent in order to protect his own garments from the ravages of a supposed marauder. A light mealy powder will probably have been observed afterwards on the fingers that have touched the victim's wings. This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy surface when spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite form or structure without a more minute examination. Yet these are the scales that led the immortal naturalist to invent the somewhat long but useful term _Lepidoptera_. The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little of the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a strip of white paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a powerful lens or the low power of a compound microscope. What a sight you will then behold! Each little particle of dust is a beautifully formed scale, stamped with a number of minute rounded projections, and often displaying the most gorgeous colours. A great variety of designs and tints are often exhibited by the 'dust' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your inspection, scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly (Plate III), and you will be surprised at the pleasing contrasts. But when your curiosity leads you to deal with others in the same manner, the varied display of forms and colours is simply amazing. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH SOME OF THE SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED.] In order that we may learn still more of the structure of the wings of the _Lepidoptera_, we will examine a portion of one from which some of the scales have been removed, again bringing the lens or the microscope into our service. We now see that the scales are arranged in rows with great regularity on a thin and transparent membrane, which is supported by a system of branching rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which have been laid bare, is marked with regular rows of dots--the points at which the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow rods. The framework that supports the thin membrane we have spoken of as consisting of a system of _rays_, but to these the terms _veins_, _nerves_, _nervures_, or _nervules_ are more commonly applied by various naturalists. We cannot do better, however, than adhere to the name originally used, for the structures in question do not perform the functions of veins, though at first they contain blood, nor are they themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects to which they belong. The result of our examination of the wings of butterflies and moths has been to justify the application of the term _Lepidoptera_; but we must now study other equally important and interesting features of the structure of these insects. First, let us note the general form of the body. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE. 1-7, segments of the abdomen; 8, anal extremity; _a_, antennæ; _b_, tarsus; _c_, tibia; _d_, femur; _e_, palpi; _f_, head; _g_, thorax.] A cursory glance at this portion of the creature's anatomy will show that it consists of three distinct and well-defined parts. In front there is the head, the size of which is somewhat small in proportion. Two very large eyes make up the greater portion of its bulk. It is remarkable, too, that butterflies possess eyes proportionately much larger than those of moths. Now, since butterflies always fly by day, and moths are, generally speaking, nocturnal insects, we might be led to suppose that the reverse of this arrangement would have suited the creatures better; for a small eye, we should think, would be able to collect sufficient light in the daytime to form a bright image, and a larger light-receiving area would be necessary during the darker hours for the same purpose. But it is evident that the sense of vision must depend on other conditions besides the size of the eye; and as these conditions are not understood in relation to the eyes of insects, any attempt at an explanation would be quite useless. The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy of a closer examination, for it is a most beautiful and marvellous structure. The outer globular transparent membrane--the _cornea_--is divided into a large number of minute polygonal _facets_, each one of which admits light into a small conical compartment surrounded by a coloured membrane, and supplied with a fibre of the nerve of vision (the _optic_ nerve). Hence the eye is often spoken of as _compound_. If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths you will generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or black; but when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the most gorgeous hues of metallic brilliancy--gold, copper, and bronze--are to be observed. All such colours are due to the reflection of light from the colouring matter that lies between the numerous conical compartments. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT.] A glance at the section of a compound eye will show you that all the little cones radiate from a common centre. And, as each little compartment is surrounded by opaque colouring matter, it is clear that perpendicular rays only are capable of penetrating to its base and exciting the nerve fibre that lies there. Thus each little division of a compound eye forms its own image of the object that happens to be exactly opposite its facet. But how many facets do we find in a single eye? Sometimes only a few hundreds, but sometimes as many as seventeen or eighteen thousand! We must not, however, conclude that the nature of the vision of butterflies and moths is necessarily very different from our own. We have two eyes, but the images formed by them are both blended, so that we do not see double. We can understand, therefore, that the thousands of images formed in a single eye may be blended together so as to form one continuous picture. Still there remains this difference: while in our own case the two images formed by the two eyes are practically the same, in the case of insects every one of the little conical tubes of a compound eye forms an image of an object that cannot possibly be formed by any one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous insect sees a continuous picture of its surroundings, such a picture is produced by the overlapping and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or thousands of distinct parts. There is yet another interesting difference between the vision of these insects and that of ourselves. As already stated, our two eyes are both turned toward the same point at the same time. But look at the butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs, and the two eyes, placed as they are at the _sides_ of the head, are always turned in _opposite_ directions. The corneæ, too, are very convex; and consequently the range of vision is vastly wider than ours. A boy is often easily surprised by a playmate who approaches him stealthily from behind, but did you ever try the same game with a butterfly? I have, many a time. After getting cautiously so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish between its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round it so as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the impression that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all ways at once. In addition to the two compound eyes, the _Lepidoptera_, or at least most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes; but these are generally so hidden among the closely set hair that covers the head, that it is doubtful whether they are of much service as organs of vision. [Illustration: FIG. 5.--ANTENNÆ OF BUTTERFLIES.] [Illustration: FIG. 6.--ANTENNÆ OF MOTHS.] The antennæ proceed from two points close to the upper borders of the eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very different forms in the various species of _Lepidoptera_. They are generally long, slender, and clubbed at the extremity in butterflies, but exhibit several minor points of difference which we shall have to note later on. In moths the antennæ are sometimes long, slender, and pointed. Some are thick, and more or less prismatic in form; while others are slightly or deeply pectinated or comb-like. The antennæ of butterflies are always straight, or only slightly curved; and, although the insects can sway them bodily, they have no power to bend them, or to stow them away in any place of shelter. Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost invariably found to have their antennæ snugly tucked under the wings, and brought so closely against the side of the head for this purpose that even the uncovered portion is often difficult to find. There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the heads of the _Lepidoptera_. These are the _labial palpi_ or feelers of the lips. They are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the under side of the head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to give one the idea of a snout or long nose. The palpi are jointed--usually in three parts--are covered with scales, and often furnished with hairs or bristles. If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the sweet juices of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with which you have provided it, you will observe its long trunk or _proboscis_, by which food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and slender that it seems almost impossible that it can be a tube through which a liquid freely passes. But a careful examination will show that this is the case. It is composed of two separate pieces--two half tubes, which, when closely applied to each other, form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly air-tight and adapted for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or moth manipulating with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in some way or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that it now looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time, the two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic, become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed without a powerful magnifier. In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement we must have recourse to the aid of a good microscope. Thus assisted, we can see at once how the junction of the two sides of the proboscis is brought about so quickly and so perfectly. The inner edges of each half are very regularly fringed with lines of closely set hairs--so regular, in fact, are they, that they give one the idea of long yet minute beautifully formed combs. When the two parts are brought together, the hairs of two opposite edges interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces between those of the other. The microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that the proboscis is not a single tube, but, although so remarkably thin, is really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for sucking up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the uses of the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the latter are air tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the insect; while others say that through these the insects eject a thin watery fluid with which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats that are not sufficiently liquid to be readily sucked up. But possibly both these opinions are correct, the proboscis serving all three of the purposes here named. The only observation of my own bearing on the subject is this. While a moth was feeding on a drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens revealed drops, of liquid, mingled with bubbles of air, passing alternately _up and down_ the two lateral tubes of the proboscis. At the same time the upward current of syrup in the central tube was by no means steady and continuous. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY.] When this organ is not in use, it is beautifully coiled into a close spiral which lies between the labial palpi. The length varies considerably in different insects, and consequently the number of turns in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes there are less than two turns, while some of the longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns. In concluding our brief account of the head of lepidopterous insects it is, I suppose, hardly necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing apparatus to be described; all the members of this order, at least in the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they require entirely by suction through the proboscis or 'trunk.' The second division of the body is the _thorax_. This is much larger than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments, joined one behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction are hardly visible, even after the thick clothing of fine hair has been brushed off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed of several segments, the junctions between the rings often being most distinct. From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the general structure of which we have already to a certain extent examined. But when we are a little farther advanced in our insect studies, we shall have to become acquainted with detailed descriptions given as aids to the identification of species. Now, such descriptions cannot be satisfactory, either to the one who gives or to him who receives, unless expressed in such definite terms as render a misunderstanding impossible. A botanist cannot give an accurate and concise description of a flower without the use of certain names and expressions which have gradually become an almost necessary part of his vocabulary; neither can an entomologist give a really useful, and, at the same time, a _succinct_ description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the names of its parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various species of butterflies and moths _mainly_ by the arrangement and colour of the markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should know the names of the different parts of these organs. For this reason I have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterfly, together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also the names of the principal rays or _nervures_. Yet I would not advise any young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory all the names given. Rather use the diagram for reference when occasion requires, more particularly when you have an insect in your possession that you desire to study. In ordinary descriptions of butterflies and moths the names of the _nervures_ are not so generally used as those of the _parts_ of the wing. Consequently it is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the terms _base_, _costal margin_, _apex_, _hind margin_, _anal angle_, _inner margin_, _discoidal cell_ &c. as applied to the wing. The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third segments of the thorax; but of the _three_ pairs of legs, which we have next to consider, one pair arises from each of the three segments. The arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the sketch on page 3, as are also the names of the different parts of the limb, the latter being given for reference by the reader when the need arises. All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs of legs; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies, such as the Marbled White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or Heaths, it is quite likely that you will raise objection to such a statement; for in these you may possibly see only four legs. But this is the result of a too cursory observation. Look a little more closely at your specimen, and you will see a pair of smaller legs folded up under the fore part of the thorax. By means of a blunt needle you can straighten out these limbs, and then the difference in length to be observed between them and the other four is very striking indeed. They are also thinner than the middle and hind legs; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY. I. _Fore wing._--1-5, subcostal nervules; 6, 7, discoidal nervules; 8-10, median nervules; 11, submedian nervure; 12, internal nervure; 13-15, disco-cellular nervules; 16, interno-median nervule; 17, median nervure; 18, subcostal nervure; _a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or anterior margin; _c_, apex or anterior angle; _d_, posterior or hind margin; _e_, posterior or anal angle; _f_, interior or inner margin; _g_, base; _h_, discoidal cell. II. _Hind wing._--1, 2, subcostal nervules; 3, discoidal nervule; 4-6, median nervules; 7, submedian nervure; 8, precostal nervure; 9, subcostal nervure; 10, median nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules; _a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or anterior margin; _c_, apex or anterior angle; _d_, hind margin; _e_, tail or caudal appendage; _f_, anal angle; _g_, abdominal or inner margin; _h_, base.] These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as far as walking is concerned; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to whether they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one occasion, however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently engaged in cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ was frequently passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of legs were pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn outward between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs constitute a pair of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of the divided trunk are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may lodge therein. It is certain that moths, and those butterflies that possess six _equal_ legs, use the front pair for this same purpose. The former, also, employ them for brushing their antennæ, which seem to be, by the way, particularly sensitive to different kinds of irritation. [Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY.] It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful influence on certain small insects; and even though it can hardly be regarded as a perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more or less objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time since, while watching a number of newly emerged moths of the _Sphinx_ group, and at the same time enjoying the solace afforded by the luxurious weed, a puff of the smoke was accidentally allowed to play into the box in which my pets were for the time imprisoned. Immediately they rubbed their front legs vigorously over the antennæ, as if to remove the obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on their presence. Similar observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the antennæ are the seat of various senses, such as those of touch, hearing, and smell. Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know, possess special organs for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it is interesting to note here that some insects certainly experience other sensations which are quite beyond our ken), we can quite understand the common tendency to locate the seats of certain of the senses in such easily affected parts as the antennæ. But little, I believe, has been definitely proved save that the antennæ are sensitive to touch and to irritants generally. While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness that has been observed in certain moths of the family _Bombyces_ (page 217)--notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish Glory. Take a newly emerged female of either of these species, shut her up in a small box, conceal the box in your pocket, and then walk about in some country spot known to you as being one of the haunts of that species of moth. Then, if any of the males of the same species happen to be in the neighbourhood, they will settle or hover about close to the female which, although still concealed and quite out of their reach, has attracted them to the spot. What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables the insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable distances, even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the material of a coat pocket! You would naturally expect that entomologists have turned this wonderful power to account. Many a box has been filled with the beautiful Kentish Glories of the male kind, who had been led into the snare by the attractions of a virgin Glory that they were never to behold. Many an Emperor has also been decoyed from his throne to the place of his execution, beguiled by the imaginary charms of an Empress on whom he was never to cast one passing glance. And these and other similar captures have been made in places where, without the employment of the innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been found, even after the most diligent search. Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert to the antennæ; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those species of moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their mates, are just those that are also remarkable for their very broad and deeply pectinated antennæ--a fact that has led to the supposition that the power in question is located in the antennæ, and is also proportional to the amount of surface displayed by these organs. Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly and moth in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that the former is not _always_ a butterfly, nor is the latter always a moth; but that they both pass through certain preparatory stages before they attain their final winged state. We shall now notice briefly what these earlier stages are, leaving the detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters. The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short duration, often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence having been spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed ... in fields of light, And where the flowers of Paradise unfold. It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses of insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them fit for the work they have to do. It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is to remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter. If they are to do this work effectually, it is clear that they must be very voracious feeders, and also be capable of multiplying their species prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special development of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal development of one set must necessarily be produced at the expense of the other. Hence we find insects existing in two distinct stages, with or without an intermediate quiescent state, during the first of which the digestive apparatus is enormously developed, while the reproductive organs occupy but very little space; then, during the other stage, the digestive apparatus is of the simplest possible description, and the organs of reproduction are in a perfect state of development. Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal of surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life should be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect state _need_ not occupy any more time than is necessary for the fertilisation of the eggs that almost completely fill the body of the female at the time of her emergence from the chrysalis shell. Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees, but the _Lepidoptera_, after existing for some considerable period without any important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid transition into the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not altered in general form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis within the course of a few days; and again, after a period of quiescence that may extend throughout the whole of the colder months, becomes a perfect butterfly or moth within twenty minutes of the moment of its emergence. But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be proved by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of growth; showing that we are led astray by the rapidity of _external_ changes--the mere _moultings_ or castings of the skin--while the gradual transformations proceeding within are not so readily observed. We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or moth is short. A few days after emergence from the chrysalis case, the female deposits her eggs on the leaves or stems of the plant that is to sustain the larvæ. Her work is now accomplished, and the few days more allowed her are spent in frolicking among the flowers, and sucking the sweet juices they provide. But males and females alike--bedecked with the most gorgeous colours and overflowing with sportive mirth when first they take to the wing--soon show the symptoms of a fast approaching end. Their colours begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings gradually disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of flowers visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still high in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy and laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching night. Here, on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle breeze. Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls it out for its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to be supported by the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two weak attempts at play, incited by the approach of a younger and merrier companion, it settles down in its final resting place. On the following morning a dead butterfly is seen, still clinging by its claws to a swinging stem, from which it is eventually thrown during a storm. The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except that it is generally summoned to activity by the approach of darkness. We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that quality which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with the deposition of the eggs, and the parents are dead before the young larvæ have penetrated the shell that surrounds them. Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females generally lay their eggs on the very plants that provide the necessary food for their progeny, as if they were not only conscious of and careful concerning the exact requirements of their offspring, but also possessed such a knowledge of botanical science as enabled them to discriminate between the plant required and all others. Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently careful selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs? Does the female herself derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen for this purpose? In most cases, certainly not. For it often happens that the blossom of this plant is not by any means one of those that supply the sweets which insects love, and still more frequently does it occur that the eggs are deposited either before the flowers have appeared or after they have faded. Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acquired knowledge of the nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaintance with botany sufficient to enable her to distinguish plant forms. Our only solution of the problem (which is really no solution at all) is to attribute the whole thing to that inexplicable quality which we are pleased to term _natural instinct_. It is to be observed, however, that it is not _all_ butterflies and moths that display this unerring power. Some few seem to deposit their eggs indiscriminately on all kinds of herbage. But, I believe, the larvæ of these species are generally grass feeders, and would seldom have to travel far from any spot without meeting with an acceptable morsel. [Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Pieris Brassicæ_). _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, imago; _d_, egg.] But we must now pass on to a brief consideration of the other stages of the insect's existence. After a time, varying from a few days to several months, the young caterpillars or larvæ make their appearance. They soon commence feeding in right earnest. Their period of existence in this state varies from a few weeks to several months, and even, in some cases, to years. During this time their growth is generally very rapid, and they undergo a series of _moults_ or changes of skin, of which we shall have more to say in a future chapter. Then, when fully grown, they prepare for an apparently quiescent form, which we speak of as the _pupa_ or chrysalis, and in which they again spend a very variable period, extending over a few days, weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a protective case, each pupa is undergoing a remarkable change. Some of its old organs are disappearing, and others are developing; and, after all the parts of the future insect have been developed as far as its narrow shell will permit, it bursts forth into the world as a perfect insect or _imago_. Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most unsightly fashion; but it is not long before they assume their full size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about another hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have become sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly through the air. We have thus observed some of the more striking features in the structure of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state; and alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through which these creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching this stage. But now we must study these earlier stages more closely, and watch the insects during the marvellous transitions they are destined to undergo. This we shall do in the following chapters. CHAPTER II _THE EGG_ I suppose you are all acquainted with the general structure of the hen's egg, having dissected several, in your own way, many a time. Its outer covering, which you speak of as the 'shell,' you have observed is hard and brittle. It is composed of a _calcareous_ or limy substance, known chemically as _carbonate of lime_. If you put some pieces of it into an egg cup, and throw over them a little vinegar or any other liquid acid, you will see them gradually dissolve away, and small bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise into the air. Then again, if you take a long and narrow strip of the shell, and hold one end of it in a gas or lamp flame, after a short time that end will become softer, and will glow brightly in the flame, for it is converted into lime--the same substance that is used by the builders for making their mortar--and the bright glow is really a miniature _lime light_, such as is always produced when a piece of lime is made intensely hot. Just inside this shell you have seen a thin membrane or skin that is easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to this comes the 'white' of the egg, which is really colourless while liquid, but turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last of all, in the centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass that is termed the 'yoke' or 'yolk,' and which contains the embryo of the future chick. Now if you imagine this egg to be reduced in size till two or three dozen of them would be required to form a single line about one inch long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the skin or membrane to be converted into a firmer substance of a horny nature, and, finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole internal space to be filled with the 'white,' you will then have some idea of the nature of the egg of a butterfly or moth. To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs of these insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colourless substance, surrounded by a horny and flexible covering. Such a description may certainly give you some idea of the nature of the eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading will serve the purpose so well or be so pleasant as the examination of the eggs themselves. During the summer months very little difficulty will be experienced in finding some eggs in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their under surfaces, choosing especially those plants which show, by their partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect world. Or you may amuse yourself by catching a number of butterflies--common 'Whites' are as good for the purpose as any--and temporarily confine them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing a number of leaves from various plants, and covered with gauze. In this way you are sure to obtain a few females that have not yet laid all their eggs; and if you watch your prisoners you will soon see them carefully depositing the eggs on the under surfaces of leaves, bending their abdomens round the edges if there is not sufficient room to get themselves completely under. And then, when you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus obtained for your examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all your liberated captives flying joyfully in the free air. In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the reader has not yet learnt any of the characters by which female butterflies are to be distinguished from their lords and masters; but I hope that he will know soon, at least with regard to a good many species, from which individuals he may most reasonably expect to obtain eggs, and so be able to avoid the imprisonment, even though only temporary, of insects which cannot satisfy his wants. Again, it is not necessary, after all, that butterflies should be captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they hover about among your flowers. Some, you will observe, are intent on nothing but idle frolicking; and you may conclude at once that _these_ have no immediate duty to perform. Others are flying without hesitation from flower to flower, gorging themselves with the sweets of life: these are not the objects of your search. But you will descry certain others, flying round about the beds and borders with a steadier and more matronly air, taking little or no notice of their more frivolous companions, and paying not the slightest heed to the bright nectar-producing cups of the numerous flowers. These are seriously engaged with family affairs only. Watch one of them carefully, and as soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily towards her till you are near enough to observe her movements. She will not move unless you approach too closely, for, like busy folk generally, she has no time to worry about petty annoyances. You will now actually witness the deposition of the eggs exactly as carried on in the perfect freedom of nature; and the eggs themselves may be taken either for examination or for the rearing of the caterpillars. Some species of _Lepidoptera_ lay some hundreds of eggs, and it is seldom that the number laid by one female is much below a hundred. As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally chosen for the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are considering always select the upper surface for this purpose. Thus the Puss Moth (page 235), and two or three others resembling it, though much smaller, known as the Kittens (page 234), invariably lay them on the upper surface. And this is the more surprising since the eggs of these moths are brown or black, and consequently so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in danger of being sighted by the numerous enemies of insects. The Hairstreak Butterflies (page 183) afford another exception to the general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the _bark_ of the trees and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their larvæ feed. At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a liquid sticky substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem as soon as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing the egg to be so firmly fastened in its place that it is often impossible to force it off without destroying it completely. Some of the _Lepidoptera_ deposit their eggs singly, or in small irregular clusters; but by far the larger number set them very regularly side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be impossible to place them on a smaller area without piling one on top of another. This is not accomplished with the aid of the sight, for the insect performing her task with such precision often has her head on one side of a leaf or stem while arranging her eggs on the other. If you take the trouble to watch her, you will see that she carefully _feels_ out a place for each egg by means of the tip of her abdomen immediately before laying it. The eggs are laid by moths and butterflies at various seasons of the year. In some cases they are deposited early in the spring, even before the buds of the food plants have burst; and the young larvæ, hatched a few weeks later, commence to feed on the young and tender leaves. Then, throughout the late spring, the whole of the summer and autumn, and even till the winter frosts set in, the eggs of various species are being laid. Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in a few days, but those laid toward the autumn remain unchanged until the following spring. In this latter case the frosts of the most severe winter are not capable of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances the perfect insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature of an average winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that they have been subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of fifty degrees below the freezing point, and even after this the young larvæ walked out of their cradles at their appointed time just as if nothing unusual had occurred. Experiments have also been performed on the eggs with a view of determining how far their vitality is influenced by high temperatures. We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no destructive influence on them, but these experiments prove that they are not influenced by a temperature only twenty degrees below the boiling point--actually a considerably higher temperature than is _necessary_ to properly cook a hen's egg. Let us now examine a number of eggs of different species, that we may note some of the many variations in form and colour. With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs of a few species are black; but more commonly they are much lighter--pearly white, green, yellow, and grey being of frequent occurrence. The great variety of form, however, will provide a vast amount of enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifying lens or a small compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval; while many others represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we have miniature vases, flasks, bottles with short necks, and numerous figures that must remind a juvenile admirer of the sweet cakes and ornamental jellies that have so often gladdened his longing eyes. Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are even more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly ribbed from top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at the same time marked with delicate transverse lines. Others are beautifully pitted or honeycombed, some ornamented with the most faithful representation of fine wicker-work, while a few are provided with a cap, more or less ornamental, that is raised by the young larva when about to see the world for the first time. A few of these beautiful forms are here illustrated and named, and another has already appeared on page 14, but an enthusiastic young naturalist may easily secure a variety of others for his own examination. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY.] [Illustration: FIG. 12.--EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY.] [Illustration: FIG. 13.--EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.] It may be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that the form of the egg is always the same for any one species. This is really the case, and consequently an experienced entomologist can often decide on the name of the butterfly or moth that deposited a cluster of eggs he happens to find in his rambles and searchings; but in such decisions he is always greatly assisted by a knowledge of the food plants of the various insects, and sometimes also by the manner in which the eggs are arranged. We have seen that the period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on the season in which they were laid; but it is often possible to tell when to expect the young larvæ by certain changes which take place in the appearance of the egg. As the horny covering of the egg is transparent, the gradual development of the caterpillar from the clear fluid can be watched to a certain extent; but if you have a microscope, and would like to witness this development to perfection, proceed as follows. Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on strips of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work--three inches long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work. This is easily accomplished by placing a proper selection of female insects in a rather small box temporarily lined with such 'slips.' When a few eggs have thus been secured, all you have to do is to examine them at intervals with your microscope, always using the reflector so as to direct a strong light _through_ the eggs from below. But even without such an arrangement some interesting changes are to be observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg turns darker as the time for the arrival of the infant larva approaches, and you will often be able to see a little brown or black head moving slightly within the 'shell.' You may know then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements of the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small hole appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark cap begins to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind, you may see a pair of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not with an up-and-down motion like our own, gradually gnawing away at the cradle, till at last the little creature is perfectly free to ramble in search of food. Strange to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of the horny substance that must necessarily be removed in securing its liberty, but devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it appreciates the flavour of this viand so highly that it often disposes of the whole of its little home, with the exception of the small circular patch by which it was cemented to the plant. When the whole brood have thus dispensed with their empty cradles, there remains on the stem or leaf a glittering patch of little pearly plates. After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts off in life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence as if it had previously spent a term in the world under the same conditions; but we must reserve an account of its doings and sufferings for our next chapter. CHAPTER III _THE LARVA_ In almost every case the young caterpillar, on quitting the 'shell' of the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural food, and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant supply. It will either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing the soft cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will make straight for the edge, and, closing its horizontal jaws on either side, bite the leaf completely through, and thus remove a small piece each time. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY.] Several naturalists have amused themselves by performing experiments and making calculations on the efficiency of the masticating and digesting powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious Réaumur, for example, proved that some of the cabbage eaters disposed of more than twice their own weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which time their weight increased one-tenth. Let us see what this would be equivalent to in human beings: A man weighing eleven stone would devour over three hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the end of that day weigh about fifteen pounds more than he did at the beginning! So the young caterpillar eats, and rests, and grows, till, while still young, its body has become too large for the already tightened skin. It evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its appetite fails, and it remains for a time perfectly quiet in one spot, having previously spun a little carpet of silk to form a firm foothold during its temporary indisposition. Its colours have also become dingy, and anyone, not understanding the character of its growth, might easily be led to suppose that the poor creature was displaying the earlier symptoms of a serious and perhaps fatal illness. But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar begins to get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately right and left, and are also made to swell out much beyond their normal size. Then in a very short time--often less than a minute from the first appearances of restlessness--the skin, which has become somewhat dry and brittle, splits along the back over the second, third and fourth segments, revealing a new and bright coat beneath. The caterpillar continues its struggles and, in addition to the previous movements, causes the swelling to move backward along the body. This, acting like a wedge, causes the rent in the old coat to extend in that direction. [Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY.] The caterpillar now draws its head backward, and, with a few convulsive struggles, pulls the front segments out of their old skin, and passes its head out of the rent in the back. With its foremost segments thus rendered perfectly free, it walks straight out of the old garment, which is left still fixed by the legs to the silken carpet. The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is exhausted by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin, moreover, is very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head and legs, which are normally very hard. But a short period of rest suffices to dry its skin and sharpen its appetite, and then it eats more vigorously than ever. We will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look at its cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly that they can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell that covered the head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the claws and cases of the legs. All the hairs or spines that happened to adorn the previous owner still retain their positions; and the whole skin, although always more or less shrivelled, is sometimes so slightly altered in form that it might be mistaken for a living caterpillar if not closely examined. But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast _out_) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing tubes which are presently to be described. We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases (which may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first meal of the old covering. So also some of them, in their future moultings, exhibit an apparently useless economy (seeing that they are surrounded by an abundance of their natural vegetable diet) by devouring their old coats! In the face of this fact we can hardly describe them as strict vegetarians. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR BUTTERFLY.] Having thus passed through its first hardship, the caterpillar has by no means seen the end of the troubles and dangers that beset it; for, during its existence in the larval state, it has to go through a series of three, four, five, or even six moults, all of which are periods of considerable inconvenience, and perhaps even pain, and frequently prove fatal. And it is by no means an uncommon thing to meet with the lifeless body of an unfortunate individual who, as shown by its shabby appearance and the silken carpet under its feet, has evidently fallen a victim to the dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment. But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars are exposed. Throughout every hour of the day the sharp and hungry eyes of the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the leaves for such delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and their broods. The lively little lizards, too, during the sunny hours are busily engaged in searching them out among the foliage of heaths and banks. Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon and other species of flies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars with their sharp _ovipositors_, and lay their eggs within the bodies of the unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvæ are hatched from these eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty substance stored beneath the caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at first, attacking the vital organs of their host's body, and in this way secure for themselves a more lasting supply of fresh food. When the fatty substance is nearly all gone, they eat their way into the more important structures, of course steadily growing all the time; and so, even though the body of the caterpillar is rapidly diminishing, the total bulk shows often no very appreciable decrease in size. When the larvæ of the flies are fully fed, they either change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or eat their way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in which to undergo the transformation. As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the time for its metamorphosis has arrived; but it often changes to the chrysalis before its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of flies, having undergone their final transformation within the chrysalis shell (there being but little else than shell remaining of the victim's body), break forth from the remains of the carcase somewhere about the time at which the butterfly or moth should have appeared. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_).] [Illustration: FIG. 18.--ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_).] Caterpillars have also their nocturnal enemies and devourers, among which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-eating mammals. We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars; and then become acquainted with their habits, and the change to the chrysalis or pupa. Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown one of a rather large species, that is not very densely covered with hair, and examine it carefully as we note the main points in its structure. The first point that strikes our notice is the division of its body into segments or rings, separated from each other by a more or less distinct line or slight constriction of the body. There are thirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the head as the first. The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker colour than the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into two lobes by a couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of the mouth are situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to which we have already referred, are very hard and sharp, and curved like a sickle, and therefore splendidly adapted for biting from the edges of leaves. The head is also provided with a pair of antennæ, usually very short and inconspicuous and protected by a horny covering. Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound eyes, but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks, very near the mouth--six on each side. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH (_Meticulosa_).] If you examine them with a magnifier, you see that each one is provided with a small and very convex lens--a lens of very _short focus_, such as would be used for the examination of small objects held very near to the eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to conclude that the caterpillar can see only those objects that are close to its mouth; and this idea is strengthened if you place one in a box containing a number of leaves, one of which is that of its own food plant. It will wander about the box, apparently looking at every part of every leaf it passes, after the manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a general look round. A butterfly or a moth can see a flower in the distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in the straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar in the centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and nine others from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it will _not_ walk towards what it would like to have. Again, the eyes are situated on the _lower_ part of the cheek, directed slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing what is just under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge whatever of the caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably have thought that it sought out its food by some sense other than that of vision. Another important and interesting feature of the head is the silk-spinning apparatus, situated under cover of the lower lip. This consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the fluid escapes is so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the surface of any object over which it is walking, and then, by drawing or turning away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced. Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on a few special occasions, but others, more especially some of the smaller species, seem to have it always in use, so that if at any time you suddenly start them into the air by giving a smart tap to the plant or twig on which they rest, they invariably fall slowly on the end of a growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon as they consider they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you are walking through a wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thousands of little caterpillars thus suspended, swinging gently in the breeze. Not long since, after only a few minutes' walk among the trees of Epping Forest, I found I was decorated with several dozens of these swingers with which I had come into collision--in this case consisting chiefly of the larvæ of the Green Tortrix Moth (_Tortrix viridana_). Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each of the second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking legs, corresponding with those of the perfect insect. These are covered with a hard and shining substance, and are also each provided with a hook. The fifth and sixth segments have no limbs at all, nor have the eleventh and twelfth, but some or all of the others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and thirteenth) are furnished with a pair of claspers which we shall presently describe. First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from what has just been said that this is not always the same. Some caterpillars possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of walking appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the _usual_ number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to the rule. Many of the _Bombyces_ (page 217), for example, have only four pairs of claspers; and in others of the same group the fifth pair is present, but only partially developed, and quite useless for walking. Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (fig. 23)--a creature that differs from most other caterpillars not only in its claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and slender legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hindermost segment, of enormous size and mounted with a pair of clubbed 'horns.' This last segment you will observe, has no claspers. [Illustration: FIG. 20.--WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR.] [Illustration: FIG. 21--LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_).] [Illustration: FIG. 22.--LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH (_Pulchella_).] [Illustration: Fig. 23.--LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_).] Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent Moth (fig. 24). This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of the thirteenth segment are imperfectly developed. A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be found in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (page 268), one of which is here represented. These have generally only two pairs of claspers, one pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that there is a distance equal to the combined length of six segments between the hindermost true leg and the first pair of claspers. But even among the Geometers there are variations to be observed in the number of claspers, and some of these will be pointed out in our brief descriptions of the commoner species. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH (_Dromedarius_).] [Illustration: FIG. 25.--LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_).] These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by several other names. Thus they are termed 'pro-legs,' 'temporary legs,' 'false legs,' and 'abdominal legs;' but if you watch a caterpillar as it walks up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf, you will certainly agree that the term 'clasper' is everything that could be desired. But why not call them legs, seeing that they are used in walking? The reason is that they differ in many respects from the three foremost pairs of limbs as regards structure, persistency, and function. The true legs, as we have called them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis state, and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butterfly or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the caterpillar has passed into the quiescent stage. We have noticed, too, that the true legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are protected by a hard and horny covering; but examine a large caterpillar, holding it between the fingers and thumb with its under side uppermost, and you will soon see that the claspers are not at all hard, but soft and fleshy; not pointed, but often terminating in a broad flat circular surface. You will also observe, as the creature struggles to escape from your grasp, and tries to get a hold on something with its claspers, that these limbs, if we may so call them, are retractile, and are sometimes completely drawn into the body. Finally, examine the broad end of a clasper with a magnifier, and you will see it surrounded by a circle of little hooks, turning in all directions. You will no longer wonder how it is that a caterpillar can hold so tenaciously to a piece of twig that it is often almost impossible to remove it without injury. Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait. If it happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs, you see that at each stride it makes but little progress. The segments contract and relax alternately and in succession, thus sending a series of wave-like motions along the body, and urging onward the front segments while the claspers keep the hinder portion firmly fixed. [Illustration: FIG. 26.--THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR.] But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two, or perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often raising its head high in the air, and swinging its long body right and left with a most furious motion, as if to hastily scan the neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied itself as to the _direction_ of its proposed course (which, by the way, is often changed considerably at almost every stride), it holds on by the true legs and pulls its hinder quarters forward till the body forms almost a closed loop, with the fourth segment nearly touching the ninth. The claspers now become the holdfasts. The little hooks with which they are provided are firmly fixed to the surface on which it is walking; and the body being again straightened out to its utmost length, the same man[oe]uvre is repeated. So, you see, the insect progresses by strides equal in length to about six segments of the body, and these the longest segments generally; and the rate at which the strides succeed each other, especially in some of the smaller species, is really astonishing. We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and now we will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it feed. It walks up the twig without hesitation--for caterpillars (excepting those which feed on roots) always seem to move upward when in search of food--and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this it walks till it reaches the edge; and, grasping the edge firmly between the claspers, so as to give perfectly free play to its legs and head, it stretches its body at full length, and takes a series of bites as it brings its head backward in a curve. When the head has thus been brought close to its fore legs, the body is again extended, and the same ground is gone over again. If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardy one, it will bite through the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones; but the smaller species often change their position on reaching a moderately thick vein, and so devour little else than the soft cellular substance of the leaf. In any case, it is astonishing to see how rapidly the leaf disappears under the influence of the powerful jaws and marvellous digestive apparatus of the hungry grub. Those who take a delight in watching the _movements_ of caterpillars are sure to be interested in observing them when at rest; for at such times the various attitudes assumed are as pleasing and instructive as are their active moments. And these attitudes are all the more interesting on account of the mimicry by which the creatures often baffle their numerous enemies. We may profitably spend a little time in studying a few cases in point. Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their claspers to a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf itself. Here they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly straight or with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these generally fix themselves on the _under_ side of the leaves and stalks, thus securing themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes above. But some birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter; and it is really amusing to see them hopping about beneath the leaves in our gardens, every now and again slyly turning one eye upward, and smartly plucking an unwary grub from its resting place. The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely with the selection of an under surface. You will find that the bright green species invariably settle on a leaf or a _green_ stalk, while the darkly coloured insects often choose a twig covered with a brownish bark. Some even make for the _trunk_ of the tree on which they feed, and here remain quite still in a vertical position, so that they look just like a ridge in the bark, the colour of which is faithfully imitated by their skin. Further, many of the caterpillars that resort to this stratagem have bodies that are notched or knotted and spotted in such a manner that the resemblance to their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any but the most experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of these mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take in their quantum of provisions during the dark hours, and practise their deceptions throughout the day. Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already spoken, are well trained in the art of deception. You are out on a caterpillar hunt, and engaged in carefully turning over the twigs of the hazel or some other shrub, so that you may the more readily examine the under surfaces of the leaves. At last you lay hold of a small broken twig for this very purpose. To your astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between your fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar that was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig, supported by its two pairs of claspers, and coloured and knotted exactly like the little branch on which it rested. At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the same group, supporting themselves in exactly the same manner on a small twig, and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the blade had fallen or been devoured. What a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the claspers and the tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to fix itself and retain its position for so long a time! Imagine an acrobat fixing himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing out his body at an angle, and without any further support retaining his position motionless for several hours! Other experiences of the larva hunter are equally interesting and, perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very cautiously turning over the leaves of a certain food plant from which he hopes to obtain the larva of a much-coveted species. Then, just as his eye catches a glimpse of the very object of his search, down falls the caterpillar, rolled up into a little ball, among the herbage below. This latter is diligently and patiently examined. But no, the anticipated prize is nowhere to be seen. It is probably a green one, and this adds to the difficulty of the patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates the low herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and deeper into the maze. Many caterpillars avoid capture in this manner, while others seek to avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even when roughly handled. They allow themselves to drop from their resting place on the slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm is over and all is quiet again, they ascend the food plant and resume their position. Some caterpillars not only rest, but even feed under cover, quite secure from most, if not all, of their enemies. Several of them feed on roots, and many a farmer can relate sad experiences of the havoc committed by these caterpillars on his turnips and other crops. Then there are those which feed on flowers and buds, completely burying themselves in the dense mass of food. [Illustration: FIG. 27.--THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS.] We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding places and attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the leaf miners and leaf rollers. The former are very small caterpillars--the larvæ of certain small moths--that eat burrows into leaves without doing any considerable injury to the outer _epidermis_, and thus prepare a safe resting place within the substance of their food. The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure by curling a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding it in position by means of a number of silken threads. If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced that a considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must be necessary to hold it in position; but, if you would like to know how a very small and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a comparatively large and rigid leaf, you must watch the little creature at its work. You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker, for such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of their self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant, and you will soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extraordinary work. At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of a leaf to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not tight by any means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position. But now the little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to prove a knowledge of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn is pulled _at right angles_ at its middle, and then fastened by means of the creature's spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of the leaf is bent round _a little_; and when at last the cylinder is completed, a number of other threads are stretched across from the scroll to the flat part of the leaf to secure it firmly in its place. Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits: that is, they are always found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a large number of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters either throughout their larval state or, perhaps, only while young. In many such cases it is difficult or even impossible to find any reason for this gregarious tendency--to discover any advantage that the insects may derive from the habit. Many species, however, are true co-operators in the defence of their communities. The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes several scores in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated mass of silk fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join together, form a safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to the chrysalis state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar 'nests' are to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows. Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must have a word to say about the breathing apparatus, more especially as in our future descriptions we shall frequently have to mention the colours and markings which surround the openings in its body through which the air supply is admitted. If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using a lens if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little round holes, often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent colour. These are the _spiracles_ or openings of a series of air tubes called _tracheæ_. These latter divide and subdivide within the body of the caterpillar, the branches of one often uniting with those of another, thus forming a really complicated arrangement of air pipes by which the supply of oxygen is distributed. A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheæ will show that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm substance. This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open, and secures for the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a contraction of the segments would otherwise cause the tubes to collapse. There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body, and never more than one in the side of the same segment. The head, which we have been regarding as the first segment, has no spiracles. The second segment has a pair--one on each side. There are none in the third and fourth; but all the segments, from the fifth to the twelfth inclusive, have each a pair; the last (thirteenth) segment has none. We have already observed the general arrangement of the caterpillar's limbs; but perhaps it may be interesting and even convenient to the reader to give here a little table that will show at a glance the disposition of both limbs and spiracles. First segment--head Two short antennæ, two jaws, and twelve eyes. Second " Legs and spiracles. Third " Legs only. Fourth " Legs only. Fifth " Spiracles only. Sixth " Spiracles only. Seventh " Spiracles, and sometimes claspers. Eighth " Spiracles, and sometimes claspers. Ninth " Spiracles, and sometimes claspers. Tenth " Spiracles, and generally claspers. Eleventh " Spiracles only. Twelfth " Spiracles only. Thirteenth " Claspers only, and these occasionally absent. We must now watch the caterpillar through its later days, to see how it prepares for passing into the pupal stage, and to witness the various interesting changes that take place at this period. When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about in search of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its colours fade, and the body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length, as it ejects the whole contents of its digestive apparatus. According to some accounts, it even evacuates the lining of the intestines with their contents. A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species at this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant, and there remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state, suspending themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves in a rolled leaf, or constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large number walk down the food plants, and undergo their changes in moss that happens to lie at the foot; or construct a cocoon on the surface of the ground, utilising for the purpose any decayed leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces of earth or small stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and burrow into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that they prepare, or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some particles of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of butterflies that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the nearest wall or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook. We will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as our first instance the caterpillar of the common Large White or Cabbage Butterfly. When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a wall or fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant, though it generally walks some considerable distance before a suitable shelter is found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the temporary abode, it sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At first the threads spread over a rather wide area, and seem to be laid in a somewhat irregular and aimless manner; but after a little time its labours are concentrated on one small spot, where it spins several layers of silk fibres. This done, it fixes the little hooks of the claspers firmly in its carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement. It is not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact, this alone would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is shortly about to do, its claspers will all disappear; and although it afterwards secures itself by the 'tail,' it would be dangling in such a manner as to swing with every breeze--a very unsatisfactory state of affairs, especially with those that pupate late in the summer and remain in the pupal state throughout the winter storms. Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the middle of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which it rests. But how is this to be done? It bends its head round till the spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle of its body. Here it fixes one end of a thread; and then, gradually twisting its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keeping it close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the thread exactly opposite the point at which it started. The head is now brought back to its former position, thus adding another thread to the band; and the process is repeated several times, till at last the caterpillar is satisfied with the thickness and strength of the cord formed. Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours; but the work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restlessness. Its foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently become thicker. Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the caterpillar commences. The movements that follow are exactly similar to those we have already described in connection with one of the earlier moults: the alternate and successive contractions of all the segments gradually force back the old coat, and this is finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous wriggling of the 'tail.' Then, for a moment, the creature is supported only by its silken cord. But this lasts _only_ for a moment. For, as soon as it is quite free from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest part of the carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder extremity by means of little hooks. But what a change has now come over the creature! It is no longer a caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although we can readily make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and jaws have quite disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently gone. The three segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly separable, though in reality they still exist. The head and thorax are peculiarly shaped; and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled and ridged; but, beneath the soft greenish skin--the new garment--we can discern the outline of a pair of small wings, and see a proboscis and a pair of long antennæ. Also the six long legs of the future butterfly can be traced with care. The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at the end, and its segments are quite distinct. No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect the present form with that of a caterpillar; they are so very unlike. And yet the time occupied in the whole change, from the spinning of the carpet, does not occupy more than about thirty or thirty-five hours. The apparent suddenness of this change is really surprising, but in reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears. Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a simple removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the future butterfly are developing. Still, in proportion to the short time occupied, the change is extremely great; and it may reasonably be inquired, Why so great a change within so short a space of time?--why is not the change continued steadily and equally through the larval existence? The reason has already been hinted at. Caterpillars are living eating machines, whose office is to remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they must have their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development to the end. If these organs were to _gradually_ disappear as the caterpillar reaches its non-eating stages, it would simply be starved to death. So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately longer time, although it is principally confined to the last few days of the caterpillar life. A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies, suspend themselves when about to change; and the peculiarities of the modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a future chapter; but we will find room here for one more interesting example, taking this time the larva of one of the commonest of the Vanessas (page 166)--the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly. The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young; and if ever you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain a hundred or so without much searching. But as they grow older they feed singly, yet generally without straying very far from their birthplace. When full grown they sometimes stray to a neighbouring plant or fence to undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly they are perfectly satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves of their food plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the larva of the Large White Butterfly. Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken carpet is spun as before described; but the caterpillar, instead of clinging with _all_ its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position by its hindermost pair only. Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events. The splitting and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of the Large White, but there is this puzzle to be solved: how can the insect shuffle itself out of its old coat without falling to the ground, leaving the cast-off garments still hanging by the hooks of the claspers? This really seems a matter of impossibility, since the little hooks which alone suspend the insect are thrown off with the skin of the claspers. The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits through the wrigglings of the apparently uncomfortable occupant, it is gradually pushed backward--that is, upward--till it is in a shrivelled condition, and the body of the insect is nearly free. But the chrysalis thus brought to light is provided with little hooks on the end of its 'tail' by which it can attach itself to the irregularities of the crumpled coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible, and it can, by bending this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin, holding it between the segments. Thus, although practically quite free from the old garb, it never falls to the ground. There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The newly formed chrysalis desires to be entirely independent of its cast-off skin, and to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it has prepared. To this end it works steadily for a time, alternately bending its supple abdomen from side to side, gripping the folds of the skin between the segments, pulling its body a little higher at each movement, and securing itself at each step by the little hooks at its extremity. So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks have taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round and round to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk fibres that a fall is impossible, and in so doing it frequently pushes the old skin out of its place so that it falls to the ground. Although the caterpillars of this species do not show any great gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an uncommon thing to find several hanging from the under surface of one leaf, all being attached to the one common carpet at which all had worked. And when bred in confinement, a number will often spin in company in a corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a cluster of thirty-seven pupæ, all hanging by the 'tails' to the same mass of silk, which was so small that they formed quite a compact mass of beings with their tails close together. [Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH.] [Illustration: FIG. 29.--THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET (_Filipendulæ_).] We have seen that the Large White Butterfly makes itself secure by a silk band round its middle, while the 'Tortoiseshell' is fixed only by its tail. But the extra provision for the safety of the former is not so necessary in the case of the latter, as it never spends more than two or three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that braves the winter, and not the chrysalis. There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars of moths to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we shall have space for only a few illustrations. A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth (_Pavonia_). It is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish silk; and is so constructed that the newly emerged moth can easily walk out of the small end without breaking a fibre, while the entry of an insect enemy from without is impossible. This is managed as follows. A number of rather stiff threads are made to project from the small end of the cocoon, and these converge as they pass outward so that the ends are all near together. The other portions of the cocoon are of compact silk, and any insect intruder that ventures to enter by what we may almost term the _open_ end is met by a number of spikes, as it were, that play on it at every attempt. Many of these wonderful cocoons may be found during the winter months attached to the food plants of this insect. Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so thin and light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them, and others are so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A great difference is also to be observed in the adhesive power of the silk fibres. In some cases little threads of silk can be pulled off the cocoon; but some of them, that of the Oak Eggar (page 229) for example, look as if they had been constructed of paper rather than of silk, because, at the time of spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck so closely together. An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the cocoon of the Puss Moth (page 235); for here the fluid from the spinneret of the caterpillar does not harden at once on exposure to air, and so the threads become thoroughly united together, thus forming a solid gluey cocoon. When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the tree (poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the ground. Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the same time cementing all the pieces together with the gluey substance from its spinning glands. In this way it surrounds itself with a very hard cocoon, which so closely resembles the surrounding bark in colour that detection is difficult indeed. But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its native tree and has no bark to gnaw? That you can easily answer for yourself, or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search among the poplars, willows and sallows in the month of July. You may possibly come across a caterpillar that is just in the act of creeping down the bark in search of a resting place; but if not you may be successful in obtaining a few either by examining the twigs, or you may start them from their hiding places by smartly tapping the smaller branches with a strong stick. Having secured one or more larvæ, take them home, and they will give some rather novel performances. If they are not fully grown, you must supply them with fresh leaves every day till they refuse to eat; and then is the time for your experiments. Shut one in a little wooden box, and you will have the pleasure of watching it construct a cocoon of chips of wood that it has bitten out with its powerful jaws, all joined together into a hard shell by means of transparent glue. Shut another Puss in a glass vessel--a tumbler, for instance--either by placing it under the inverted vessel, or by covering over the top. Perhaps it will not be superfluous to mention that, should you place it under an inverted vessel, this vessel should not stand on a polished table, for, whatever be the material, unless _extremely_ hard, it is sure to be utilised in the manufacture of the cocoon. Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted tumbler that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for _you_ to decide what material shall be used in the construction of the new home. Give Puss some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon, and it will construct a very gaudy house by gluing them together. Or, provide it with sawdust, pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper, anything in fact; and the material will be 'made up' into a cocoon more or less ornamental according to the nature of the supply. But what if you give it _nothing_ with which to work, and so inclose it that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach? For instance, shut it in with tumbler and saucer as before, inverting the former on the latter, and give it no material whatever. What will it do now? We will watch and see. At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge of the tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects. Then, after a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their fixed order regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins to flow from the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in a somewhat aimless fashion, applying the transparent adhesive matter both to tumbler and saucer. It seems now to become a little more reconciled to its unnatural surroundings; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps its body in one place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier all round itself. By the continued application of the creature's spinneret this barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at last the overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in its self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so transparent that every movement can be watched; and, after the insect has spent a few days in completing the cocoon, we can see it cast off its old skin, and appear in the new garb of a fine greenish chrysalis. Its soft green skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown colour, and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following May or June. When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the tumbler, and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly glued together by the substance secreted; and the power of this as a cementing material will be well illustrated if you endeavour by mere pulling force to separate the two articles. The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign material with the contents of the spinning organs. There are several others, in fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood or other parts of the food plants; and a still larger number bind together leaves, fresh or dead, or particles of earth or other matter. Several such cocoons will be described in our accounts of individual species in another chapter. We shall now devote a little space to a few general remarks on the chrysalides and the final metamorphosis of butterflies and moths. CHAPTER IV _THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS_ As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis that had already been developing under the cover of the old skin is exposed to full view; and although the perfect insect is not to be liberated for some time to come, yet some of its parts are apparently fully formed. [Illustration: FIG. 30.--THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_).] [Illustration: FIG. 31.--THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Brassicæ_).] The newly exposed skin of the chrysalis is very soft and moist, but as it hardens it forms a membranous or horny covering that protects and holds firmly in place the trunk and the various limbs and appendages that are distinctly to be traced on the under surface. If, however, you examine a chrysalis directly after the moult is over, you will often find that the wings, antennæ, proboscis, and legs of the future butterfly can be easily separated from the trunk of the body on which they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as to be quite free from that surface. In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable as the caterpillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like that of the 'Small Tortoiseshell' already mentioned; but some of the butterflies--the Skippers (page 197)--have smooth and tapering chrysalides, and so have most of the moths. In colour they are equally variable. Some are beautifully tinted with delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light ground, some striped with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but the prevailing tint, especially among the moths, is a reddish brown, often so deep that it is almost a black. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Aglaia_).] [Illustration: FIG. 33.--THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Cratægi_).] As a rule there is no marked resemblance between the different stages of the same insect. Thus, a brilliantly coloured caterpillar may change to a dull and unattractive chrysalis, from which may emerge a butterfly or moth that partakes of the colours of neither. But in a few cases there _are_ colours or other features that remain persistent throughout the three stages, or show themselves prominently in two. An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant Moth (page 279). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured, with orange stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings down the back. The chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow, afterwards turns black with the exception of some yellow transverse bands. Then, the moth exhibits the same colours as these two earlier stages, with the same degree of boldness; for its pale cream-coloured wings, tinted with patches of yellow, are marked with numerous deep black spots. Thus, in this case, we find the same general character of the colouring throughout the insect's existence. [Illustration: FIG. 34.--THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH.] [Illustration: FIG. 35.--PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_).] Another interesting example, though not so striking as the last, is to be found in the case of a group of moths known as the _Liparidæ_. The caterpillars of these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often ornamented by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also hairy; and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad with shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen. We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of chrysalides without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished gold that decorate the pupæ of certain butterflies. This is the feature that led to the invention of the term _chrysalis_, which is derived from the Greek word _chrysos_, meaning _gold_. For the same reason the term _aurelia_ has been applied to the pupæ of _Lepidoptera_, this being derived from _aurum_--the Latin name for gold. Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupæ of a certain number of the butterflies; but the former is now generally used to designate the pupæ of all the _Lepidoptera_, and is even extended to the corresponding stages of insects of other orders. If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the brilliant metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, just as if certain spots had been tipped with real gold; but after the butterfly has quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone. This proves that the metallic appearance is not due to reflection from the outer surface of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some structure beneath it. This latter is a very thin membrane which lies just under the outer transparent covering of the chrysalis. The period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in the chrysalis state varies very considerably in different species, and also depends more or less on the temperature. As a rule, when a caterpillar pupates before the end of the summer, it remains dormant in the pupal condition for only a few weeks; but, if late in the summer or in the autumn, it remains in this condition throughout the winter, and emerges in the following spring or early summer. Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the Large White or Cabbage Butterfly--an insect with which we have already become acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this butterfly every year, the first appearing in May and the second in August. The eggs of the first brood hatch in about a fortnight, and the larvæ are full grown about four weeks later. These then change to chrysalides, from which the perfect insects (the second brood) emerge in a few weeks--the period varying slightly with the temperature of the season. From the eggs of this second brood we get another invading army of cabbage eaters that change to pupæ late in the summer. These remain dormant till the following April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter, attached to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens. If, then, the pupæ of the same species are so influenced by the temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period of quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures artificially produced? Most certainly we can; and every practical entomologist knows how to obtain the perfect butterflies and moths of certain species long before their appointed times, or, if he desires it, to compel them to remain in their dormant stage long after the natural period has terminated. Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large number of what we may term 'winter pupæ,' by collecting and breeding various species. He also anticipates a number of successful captures of perfect insects during the following summer. Thus, from two distinct sources, he obtains a goodly assortment of butterflies and moths, the setting, preserving, and arranging of which entails an immense amount of home work. Under such circumstances he will sometimes endeavour to cause some of his pupæ to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he may get some of his insects 'on the boards' before his field work is in full swing, and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects that will be spoiled before he has time to take them in hand. This process of hurrying up his pupæ he calls 'forcing,' and simply consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hothouse where the high temperature is pretty constant. On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect of a continued _low_ temperature on his pupæ. This he can do by placing his pupæ in an ice house. Such experiments have often been performed, and the results are very interesting. In some cases the emergence of the perfect insect has been delayed for many months, and even years; and then, after an exposure to a normal temperature lasting only a week or two, the winged insect has made its appearance just as if nothing unusual had happened. Such are the effects of _extreme_ temperatures on the duration of the chrysalis state; and we naturally infer, from such results, that the pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a lesser degree, by the variations experienced with the seasons, especially in such a fickle climate as our own. The insect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particularly so when he sets out on a search for certain desired species. Suppose, for example, he has set his mind on the capture of a certain butterfly that _usually_ appears in the _first_ week in May. Before finally naming the day, he has to consider what the weather has been during the last few weeks, and if he finds that this has been much warmer than the average for the corresponding periods in the past, he selects a day in _April_, earlier or later according to the difference between the present season and the average. If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much worn, even though, under average conditions, he would be catching newly emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain how it is that we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling accounts of 'early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects late in the season that _ought_ not to have emerged till the following summer. I will give just one illustration of these variations. The beautiful Orange Tip Butterfly (Plate I, fig. 7) generally appears about the middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of course a little later. In the north of England it has been taken in June; and in Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have taken it in Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak day with a cold east wind; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the Cotswolds fully exposed to the unfavourable breeze; but it was evident that, in this case, the butterfly had been enticed from its winter quarters by the milder weather of the few previous weeks. It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the pupa that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may be forced by high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold; and in nature the period of incubation varies with the seasons. The larvæ, too, grow faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or later from similar causes. And so no very definite date or period can be assigned to any one stage of any insect. Now let us return to one of the chrysalides that we have already watched through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in its future development. It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but we must not suppose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can we say that it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or surprise it with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to wag its pointed tail, sometimes with such vigour as to send the body rolling round and round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-nut fibre or finely sifted soil and let it remain _quite undisturbed_ for a few hours or days, and you will probably find that, by occasional movements of its body, it has made a slight depression in its bed, and lies partly submerged. I have known some chrysalides to completely bury themselves in this way during the course of a day or two, and others to partly expose themselves after having been lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move smartly if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too, certainly appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct rays of a hot sun; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle persistently, as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I would not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment, however, if he values the pupæ he possesses, for direct sunlight is undoubtedly very harmful to many species, and perhaps it is to all. Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been represented; in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs of life during the greater part of the time spent in that state. But in all, whether apparently active or not, certain important internal changes are at work. We have already noticed that, even in the last days of the _larval_ existence, some of the organs of the future imago are to be traced. But these are as yet imperfectly developed. We have also observed that a continuation of these changes, gradually carried on, would be impossible in a voracious feeder; so the insect, now fully grown, and no longer requiring a supply of food, settles down in perfect quiet, submitting itself quite passively to any further changes that nature may demand. It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful jaws that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case may be) to the vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive apparatus has rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and other changes, already in progress, have to be perfected while the creature is in a restful and helpless condition, though they may often be retarded or even suspended during cold weather when progress would certainly bring it to an untimely end. But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is nigh at hand. The protective skin is already loosening from the almost perfect imago, and consequently feels softer and far more yielding than it did when in close contact with the body: the swaddled butterfly or moth (for such the pupa is) is slowly preparing to throw off its imprisoning garb. The wings and large compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which now begin to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin, and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennæ, and the slender proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax, now begin to move within their loosened sheaths. Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights ever witnessed by a naturalist is about to be presented to our view. We think we can observe slight movements; and, it may be, we can actually see the struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The legs and proboscis are moving within the loosened skin; and lo! as we watch these motions, the prison wall bursts with a slight snapping noise (at least, such is the case with some of the larger species), and in a moment out pop a few long legs which immediately struggle for a foothold. The proboscis also appears, alternately lengthening itself out and coiling into a spiral, as if impatient to reach the sweet nectar from the bottom of some fragrant flower cup. [Illustration: FIG. 36--A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING.] All this takes place in less time than one requires to describe it; and, before many seconds have passed, the struggling insect has quite completed its last moult, and is bidding good-bye to the rent garment that has done it good service for so long a time. But how dreadfully disappointing! Did we not say only a few minutes since, that a beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge? How, then, is this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never seen before! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks. Its antennæ, too, seem to be just the right thing--that is, just what we were expecting to see. But oh! the wings! Are we looking at a deformity?--a failure on the part of Nature to produce what she ought? We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little longer. It seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering apologies for wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some surface up which it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at hand you may place a _rough_ upright stick in its path, and it will immediately begin to ascend. Its motto is now 'Excelsior!' and its ambition to rise may be so great that, on reaching the very top of the stick provided for it, it struggles for a still higher position in life till, failing to get a foothold in the air itself, it falls to the ground and has to retrace its steps. I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large moth in performing its first upward journey; and as it was one from a chrysalis to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that attains some considerable height, I was, of course, prepared to exercise a little patience myself. As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of a window curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the floor. In less than half a minute it had reached the top, and was struggling hard to get still higher. I took it down, and again placed it at the bottom. Up it went as fast as before; and this was repeated nine times with exactly the same result. For the tenth time I placed the persevering creature at the bottom of the curtain; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it _suddenly_ stopped, apparently quite satisfied with having travelled a distance of over seventy feet in an upward direction. Its six legs were immediately arranged symmetrically in a business-like manner, and there it settled quite still, as if it had some definite object in stopping just exactly in that spot. But we must now return to our own insect, which has by this time settled itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided for it. The peculiar organs which represent the wings, though so very small, show distinctly, in miniature, the colour and pattern of the fully developed wings of the species. An interesting change is just now commencing. These wings are apparently growing larger, but the development is very unequal, so that they become curled and crumpled till they are even more unsightly than before. All seems to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short time. The fluid from the body steadily rushes into the _nervures_, causing the wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions are stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose the full glory of their brilliant colours. It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact time taken for the full development of the wings of a certain insect. So I will here quote an entry from my note book; and, by the way, let me strongly advise all my young readers who follow up this subject to habitually enter in a book kept specially for the purpose all facts which strike them as they pursue their study of nature. The note to which I refer runs as follows: 'Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few chrysalides of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, page 209] which, from the looseness of their cases, were thought to be just on the point of emerging. At 8.46 one of them showed signs of restlessness; and, after a few vigorous movements, during which it rolled itself over on the glass [I had placed the pupæ on a piece of plate glass so that slight movements might be more easily detected], the front of its case was suddenly thrust off with considerable force; and in _less than four seconds_ the imago was quite free and crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a higher point than was provided for about four minutes, it rested to expand its wings--now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or one-third the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they were fully expanded and straightened out.' From this extract we see that the whole period from the bursting of the case to the full expansion of the wings was only twenty-six minutes; and it will be well to remind the reader that the process occupies even a much shorter time than this with many species, both of butterflies and moths. It will be observed, also, that the _evening_ was chosen as the time for the observation. There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk Moth, as is the case with many others, almost invariably emerges from the chrysalis in the evening--usually after dark. But it may be mentioned in passing that a far larger number of the _Lepidoptera_ as invariably emerge in the morning. Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are still one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have fully expanded, it is true, but how very limp they are! Take the creature on the tip of your finger and hold it so that its body is in a horizontal position. Immediately the wings bend downward with their own weight, so soft and flexible are they. The body, too, is still very soft, and apparently much too heavy for flight. Then, if you place it on a flat surface, it will immediately try to find some perpendicular or overhanging surface from which it can suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the pendant and straightened wings are in the best possible position for drying. As the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the body still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both on one side or one on each side of the body. It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid for flight, but the period varies greatly with different species. Some of the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before an hour has passed, but in many cases several hours elapse before the creature starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that emerge in the morning spend their first day actively on the wing; but the nocturnal moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till evening twilight. When, however, the time arrives, the insect flutters its wings as if to test their power before committing itself to the air; and frequently, after only a few seconds spent in this preparatory exercise, off it darts with astonishing rapidity. But others seem far more cautious. They vibrate their wings, sometimes with such rapidity that they are lost in a kind of mist, and with such power that their bodies would be carried suddenly into the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of hooked claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings. Then they venture on a few short trial trips from one neighbouring object to another, and at last gain sufficient confidence for a long voyage. How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its first flight! After a long period during which it was a helpless, crawling grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during which it was almost or quite shut off from the world, it now suddenly acquires such great powers of locomotion that it is often a match for ourselves. But, alas! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with those it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers; then a day or two during which the female deposits its eggs; again a few days employed in pleasures that become less and less attractive, till, at last, the creature becomes weary of life and settles down to die. We have now traced the complete life history of the _Lepidoptera_ from the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that apply only to certain species as far as possible, excepting where such are useful as illustrations. Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real earnest with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints on the modes of capture, the 'setting' and the preservation of butterflies and moths. And in so doing we shall often have to observe important points in which our dealings with these two great divisions of the order will differ very materially. Hence we must not consider ourselves ready to proceed with the practical portion of the entomologist's labours till we are perfectly satisfied that we know the main features that enable us to distinguish between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a little concerning the subdivisions on each side. This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter. CHAPTER V _CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_ The _Lepidoptera_ are divided into two very unequal groups, to which we have so frequently alluded as 'Butterflies' and 'Moths.' And, although these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly accurate manner, yet, strange to say, very few persons indeed have any definite knowledge of the differences that entomologists recognise between the two groups. Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps, even admiring friends. Consequently, many a little package is sent round to his abode 'with great care,' accompanied by a note or a message concerning the fine 'butterfly I have just caught, and thought you would like to add to your collection.' The 'butterflies' that so frequently reach us through these channels nearly always turn out to be _brightly coloured_ moths, and this naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to the classification of the _Lepidoptera_ is based on colour or brilliancy of design, the term 'butterfly' being applied to the gayer species, and 'moth' to the more dingy members of the race. There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of nomenclature, for butterflies _are usually_ more brightly clad than moths; but the scientific classification, at least as far as the main divisions and subdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to do with colour or design; and we must at once acquaint ourselves with the fact that there _are_ very dingy butterflies, and most beautiful and highly coloured moths. How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly sent us by our friends are generally moths? Is it because moths are more numerous and more frequently seen? They are certainly more numerous; for, while our butterflies do not number seventy species, the other division contains about two thousand. Yet, in spite of this fact, moths are not generally observed as much as butterflies, for the former are nearly all night-fliers, and the latter _always_ fly by day and rest by night. Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this. The captives sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our grown-up friends, even though they admire our own pluck and general carelessness concerning the remarks of the spectators of our entomological antics, would not themselves like to be seen, hat in hand, chasing a butterfly; and the night-flying moths are, of course, less frequently observed. But they often, in the course of their daily employments, meet with a large moth fast asleep in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or outhouse. Such moths are easily caught while in the midst of their slumbers, and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as easily transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by post. In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by which the two great groups of the _Lepidoptera_ may be distinguished; but we have already referred (page 5) to a far more important one in our description of the various forms of antennæ. All butterflies--at least all _British_ butterflies--have knobbed or clubbed antennæ, while the corresponding organs of all our moths terminate in a sharp point. This distinction obtains in all British _Lepidoptera_, and is so far regarded as the most important basis of classification that naturalists have derived from it the two Greek terms that are synonymous with our two popular names--butterflies and moths. The scientific name for the former group is _Rhopalocera_--a term derived from two Greek words, one signifying a horn, and the other a club, and thus meaning 'club-horned.' The corresponding name for moths is _Heterocera_, derived from the same source, and meaning 'variously horned.' But, although we find embodied in these two long and formidable names an unerring mark of distinction between British butterflies and moths, we must not neglect other less important facts which, though less distinctive, are not without interest. Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically over its back, and brought so closely together that they often touch. In this position the 'upper' surfaces of the 'upper' wings are completely hidden from view, and the 'under' surfaces are exposed on the two sides, except that those of the 'upper' pair are partly hidden by the other pair. Now look at a moth under the same circumstances, and you will generally find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or completely hidden beneath them. As a rule the upper pair together form a triangular figure, and entirely cover the second pair; but in some cases a portion of each of the under wings extends beyond the margin of those above them, and in others the upper pair extend so far forward that nearly the whole of the under wings is exposed behind them. [Illustration: FIG. 37.--A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER).] [Illustration: FIG. 38.--A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC).] Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never be folded; but you will observe that the under wings of moths are generally very thin, soft, and pliant, and are neatly pleated lengthwise when not in use. Another feature deserving notice is a slight difference to be often observed in the form of the body. The butterfly, which generally has a slender body, has a distinct constriction or waist between the thorax and abdomen. This is not so apparent with moths, and especially with the thick-bodied species. The _Rhopalocera_ or Butterflies are divided into _Families_, each of which contains insects that possess certain features in common by which they may all be distinguished from the members of any other family. The British species represent eight families. They are as follows: 1. _Papilionidæ._--Containing only one British species--the beautiful Swallow-tail (Plate I, fig. 1). 2. _Pieridæ._--Containing ten species. These are often known collectively as the 'Whites,' but include four butterflies that are distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange. 3. _Nymphalidæ._--This family contains seventeen insects, among them being several splendid species. It includes the Fritillaries and Vanessas. 4. _Apaturidæ._--Of this we have only one representative--the Purple Emperor (Plate V, fig. 1). 5. _Satyridæ._--Including the 'Browns' and 'Heaths,' and numbering eleven species. 6. _Lycænidæ._--Including the Hairstreaks, 'Coppers,' and 'Blues,' in all seventeen species. 7. _Erycinidæ._--Containing only the 'Duke of Burgundy.' 8. _Hesperiidæ._--This family contains seven British butterflies commonly known as the 'Skippers.' Although all the members of the same family resemble each other in certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or two minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called _Genera_. To make this all quite clear we will take an example. The Brimstone Butterfly (Plate II, fig. 4) belongs to the second family--_Pieridæ_, _all_ the members of which are distinguished from those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned on page 141. But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent feature in which it differs from all the other British _Pieridæ_, and that is the conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind wings. Among the foreign species of the family we are considering there are several that possess these angles; but as there are no others among our own members, the 'Brimstone' is placed by itself in the list of British _Lepidoptera_ as the only member of the genus _Gonopteryx_ or 'angle-winged' butterflies. Thus the full relationship of this butterfly to other insects may be shown in the following manner: _The Brimstone Butterfly._ =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_ =Section.=--_Rhopalocera_ FAMILY.--_Pieridæ_ _Genus._--_Gonopteryx_ Species.--_Rhamni_ Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to that by which it is popularly known. I should have said _two_ Latin or Greek names. The first of these is always the _generic_ name, and the second is the one by which we denote the particular member or _species_ of that genus. Thus, the scientific name of the Brimstone Butterfly is _Gonopteryx Rhamni_. 'But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, 'why should we not be satisfied with the one popular name only?' And, 'If we _must_ have a separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms among our English words to build up such a name--one that might express the principal characteristics of the insect, and also serve all the purposes of classification?' Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But the entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well without the help of the dead languages, but we have brother naturalists all over the world, speaking a great variety of different languages. We endeavour to help one another--to exchange notes and generally to assist one another in our labours; and this can be greatly facilitated if we all adopt the same system of nomenclature. The educated of most of the great nations generally know something of Latin and Greek, and consequently the adoption of these languages is generally acceptable to all. This sounds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are to make any branch of natural history a popular study, especially with the young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that may prove distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a youngster has been turned away from the pursuit of the study of nature by the formidable array of almost unpronounceable names that stretch nearly halfway across a page; and those who desire to make such a study pleasant to beginners should be very cautious with the use of these necessary evils. One would think, on glancing over some of the scientific manuals that are written 'especially for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean a language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a species appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea whatever to the reader, who is studying the description of a well-known animal or plant and doesn't know it. Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except in the case of those few species that are not so well known as to have received one; but the scientific names will always be given as well for the benefit of those readers who would like to know them. And the short description of the method of classification just given will enable the more ambitious of my readers to thoroughly understand the table of British butterflies and moths toward the end of the book. This table includes _all_ the British species of butterflies and of the larger moths; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly the divisions into sections, families, &c. It will therefore be of great value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of the specimens in the cabinet. In the foregoing description of the method of classification butterflies only are mentioned; but the division and arrangement of moths is carried out in just the same manner except that the system is a little more complicated. The number of moths is so large in comparison, that we are able to select from them some very large groups the species of which possess features in common. These groups are termed _tribes_, and are again divided into families just like the butterflies. Thus the arrangement of moths includes _tribes_, _families_, _genera_ and _species_. We will take an example by way of illustration as we did before, and ask the reader to verify the same by comparison with our table: _Example._--The 'Common Tiger' (Plate X, fig. 3). =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_ =Section.=--_Heterocera_ TRIBE.--_Bombyces_ FAMILY.--_Cheloniidæ_ _Genus._--_Arctia_ Species.--_Caia_ Scientific Name.--_Arctia Caia._ I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butterflies and moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist. It is quite possible to be well acquainted with the natural history of these creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that the study of them can afford without the knowledge of such names; but most entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion of the popular English terms. There are those who consider themselves (or would have us consider them) expert entomologists because they have the power to vomit forth a long list of scientific names of butterflies and moths which (to them) have no meaning whatever; and it is astonishing that we meet with so many youngsters who can rattle away such terms, and, at the same time, are totally ignorant of the real nature of the creatures they name. If you wish to be a naturalist in the true sense of the term, study your _specimens_, and take but little pains to commit their hard names to memory; and you will then find that the latter will gradually become your own property without any special effort on your part. Your continued reference to illustrated works and museum collections will bring them to you almost unconsciously, and you will generally find your entomological vocabulary extending as rapidly as your cabinet becomes filled. Again, with regard to the _meanings_ of the scientific terms, don't trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very large number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any way refer to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to which they are applied. You will observe, too, if you look at the table, that many insects have _two_ scientific names applied to the species, one being placed in brackets after the other. In such cases both these names are in common use, having both been applied by independent authorities, and the insertion of the two will prove an assistance at times. It is a common practice with entomologists, in their communications, to use only the second or _specific_ name of insects. Thus, they would speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as _Rhamni_, and not _Gonopteryx Rhamni_. When _writing_ a communication, however, they very commonly place in front of the specific name the initial letter of the first or _generic_ name. Thus the full title of the butterfly just mentioned would be abbreviated to _G. Rhamni_. Having said so much concerning the principles of classification and nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the entomologist's work. PART II WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD CHAPTER VI _CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS_ It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion which deals with the department we are now considering. Butterflies and moths are among the most beautiful and most interesting of living creatures. The study of their life history is enchanting, and the creatures themselves are of such a size as to be conveniently handled and preserved, and withal occupy so little space that anyone with only moderate accommodation may possess a fairly typical collection. Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose hobby is the study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large and cumbersome objects, a collection of which requires an enormous amount of space; and, unless he has the time and means to travel in foreign countries, he cannot get together a good typical collection of specimens representing his particular branch, for the few British mammals contain no representatives of several of the orders into which the class is divided. Entomology is undoubtedly, _par excellence_, _the_ study for youngsters. It is equally suited to the studious and to those of an adventurous turn of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sunshine and the flowery meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly occupied, the joy of living is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus can be made by anyone. No dangerous gun is required, and there are no precipitous rocks to scale. When the autumn flowers fade the year's work of the entomologist is not done, for the arranging of his cabinet and the demands of his living specimens keep him more or less actively engaged until the flowers of the following spring call both him and the insects he loves once more into the field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he finds himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness--the curse of so many of our youths--is with him an impossibility. I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up the study of one branch of entomology--that of butterflies and moths--in real earnest; that they intend not only to _read_ about these interesting insects, but to _know_ them. And there is only one way in which one may really get to know living creatures; that is by searching them out in their haunts, observing their growth and habits, and by an occasional close examination in order to become acquainted with their structure. Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give such information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving, rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his collection. _Catching Butterflies_ There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at rest on a flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly, by a sharp downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action by a mere childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect simply because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our prize, we handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one hand to the other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till our fingers were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of the creature's wings, and the wings themselves, stripped of all their beautiful clothing, were merely transparent and veined membranes. Having thus carelessly but unintentionally deprived the creature of its greatest beauty, we set it free, often in such a damaged or exhausted condition that the poor thing could scarcely fly. But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now we would rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find much pleasure and interest in its varied movements. And if for purposes of study we occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed in such a manner as to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap now gives place to a well-made and suitable net; and we are careful to provide ourselves with sufficient and proper accommodation for our captives. It is probable that many of my readers are as yet unacquainted with the nature of an entomologist's requirements for field work, so we shall describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that are required for a butterfly hunt. First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself. Very little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Provided your pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the dealer in naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete outfit. But even in this case a little advice may not be out of place. See that what you purchase is very _strongly_ made. You can get nicely finished nets constructed on the most convenient principles, made to fold and go in an ordinary coat pocket, but with _weak joints_. See that you have the most convenient form of net by all means, but do not go in for convenience and appearance at the expense of strength and durability. Nothing is more annoying than to find your net give way just when you are in the midst of a good day's sport. [Illustration: FIG. 39.--A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET.] [Illustration: FIG. 40.] The folding net is certainly very convenient, for you can conceal it in your pocket while you are walking through town or travelling in a railway carriage, and thus avoid that contemptuous gaze which certain of the public are prone to cast on a poor 'bug hunter.' And although such nets are generally purchased, yet they _may_ be constructed by anyone who has had experience in the working of metals. But other forms of nets, equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody; and I will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting them together. A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as follows: Get a piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches in length, and bend it into a circle with the two ends, turned out about two inches each, at right angles to the circumference as shown in the accompanying sketch. Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking stick, and cut out two grooves opposite each other at the end, just large enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the stick will now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their grooves, and bind them tightly to the stick by a good many turns of rather fine wire. A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything you could desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed to the handle, thus preventing the use of the latter as a walking stick when you are not directly engaged in your entomological work. A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the ends of a piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal Y. You may purchase the Y at any of the naturalists' stores, or you can make one yourself if you know how to perform the operation of soldering. I have always made mine with odds and ends of brass tubing such as old gas pipes. One piece must be just the size to fix on the stick; and the other two must fit the cane tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the proper angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the wider tube must then be flattened down to the width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you decide to buy one, give the preference to strong brass rather than the cheaper and more fragile ones made of tinned iron. [Illustration: FIG. 41. THE METAL Y.] The advantage of such an arrangement over the last frame is evident at once. The cane, with net attached, can be pulled out of the Y when not in use, and bent small enough to go in the pocket or a satchel; and the Y can also be separated from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be used as a walking stick. Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known as the 'umbrella net'--a large and light net that will shut up like an umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this useful protector, but the possession of such an imitation is somewhat tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists of two steel springs attached to a couple of brass hinges, one of which is fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up and down in the gamp fashion. One other form of net--'the clap net'--although still occasionally seen, has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this one, so that the two sides of the net may be brought together on the insect; but as both hands are required to manage it, it is almost surprising that it ever had any advocates at all. When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong calico, to which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter material of the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction against the metal or cane frame. The material usually employed in making the 'bag' is called leno. It can be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three colours--white, yellow and green--are usually kept in stock. Measure the circumference of your net frame, and see that you get sufficient leno to make a good full net. Suppose, for instance, that the circle of your frame measures thirty-six inches round, then your leno should be at least forty inches in length. Fold this double, and then cut out two pieces of the shape shown in fig. 42, letting the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal to the width of the material. There is nothing to be done now but to stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on the ring. [Illustration: FIG. 42.] At first you will find the leno rather stiff and harsh, but a damping and good rubbing between the hands will soften it down; or, if you prefer it, you may soften the material by a slight washing before cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps the better plan, for the washing will remove the objectionable 'dressing' that renders the material rather hard and stiff. Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most generally chosen, because it is more in harmony with the surroundings of a butterfly catcher; but many prefer the white leno to the green, as the insects are more easily seen in a net of this colour. Yellow is certainly not a desirable tint. As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is captured. This is always the case with butterflies unless you require to keep them alive either to watch their movements or to obtain eggs. For this purpose you will require a killing bottle or box containing some volatile substance. The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point deserving of much consideration, for so many different forms are in use by different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare that his own plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that the final decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best thing for a beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after some considerable experience of his own, he will be able to decide which apparatus suits himself best. I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one plan that it is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to one individual will often fail to give anything but annoyance in the hands of another. To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just given, I will describe some of the commonly used killing arrangements and show how they should be used. I will take first the 'cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed bottle, containing a very poisonous substance called _cyanide of potassium_. It is fitted with a good sound cork. The 'cyanide' is a solid substance, and must be fixed in some way or other at the bottom of the bottle so that it cannot shake about and damage the butterflies. [Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE CYANIDE BOTTLE.] A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready for use at the cost of a shilling or thereabouts; but if you are old enough to be trusted with deadly poisons, you may buy the 'cyanide' of a chemist who knows you well and is satisfied as to your intentions, and then prepare your own. Every entomologist should know how to do this, for the poison loses its power after some time, and it is not always convenient to leave your bottle in the hands of a chemist or a 'naturalist' to have it recharged. This will cost you more than it would to do it yourself, but that is nothing compared with the annoyance that may result when, the night before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly told that 'your bottle will be ready in a few days.' You can charge it yourself in a few minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply of 'cyanide' in stock, and it is ready for use very shortly after. Here is the _modus operandi_.--Purchase an ounce or two of the cyanide of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or well-corked bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name, but also with the word POISON in very large and conspicuous letters. This dangerous chemical is often sold in sticks that look much like certain 'sugar sticks' I was acquainted with in my younger days; but whether this is or is not the case with your cyanide, see that the bottle is kept quite out of the reach of the inquisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the house. The quantity above mentioned is more than you will require for the first 'charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of having a supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide bottle fails to do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls for the somewhat sudden appearance of a new one. Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide enough to take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest part of the bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound cork to fit it tightly; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of air, paint over the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax. Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a glass rod to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared; and be careful that neither the solid nor the solution touches the skin if it should be in the slightest degree scratched or broken. Now sprinkle plaster of Paris into the solution, a little at a time, and stir all the while. As soon as the mixture begins to set, pour it into your bottle as cleanly as you can--that is, without touching the sides--and press it down with the flat end of a stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and put the bottle away in a cool place till required for use. This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle; but there are two other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a little more simple. One is this: put a few small lumps of the 'cyanide' into your bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixture of plaster of Paris and water, and press down as before. The other plan is to cover the 'cyanide' with a few thicknesses of blotting paper, cut just a little larger than the inside of the bottle. The first of these two methods is fairly satisfactory, but I have always found that the charge, when made in this way, has a tendency to become wet and pasty, in which condition it will spoil the wings of the insects. The other is very objectionable, especially for field work, for the blotting paper fails to keep its place while you are on the chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing must be done quickly and without hesitation, or the mixture will become solid before you can press it into your bottle. We will not enter now into the _pros_ and _cons_ of the cyanide bottle, but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of killing the insects after we have noticed a few more. The 'laurel box' has had many devoted advocates, although it does not seem to be much in use now. It is a very good arrangement, however, but is a little more troublesome than the cyanide bottle, as it requires frequent replenishing. A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a small tin box of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by two, and cut a circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to fit it snugly as a false bottom without any danger of falling out of its place. Now gather some of the young leaves of the green laurel bush, and beat them almost to a pulp with a mallet or hammer. Place this in your tin box, and press down the perforated false bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give off a very powerful odour, which stupefies butterflies immediately. [Illustration: FIG. 44.--SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX. _a_, space for insects; _b_, perforated partition; _c_, bruised laurel leaves.] Of course the reader may be able to think of various other ways in which the laurel box may be made. Any arrangement will do providing the vapour can come to the insects without allowing the leaves to touch their wings; and any ingenious youth could manufacture a more satisfactory article than the one I have mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible, to give instructions that may easily be carried out by anyone, even if he has not the slightest mechanical skill, leaving the clever youth, sometimes, the opportunity of displaying his own inventive power. But in this case I will give a few suggestions concerning other ways in which a laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and _fixed_ false bottom is a decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular piece of perforated zinc or 'tin' by means of a little solder; or even a wood partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into it from the outside. With the fixed partition, however, you must have a lid at each end of the box. This is easily managed if you get two tins of the same size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit the lid of the other in its place. I have heard of laurel boxes without any partition save a piece of rag in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is _pressed_ into the box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced while you are on the chase. I do not recommend this, for in addition to the chance of its slipping there is a danger of the sap of the leaves exuding through the rag and spoiling the insects' wings. But if the reader should prefer to try this on account of its simplicity, it will probably occur to him that a bottle may be used instead of a tin box. A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece of apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomologists who desire to test the relative value of the various poisons that are used by the different experts; for with it any one of these substances can be used. In the poison compartment you can place pieces of 'cyanide' wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of porous substance moistened with liquid ammonia, chloroform, benzole, or any other volatile liquid insecticide. All the above-named substances are declared to be 'the best,' so they must all be worth the trial. 'Cyanide' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide bottle well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole season. I always recharge two in the spring, one for active service in the field and the other as a reserve force; and these kept in a cool place do good execution throughout the year. If they should exhibit a slight failing, a few minutes' warming before a fire will improve them; but for field work it is better to recharge. At the same time see that the corks are in good condition. Next to the 'cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for permanency; but you must not expect this to last many days. For a few days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the laurel box has not been in use for some time you must have a fresh supply. The liquid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole, are so volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so much vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with you. Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or other absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the perforations of the partition. If you choose ammonia--a substance that is not regarded as a poison, and is therefore easily obtained from any chemist--always get the strongest, and see that it is labelled 'Liq. Ammonia, S.G. .880' as a guarantee. A small bottle such as you can conveniently carry in the waistcoat pocket will contain sufficient for a day's work. Use only a few drops at a time, but renew frequently. Although the ammonia corrodes cork, yet a good cork is far preferable for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its elasticity prevents it from losing its hold, and the liquid from saturating your pocket and its surroundings; but a glass stopper is certainly better for the stock solution kept at home. Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little is required for a day's work, and consequently a very small bottle is more convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances supply metal 'chloroform bottles' with screw stoppers and a small nozzle that will allow the liquid to run out only in drops. This is a very good arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the 'drop too much' which is not only unnecessary and therefore wasteful, but saves you from experiencing the disappointment of an empty bottle before your work is half done. [Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE.] Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate of ammonium instead of liquid ammonia, but this is not so powerful. It must be remembered that we have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own convenience, in the selection of the poisons we use. It is the opinion of many well-known entomologists that 'insects cannot feel pain,' and that we are therefore at liberty to deal with them in any way we please. Still it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be satisfied with no killing box that is not practically instantaneous in its effects. Among other poisons used by entomologists I may mention sulphur fumes and tobacco smoke. The former may be obtained by burning a little sulphur or a sulphured lucifer match under the perforations of a killing box of the pattern described, and the latter--well, every smoker knows that. I should at once condemn the former method, at least for field work, as troublesome and inconvenient; and as to the other, I have tried the effect of a puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned insect, but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to do so again. We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less suitable to our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem as to which is the best. Each one has its advantages. For _convenience_ nothing beats the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in its action, and the use of a bottle is a little preferable to a metal box, for you can always satisfy yourself as to its efficiency without opening it. Cyanide, chloroform, benzole, and some others render the insects more or less brittle and stiff, so that it is not so easy to 'set' them for the cabinet. Perhaps, if you happen to have a supply of growing laurel close at hand, you cannot do better than stick to the laurel box. The time taken in bruising up a few leaves is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off from them will keep your insects moist and supple, or will even 'relax' them if they have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and you will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the world cannot answer for you--which method answers best in _your_ hands. The next item for our consideration is the 'collecting box.' This is merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as they are dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from which a selection can be made according to the means or the ingenuity of the reader. For a couple of shillings you can obtain a good zinc collecting box, lined with cork, of oval form (a most convenient shape for the pocket), and quite large enough for one day's captures; and half that modest sum will purchase a wooden box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same purpose. As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest is often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a shilling by buying a wooden box, but you are sure to discard it after a little practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little later on concerning the advisability of 'setting' the butterflies as soon as possible after capture; but this is not always practicable, especially after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned in a wooden box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently cannot be 'set' till they have been put through the more or less tedious process of 'relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box you will often find, on a hot and dry day, that all or nearly all your butterflies are rigid before you arrive home; but a metal box will keep them moist and supple, so that you can even put off the setting till the following day if you are unable to do it immediately after your return. Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If your collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have room for only one layer of pinned insects; but a box only a little deeper may be lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be made to accommodate double the number. The zinc boxes sold by the dealers are generally lined with cork in this manner, and are, of course, deep enough for the double layer of specimens; but the wooden boxes are sometimes lined on the bottom only. After these few remarks you will at once see the economy of expending the extra shilling on the former. Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are many who would prefer making their own, and there is much to be said in favour of this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived from the construction of your own apparatus, especially when that apparatus is afterwards to be used in the pursuit of a delightful hobby. During the whole of the time thus engaged, you are looking forward with the most pleasurable feelings to the glorious treat before you, and every joint you make seems to bring you nearer to the realisation of your joys. During the bleak winter months there is no better employment for an entomologist who has a little spare time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just one of those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure out of life as it is capable of affording. How many there are who, for the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure hours the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and wearisomeness of their lot! The mournful thought with them is, 'Is life worth living?' but who ever heard such an expression from the lips of an active entomologist? But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business. The question is--How shall we set to work about the construction of a collecting box? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a box of such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the bottom, and lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or slices of good wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed on with glue. The metal box is not quite so easy, but even here you may save yourself much work by keeping your eyes open. Very neat little collecting boxes can be made out of the flat metal boxes in which are sold certain favourite brands of tobacco. Some of these are just the right depth, and also of a very convenient size for the coat pocket. Beg one of these boxes from a smoking friend, and if the lid is not held by a hinge (a great advantage, by the way), you can easily solder on a brass one. All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet of cork at a naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in stock, and cut out two pieces just the size to cover the bottom and the lid. Gum and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as you will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary to keep the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances. The cork must be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here are two ways of doing this: First.--Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches long and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in fig. 46, and solder them to the surfaces which the cork is to cover (fig. 47). As the cork is pushed in its place, these little slips are allowed to force themselves through slits in it made by means of a penknife, and then the ends are bent over as shown in fig. 48. Two or three such fasteners will be quite sufficient to hold down each sheet of cork. [Illustration: FIG. 46.] [Illustration: FIG. 47.] [Illustration: FIG. 48.] [Illustration: FIG. 49.] Second.--Put the sheets of cork in their places _first_, then make a few little slits through both metal and cork with the point of a penknife, and then bind the two together with a few ordinary paper fasteners. This arrangement is shown in section in fig. 49. Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You will often call moisture to your aid in keeping the butterflies flexible and soft. This will have but little action on zinc, but will sooner or later cause the 'tin' (really tinned iron) box to rust. Here, then, is a point in favour of zinc, but still a home-made 'tin' collector will last a long time if kept dry when not in use. As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take home certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements or for the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end you must provide yourself either with a number of 'chip boxes' with a few small holes pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes with perforations for the admission of air. If the latter, you will have no difficulty in securing a few 'tin' boxes of suitable size, but, as the surface of the metal is very smooth, you should always introduce a few leaves or something else that will provide a foothold for the inmates. The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins are quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for the collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the 'entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a sample card. This will be very useful for reference until you become well acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses, numbers and prices. The card will contain one of each kind, with price and number attached. If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the latter partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright green substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal matter on the copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appearance to the specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are either silvered, blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish after a time, but the two other kinds keep their colour well, and are therefore better. The gilded ones are rather expensive and unnecessary, and perhaps the black ones are to be preferred to the silvered, although they are rather more costly. Most dealers will supply you with a box of mixed pins, each box containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for those who work in a rather small way; but if you intend to make entomology a prolonged study you had better get an ounce or so of each of the more useful sizes. Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 3 to 8 are the most useful sizes of pins to fix them; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8 for the smallest. Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you are really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies captured should be set as soon as possible after your return, and everything required for _this_ part of the work must be in perfect trim. Yet I think it will be more convenient just now to confine our attention to the subject of 'Catching Butterflies,' leaving all the indoor work to form the substance of another chapter. Our next point, then, shall be the consideration of seasons, times, and localities. The earliest of the butterflies make their appearance on the wing in April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March; and from this time you can find employment up to the end of September or the beginning of October--a period of about seven months. But it must not be supposed that all parts of this long season are equally prolific, and will yield equally valuable catches. Remember the short term of a butterfly's life, and bear in mind that each one has its own regular season in which to spend the winged state; you will then see that anyone who wishes to 'work' as many species as possible must arrange his outings in accordance with the insects' own times. Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may not come forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on the wing almost without cessation for several months together, and therefore need not have a special day set apart for them. But others are more uniform in their date of appearance, and die off at about the same time. To catch such as these you must be careful to watch the weather, make allowance for any severities that may tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high temperature that may hasten their emergence, and then select a day in which you may expect to find them fresh and unworn. A week too early, and none are to be seen; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are worn and worthless. A glance at our Calendar (Appendix II) will give you a few illustrations in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month for the 'Whites,' early 'Blues' and certain of the Fritillaries; July for most of the Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before you have been long collecting you will have captured the very common species, and then you will find that your butterfly hunts are very unproductive unless you make it a point to try for certain species at the proper times. Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when preparing for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important that we should carefully select our locality in accordance with the known haunts of the various species. As long as you are simply working up the common kinds, you may wander almost at random in waste places, flowery meadows, corn fields, railway banks, &c.; but when you have secured a few specimens of each of these, you must search out the favoured resorts of the more local and the rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited if you are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple Emperor and the Purple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beautiful Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies are closely restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must travel if determined to obtain them. There yet remains another important matter to consider, and that is the kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies are not only strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only on bright days. Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a very bright sun. If you are to be out for a full day's collecting, manage to be on the hunting ground at about ten o'clock in the morning. As a rule there are not many out before this time, and some do not appear to stir till an hour later: still there are a few 'early birds' among them, one of which--the Wall Butterfly--I have seen on the wing before eight. If your season, your day, and your locality are all well chosen, you may reckon on a good six hours' work. At about four the butterflies begin to lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one by one, till only a few of the late stragglers remain on the wing. So far I have furnished some general instructions that may be regarded as preparatory to the start; but I will now give a few hints as to the mode of procedure when the day for field work has come. First, see that you have secured _all_ your apparatus, and that it is in perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after you have travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that you have left your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of your metal Y is just giving way? If you are troubled with a short memory, it will be advisable to make out a list of every requisite for your field work, and keep this for reference on all field days. Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies. Net, ferrule or Y, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be damped if the box is a metal one), a few 'chip boxes' for live insects, killing apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a piece of string, needle and cotton, and your penknife. You observe in this list one or two items not previously mentioned, since they hardly come under the category of apparatus, but a moment's thought will convince you of their usefulness, especially in the case of a breakdown. If your net catches in a thorn--a very common occurrence--and a big rent is made, the needle and cotton will save you a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper. If your stick breaks under your exertions, the knife or the string may prove a most valuable companion. Your pins may be stuck in the cork of your collecting box, certainly the most convenient spot for immediate use; but you may also have a reserve store in a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a strip of flannel which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket. At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but inexperienced, and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the use of your new gear. Your experience with the cap has been a very wide one, and you are possibly an expert at knocking down 'Whites' in the streets and in your neighbour's kitchen gardens. Now you have to wield the net, and coax your captives into your killing bottle; hence a slight feeling of incompetence at first. You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you may be seen furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that come within range, common 'Whites' and dingy 'Browns' receiving as much attention at your hands as any rare gem that may happen to cross your path. How different are the movements of an experienced collector! He walks stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently taking but little notice of the majority of butterflies that approach and pass him. He has already secured his 'series' of nearly all the species, and is carefully on the watch for the gems that are required to complete his cabinet. His actions are slow and deliberate rather than rash; and he trusts more to his eyes than his legs. The beginner may take to his field work quite to his own satisfaction, and may travel homeward with a feeling of great pride over his first day's catch; but yet there are a few points in which a little advice may not be quite out of place, particularly so with regard to the management of the net, and the killing and pinning of the insects. Most of the butterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far better to net them in the air than to sweep them off the herbage and flowers. If these are rather low, you should strike the net smartly _upwards_ from below them, but of course this movement is impossible with insects that happen to be almost above your reach. If a butterfly is busily engaged in searching out its sweet food, flying from flower to flower, don't think of giving chase, but follow it up stealthily, and you will sooner or later get an opportunity of striking at it while in the air. Sometimes, however, you will see a powerful flier making a straight dash across your field, taking no notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms, but evidently engaged on some important errand. If such happens to be a species you require, then you must run for it, but you will probably be satisfied with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun is very hot, and the ground diversified with clumps of furze, heather, 'molehills,' and ditches. There are times when your only plan of netting a butterfly is to sweep it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the vegetation is very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon it, and then, holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so as to give it room to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower part of the net as soon as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If the herbage is tall it is advisable to strike either upward or sideways at the insect, starting it from the leaf or flower on which it rests; for if you bring _down_ the net you will have to inclose the whole or part of the plant on which the butterfly has settled--a procedure that often ends in a torn net, or in the insect becoming damaged through being rubbed against the plant. Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net through the air, you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal position, so that the bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the edge. This gives you an opportunity of examining the insect before you introduce your killing bottle. This is a very necessary precaution, for you are generally unable to judge of the condition of a butterfly while on the wing, and in some cases you cannot even be certain of the species. If, then, you were to call the killing bottle into requisition for every capture you make, you would certainly find yourself taking the life of many an insect that is of no use whatever to you. Always examine your specimens at the moment they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible to do so, by looking through the gauze; and let your examination be as brief as possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in splendid condition will render themselves useless to you during their struggles to get away. When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep it in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the left hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the other hand. As a rule you will experience not the slightest difficulty in coaxing it into its trap, and then you quickly cover the mouth of the killing bottle with the gauze, then apply your left hand, using it as a temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now, the insect having been quieted, replace the cork. A good killing bottle is almost instantaneous in its action, not only stupefying, but immediately killing the insects; and as soon as you are sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in your collecting box. You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do not take it out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers from the mere stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been pinned, and when you open your collecting box for the next butterfly, you are horrified at the sight of the poor victim struggling to free itself. On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle too long. If you do you will soon have a number, one lying on another, and all tumbled about together while you are on the chase. Of course, under such circumstances you are sure to damage them more or less. Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for moths, never employ one for butterflies, but kill them by pinching the thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes turns out to be a really quicker process than that we have just been considering; and, more than this, you can resort to it should you break or lose your bottle while in the field. It is done in this manner: Bring the two opposite sides of the net together, closing them on the insect so that it cannot flutter. If now the wings are brought together over the back, all is right, but if not, give it just a little room to flutter till you have the opportunity of closing the gauze upon it with the wings in the desired position. Now pinch the thorax smartly between the finger and the thumb, applying the pressure outside the net, but be careful not to squeeze the abdomen. In a moment you will find the insect quite dead, and not in the least damaged unless you performed the operation clumsily. Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger and thumb of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through the centre of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point appears centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your collecting box. So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species are to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps even of bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with the work done, you may very profitably spend these hours in the collection and study of the habits of moths. _Catching Moths by Day_ The reason for choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting is obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on the wing; and although many may be driven out of their hiding places by beating the herbage with the handle of your net, or even be searched out as they rest on stalks and leaves during dull days or at morning and evening twilight, yet such methods are comparatively tedious and unproductive. Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in butterfly hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly from flower to flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and brightness. Again, as you wade among flowery herbs in quest of butterflies you will certainly disturb a number of moths, causing them to take a short flight in search of a safer spot. Thus you will almost invariably find a few moths among the contents of your collecting box even though you made no special effort to seek them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are not so much in demand, or during the less brilliant hours of the day, when butterflies are at rest. The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any important respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is used, any reliable killing bottle will do, and the pins and collecting box used for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode of procedure is very different. As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will do well to examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences. In this way you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are consequently easily taken. All you have to do is to hold the open killing bottle obliquely just below the insect, and then push it gently downward with a small twig or stalk. As a rule the moth will drop direct into the bottle and make no attempt to fly away; but some are very light sleepers, ready to take flight at the slightest disturbance; and when dealing with these you must be careful to bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely round them that there is no room for flight except into the bottle itself. It is well, however, not to take long at this kind of searching, but to reserve as much as possible of your time for what you consider to be a very favourable locality. Speaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable one also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention to well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields; also overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods, the trunks of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries. Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the tall herbage of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with the handle of your net as you go. Then, if your locality is well selected, you will rouse moths to flight at almost every stroke. Some of these will shoot upward among the lofty branches and disappear quite beyond your reach; others will fly rather low and somewhat heavily, giving you favourable opportunities to try your skill with the net; others, again, will fly only a yard or so, and alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remaining so quiet that the killing bottle is easily made to inclose them. There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees. These may be seen hovering about high branches during the evening twilight, and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such cases the chance of a capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one will descend so low that a watchful collector is able to secure it by a sweep of the net. If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect the presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper branches of trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dislodge the insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve this purpose well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among the branches may prove effectual. In the case of small and rather slender trees, a kick against the trunk will set the whole in vibration sufficient to surprise all the lodgers; and the same effect may be produced with larger trees by giving each a good sound blow with a mallet or some other suitable implement. This or any other plan of 'beating' for moths is much more conveniently worked by two collectors together than by one alone; for one engaged in beating the herbage cannot be at the same time fully on the alert with the net. If two persons are together, one may take the lead, armed with the beating stick only, while the other, only very slightly in the rear, is always ready to strike. We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the field, but this plan is not so universally adopted with moths. Many collectors carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the latter and then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them direct in these. This method of 'pill-boxing' is very simple in the case of the lazy and soundly sleeping moths. It is only necessary to hold the open box below the insect, and then cause it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on it from above. Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes and can be taken home alive without much fear of damage. All may then be killed at the same time by packing all the pill boxes in some vessel of sufficient accommodation, and shutting them in with a little chloroform, ammonia, benzole, or other suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way through the pores of the pill boxes, but, in order to make its action speedy, each one should have a few perforations in the lid. Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector who works at night, when the process of pinning would be more or less tedious, there is no necessity for its adoption during the day. The large number of pill boxes required is certainly far more bulky than the single collecting box that would accommodate all the day's captures; and although most of the insects boxed alive may be none the worse for the shaking they get, and may not damage themselves by fluttering in their small prisons, yet there is often a little loss on this score. If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful that you do not mix the occupied boxes with the empties; and unless you fix on some definite plan for the prevention of such an occurrence, you will often find yourself releasing a prisoner from a box you have just opened to receive a new-comer. Suppose that you start with all your empties in your right pocket. Then each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed in the _left_, with the name of the insect, or any particular concerning it you would wish to note, pencilled on the lid. When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually meeting with specimens of very small Moths--_Pyralides_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and _Tineæ_--and at first may find some difficulty in boxing or bottling such small and delicate creatures. A grass stalk will enable you to tip some of them into your killing bottle, but some are so snugly packed in crevices of the bark that it is almost impossible to get them out without damage, even with a thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of wind from your mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow them into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box or bottle. These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-hunting expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to make good use of the dull days and cloudy hours when the butterflies are quiet; but we must now turn our attention to the night work of the entomologist, and see how we may attract and catch moths during their hours of work and play. _Searching for Moths at Night._ It is a well-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted by lights, a characteristic of these insects that it is difficult to explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided that they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of day still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion to the rays of the moon; and yet these very same species will often rush madly into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or fly with an energy almost amounting to fury against the glass of a street lamp or lighted window. Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably turn it to our own account by making it a means of luring a number of moths into our presence. The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is to post yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle at hand, while the brightest light you can command casts its rays as far and as wide as possible into darkness outside. If you use an oil lamp for the purpose, let it stand just inside the window frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket happens to be situated beside the window, bend it round so that the rays may pass over a wide area outside. Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage--one quite outside the window to attract the moths from all possible points, and then another near the middle of the room to invite them inside. Whether you use either one or two lights, always see that it or they are so surrounded by a screen that the moths cannot by any possibility rush into the flame. There is nothing better for this purpose than a covering of light gauze, for this is not only a barrier for the prevention of the suicidal tendencies of the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to those who would like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast. You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit great differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments. Some will satisfy themselves by flying _near_ the light in almost a straight course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass; or will, perhaps, make a hurried curve round the light and then pass on at once about other business. To catch these you must be always on the alert, with net in hand, ready to make a dash at the right moment. But many will make straight for the flame, and then, finding a barrier in the form of gauze or glass, will either flutter round and round as if dissatisfied with your attempt to save them from an untimely end, or else settle quietly on the screen to enjoy the brightness for a long period. The flutterers are usually easily covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as for those that settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure. It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad weather keeps him at home it affords him a means of capturing a few specimens that otherwise would have been missed. He may be even so busily engaged in other matters that he cannot afford the time to stand and watch with net in hand, but the insects that fly into his room and dance round the gas jet or inquisitively examine the white surface of the ceiling are easily netted or boxed without much loss of time. The chances of success at this kind of work will vary considerably with the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your window opens on a large flower or fruit garden, on a patch of wooded country with plenty of underwood, a piece of waste ground overgrown with rank vegetation, or a stretch of heath or moor, then you may expect a very large number of visitors; but if you are situated on a level and barren country, or in the dense atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not reckon on many intruders. As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during the bleak nights of October and November, and also during the somewhat less dismal nights of February and March; but from April to September you may rely on a goodly number of captures. Of course you will not expect many of the 'rarities' and 'gems' to find you out; these are to be searched for in the open field in the manner to be presently described; but your lights will attract a large number of the commoner species of _Geometræ_ and _Noctuæ_, the former _chiefly_ during the early summer, and the latter more or less throughout the season. A little experience will show you that the atmospheric conditions form a very important consideration. The dark and warm nights are the most productive. Very little luck is to be anticipated when the full moon is throwing down her silvery rays from a clear sky; nor will you see many while a cold east or north-east wind is blowing. Under these conditions many moths prefer to keep in the sheltered nooks where they slept away the sunny hours of the day. They love a warm and moist air such as calls forth the odours of the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and show no dislike to a fine drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer to avoid. A pelting shower will generally keep them under cover, but they delight in the fresh and moist air that immediately succeeds the passing storm. [Illustration: FIG. 50.--FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS AND WINDOWS.] If you reside on the outskirts of a town an occasional tour of inspection of street lamps may add a few specimens to your collection, and some entomologists attach so much importance to the value of these luminaries that they provide themselves with a special net for the removal of moths from the glass and rails (fig. 50). The straight side marked _a_ is applied to the panes of glass when flutterers or settlers are to be taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to secure those that rest on the rail. Such a frame is easily made by bending a piece of stout wire to the required shape, and then soldering it to a ferrule to receive a long stick. The net itself should not be deep. Many different forms of traps are now made for catching moths, and these are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They are generally constructed on a 'catch-'em-alive-oh' principle, and have the advantage that, after having been set, they may be left alone all night without any watching, and give an ambitious collector the opportunity of taking insects in his garden and searching in the open field both at the same time. One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost of only a few pence over the price of a small paraffin lamp. Put together a square box, the sides about two feet and the front open, or procure a suitable one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp with a bright tin reflector at the back of this, and make a hole in the top just over the chimney to allow the heated air to pass out freely. Three sheets of glass are now to be placed as shown in the sketch (fig. 51), one upright piece completely shutting off the lamp, and two others placed obliquely with a space between them just large enough to allow admission. These must be exactly the width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but simply resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. When required for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are placed will direct all light-seekers into the lower compartment, whence they are not at all likely to find their way out again; and after vain endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on the sides of the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 51.--A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS.] Occasionally it happens that an entomologist is lucky enough to claim the friendship of a person who, from the nature of his calling, is peculiarly well qualified to render him great assistance. Thus a friendly lamplighter, expert and patient in the use of the cyanide bottle or pill box, is capable of giving valuable aid at times; and the keeper of a lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is seldom seen on the wing; but, although much may be done by means of these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not compare favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the very haunts of the objects of his search. For such out-door work in search of moths a good lantern is essential. An ordinary 'bull's-eye' is almost useless, for, although it concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of its rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological work. For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not only pass in front of you, but also shoot off right and left to warn you of the approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net. This wide range may be obtained by means of three flat glass sides, or, better still, by a bent plate glass front. In addition to this you must go out provided with your net, killing bottle, and a number of pill boxes. Choose your night according to the hints already given, and if you are on the look-out for any particular species, be careful that the date of your outing is well timed, making any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the season, for a moth that is generally due on a certain _average_ time of the year may appear some weeks sooner if the preceding weeks have been unusually warm, or its emergence may be delayed considerably by the prevalence of cold east winds or a late frost. Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you start, and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a variety of situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of a number of different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant undergrowth, waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation, overgrown railway banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn fields, plantations in parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and overgrown hollows such as chalk pits and old disused quarries, reed and marsh land, all these are good localities, each one inhabited by its own peculiar species, and if your route runs through a fair variety of such places you may, other things being equally favourable, depend on a good catch. See that your time also is well chosen. Of course you cannot say exactly what the night will be till it actually comes, and, as you have to start off before it is dark, you must consider the probabilities of the future from the present condition of the air. Let it be a night when a bright moon is not due, and if it follow a warm and moist day with a south or south-west wind, or if drizzly, so much the better; but let your feet be shod with boots that will permit you to wade through moist herbage without danger, and take a waterproof if necessary. It is always advisable to be on your hunting ground before twilight sets in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun has disappeared; and then you can work on till midnight if you feel inclined, or even extend your labours till the early hours of the morning. Before dusk you will meet with many of the little _Tortrices_ (page 298) in sheltered spots, and a little later the _Geometræ_ and Hawks will be on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make good use of your net, dealing with your captures just in the same way as recommended in the case of butterflies. After a time, however, the lantern will have to be brought to your assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later species, consisting chiefly of the _Noctuæ_, many of which do not make their appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your lantern in your left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat difficult and tedious, for, although one hand is sufficient to manage the net properly, you are compelled to rest your light on the ground every time you make a capture, as it is impossible to box your specimens unless both hands are quite free. This difficulty is easily overcome by suspending the lantern by means of a string or strap placed round your neck, allowing it to hang on your chest; and a further advantage is gained by having a second strap round your chest to prevent it from swaying about with every movement of your body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly free during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of continually bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture while you are examining or boxing the specimens you have netted. There are now two courses open to you. Either you can kill and pin the moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in the collecting box, or you may simply shut each one in a separate pill box and leave the remainder of the work to be done at home. If the ordinary collecting box only is used, a little of your time is necessarily occupied in pinning and transferring, and if many insects are about such an occupation may appear to you to be a waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often and often will you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will come and flutter round your light; and, before you have time to drop your collecting box and pick up the net, the fine creature you would have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that a few of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been boxed, so that when you arrive home they are more or less damaged, a large number of the scales that once adorned the wings now lying on the sides and bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best plan is to take both the collecting box and also a quantity of pill boxes, and a little experience will soon show you which is the better accommodation for certain kinds. Particular attention must be paid to flowers, some of which are very attractive to the _Noctuæ_ especially. Sallow blossom in spring and ivy bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently watched, and at other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort, bramble, clover, and various other flowers must be searched. As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some will prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach; but others will take but little notice of your advance, and will continue to suck the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living sparks. As a rule the _Noctuæ_ thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or caught direct in the cyanide bottle; but a few of the more restless species are to be made sure of only by a sweep of the net. Some will feign death as soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop among the foliage, where further search is generally fruitless. Another common difficulty arises from the inconvenient height of many of the attractive blossoms--often so great that it is impossible to reach them with the net, and very difficult to direct the rays of your lantern on them. This is particularly the case with sallow and ivy, the flowers of which are two rich sources of supply to the entomologist. [Illustration: FIG. 52.] [Illustration: FIG. 53.--NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH BLOSSOMS.] Those who intend giving special attention to these blossoms should be provided with some form of apparatus that will enable them to extend their operations as high as possible. Perhaps the most effective arrangement is the well-known combination here figured. It consists of a long and stout stick, at the top of which is a tubular joint (fig. 52) that might be termed a T-piece were it not that the smaller part does not stand out at right angles to the other. In this is fixed, in a straight line with the stick, a short rod on which hangs a lantern--an ordinary bull's-eye answers well here; and in the smaller tube is another short rod carrying a shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a length that the net is just in advance of the lantern. At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of the insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or less addicted to habits of intemperance--that they will hold on to the supply of the sweet fluid they enjoy till they are ready to drop with intoxication. This being the case, some will fall into your net as soon as they are startled by the sudden and near approach of the glare of your lamp, and others are easily _made_ to fall therein by gently tapping the flower-bearing stems from below with the edge of the ring. Having become acquainted with this very sad propensity, which thus brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet further turn their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours to become acquainted with their structure and history? Most certainly we can. All we have to do is to distribute in their haunts a bountiful supply of some artificial intoxicant such as they love, and then lie in wait for the victims that fall a prey to our snare. This process is known to entomologists as 'sugaring,' and is a splendid means of securing an abundance of species, often including some rare ones that are scarcely to be obtained by any other plan. Let us now inquire into the _modus operandi_ of this interesting operation. The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark brown sugar; always remembering, in the selection of these viands, that odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of sugar are those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state from the West Indies, nothing being better than that known as 'Jamaica Foots.' Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and boil and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the mixture should be such that it will work well with a brush when used as a paint--not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily absorbed by the substance on which it is 'painted,' nor must it be in such a fluid condition that it easily runs. When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin canister, see it properly covered, and set it aside as your 'stock' from which you can draw supplies as required. Now secure an ordinary painter's brush of convenient size, and a number of strips of linen or other rag, each one of which is fastened to a hook formed of bent wire. These items, together with the usual lantern, collecting box, pill boxes, and killing bottle, complete your outfit for the sugaring expedition. When the selected time for operations has arrived, take sufficient 'sugar' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient strong rum to give it a very decided odour, and start off at dusk with this and the other requisites just mentioned. The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp atmosphere, and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-wooded one; abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees, and containing open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank herbage. Such localities are to be met with at their best in forest lands, and if you would do wonders at sugaring you cannot do better than arrange for spending your holidays in such a spot as the New Forest, taking with you sufficient 'sugar' for several nights' work. Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you prepare for real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring tin and brush ready for action. Take your course along some definite track that you are sure to remember, painting vertical strips of sugar, about a foot long, on the trunks of trees or on palings, and hanging strips of rag that have just been steeped in the sugar on the branches of small trees and shrubs where you do not find good surfaces for the brush. After satisfying yourself concerning the amount of sugar distributed, retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you go. It will not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders, centipedes and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but unless the time and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon reveal a goodly number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls of fire, greedily devouring the bounteous repast. These will consist chiefly of _Noctuæ_, but _Sphinges_, _Geometræ_ and numerous small species also join the company. Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before you make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration as if to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands. These must receive your attention first; and, having secured them, proceed to box as many as you require of the more lazy and gluttonous species. As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the livelier ones will not submit to such treatment without attempting to escape. The best way to secure these is either to cover them with the opened cyanide bottle (or its substitute), and replace the cork as soon as a favourable opportunity occurs; or to perform the same feat with a glass-bottomed pill box. The advantage of the latter over the ordinary boxes will be seen at once. After the insect is covered, its movements can be watched, and so a favourable opportunity can be seized for snapping on the lid. As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger, allowing themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe from capture. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they have so gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they can no longer maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar seekers may easily be secured by means of a net commonly known as the 'sugaring net.' [Illustration: FIG. 54.--FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET.] This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can easily make his own. The frame may consist of two straight wires or canes fixed in a metal Y, and the other ends joined by a piece of strong string or catgut as shown in fig. 54. The net itself need not be deep. As soon as you reach a tree where moths are feeding on the sugar, press the string of the net against the bark just below them. The string at once assumes the form of the trunk so well that you may be sure of every insect that falls while you are boxing. For this work both hands must be free, and this is easily managed in spite of the number of appliances called into service. The lantern is slung round your neck and secured by a strap round the chest. The 'sugaring net' has a very short stick, and just while you are engaged in boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a slight pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are necessary only when the night worker is out alone. There are many circumstances, however, that render the work of two or more in company much more enjoyable than that of a single-handed entomologist. The labours are considerably expedited where a division enables each one of the night ramblers to take a particular portion of the work; and if there is such a person as a nervous entomologist, that individual should on no account go a sugaring in lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives such a one a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of the peace; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper, attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him with his gruff 'What's your business here?' then for the moment he forgets his enchanting hobby and wishes he were safely at home. It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist or not, on such expeditions; and if you intend working on private grounds, always make previous arrangements with the property owner, that you may fear no foes and dread no surprises; for a sugarer is far more sure of success in his work if he keeps a cool head and has nothing to think about for the time being but his moths and his boxes. A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very rapidly, and when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to leave off, especially when it is known that some species of moths are not very busy till very late at night. Still it is not advisable to surfeit oneself with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better as a rule to work the early species only on one night, and reserve another for the later ones. The searchings are then always carried on with vigour throughout, and the labours that are thus never made laborious ever retain their attractiveness in the future. It has often been observed that, when sugaring has been carried on for a few successive nights in the same locality, the success is greater each night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a common practice to work a chosen 'run' for two, three, or more nights in succession; and some collectors even go so far as to lay on the bait for a night or two previous to starting work. For the same reason it is often advisable to continue the use of a fairly productive beat rather than to wander in search of a new one. In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with patches of sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a brother entomologist's beat, and such are valuable to an inexperienced amateur in that they give him some idea of the nature of the localities that are chosen by more expert collectors. But it must be remembered that each entomologist has a moral right to a run he has baited, and that it is considered ungentlemanly, if not unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by another. I have sometimes seen cards, bearing the names of the collectors and the date of working, tacked on to baited trees and fences, thus establishing their temporary exclusive rights to the use of their runs. Such precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest land, where the choice of runs is practically unlimited. There are two other modes of capture available to the moth collector--the use of decoy females, and the employment of 'sugar traps'--and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other times either in the woods or in your own garden. The wonderful acuteness of the sense by which the males of certain species are enabled to seek out the females has already been alluded to, and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring you a number of beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except that taken in securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode. It is absolutely necessary that the female moth be one that has recently emerged, and consequently you had better secure her in one of her earlier stages, either by previous rearing or by collecting the pupæ. A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze must now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated. Here the gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in diameter, and suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every purpose in the field, and has the advantage of folding into an exceedingly small space when not in use. It may be suspended in your garden or taken into the field whenever you have a suitable decoy at your disposal. [Illustration: FIG. 55.--CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES.] [Illustration: FIG. 56.--A SUGAR TRAP.] The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in which a light is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a convenient size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient form may be constructed as follows: Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two wire rings, one a _little larger_ than the top of the tin, and the other only about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno, open at both ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form the frames of its two extremities. When the trap is required for use, cut a circular piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in sugar that has just been flavoured with rum, and place it in the bottom of the tin. Then place a few pebbles of equal size around the sides to support the zinc partition, drop in the partition, and then allow the net to hang on the rim as shown in the sketch. This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by the sweet perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their way through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts to reach the sugar; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless, and, like Paddy at the fair, not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' they finally settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your pleasure. Perhaps another word of explanation is necessary here. Why not allow the poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them to the spot? The reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves to such an extent that their bodies, dilated to the fullest capacity with syrup, are a bit troublesome when the insects are placed in the cabinet. It is therefore advisable to see that the zinc is so far above the sugar that the moths are unable to reach the latter by thrusting their extended proboscides through the perforations. A few dead leaves scattered on the zinc is also a useful addition, since it affords shelter to such of the insects as prefer it. This is a very useful trap to keep in one's garden throughout the season. It may not attract large numbers, but it has the advantage that it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at dusk, and remove the captives in the morning or at your leisure. CHAPTER VII _COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ_ We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as soon as possible after their capture; and it would therefore seem that this is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work. But it so happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by means other than those already described, and we shall therefore consider these previous to the study of the various processes connected with the setting and preserving of our specimens. Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect forms only, our knowledge of the _Lepidoptera_ would be scanty indeed, for we should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the creatures' lives, and have no opportunity of witnessing the wonderful transformations through which they have to pass. Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will, I hope, not satisfy the readers of these pages; so it is intended, in the next two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would like to know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and larvæ, how to search for the pupæ, and how to rear the insects from the stage at which they are acquired till they finally emerge in the perfect form. These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a great deal of his time, and also require much patience and perseverance; but the advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for in addition to the knowledge gained of the early stages of insect life, this kind of work will enable him to place in his cabinet a number of gems he would otherwise have not and probably know not. Occasionally a prize may be obtained in the form of a cluster of eggs (_ova_) of a rare species, in many instances the larvæ are to be obtained with comparative ease, while the perfect insects of the same species are not often seen or not easily captured, and many a rare pupa has been dug out of its hiding place during a season when the entomologist had but little other work to occupy his time. These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn. _Collecting Ova_ The collection of ova may be carried on more or less throughout the year. A number of moths are out in February, and even in January if the weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs, which are hatched about the time that the buds of the food plant are breaking. From this time till late in the summer the ova of various species are being deposited, the average period from laying to hatching being from two to three weeks. Then, during the autumn, when the leaves of food plants are turning brown and crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged till the new buds of the following spring are bursting. Of course if you intend searching for the ova of particular species you must previously ascertain the favourite haunts of those species, become acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season or seasons during which the eggs are laid. But the few following hints will suffice as general instructions for the search. In nearly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants of the respective species, but at times, especially with certain moths, we may come across them in the most unlikely spots. Thus, it sometimes happens that a moth settles on a street lamp, and lays her eggs on the framework round the glass, or even on the glass itself. The same thing may take place on the sash or glass of a brightly lighted window. Such occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova to the food plants of the species we require. As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but we have already noticed (page 18) that some moths leave their eggs exposed on the upper surface. Again, some larvæ feed on flowers and seeds and fruit, and the eggs of such are deposited on these parts. Those insects which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees often lay their eggs on trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes these are laid singly, sometimes in dense clusters; and it is not unusual to find them arranged in rings or spirals with great regularity. When examining the trunks of trees for ova it is necessary to look well into the crevices of the bark, for some insects take particular care to lay them in deep sheltered chinks; but others take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or plain surfaces where they are easily discovered. One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many insects lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of course a search for these is out of the question; but in places where the trees have been cut down a few years previously, and where a consequent undergrowth has developed, there are considerable chances of success with these species. Young saplings of trees often yield well, especially in places where tall trees of the same species are absent. It may be mentioned, too, that some moths (page 294) actually lay their eggs beneath the surface of water, depositing them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds; and others (page 298) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the same purpose. It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work of an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monotonous task; for his employment takes him into the meadows and woods, leads him to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to tear down banks and hedges for the nests of _Hymenoptera_ at the risk of a sting or two. One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the possession of captured females. When you are out netting butterflies you often see a female that is evidently engaged in her matronly duties. Instead of seeking food from the various flowers in her path, she pays attention only to the foliage, looking out a suitable leaf on which to deposit her eggs. Should you meet with an insect thus engaged which you would like to rear at home, or of which you would like to know the egg, secure it in a perforated pill box with a leaf of the proper plant; and it will often supply you with abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases depositing them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of numerous species of moths are also to be easily obtained from captured females. Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in captivity as freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do so we must, as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions. Let them have plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs of their food plants, kept green by standing them in vessels of water. It is also advisable, supposing you are not well acquainted with the dispositions of the species you have, to keep a portion of the box well shaded from direct sunlight, and allow another part to be as bright as possible; for some species will not lay in a bright light, while others will not do so without it. Again, while some deposit their eggs within a few hours of quitting the pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With regard to the latter, it is frequently necessary to feed them while in captivity, by placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has been dipped in honey or syrup. Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to knowing them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be made in your note book, showing every detail that you can make out with the aid of a good lens. Then observations concerning the season, colour of the eggs, the situation in which deposited, arrangement, and any other useful particulars, should be entered. In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the management of ova and the rearing of the larvæ from the time of hatching. _Collecting Larvæ_ This occupation is generally far more productive to the entomologist than searching for ova. The latter are very small, usually well concealed, and to be detected only by a careful scrutinising use of the eyes; but the superior size of the larvæ, the frequent bright colouring, and the fact that they are easily beaten from their hold, render the searchings of their hunters comparatively easy and fruitful. Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for your work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to rear your little captives. The latter are described a little later on under the head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now briefly summarise. The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout hooked stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the herbage while you are 'beating.' 'Larva boxes' are usually made of zinc, and have little sliding doors in the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of doors after the fragment of the required food plant has been inserted. Such boxes are not by any means essential. Small tin boxes will answer all purposes nearly as well, providing a number of small holes be made in them for the admission of air. Chip boxes are also fairly satisfactory, but these also should be perforated. The best way to do this is to push a red-hot iron wire through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in each box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size without otherwise injuring the boxes. Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food plants moist for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry rather rapidly. Yet there are some larvæ that do far better in the latter, since such a quantity of moisture exudes through their skins that they soon become uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not well ventilated. Under these circumstances perhaps it is better to take a supply of both, so that changes may be made as found necessary. One grave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of the material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom or a top disc of wood often falls out; but this is easily overcome by gluing narrow strips of calico round the top and bottom edges. Chip boxes should always be treated in this way, and they will then last five or six times as long. Your supply of boxes should always include one large one of metal in which to bring home a supply of food for the larvæ. If you have a botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing can serve this purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin box will do, and this may be carried in your satchel, or a couple of hooks may be soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for slinging it over your shoulder. The net required is that commonly known as the 'sweep net.' It must be very strong, for it has to submit to rather rough usage. The frame must be made of thick wire; and the bag, which need not be more than a foot deep, should be of strong calico or holland. Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned. This may be a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing is more convenient than this, as it occupies but little room in the pocket when not in use, if neatly folded. The material need not be thick, but the larger it is the better. Many prefer a white umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a white lining, but as this is only a matter of taste and convenience you must decide for yourself as to which you will use. If your field of operations is only a little way from your head quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a serious consideration, you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if necessary with a pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful in shaking larvæ from trees and large branches. Lastly, take a pencil and a note book or writing paper for your observations in the field. Now for the choice of the season. Larvæ are to be found all the year round. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds are bursting, some break out of the eggs recently laid by the moths that appear in February and March. Later on, during April and May, a host of both butterflies and moths are busy arranging for their broods. Then, throughout the whole of the summer, thousands of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be met with everywhere. And finally, during the bleak winter months, you may amuse yourself by digging the hybernators out of their hiding places where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them out to refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new year. Thus, unless you are merely intending to search out certain species you happen to require, there is not much difficulty in settling on the season. The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the herbage of banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more unpleasant than wading through a wet and dense vegetation, or beating down on yourself a shower of large drops from the branches of trees and shrubs. Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to look out for _signs_ of the presence of larvæ rather than for the larvæ themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be passed by as untenanted; but the presence of partly eaten foliage immediately arouses suspicion. A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between the ravages of larvæ and of slugs, snails, wasps, &c. Some of the smaller larvæ certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by _Hymenopterous_ insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges, leaving the midrib and the larger veins standing out almost naked. By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to see whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they are dried up and discoloured, it is not of much use to search; but if still green and moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry larvæ are not far off. In this case you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine the under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems; but you must be prepared for all kinds of protective mimicry. Little green caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or veins, so straight and so still that they are scarcely perceptible. Others are snugly tucked in a depression of a leaf with the same result. Then we must also be prepared for the artful little tricks of the larvæ of _Geometræ_ (p. 268), by which they imitate stalks and twigs so closely that a sharp eye is necessary to discriminate between the two. While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a caterpillar. This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful examination. At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for inspection, we feel something hairy or something soft and smooth. But lo! it is gone. It is one of those numerous caterpillars that feign death and drop to the ground on the slightest sign of danger. We search below for it, but the density of the vegetation renders this hopeless, and we are just about to start off in search of a more productive locality when we espy a quantity of the excrement of larvæ lying on a little bare patch of ground close by. This gives us a new idea. Here is another indication of the presence of the creatures we require, one that we can put into practice; and by-and-by we learn that in many cases this is really the surest sign of their whereabouts. We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once some idea of the _size_ of the larvæ that produce them. Then we observe whether they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the latter, it is not of much use to examine the leaves above; but if otherwise, there is little doubt of our meeting with larvæ, as the present position they occupy is so truly marked. The leaves just over them are carefully examined, either by turning them over as before described, or, if the height of the foliage admits of it, by placing our heads below and looking upward. If we find that the larvæ are some of those that endeavour to escape by feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the slightest disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we are touching in order to intercept them in their downward journey. Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up and bound with silk threads, and others that are drawn together and similarly bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled asunder with the result that active little larvæ are exposed to view, or, it may be, pupæ are discovered. In some cases flowers are drawn together in just the same way, and an examination reveals one or more of the species that prefer petals and other parts of flowers to the green leaves. Silken threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen lying on the surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another, or they may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees above. In the latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the lower extremity of the fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and, should we require it, we have only to place the open box below for its reception. Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of leaves, nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by a host of small larvæ. In such cases we often meet with dense clusters of silk fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests. But when we look more closely into the structure we observe that we have discovered instead nests of gregarious larvæ, such a large number being in each little community that the deplorable appearance of the tree is at once explained. A little farther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the midst of a number of flourishing individuals of the same species, and stop to make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence. Is it due to a poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case; for intermingled with its roots are those of its flourishing companions. We pluck a stunted and half-shrivelled leaf and examine it. At first we do not notice the cause of its peculiar condition; but, holding it up to the light, and looking _through_ it, we see a number of little galleries that have been eaten out of its internal soft substance, leaving the thin skin (_epidermis_) almost entirely intact. But nothing more is to be seen. Another leaf is examined in exactly the same way; and here we see the little destroyer, lying motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure applied against it from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow passage. This is the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned again on page 303. Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving reeds, most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition, but here and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen--another result of the ravages of the larvæ of one or more moths. An examination of the blades reveals nothing; but on splitting open the stalk we discover some larvæ that have already devoured a quantity of the internal pith, and thus endangered the life of the plant. On inspecting other similar reeds we are at first puzzled as to how the larvæ could get inside the stems without damaging the outer portion; but at last we see in each one a little discoloured hole that was eaten out by the young caterpillar just after its escape from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a plentiful supply of food, and there grew at the expense of the plant without doing any further external damage save by causing a stunted growth. It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about full grown. If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope that we may find one or two that are just about to change to the chrysalis state, or even a pupa already formed. By this means we may secure one of the perfect insects without the necessity of feeding larvæ at home. Such a consideration becomes a most important one when it happens that the required food plant is one that cannot be easily obtained. Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of an old willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the entomologist, so it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its leaves we may find several species of the larvæ of _Lepidoptera_, including those of some of our largest insects. But a strange feature catches our eyes as we happen to glance at the bark of the tree. Here we see a few holes of different sizes, about which are a number of little fragments of wood that remind us of 'sawdust;' and, examining the ground below, we see quite a little heap of this dust, looking just as if a carpenter had been at work on the spot. This is not the effect of a saw, however; it is a sure sign of the ravages of wood-eating larvæ (p. 224), whose powerful jaws gain them admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application of the nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the presence of the large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth (p. 224). If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work. A strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the wood can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at last we come to the larvæ snugly resting in their burrows. It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tearing away the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that have been constructed by the caterpillars for their winter quarters, or as a resting place while undergoing their transformations. These are composed of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres, and are often in such a good state of preservation that they form useful illustrations for the cabinet. As further aids to larvæ searching we may mention that many species--chiefly of the _Noctuæ_--hide under the surface of the ground or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to feed only by night; that many others feed on roots, and are therefore seldom seen above the surface of the soil; also that a good number burrow into fruits, in the interior of which they spend the whole of their larval stage. The best way to secure the latter is to examine the 'windfalls' that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it is a well-known fact that the fruits that are infested with larvæ generally fall earlier than others--a result that must be attributed to the damaging work of the larvæ themselves. All the larvæ collected should be carefully boxed at once, a separate compartment being used for each species, and a few fragments of the food plant being introduced in each case. It is also a good plan to have each box previously lined with moss as a further addition to the comfort of the captives. Without such a precaution some of the more delicate species are liable to injury during their transmission from field to home. Hitherto we have obtained our larvæ by _searching_ only, but there are times and occasions when our boxes may be far more rapidly filled by methods that are not such a tax on our time and patience. Suppose, for instance, that we reach a bush, the mutilated leaves of which seem to show that larvæ are present on its branches. We spread our white cloth or open out the white-lined umbrella just under a selected branch, and then tap that branch very smartly with our stick. Down comes a host of living creatures! Spiders, larvæ, beetles, aphides, earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on our white fabric in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick, leaves, and fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the umbrella, as the case may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all the living creatures to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into a vertical position, allow all the rubbish to drop off. We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of the larvæ as we require, giving our first attention to the nimble runners and loopers that are already near the edge and just on the point of making their escape. This productive method of larva hunting is known as 'beating,' and is particularly applicable to tall herbs and the lower branches of trees and shrubs. The same principle may be employed in the case of branches that are quite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here applied to the trunk, a mallet or some other rather heavy implement taking the place of the stick. Another splendid method of securing larvæ where mere searching would be tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep net described on page 102. This implement comes into service in waste places that are covered with rank vegetation, in clover and hayfields, and in all spots covered with low herbs. Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept right and left before you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is advisable to work the different species of herbs separately as far as possible, otherwise there may be some difficulty in the determination of the food plants of the mixed larvæ that the net will contain. If, however, this plan is impracticable, you may save time by turning out all the 'sweepings' into one large box, leaving the sorting to be done at home in leisure hours. _Collecting Pupæ_ We have seen that ova and larvæ may be obtained in greater or less abundance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons of the different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies equally well to pupæ; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the winter months in the chrysalis state that this period may be regarded as the harvest time of the pupa hunter. A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the quiescent state during the months of August and September, and, of course, remain in this state until the warm days of the following spring or summer. And as insects even in the pupal stage have a number of enemies and dangers to contend with, it is advisable to start your search for them as soon as possible after they have changed. If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you should endeavour to ascertain the _usual_ time at which such species pupate; make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the season, and then allow a week or two for the change to be completed, for insects should never be disturbed at times when their metamorphoses are in progress. For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from the end of August to the end of October, but there is no reason why the work should not be carried on throughout the winter. If, however, you continue your work so late, you must not expect nearly as much success as time advances. You must remember that entomologists are not the only pupa hunters. Many hungry birds are always on the look-out for insects, and seem to enjoy them equally well in all their stages. Those that hybernate on or under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and beetles. In addition to these dangers, all pupæ are subject to the effects of extreme cold, dampness, or floods. As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any day that is sufficiently genial for yourself will do for your work, except that periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for digging--the most profitable part of the pupa hunter's task. The apparatus required is extremely simple: A satchel or large pockets full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden trowel, and a strong chisel. If metal boxes are used they should be perforated; in fact, nothing is better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers. All the boxes, of whatever kind, should be lined with moss previous to starting work. The trowel and chisel do not pack well with a number of small boxes, therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of leather sheaths attached to your belt. In this position they are far more handy for use, and the boxes are also in less danger of being crushed or damaged, as they probably would be if in contact with hard and heavy tools. A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it enables you to make memoranda concerning the trees and localities from which you obtain your pupæ. The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods, parks with numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which large isolated trees are scattered; and the best trees include willows, poplars, oaks, beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns. The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting ground is to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work each one as follows: First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many caterpillars descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground, and then seek out a snug little crevice in which to spend the winter, often protecting themselves with silken cocoons, or constructing a neat little shelter of gnawed fragments of the wood cemented together. If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your chisel, and examine both its inner surface and the wood from which it was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings of the galleries of wood-eating larvæ, in which case, unless the material is too hard to be broken up with the chisel, you may be able to trace out a few pupæ. Where these exist, they are usually to be found very near the entrance, sometimes even protruding slightly from the opening, for the larvæ generally place themselves in this position of easy escape when about to change. Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower portion of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to many species. Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and watch for loose pupæ and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the clumps you have removed over a patch of bare ground or over a spread handkerchief, and pull it to pieces, in order that any pupæ it contains may fall out; also examine the fragments carefully for others that may remain attached. This done, the surface of the ground must be examined. Remove all dead leaves, and watch for pupæ that may be sheltered beneath them. If any loose stones lie on the ground, turn them over. Search well into the angles between the roots, and if there are any holes or hollows beneath them or in the trunk itself, pull out all loose matter within, and _feel_ gently above and around for cocoons. After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the soil for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is probably useless to carry the search any farther; also if very wet you need not expect much; but if comparatively dry and friable there are more hopes of success. As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are drier than those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought by the south and south-west winds, and are consequently more favoured by larvæ that are seeking a resting place for the winter. Most larvæ seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the trees on which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the edges rather than the corners; and in cases where no such angles are formed at the surface, you will do well to examine the earth and turf all round the trunk; but it is generally useless to extend the search more than a few inches from the tree. After having searched every available nook and corner as far as possible without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the soil a few inches from the tree, turn over the sod, and then examine the spot from which it was removed. Now give your attention to the sod itself. If loose and friable, break it up gently, keeping a sharp eye for falling pupæ, and also for earthen cocoons that are easily mistaken for little lumps of soil. If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces, and the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the fall of a pupa or cocoon could be easily seen; and if you have removed a grassy turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases of the blades as well as among the roots. In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the soil is of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter of larvæ. But the variability of your success will be quite beyond your comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a grand old oak with the most favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite certain of a good find when you discover, on a nearer approach, the liberal coating of moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy soil at its foot; and yet the most careful search ends in nothing but disappointment. At other times you try your luck at tree after tree without ever seeing a single pupa or even a cast-off case, and then, when just on the point of despairing, you search round another that is apparently much less promising, and, to your great surprise and delight, a dozen or two are turned out in a few minutes. Such an occurrence as this is not at all uncommon, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but we must take things as they come and make the best of them, remembering that pupa searching is one of the best of all entomological operations wherewith to test one's perseverance and patience. It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupæ of _Lepidoptera_ are never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally they exist, if buried at all, only an inch or two down, and very rarely at a greater depth than four inches. In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect insects from the earlier stages we have been considering. CHAPTER VIII _REARING LEPIDOPTERA_ _Management of Ova_ In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention must always be paid to one general rule on which the success of the work almost entirely depends; and that is--keep every specimen as far as possible under the same conditions as those in which you find it in nature. Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and light places, protected from the direct rays of the sun, and avoid handling and rough treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most cases to maintain a slight amount of dampness corresponding with that of the open air at the particular season of the year. They do not require much space, and it is certainly desirable not to give much, otherwise the newly hatched larvæ, when their time arrives, will actively wander all round their premises in search of food, and give you no end of trouble in gathering them up. Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient receptacles for ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them over with very fine muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label each as far as you can with the name of the species contained, and other particulars worth remembering. The boxes may then be put in front of a window facing north, or in any situation within or out of doors where rain and sun cannot reach them. A greenhouse is an admirable place in which to keep them, the natural dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a considerable assistance to the tiny larvæ just as they are striving to escape from their shell. Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the ova be carefully watched, so that each brood may be supplied with the required food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells. When ova are kept in a warm room, very great inconvenience and even loss is sometimes caused by the appearance of larvæ before the necessary food plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand, it is sometimes a great gain to the entomologist to get certain broods off early in the season, providing the food is at hand; for in this way he can not only get some of his work over during a slack season, but also, if he desires it, secure an additional brood; that is, one brood more than the usual number. Thus, supposing a certain species he is rearing is naturally double-brooded, he can, by judicious management, secure three successive broods before the food plant casts its last leaves. This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as _forcing_, and merely consists in subjecting the species concerned to a reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in which a fire is always kept, or of a hothouse. It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are laid or collected, and the times at which the young larvæ appear. In addition to this all changes that take place in the colours or forms of eggs should be carefully observed; for such changes will assist you in distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and also enable you to judge approximately as to the date of the appearance of future broods. _Rearing Larvæ_ The main point in connection with the rearing of larvæ is certainly the selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes. For newly hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle with a wide mouth makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand or sifted soil in the bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant or lay a few leaves on the top, and then, after the larvæ have been introduced, cover the top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an elastic band. The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any provision for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a change necessary at very frequent intervals; but this may be obviated by using damp sand as a foundation for the little twig of food plant. With this improvement, if you cover the top of the bottle with apiece of glass, a saucer, or any impermeable substance, you may keep the twig fresh for several days, generally until the disappearance of the last leaf calls for a fresh supply; but it is very doubtful whether the damp atmosphere resulting from this inclosure is not injurious to the larvæ. It certainly does not seem to have much influence on some, but the unhealthy conditions that result must be detrimental to the inmates. It must also be remembered that many species require a _dry_ soil in which to burrow when about to change. When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be taken not to injure young and small larvæ. In many cases they need never be touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale one, they will readily find their way to it; and to facilitate this, and also to afford a convenient foothold to those larvæ that accidentally fall from the twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle should be covered with moss or cocoa-nut fibre. [Illustration: FIG. 57.--A LARVA GLASS.] [Illustration: FIG. 58.--A LARVA GLASS.] If you find it necessary to move the larvæ yourself from the stale food, never touch them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a small camel-hair brush. Larger larvæ need never be moved at all. They will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may be removed after they have quitted it. For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory, and we must either use large jars or construct cages of some kind. An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for aquaria makes a very useful 'larva glass.' Place a small bottle of water at the bottom, and then introduce sufficient dry clean sand or sifted soil to reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer of moss or cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it firmly in the bottle of water, and plugging up the space between the stem and the rim with cotton wool. This precaution is to prevent the larvæ from falling into the water as they attempt to pass up or down the stem, and the wool also helps to keep the twig in a vertical position. The glass is now ready for the caterpillars, but it is advisable to keep a covering of muslin or gauze over the top in all cases even though the larvæ contained are unable to creep up the surface of glass, for the great enemies of caterpillars--the ichneumon flies--are always on the alert, and will often take advantage of an open window to 'sting' the larva rearer's pets. Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large glass jar if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell jar which is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle of water and the soil are arranged as before in a pan of unglazed earthenware, and then covered over with the glass. This is shown in fig. 58, and is an exceedingly convenient larva house, since the lifting of the glass enables you to get at the insects without any trouble. [Illustration: FIG. 59.--A LARVA CAGE.] Wood larva cages are very commonly used for the larger species after they have attained a fair size and require more food than can be stocked in bottles and glasses. These cages have glass fronts, either sliding or in the form of a hinged door, and sides of perforated zinc. They are kept in stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally useful ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size at the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will answer all purposes. The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray filled with soil, in which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of moss sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely. A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on a wall, will form a very satisfactory nursery for your pets, and will occupy but little space. We have already observed that some larvæ burrow into soil when about to change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or suspend themselves from the food plant itself. It will be seen that the larva cage just described supplies all these demands, and care must be taken not to disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their metamorphoses. Those that suspend themselves on the food plant should be allowed to remain where they have fixed themselves, and when it is necessary to remove the stale food in order to give a fresh supply to the later larvæ, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can be watched till the perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend themselves on the sides or top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the corners, should never be disturbed unless you are greatly in want of the same cage for the accommodation of another brood; and even then it is possible that their presence will not in any way interfere with the new species. But if their removal becomes a necessity, let it be carried out as carefully as possible, and not until the change to the pupal stage is known to be complete. The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the moss need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite over, and then they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the accommodation of pupæ. There is yet another method of rearing larvæ to which we must refer--a method known as 'sleeving'--particularly useful when you happen to have the required food plants in your own garden. The ova or larvæ are placed on the plant, the whole or part of which is then covered with a bag or 'sleeve' of gauze. The larvæ thus imprisoned have the full benefit of fresh air and light, and are also free from the attacks of ichneumon flies. They have a fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond your reach; also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the part of the rearer. But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit the night feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the day, and it interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those which pupate underground. These little difficulties, however, can be overcome by placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of soil, and tying the mouth of the 'sleeve' round the outside of this utensil. If this cannot be done, those insects that pupate underground must be removed from the plant when their restless disposition shows that the changing time has arrived, and then be transferred to a box of soil where they can find the seclusion they seek. The larvæ that hybernate throughout the winter are rather more troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a ramble on certain mild days in search of food when none is at hand. Still there is no reason why even a beginner should not attempt the rearing of these. They will require food in the autumn until the cold weather sets in, and again early in spring as soon as the new leaves appear; but this is not of much consequence to those who reside in districts where the required food plants abound. Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precautions, and the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little difficulty. A wooden cage is, of course, quite out of the question with these, unless you wish to test the power of their jaws. They must be kept in large pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or perforated zinc, and supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or with moist sawdust fresh from their favourite tree. A few of them--the 'Goat' (page 224), for example--will eat dead and rotting wood, and may be fed on old palings and other waste providing the right kind is selected. The troubles and disappointments of larva rearers are numerous and varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the young insects. Even the hatching period sometimes proves a trial, for it occasionally happens that the young larva has not sufficient strength to bite its way through the shell that surrounds it, and dies with nothing but the surface of its head exposed to view. This may be the result of keeping the ova in too dry a spot, the shell having become too hard and horny for the little creature's jaws. Then the moulting seasons are always periods of trial to the larvæ, and often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species may pass through all their moults without appearing to suffer anything more than a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases the greater part of a brood may fall victims to these ailments of the growing stage. Apart from these sources of loss, however, larvæ are subject to numerous diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know but little. A fever may rage in one of our cages; a fungoid growth may establish itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them cut down, one by one, through a fatal attack of diarrh[oe]a. In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue pills and black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern practices of surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to insect patients with very great success; but we must do our best to adopt hygienic principles, paying the greatest attention to proper means of ventilation and to a regular and wholesome dieting. In the case of diarrh[oe]a--a very common insect malady--the best we can do is to avoid the young and juicy leaves of the food plant, and substitute the older, and drier foliage. Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies of larvæ. These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of caterpillars, or thrust their sharp _ovipositors_ into the creature's flesh and lay their eggs beneath the skin. When the young ichneumons are hatched, they immediately begin to feed on the fatty matter that is usually stored in comparative abundance under the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they grow at the expense of their host, within whose body they lie completely hidden from view. The poor caterpillar, though being eaten alive, often shows no external signs of the mischief wrought within, and, even though its substance is really decreased by the hungry internal parasites, yet the rapid growth of these robbers maintains the general plumpness of a healthy larva. But the ichneumons, having at last devoured the store of fat, and avoided the vital organs of the caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their living home to the latest moment, now commence to attack the latter, speedily reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and finally causing its death. This untimely end may come before the caterpillar is full grown, or the insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have done their worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature has sufficient strength to carry it on to the final stage. A large number of the collected larvæ will have been 'stung,' much to the disgust and disappointment of the rearer; and hence the advantage of rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible, providing you keep them so well under cover that the ichneumons cannot visit your broods. _The Management of Pupæ_ The disappointments connected with the rearing of _Lepidoptera_ are by no means at an end when all have passed successfully into the pupal condition, and the number of perfect insects obtained will often fall far short of the number of pupæ in your boxes; but we must now see what can be done to minimise the death rate of the captives. One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the reception of the pupæ, and the following suggestion will answer all purposes: Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough to accommodate your pupæ with ease, and not less than eight inches deep. Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the bottom completely out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated zinc. Also make a lid consisting of gauze attached to a light wood frame. Place a layer of clean gravel, about an inch deep, in the bottom, and over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre. Now take all the pupæ that are 'earthed' in your cages, and arrange them on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupæ you may have dug out during your various excursions. Cover all with a layer of the material selected for the bed, and then add a layer of moss. Next come the pupæ that are suspended by silky fibres, or are inclosed in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around the sides of the box, running the pins either through the tuft of silk at the 'tail,' or the outer layer of the cocoon, or through the portion of the dried food plant to which they are attached. Here your pupæ will remain till they emerge, and the box may be kept in any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for it is essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon as possible after quitting their cases. It does not matter much whether the pupæ be kept in or out of doors, providing they are sheltered from rain and very severe frosts; but of course, if the former, the imagines will emerge a little earlier, even if the room in which your specimens are stored has no fire. Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupæ are subject to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed may contain slugs, mites, or other creatures which prey on insects, and the amount of moisture present in these materials and in the atmosphere may prove too little for some species or too much for others. The remedy for the former evil is a simple one. Bake the soil or fibre well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry the moss. You may then be sure that all life previously contained is quite destroyed. But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and so variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomologists that it is difficult to advise a beginner on the subject. The fact that some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others recommend no attempt at the application of water, would seem to show that there are probably important points to be urged on both sides. Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupæ in their natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you will observe that the larger number are to be found on the east and north sides of trees where the soil is protected from the heaviest rains; on the other hand a good many are certainly found in very moist and sometimes even in wet situations. Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making every allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let the natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home. To carry this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those species that seem to require dry situations, and the other for the species that apparently do best with moist surroundings. But when it is desired to maintain the pupæ in a moist condition, great care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of stagnant water. The box we have described, with its bottom of perforated zinc, is well adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on a couple of strips of wood, so that any excess of moisture may readily drain through. The perforated bottom will also allow of a free circulation of air, thus securing the ventilation that is desirable in all boxes, whether wet or dry. If you have any insects that have pupated within moist stems, they should be kept in a moist condition till they emerge. The simplest way of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of wetted but well-drained silver sand. Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the imagines for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before the busy season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa box on a shelf in a room where a fire is kept every day. By this means you may get all your specimens out within a few weeks, even when you start the forcing at the beginning or middle of the winter. If, however, you require the imagines for breeding, you must be careful that the eggs are not laid long before the buds of the necessary food plants are due. When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the pupa boxes should be examined every day. A morning visit to your pupæ (for most insects emerge in the morning) may reward you with the sight of a newly emerged imago, clinging to the rough surface of the box, thus affording you an opportunity of observing the wonderful expansion of the wings. But the greeting is not always of such a pleasant character, for your disappointed eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid ichneumons that have just quitted a shell from which you were expecting a prize of some specially valued species. CHAPTER IX _SETTING AND PRESERVING_ _Setting and Preserving Butterflies and Moths_ Up to the present we have been dealing only with living forms--learning how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to our lot; but now we have to become acquainted with the methods of preparing our dead specimens in such a way that they may form a useful collection for future study and reference. Our first attention shall be given to the apparatus necessary for this work. The most important requirement is the setting boards, of which several are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions of the different insects to be 'set.' The _lengths_ of all the boards should be the same, not only for the convenience of packing when not in use, but also in order that they may, if required, be arranged neatly in the 'drying house' to be presently described. The widths only will vary, and in this respect the boards must be adapted to the measurements of the insects from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Thus, a set of a dozen boards, ten or twelve inches long, and from one to five inches wide, will do for a good start. Of course you may commence with a smaller number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing well, you will eventually require a good stock of boards. Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary requisites may be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying house complete costing from ten to twenty shillings according to size and quality; but as the reader, like myself, may prefer to construct his own, I will supply him with hints and suggestions sufficient for the work. Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up a piece of wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-eighth of an inch thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork about half an inch in thickness, leaving the whole under a moderate pressure until the glue is quite hard. The sheets of cork for this purpose may be bought at any naturalist's stores; but slices cut from good large bottle corks may be made to answer equally well if you don't mind the extra time expended in cutting and fixing. When the glue has well set, trim off the edges of the cork flush with the sides of the wood, and then cut out a groove down the whole length of the cork, of course in the middle, and of such a size that it will just contain the bodies of the insects for which it is intended. [Illustration: FIG. 60.--SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD.] The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter, but if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may be made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternative the following plan is good. First cover the wood with a layer of cork about a _quarter_ of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of this _two_ narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects for which the board is intended, leaving a space of the required size between them, as shown in fig. 60. In this way you get a groove of square section, that is in some respects preferable to the round one cut out by means of the rat-tail file. [Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS.] Now comes a question about which there is a difference in the tastes or fancies of entomologists. Shall the boards be perfectly flat on the top, or shall the sides slope from the groove, or shall the surface be rounded? A glance at the three sections of setting boards will show clearly what is meant. The rounded board is most commonly used, and the graceful curve thus given to a butterfly or moth set on such is certainly attractive; but it is not natural. The wings of these insects are rigid, and are never seen bent into such curves in a living specimen. For this reason I much prefer a perfectly plane surface on each side of the groove. Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or not, this is a matter of less importance. A very decided sloping of the wings is certainly not so convenient for future examination; nor does it, to my mind, look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or at a very gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be left to the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever plan be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet. The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed down with glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper, fixed to its surface with ordinary paste. When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an airy spot, as free as possible from dust, while they are drying. Hence the advisability of some form of 'drying house.' This is simply a box, standing on end, and provided with a hinged door consisting of a sheet of perforated zinc in a wooden frame. The boards may slide in this on little slips of wood nailed or glued on to the sides, or the wooden bases of the boards may project beyond the cork at the ends, and slide into grooves in the side of the house. [Illustration: FIG. 62.--A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD.] Beyond these requirements nothing is wanted save a good stock of pins, thin card or ordinary writing paper, and a 'setting needle.' The last-named item is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one may be made by thrusting the head of a darning needle into a piece of twig. The pins used for setting--that is, for fixing the pieces of paper or card to keep the parts in position--may be of the ordinary kind; but entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose; for, being much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the setting boards so much. Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with which you are to fix your dead insect passes centrally through the thorax. Then fix it firmly on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the groove of the cork. Cut out some little pointed strips of card or paper, and, after bringing the wings into position with the setting needle, fix each one by a pinned strip. In spreading out the wings, care must be taken not to pierce them at all, but simply to push them into their place by pressing the needle at their bases, or by putting the needle beneath and _lifting_ them out. Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may be used, as shown in fig. 63, each strip passing over both wings. After the four wings have been properly arranged, a few extra pins may be used to keep other parts in position. Thus, the antennæ may be placed at equal angles, the proboscis may be extended, and a couple of pins may be used to support the abdomen if it is inclined to bend downward. [Illustration: FIG. 63.--ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.] As before mentioned, insects should be set soon after they are dead, while the parts are still soft and supple. But where this cannot be done, and the specimens have become stiff, brittle, and rigid, they must be 'relaxed' before any attempt is made at setting them out. This process of relaxing consists in placing the specimens in a very moist atmosphere for a few days. There are several simple ways of doing this, many of which will readily suggest themselves to the reader. Your collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be used as a relaxer. Pin your stiff insects in it, after well moistening the cork, and simply shut them up for a day or two. Any metal box will serve the same purpose providing you put into it a piece of sheet cork on which to fix the insects, and this cork may rest on a bed of moist sand. Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a shallow vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass. Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time to time, and the degree of flexibility acquired tested by a gentle pressure of the setting needle or by blowing on them. If not sufficiently supple, give another day in the damp cell, but never allow them to be forgotten till they are covered with mildew. The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths will vary considerably according to their sizes and the condition of the atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days will prove quite sufficient for the _very_ small and thin-bodied species. From one to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the average period; but the large and thick-bodied moths may require more than this. Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of the setting needle against the abdomen--the last part of the body to become dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and rigid, you are pretty safe in removing the specimen from the board; but if it bends at all under a slight pressure of the needle let it remain for a day or two longer. If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers, the insects may be put in their proper places immediately after their removal from the setting boards; but if not, they may be pinned temporarily in a 'store box' till the time comes when you have proper accommodation provided. The full consideration of these matters will be dealt with in another chapter. It is possible that the setting of some of your specimens will not exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box for a day or two, and then reset them more to your fancy. We have now to deal with a matter that applies more particularly to moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied species. The abdomens of these become more or less contracted and shrivelled on drying, sometimes to such an extent as to look most unsightly. There is a remedy for this, and the time and patience required in working it out will be well repaid by the superior results obtained. While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, make a slit throughout its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed pair of scissors. This slit should be made down the centre of the under surface, or, if the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with the under side exposed, down the middle line of the back. Then remove all the contents of the abdomen, scraping them out with a piece of hooked wire, or removing them with a fine pair of forceps, and leaving the skin as clean as possible both within and without. Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just sufficient in quantity to maintain the natural form of the body as the specimen dries. There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses a decided advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the specimen in such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance of having been stuffed when viewed from either side. This consists in snipping off the abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents with a hooked wire, lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in at the waist, and then setting it aside to dry, while the other part of the insect is undergoing the same process on the setting board. When both parts of the moth are thoroughly dry, the stuffed abdomen is easily fixed in its place with a little coaguline; and this, if neatly done, will not show the slightest sign of the treatment to which the insect has been submitted. Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they are subject to two other dangers, both of which are more destructive to moths than to butterflies. One is technically known as 'grease,' and the other is the invasion of certain museum pests that feed on the specimens, causing them to fall to pieces. Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet, and some are sure to exhibit an oily or greasy appearance, the hairs of the abdomen, and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged together just as if the specimen had been dipped in oil, the same miserable condition perhaps being shared also by parts of the wings. This is due to the gradual oozing out of the fatty matter that is always present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the insects, and which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in specimens that have been carefully stuffed. The old saying, 'Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in the present case; but as there are times when a knowledge of the 'cure' is the only means of saving a valuable specimen from destruction, we will study both. To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we will consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and stuff the abdomens of large-bodied insects; and as a rule, treat them with some substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily matter. I think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it out if its size permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling it to prevent its future application to the wrong body, either let it remain in a bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole or ether for a few hours or longer. If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have simply to blow or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the body, and then fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in ether or benzole will look as if completely spoilt at first, for the furry coat that clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its beautiful colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial 'drowned rat.' But take no notice of this change. Let the body have at least a few hours in the liquid, extending the time to a day or two in the case of very large ones and those which experience has proved to be particularly liable to 'grease;' and, immediately on withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a good strong draught, such as you may obtain by opening a window about an inch, or, if a breezy day, in the open air. These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never be left exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate, leaving the dry hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing back the natural appearance almost perfectly. It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not considered to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations will sooner or later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At first the abdomen is affected, and the oily matter then gradually creeps over the rest of the body, finally spreading over the wings, and giving the insect a most deplorable aspect. But these are not irreparably lost, and the following cure will often bring them back to their former beauty. If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak it in one of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as above after the drying operation. If, however, the oily matter has spread to the thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole specimen must be soaked, using a basin or jar of suitable size, covered with a plate of glass. A good draught during the drying operation will do much to prevent the hair from sticking in matted tufts close against the surface of the body and wings, and a gentle brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will loosen and reset the fur. The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of certain 'mites' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits to our cabinet drawers and store boxes, often committing such havoc as to severely try the patience of an interested naturalist. The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmosphere of the compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not enter; and, further, to so spice up your specimens that they are no longer safely edible to the invaders. The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either substance may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the corner of each drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted with finely powdered naphthaline; but as both these solids are volatile, care must be taken to renew the supply as occasion requires. Then, with regard to the second precaution, perhaps nothing is more effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be dissolved in a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with the name and the word POISON, and kept ready for use. All the skins of stuffed specimens should be painted with this solution, and the stuffing itself may be moistened with it before insertion. There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care of your cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess many that were captured 'at sugar.' Some of these will have so gorged themselves with syrup that they are literally full of it, and this will sometimes find its way to the outside, often dropping on the surface beneath. In such cases the sugar should be removed as completely as possible, and the bodies stuffed, before they are quite dry; but if the specimens have been in the cabinet so long that they are stiff and hard, the under sides of the abdomens may be completely cut out with a very sharp knife and thrown away, and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as neatly as possible. CHAPTER X _PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ_ Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large number of species without regard to their earlier stages and metamorphoses. This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although the lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beautiful object in itself, yet a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with that of the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it was a very young larva. The different stages of the insects should be known as far as possible, and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included in the collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet, according to my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other good features, a number of complete sets illustrative of the life history of at least the more typical forms; and as it is not a difficult matter to preserve the earlier stages, there is really no excuse for their omission from the collection. The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interesting objects, especially when they illustrate some peculiar instinct on the part of the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the hands of breeders and rearers, and these, though in other respects unprofitable, are useful in the cabinet. If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, they must be killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of a very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling water, or by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying they often contract more or less, and frequently change their colour; still these are useful, providing notes have been taken of the characters thus lost. The larger eggs are capable of special treatment where the owner has the necessary time and patience, and where the highest results are desired. By means of a surgeon's injector of small size the contents of the eggs can be removed; and then, by the same instrument, a warm solution of gelatine, coloured in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be forced into the empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it prevents any shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are well preserved. For the preservation of larvæ you will require one or two simple appliances. The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which is here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which has been drawn out very fine; a piece of watch spring tied to it in such a manner that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end, and a piece of india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by means of a brass spring clip. [Illustration: FIG. 64.--A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVÆ.] A little drying oven is also very useful, but not absolutely necessary. If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet iron (not soldered tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must be provided with a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the bottom, a hole for the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire stand inside on which to rest the specimens while drying. The whole should be supported on a wire stand, so that heat may be applied below. Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way. First kill it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead, enlarge the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay it on a piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now take a round ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll the larva gently from head to tail till all the contents of the skin have been expelled. Next fix the skin on the fine end of the blowpipe, by thrusting the point of the latter into the opening, and allowing the spring to press gently on its edge. Gently blow into the skin till it is inflated just to a _little below_ natural size, then either hold it near a fire or rest it in the drying oven till it is quite dry and rigid. If you have done your work neatly, the skin and blowpipe will both be quite air-tight when the clip is closed; and the air, finding no outlet, will still further inflate the skin when it expands on exposure to heat. This is the reason why you are directed to blow it out to something short of the natural dimensions. If you find that this expansion causes the skin to stretch beyond its normal size, a little of the air must be allowed to escape while it is yet soft and flexible. The front of the larva is generally the last portion to become dry, and when this is quite rigid the skin may be removed from the blowpipe. This is a matter that requires the greatest care; for the skin is so very thin and brittle that a little rough handling will break it to pieces. As a rule it may be easily pushed off the pipe by a slight pressure behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen its hold; but this latter method can hardly be applied to hairy larvæ without breaking off the hairs, now rendered very brittle by the heat. If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a valuable specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to risk spoiling the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one, you can easily break off the end of it after making a cut with a very small triangular file, and the portion thus removed may be left attached to the skin. Then, after softening the glass blowpipe in a gas flame or the flame of a spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin again for future work. Those who can manipulate glass tubing in this way will find it far better to lay in a stock of suitable material, drawing it out when required, than to purchase blowpipes ready made at the naturalist's shop. Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may be used instead of glass; and these possess the advantage of being easily cut with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in removing the skin. Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little grease of any kind placed previously on the end will allow the dried skin to be slid off with less difficulty. Preserved larvæ should preferably be mounted on small twigs or artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A little coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on these twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by means of one or two small pins. It is much to be regretted that the natural colours of many caterpillars cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are rendered much lighter in colour on account of the withdrawal of the contents, while others turn dark during the drying. In the smooth-skinned species the natural tints may be restored by painting or by staining with suitable aniline dyes, but these artificial imitations of the natural colours are always far less beautiful than the hues of the living larvæ. Very few words need be said on the preservation of pupæ. Many of them do not alter much in form and colour, and therefore they require no special preparation. If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value of the collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready to be fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry. The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have emerged, are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done by the imago on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little coaguline. Let all larvæ and pupæ be preserved in their characteristic attitudes and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some interesting feature of the life history of the living being it represents. Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of the various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvæ, pinning each one beside its proper species; and never refuse a place to any object that relates something of the life history of the creatures you are studying. CHAPTER XI _THE CABINET_--_ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS_ The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small difficulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many points of considerable importance to be considered before any final decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the general appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is impossible, therefore, to describe a form that is equally suitable to all. If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute) be of a very inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the collector has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction, then perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of shallow (about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped boxes, such as are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake of uniformity and convenience in packing, have them all of one size. Glue in small slices of cork just where the insects are to be pinned, and see that each box is supplied with either camphor or naphthaline. All the boxes may be packed in a cupboard or in a case made specially to contain them; and a label on the front of each will enable you to select any one when required without disturbing the others. It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, though it is certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting your specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have almost always a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first finger dangerously near as they are pointing out their favourite colours. 'Isn't _that_ one a beauty?' is a common remark, and therewith off snaps a wing of one of your choicest insects. When glass is used, however, see that the specimens are excluded from light, or the colours will soon lose their natural brilliancy. Anyone who has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use them well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store boxes or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural treasures. In this case a few considerations are necessary before deciding on the form which the storehouse is to take. A cabinet, if nicely made, forms a very sightly article of furniture; and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most convenient receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be quite sufficient for a time; and the few following hints and suggestions may be useful. The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin. The drawers should fit well, and slide without the least danger of shaking. Each one should be lined with sheet cork, about one-eighth of an inch thick, glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with sand paper, and then covered with thin, pure white paper, laid on with thin paste. It is also advisable to cover each with glass, inclosed in a light wood frame that fits so closely as to prevent the intrusion of mites. The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the cabinet is to stand on the floor, or in two tiers if it is to be shorter for placing on the top of another piece of furniture; and glass doors, fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such are desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the meddlesome habits of juvenile fingers. Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets because they are more portable, and because they can be arranged on shelves--an important consideration when floor space is not available. These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet drawers; and if they are made in two equal portions, lined with cork on both sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged on shelves like books, in which position they will collect but little dust. Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the dealers, the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter from fifteen shillings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you can decide for yourself between the two alternatives--making and purchasing. We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens should be arranged and labelled. The table forming Appendix I contains the names of _all_ the British butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division into _Sections_, _Tribes_, _Families_, and _Genera_. This table is the result of most careful study on the part of leading entomologists, and shows how, in their opinion, the insects can best be arranged to show their relation to one another; and you cannot do better than adopt the same order in your collection. RHOPALOCERA PAPILIONIDÆ _Euchloë_ NYMPHALIDÆ _Papilio_ O O O _Argynnis_ O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Machaon Rapæ Cardamines Edusa O Selene PIERIDÆ O _Leucophasia_ O _Aporia_ O O O O O O O v. Helice O O O Sinapis O Cratægi Napi _Gonopteryx_ O _Colias_ O Euphrosyne _Pieris_ O O O O O O O O O Daplidice O O Latona O O Rhamni O Hyale Brassicæ Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of the paper only. These, when cut up, supply you with neat labels for your specimens. If you intend to study the British _Lepidoptera_ as completely as possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently extensive cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you introduce the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for each specimen as you acquire it, and the introduction of species obtained later on will not compel you to be continually moving and rearranging the drawers. Probably the number of blank spaces will at first suggest an almost hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and rearing will give you heart to continue your interesting work. Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. Put the names of each section, tribe, family, and genus _at the head_ of their respective divisions, and the names of the species below each insect or series of insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles represent the insects themselves, will make this clear. Three or four specimens of each species are generally sufficient, except where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. Wherever differences exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should appear; and one specimen of each species should be pinned so as to exhibit the under side. Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label _outside_ giving the name or names of the divisions of insects that are represented within. This will enable you to find anything you may require without the necessity of opening drawer after drawer or box after box. PART III BRITISH BUTTERFLIES We have now treated in detail of the changes through which butterflies and moths have to pass, and have studied the methods by which we may obtain and preserve the insects in their different stages. I shall now give such a brief description of individual species as will enable the reader to recognise them readily. We will begin with the butterflies. CHAPTER XII _THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'_ Family--PAPILIONIDÆ _The Swallow-tail_ (_Papilio Machaon_) Our first family (_Papilionidæ_) contains only one British species--the beautiful Swallow-tail (_Papilio Machaon_), distinguished at once from all other British butterflies by its superior size and the 'tails' projecting from the hind margin of the hind wings. This beautiful insect is figured on Plate I, where its bold black markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a written description superfluous. Attention may be called, however, to the yellow scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making them look as if they had been powdered; also to the blue clouds that relieve the black bands of the hind wings, and the round reddish orange spot at the anal angle of each of the same wings. It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed throughout England, having been recorded as common in various counties, and has also been taken in Scotland and Ireland; but it is now almost exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Norfolk. Occasionally we hear of the capture of single specimens quite outside these localities, sometimes even in most unlikely spots, where its food plant does not abound. But we know that _Machaon_ is a general favourite with entomologists, and that it is sent in the pupal state, by post, to all parts of the kingdom; so that the occasional capture of the insect far beyond the borders of its haunts is probably the outcome of an escape from prison, or of the tender-heartedness of some lover of nature who could not bear to see such a beautiful creature deprived of its short but joyous, sunny flight. You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless you visit its haunts during its season--May to August; but the pupæ may be purchased for a few pence each from most of the entomological dealers; and if you obtain a few of these and watch them closely, you may be fortunate enough to see the perfect insect emerge from its case, and witness the gradual expansion of its beautiful wings. The pupa (Plate VIII, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object. Its colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail, and further secured by a very strong silk band. The larva (Plate VIII, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings mark the divisions between the segments. Between these are also black bars, all spotted with bright orange except the one on the second segment. A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked, Y-shaped 'horn,' that is projected from the back, just behind the head, when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or irritated in any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an important weapon of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source of a powerful odour of fennel--one of the food plants of the caterpillar--that may possibly prove objectionable to some of its numerous enemies. The food plants of _Machaon_ are the milk parsley or hog's fennel (_Peucedanum palustre_), cow-parsnip (_Heracleum sphondylium_), and the wild angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_); but in confinement it will also partake of rue and carrot leaves. The caterpillar of this species may be found in the fens during the greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the autumn, and remains in this state throughout the winter, attached to the stems of reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect insect is first seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this time to the month of August. Family--PIERIDÆ This family, though known commonly as the 'Whites,' contains four British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or orange. In many respects the _Pieridæ_ resemble the last species. Thus the perfect insects have six fully developed legs; the caterpillars are devoid of bristles or spines; and the chrysalides are attached by means of silky webs at the 'tails,' and strong cords of the same material round the middle. All the larvæ are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape; and their skins are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short and fine hairs, that sometimes impart a soft, velvety appearance. The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality for certain of our cultivated plants and trees; and are, in some cases, so abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly destructive to certain crops. _The Black-veined White_ (_Aporia Cratægi_) This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At one time it was rather abundant in certain localities in England, among which may be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and Stroud, also parts of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and the Isle of Thanet; but it is to be feared that this species is nearly or quite extinct in this country. It is well, however, not to give up the search for it, and if you happen to be in one of its favoured localities of former days, you might net all the doubtful 'Whites' of large size that arouse your suspicions, liberating them again if, on inspection, they do not answer to the description of the species 'wanted.' This course becomes absolutely necessary, since the Black-veined White is hardly to be distinguished from the Common Large White while on the wing. If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe that in nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair, more or less distinct. But the case is different with _Cratægi_. Here they are bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe, thus giving an amount of rigidity to the edges (see Plate I, fig. 2). The wing rays, or nervures, are very distinct--a feature that gave rise to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they are quite or nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female are decidedly brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing rays there are triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which unite on the outer margins of the wings. Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution of scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the female, whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence. The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which time its eggs are laid on the hawthorn (_Cratægus Oxyacantha_) or on fruit trees--apple, pear and plum. A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities _may_ reveal to you a nest of the gregarious larvæ, all resting under the cover of a common web of silk. These remain thus under their silken tent throughout the hottest hours of the day, and venture out to feed only during the early morning and in the evening. When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a more substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the winter, and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the following spring. They now venture out, at first during the mildest days only, and feed voraciously on the young leaves, returning to their homes to rest. Soon, however, they gradually lose their social tendencies, till at last, when about half or three-quarters fed, they become quite solitary in their habits. In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state on the twigs of their food trees. The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides and under surface are grey, the former being relieved by black spiracles. The pupa (page 45) is greenish or yellowish white, striped with bright yellow, and spotted with black. It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in any of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit trees; and the foreign pupæ may be purchased of English dealers. _The Large White_ (_Pieris Brassicæ_) We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant of British butterflies. Everybody has seen the 'Large White,' though we doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not of the same species as the two other very common 'Whites.' The three--Large, Small, and Green-veined--are so much alike in general colour and markings, and so similar in their habits and in the selection of their food plants, that the non-entomological, not knowing that insects do not grow in their perfect state, may perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as older and younger members of the same species. But no--they are three distinct species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks by which each may be known from the other two. On Plate I (fig. 3) will be seen a picture of the female _Brassicæ_, in which the following markings are depicted: On each fore wing--a blotch at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another round one nearer the inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin with its point toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings there is only one spot, situated near the middle of the costal margin. The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the black markings on the fore wings, with the exception of those at the tips. He is also a trifle smaller than his mate. This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in April and May, the second in July and August; and the former--the spring brood--which emerges from the chrysalides that have hybernated during the winter, have _grey_ rather than black tips to the front wings. The ova of _Brassicæ_ may be found on the leaves of cabbages in every kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, during May and July. They are pretty objects (see fig. 10), something like little bottles or sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged either singly or in little groups. As soon as the young larvæ are out--from ten to fifteen days after the eggs are deposited--having devoured their shells, they start feeding on the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about, dealing out destruction as they go, till little remains of their food plant save the mere stumps and skeletons of the leaves. The ground colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a narrow yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar but wider stripes along the sides; and the surface of the body is rendered somewhat rough by a number of small black warty projections, from each of which arises a short hair. When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or fence, up which it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here it constructs its web and silken cord as already described (page 36), and then changes to a bluish-white chrysalis, dotted with black. The butterflies of the summer brood emerge shortly after, but the chrysalides of the next brood hybernate till the following spring. It is remarkable that we are so plagued with 'Whites' seeing that they have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds commit fearful havoc among their larvæ, and often chase the perfect insects on the wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the ichneumon fly. Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you will see little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour. Most gardeners know that these are in some way or other connected with the caterpillars that do so much damage to their vegetables. They are often considered to be eggs laid by the larvæ, and are consequently killed out of pure revenge, or with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders. No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are the silken cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the pupæ of the little flies whose larvæ have lived within the body of an unfortunate grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the expense of their host, left its almost empty and nearly lifeless carcase to die and drop to the ground just at the time when it ought to be working out its final changes. Often you may see the dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons just constructed by its deadly enemies. Should you wish to test the extent of the destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden and collect a number of larvæ, and endeavour to rear them under cover. The probability is that only a small proportion will ever reach the final state, the others having been fatally 'stung' before you took them. _The Small White_ (_P. Rapæ_) This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point of size. The male, represented on Plate I (fig. 4), has a dark grey blotch at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour beyond the centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin of the hind wing. The female may be distinguished by an additional spot near the anal angle of the fore wing. Although this and the two other common butterflies (_Brassicæ_ and _Napi_) that frequent our kitchen gardens are usually spoken of as 'Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are not really white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and yellow, inclining sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are particularly noticeable in this respect, for here the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings display a very rich yellow. The species we are now considering is also very variable both in its ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in some cases a really brilliant yellow; and the latter are in some cases entirely wanting. _Rapæ_ is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and May, and the other in July and August. During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its numerous food plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish of our gardens, also water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), wild mustard (_B. Sinapis_), wild mignonette (_Reseda lutea_), and nasturtium (_Tropæolum majus_). The eggs are conical in form--something like a sugar loaf, with ridges running from apex to base, and very delicate lines from ridge to ridge transversely. The young larvæ often make their first meal of the shell, and then attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown in about three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful glaucous green, hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on which they rest. A yellow stripe runs along the middle of the back, and lines of yellow spots adorn the sides; and the whole body is covered with very short hairs, each one arising from a minute warty projection. The pupæ may be found during the same seasons and in the same situations as those of _Brassicæ_. They are very variable in colour. Some are of a very pale grey or putty colour, some are decidedly brown, and others of a greenish tinge; and they are often spotted and striped with dark grey or black. _The Green-veined White_ (_P. Napi_) A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily mistake this insect for the last species, for the ground colour and markings are very similar, even to the features by which the sexes are distinguished from each other; but an inspection of the under surface will give a ready means of identification, for here the wing rays are bordered with black scales which, by contrast with the rich yellow around them, often appear of a greenish hue. The butterfly receives its popular name from this circumstance. A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing marks on the upper side, for here also the chief 'veins' are more or less accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of those of the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often distinctly formed; and the dark veining of the under surface of the hind wings frequently shows through. The under side of this insect is shown on Plate I (fig. 5). This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is widely distributed throughout England, and is in most parts decidedly plentiful. The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during April and May, and the second in July and August. The eggs are very similar to those of _Rapæ_, resembling ribbed and striated sugar loaves; and the larvæ are of the same rich glaucous green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by yellow rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvæ on mignonette and horse-radish; the other food plants of this species include the water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter cress (_Barbarea vulgaris_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine pratensis_), and Jack-by-the-hedge (_Sisymbrium Alliaria_). The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots. _The Bath or Green-chequered White_ (_P. Daplidice_) There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one country to another across the seas; and as the Bath White is very common on the other side of the Channel, and has been taken very sparingly in England almost exclusively in the south-east, it is highly probable that the majority of those that have been captured here are specimens that have taken a voluntary trip across the water, or have been blown over during rough weather. This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded in our entomological literature. It seems that _Daplidice_ has bred in England, for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or two occasions, so I will give a short description of the various stages of the insect, with a hope that some of my readers may be fortunate enough to meet with it. The female butterfly is shown on Plate I, fig. 6. From this it will be observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather large smoky-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double spot of the same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the wing, and another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle. The hind wings are clouded with grey, and bordered along the hind margin with distinct smoky-black spots. The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence of the spot near the anal angle of the fore wings, and of all the clouds and spots of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have a decidedly clouded appearance, but this is due to the markings of the under surface showing through them. The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked--the fore wings resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered with a beautiful soft green on a pale yellow ground. The eggs of this insect are deposited during April and May, and again in August or September--for it is, like the other 'Whites,' double-brooded--on two species of Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_ and _R. luteola_). [Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE.] The caterpillars, which are of a bluish colour, with two yellow stripes down the back, and two others along the sides, may be _looked_ for in June and September. Those of the first brood only have been taken in this country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis in the autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter. The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that of the Small White in form. Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along the south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small Whites (_Daplidice_ is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and their perseverance _may_ be rewarded with a prize that will ever be a reminder of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in this, and most probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to this beautiful and interesting insect, fill up the blank in your cabinet with a foreign specimen, which can be obtained at any time for a few pence, but be careful to label it 'not British,' in order that your brother collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make any unnecessary inquiries. _The Orange Tip_ (_Euchloë Cardamines_) No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any other British butterfly, the popular name alone giving quite sufficient information for its identification, but the female Orange Tip is _not_ tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and beneath, resemble those of _Daplidice_ so nearly that the same written description might apply almost equally well to both. On Plate I (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and just opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female is usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on both sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting. She may always be distinguished from _Daplidice_ by the smaller size of the white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the fore wing; also by the very small size of the dark spot in the centre of the same wing. The green chequerings of the under side of the hind wings are also more sharply defined, and the insect is generally of a lighter build. Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to variations in colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes the place of the white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is occasionally present on the upper or lower surface only. _Cardamines_ is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a creature of the spring, at which time it may be found in abundance in lanes, meadows, and clearings in woods throughout the British Isles. Its flight is so light and airy that even the female may easily be distinguished from other Whites when on the wing, while the brilliant orange of the male, intensified by the bright rays of the spring sun, may be identified at some considerable distance. The food plants of _Cardamines_ include the cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine pratensis_) and the bitter cress (_C. impatiens_), after which the insect is named, also water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter cress (_Barbarea vulgaris_), rock cress (_Arabis perfoliata_), hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_), wild mustard (_Brassica Sinapis_), &c., and the eggs of the butterfly may be found on these during May and June. The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe on each side, and its body is covered with short hair. In July it is fully grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepare itself for its long winter sleep. The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 8) is a very peculiar object. Both ends are much elongated and sharply pointed; and the foremost extremity stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is attached. This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in mild seasons it may often be met with in March. _The Wood White_ (_Leucophasia Sinapis_) The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see Plate II, fig. 1) is the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are narrow, and rounded at the tips; and the only mark to relieve the white ground of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the fore wing, and even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent in the female. The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish tint. This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in paths and clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but steady flight, hardly ever seeming to rest for a moment. It is not by any means a common butterfly, but is very widely distributed, and sometimes appears in considerable numbers in certain favoured spots. Among the localities recorded may be mentioned Torquay, Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New Forest, Reading, Darent Woods, Morecambe Bay, Haslemere, Windermere, &c. The caterpillar is of a beautiful green colour, and is covered with short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle of the back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food plants are the tufted vetch (_Vicia Cracca_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_), bitter vetch (_Lathyrus tuberosus_), and the everlasting pea (_L. sylvestris_). The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful curves much beyond the general surface. _The Pale Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Hyale_) The ground colour of this butterfly (Plate II, fig. 2) is very variable. It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect is commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone; but sometimes the yellow is exceedingly pale--almost white--and tinged with green. A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the ground colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the anal angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black oval spot lies just above the middle of this wing. The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot of deep yellow lies very near the centre of each. The antennæ are rather short, compared with those of the preceding members of this family, and are distinguished by their reddish-brown colour. The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but the ground colour of the latter is commonly paler. This is not by any means a very common butterfly with us, though it is very plentiful on the other side of the Channel; but it has a way of taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then almost neglecting us for several years together. Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex, but it has been taken in considerable numbers as far west as Cornwall, and also to a less extent in some of the midland and northern counties. It is particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields, especially those that are situated close to the sea cliffs; and often it may be seen flying over the beach, sometimes even flitting over the breakers away from land till at last it disappears in the distance. This maritime tendency of _Hyale_ makes it probable that a large number of those that are seen on our south-east coasts have made a passage across the narrow end of the Channel. The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated throughout the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), black medick (_M. lupulina_), purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and on these plants you may search for the larva, though it can scarcely be said that you are likely to find it. The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe on each side. When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant and changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes. _Hyale_ is single-brooded in England, although two broods regularly appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect insects emerge during July and August. Many of these die before the approach of winter; but, as we have already observed, some hybernate and deposit their eggs in the following spring. _The Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Edusa_) Not only are this and the last species similarly named, but a glance at the figures will show that they much resemble each other in appearance; and we shall also learn presently that in their habits and life history they have much in common. The male _Edusa_ is shown on Plate II (fig. 3), and when we compare it with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck with the superior richness of the brilliant orange or saffron of the ground colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also denser, wider, and more extensive. The whole of the yellow area of the hind wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the exception of a round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with the orange spots on the hind wings of _Hyale_. The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is generally larger than the male, and is further distinguished by the very pale yellow spots that break the black border of both pairs of wings. [Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE.] _Edusa_ further resembles _Hyale_ in the reddish colour of the antennæ; and, in both the species, the red legs form a pleasing contrast with the yellow furry surface of the under side of the thorax. There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the ground colour is a _very pale_ yellow, almost white. The hind wings are more thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect, and the orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicuously from the contrast with their surroundings. It is usual to apply distinct names to constant varieties of species--names that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this particular case the distinguishing name is _Helice_, so that we should speak of the variety of _Edusa_ above mentioned as: _Colias Edusa_, var. _Helice_ Like _Hyale_, _Edusa_ is particularly capricious in its appearance. In certain summers it absolutely swarms in favourite localities, while during the intervals between such remarkable appearances--usually several years--it is positively scarce. The last favoured season was the summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of August to the end of the summer) dozens might easily have been caught in an hour or two; in fact, so plentiful were they in many places, that they were continuously in sight, often several at one time. Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast, especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are in flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often be seen flying over the cliffs and beaches, and even skipping over the breakers; but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many inland districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and Scotland, particularly along the southern coasts of these countries; but its head quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England, from Cornwall to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the south-eastern counties. _Edusa_ catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove sufficient for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun; for this butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its flights are usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely necessary in order to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as _Edusa_ loves, chase is often hopeless, and then it is necessary to resort to stratagem. In such a case the best plan is to make a very cautious approach when the insect has been observed to settle, and then secure it with a sudden down-stroke of the net. The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that have survived the winter. The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food plants, the chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_). Its colour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narrow whitish stripe on each side, which is broken by the yellow of the spiracles. The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with yellow stripes and reddish-brown dots. _The Brimstone_ (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_) This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for the graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore pair are most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled on the hind margins. This latter characteristic is quite unique among British butterflies, though we shall presently meet with instances of angular projections on hind wings only. The ground colour of the male (Plate II, fig. 4) is a rich sulphury yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very pale greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small saffron spots, one near the centre of each wing. The antennæ are red, short, and beautifully curved; but, unlike the two preceding species, the legs are almost white. The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_ and _R. Frangula_) by the females that have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright yellow colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight. The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is thickly covered with little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs along each side. During May and June it may be found on its food plants, and toward the end of the latter month it attaches itself by a silken carpet and belt to the under side of one of the leaves. The chrysalis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved, and the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general surface. Its colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow, and it is so transparent that certain of the structures can be seen through its skin. The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change to the chrysalis; and may be looked for from July to the end of the summer. This period may be regarded as the best time in which to hunt for _Rhamni_, but it is to be noted that this butterfly makes its appearance during all months of the year, even though it is single-brooded. A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so light that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during the bleak months of November to February, will often call them out from their hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butterflies do not live long after depositing their eggs for the future brood; but the Brimstone often lives on till its offspring have themselves attained the perfect state, so that it is possible to capture the insects of two different years both on the same day. In such a case it is generally easy to distinguish between the two, for the newly emerged specimens are beautifully bright and fresh in colour, while those of the previous year are more or less faded and worn, their wings being often semi-transparent through the loss of scales, and frequently disfigured by the stains of mildew. CHAPTER XIII _THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR_ Family--NYMPHALIDÆ We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of our largest and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the most gaudy colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metallic lustre. If you were to see all the members of this family side by side, they might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that you would wonder why they are all placed in one family group. But, were you to see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their larvæ and chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for these earlier stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points at the very first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar spines, and the latter are all more or less angular, and are all suspended to a silken carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdomen, and have no belt as we have observed in the case of the _Pieridæ_. The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are alike in that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being so imperfectly developed as to be useless for this purpose. This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas. _The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Selene_) The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries vary considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the ground colour of the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or sienna brown; and this ground is chequered with darker colours in such a manner as to remind one of the petals of the wild flower known as the Snake's Head or Fritillary--hence the popular name of the group. The Small Pearl-bordered, our first example, is one of the lesser Fritillaries, and is shown in Plate II (fig. 5). The arrangement of the black markings on the upper surface will be readily made out from the coloured plate, but the pattern of the under side will require a little special notice, for it is here, as with the other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by which we identify the species. On this side (fig. 67) the fore wings are light orange brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips, and spotted with a dull black. The hind wings have the light brown displaced by a very warm chestnut tint, some yellow, and bright silvery spots. [Illustration: FIG. 67.--THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin. A large one occupies the centre of the wing, and ten others are somewhat irregularly scattered over other parts of the wing--five between the central spot and the hind margin, and five between it and the costa. All the spots on these wings, whether yellow, chestnut, or silver, are bordered by a narrow black line. _Selene_ is not a very abundant butterfly, but is widely distributed in England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite resorts are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other southern counties. It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits its eggs on the dog violet (_Viola canina_). The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer, and hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food plant. In the following spring it emerges again, and feeds till May, when it changes to the chrysalis on a stem. It is less than an inch long when fully grown, and is of a dark-brown colour. Six rows of hairy spines are arranged longitudinally on its body. The chrysalis is greyish brown, and has a number of very short projections corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar. _The Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_) There is very little difference in the size of this and that of the last species, but _Euphrosyne_ (Plate II, fig. 6) is generally a trifle larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance; indeed, they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impossible to decide on the name of either without an examination of the under surface. _Euphrosyne_ has a border of seven triangular silver spots on each hind wing, exactly corresponding with those of _Selene_. It has also the large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is _only one_ other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there are only nine silvery or pearly spots on each hind wing of _Euphrosyne_, while there are seventeen on _Selene_. This will form a ready means of distinguishing between the two species. [Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] The seasons and localities of this butterfly correspond very closely with those of the last species, but it is much more common, and may be found in abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and June. The caterpillar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as _Selene_. It is black, with whitish lines along the sides; and is provided with a number of bristly spines. The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a paler tint on the wing cases; and its body has a number of short conical projections exactly corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar. _The Queen of Spain Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Latona_) We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most prized of our wood butterflies--The Queen of Spain (Plate II, fig. 7). This royal personage is not easily mistaken for any of the meaner Fritillaries even when the upper surface only is examined, as the concave hind margins of the fore wings serve as an almost conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny brown of this side is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and scales of the bases of the wings are tinged with green. The under side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the ground colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings are spotted with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the tips. Each hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery spots. Seven of these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin, and above each of these is a small one in the middle of a little patch of dark brown. The arrangement of the others is not quite so easily described, but may be readily made out from our illustration. [Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] This rare gem among British butterflies has been taken in many localities, but in very small numbers. Seeing that it is a common insect on the other side of the Channel, and that the British captures have been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and on the south coast, I am inclined to believe that many of the highly valued genuine Britishers have no right to their title, but are visitors that have spent only a few days within our shores, having flown or been blown across the sea. It is not likely that many of my readers will ever meet with _Latona_ during their rambles in our own country, and if they are anxious to have the species represented in their collections, they will probably have to purchase either a British or a foreign specimen, the former of which will command a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for three or four pence. The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September, during which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and the heartsease (_Viola canina_, _V. odorata_, and _V. tricolor_). The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and has three whitish or yellowish stripes--one down the middle of the back and one along each side. It hybernates during the winter, and is fully grown in the following June or July. I hope that my reader will be so fortunate as to secure either this or some other stage of this rare and beautiful insect. The chances are decidedly against him, but that is no reason why he should abstain from a vigorous search when he happens to be 'doing' the southern counties. _The Dark-green Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Aglaia_) This butterfly is larger than _Latona_, as will be seen by reference to Plate II, fig. 8. Its colour is, as usual with the Fritillaries, a tawny brown with black markings. The female is usually larger than the male, and she is further distinguished by the ground colour being darker and the black markings larger. The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and markings to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips. The hind wings are beautifully tinted with olive green and brown, and studded with silver. The arrangement of the latter is not easily described, but is accurately represented in the accompanying woodcut. [Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] The favourite resorts of this insect are wooded spots, and also heaths and downs clad with heather or ferns, where its food plant (the dog violet) lies scattered; but it seems to be less partial to woods than the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed throughout England, and is common in parts of Scotland and Ireland. The perfect insect is on the wing in July and early August. The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and commences its period of hybernation among the roots of its food plant before it has grown to any considerable size. It comes out again in the spring, and continues to feed till the beginning or middle of July, and then changes to the chrysalis state, after protecting itself by binding three or four leaves together. Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between the segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a thin line of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has a number of black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows. The chrysalis is of a shiny black colour, with brownish abdomen; and the conical projections are black with yellow tips. _The High-brown Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Adippe_) The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of _Aglaia_ that it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of one that did not almost equally well apply to the other; so we look to the under surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish between them. On this side (Plate III, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same as those of _Aglaia_. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured and marked, but here we have a distinguishing feature in a row of rust-red spots with silvery centres, just inside the silver border of the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY.] This butterfly is common in open spaces of woods in many parts of England, more particularly in the south, and seems to be also fond of hilly heaths and moors. It is on the wing in July, and, towards the end of this month and in the beginning of August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet (_Viola canina_) and heartsease (_V. tricolor_). The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds only for a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among the dead leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed in the spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully grown. At this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head is black, and its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down the back, but is interrupted by several black marks. The spines, of which there are six rows, are white, with pinkish tips. _The Silver-washed Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Paphia_) This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries, and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June and throughout July it may be seen gracefully sweeping through the trees and undergrowth of woods, often settling down on a favourite flower for a short time. So strong is its flight that it is useless to attempt to pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will sail along a wooded path, followed at short intervals by others of its species, and may be taken in the net as it passes. But perhaps the most successful method of netting _Paphia_ is to wait till it has settled, and then secure it by a quick upward or side stroke of the net. If then you miss your aim, off it will dart, sailing over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it is quite out of sight. [Illustration: FIG. 72.--THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] The upper side of this butterfly is shown in Plate III, fig. 2, where the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich orange-brown ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable difference between the male and female of this species. The figure on Plate III represents the male. The female does not possess the broad black lines that follow the course of the veins of the fore wings; the basal portions of all four wings are also tinged with a rich olive-brown colour, often with a decided tendency to green; and the black spots of all the wings are larger. The under side is particularly rich in its decorations. The front wings are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The hind wings are partly brown and partly orange, and exhibit beautiful greenish reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery spot in the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines. The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants (_Viola canina_ and _V. odorata_) or on the moss that surrounds them. About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding; and then, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides among the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes its feeding, and is full grown at the end of May. The colour of the caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 3) is black, and there are two yellow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe, also one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with reddish-brown spines, two of which, situated just behind the head, are longer than the others. The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with metallic spots, and has a number of angular projections representing the spines of the larva. _Paphia_ is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and Wales. It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen in Scotland. _The Greasy Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Aurinia_) Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (Plate III, fig. 3) exhibits a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of sienna brown stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with the hind margin. The other parts of the wings are marked with patches of sienna, orange, and yellow, separated by black lines and bands. The margins are all black, and inside the broader margin of the hind wing is a row of six very pale yellow spots. The broad sienna band of the hind wing is also divided by narrow black lines into seven parts, six of which have black centres. [Illustration: FIG. 73.--THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] The under surface of the fore wings has indefinite yellowish and tawny patches, which look as if they had been greased and smeared. The hind wings are marked with pale yellow and deep orange; a broad band of the latter, near the hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which has a yellow spot with black in the centre. This is a very local insect, although it is widely distributed throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scotland and Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle (_Lonicera_ _Periclymenum_), devil's-bit scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_), and the plantain (_Plantago_); and its chief resorts are damp meadows and marshy places, where these plants (more especially the scabious) abound. The butterfly appears about the end of April or in June. The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the latter month, and always feed in groups under the cover of a silken web. Like the preceding species they hybernate during the winter, and commence feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown about the end of April. In colour the caterpillar is velvety black, dotted with white, and its body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it seeks the shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself by the hind claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamy white chrysalis with black dots. _The Glanville Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Cinxia_) The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (Plate III, fig. 4) is very similar to that of _Aurinia_, but the ground colour is a uniform tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a very pale straw colour, barred with black. The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-coloured tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four alternate bands of brown and straw colour, and a patch of straw colour at the base. The marginal yellow band has six or seven black spots. The brown band next to it is divided into six segments with black borders, each with a black spot. The next yellow band has also a row of black spots. The inner fulvous band is very irregular; and inside this is the yellow base with six spots. [Illustration: FIG. 74.--THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.] This is another local insect--very local indeed, for it seems to have been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the Isle of Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the rough cliffy parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain (_Plantago Coronopus_ and _P. maritima_) are plentiful, these being the food plants of the larvæ. It first appears on the wing in May, but may be found till the end of June. The caterpillars, which are black and spiny, with reddish head and legs, begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets in they hybernate in groups under the cover of a tent constructed by binding together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they start out again, and feed till the end of April, at which time they change to dark brownish and smooth chrysalides. _The Heath Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Athalia_) Both the upper and under sides of this butterfly are shown on Plate III (figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its general appearance is very similar to that of _Cinxia_. The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped with black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, interrupted by small patches of black. The under surface of the fore wings has the same ground colour with the exception of the tips, which are yellow; and the whole is marked with black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale yellow, with two broad bands of brown corresponding with those of _Cinxia_; but a series of black double arches along the hind margin and the _absence_ of rows of black spots serve to distinguish this species from the last. _Athalia_ is another local butterfly, but is sometimes found in abundance in the spots which it frequents. It is met with chiefly in the open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some distance inland. Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be the most favoured counties; and London entomologists would do well to search for it in Epping Forest. The butterfly deposits its eggs during June and July, on several different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and narrow-leaved plantains (_Plantago major_ and _P. lanceolata_), foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), two species of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_ and _M. sylvaticum_), wood sage (_Teucrium Scorodonia_), and the germander speedwell (_Veronica Chamædrys_), and the young caterpillars, after feeding for only a week or two, commence their period of hybernation. They resume their feeding in April, and change to the pupal state about the end of May. The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted with white, and the spines are yellow or orange, tipped with white. The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with orange and black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken, carpet which the caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food plant. _The Comma_ (_Vanessa C-Album_) Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa) that includes seven most beautiful butterflies, some of which are so common as to be known to almost everybody. It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family as the Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to find that the two groups possess features in common. A slight examination of a few in their different stages will show that this is so. Thus, the perfect insects have only four walking legs, the caterpillars are all spiny, and the chrysalides are angular. [Illustration: FIG. 75.--THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE.] There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worthy of note. Like some of the pupæ of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more or less with brilliant metallic spots, sometimes of a rich golden hue, and sometimes resembling burnished silver. Now the word 'chrysalis,' which, as we have already seen, is derived from a Greek word meaning 'gold,' was originally applied to the pupæ of some of the Vanessas, on account of their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended to the pupæ of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of insects, even though the greater number of them display no tints of the precious metal. The first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly, of which an illustration is given in Plate III, fig. 7. No one could mistake this beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for its wings of rich orange brown, with black and dark-brown markings, are so irregularly scalloped on the hind margins that they present a somewhat ragged appearance. Its name is derived from the fact that a white mark something like the letter C, or, as some have it, like a comma, is distinctly painted on the dark brown of the under side. This butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the summer--August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and frequently as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and may be found settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food plants are the hop (_Humulus Lupulus_), red currant (_Ribes rubrum_), stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and the Elm (_Ulmus campestris_). It is very abundant in certain districts where hops are grown, but seems to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely distributed in the midland counties, and extends to the north of England and into Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance in many parts. The eggs are laid in May by females that have hybernated through the winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding during July and August. The caterpillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head, and a broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments. The body is armed with a number of spines, some of which are white, and others pale brown. The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like projections extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a number of angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour, finely netted with black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant metallic lustre. _The Large Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Polychloros_) Our two tortoiseshells--large and small--are very similar in their colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be distinguished by their size, for specimens of the larger species are sometimes even inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller species; so, to avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we must look for more reliable marks of distinction between them. The present species is figured on Plate III (fig. 8), where it will be seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and bordered with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row of crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings, between the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general ground, and is yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed, too, that a black spot lies very near the anal angle of these wings. The under surface, though by no means brilliant, exhibits a rich blending of various shades of brown. This butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or Ireland, and is by no means common in England. Its chief localities are in the midland and eastern counties. The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July, and after spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot in which to spend the winter. In the spring--April or May--it again takes to flight, and during the latter month the females are busily engaged in the deposition of their eggs. The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (_Ulmus campestris_ and _U. montana_), willow (_Salix alba_), sallow (_S. Caprea_), osier (_S. viminalis_), aspen (_Populus tremula_), and certain fruit trees; and is full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey colour, with a black stripe on each side, and is covered with very small wart-like projections, and the spines are branched. The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on tree trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended from a silken carpet by means of its anal hooks. _The Small Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Urticæ_) _Urticæ_ (Plate III, fig. 9) may be distinguished from _Polychloros_ by the _absence_ of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings of the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore wing-between the black border and the first black costal patch. The whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground colour is decidedly brighter. It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British Isles. The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and lay their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (_Urtica dioica_ and _U. urens_). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be found on these plants in dense masses. They change to the chrysalis state about the end of May, and from this time there is a continuous succession of butterflies till the end of the summer. The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or October, spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate till the spring, giving rise to the first brood of the following season. The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath. It is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together on the back as to form two yellowish stripes, separated only by a fine black line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each side; and the body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the spines in this case being black or very dark green. The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in variable quantity--sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater part of the surface. _The Peacock_ (_Vanessa Io_) This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterflies. Its general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken for any other. The upper side (Plate IV, fig. 1) is rendered conspicuous by the beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all four wings; and the under surface is very richly decorated with a fine arrangement of black and dark-brown patches and streaks. Io is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known in many parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the extreme north of both of these countries. Its food plant is the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and on this the eggs are laid in April by females that have hybernated during the winter. The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of July. It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projections. Its spines also are black, and its claspers brown. The chrysalis may be found suspended by the tail on some object in the neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the food plant itself. It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches, but turns darker as the time approaches for the emerging of the perfect insect. This event takes place in August, and the butterfly, after a brief period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap. _The Camberwell Beauty_ (_Vanessa Antiopa_) The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen of this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name from the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred and fifty years ago; and since that time it has been seen and taken in variable numbers in several parts of England. So widely distributed, indeed, are its localities, and so few, comparatively, its appearances, that it would be useless to attempt to give any hints as to where it may be looked for. It is, however, a very common butterfly in many continental countries, and foreign specimens may be obtained from any dealer in entomological wares for a few pence each. This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of Plate IV. Here it will be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with a rich velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing blue spots; and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and streaked with black. The continental specimens may be easily distinguished from the genuine Britishers by a darker border with a decidedly yellow tinge. The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of the willow (_Salix alba_), in the spring, by females that have hybernated, but sometimes the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) and the birch (_Betula alba_) are selected for the food of the larvæ. The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather large reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth segment. The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family, is angular and suspended by the 'tail.' The perfect insect appears in August, and may be seen from that month till October. _The Red Admiral_ (_Vanessa Atalanta_) There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the beauty of certain natural objects because they happen to be so very common, and this is particularly the case with some of our most familiar butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 3) may possibly suffer in this respect; for, not only is it one of the commonest of our butterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the flowers of our gardens, often venturing into the very heart of thickly populated towns. The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous insect stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the wings, and the additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the hind wings add to the effect. The under side of the fore wings is somewhat similar to the upper surface, but is relieved by brown and blue; and this side of the hind wings presents most beautiful and indescribable blendings of various shades of brown, grey, and pink. The female may be distinguished by the presence of a small white spot on the scarlet band of the fore wing. The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) in spring by females that have hybernated through the winter. The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by drawing leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a greenish or yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along the sides with white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem of the nettle nearly through a few inches from the top, so that the upper part of the plant bends over the withers. It then constructs a commodious tent by binding the leaves of this drooping portion together, and suspends itself from the roof of this strange home to undergo its metamorphoses. The change to the chrysalis state takes place in July or August, and the perfect insect may be seen during August, September, and October in almost every part of the British Isles. _The Painted Lady_ (_Vanessa Cardui_) Although the time of appearance of this butterfly generally corresponds with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly variable, so much so that it is impossible to give any fixed period as its season. It is, moreover, very capricious with regard to its localities and its numbers. Sometimes it will turn up unexpectedly in positive abundance in certain localities where previously it had been a mere straggler; and then, for some unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for several successive seasons. The upper surface of this beauty (Plate IV, fig. 4) is adorned with pale red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near the tip of each fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the upper, but much of the black is replaced by shades of brown. The hind wings are beautifully variegated beneath with greys and browns, and have a row of eye-like spots near the hind margin. The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of thistles, particularly the common field thistle (_Cnicus arvensis_), generally in the month of June. The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with yellowish stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a silken web which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown in July or August, when it suspends itself after the manner of the other Vanessas previous to undergoing its changes. The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and adorned with brilliant gold spots. The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer and the autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the winter. _The White Admiral_ (_Limenitis Sibylla_) The White Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so common as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect, although the chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above, the ground colour is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands and spots of white. The under surface is beautifully marked with silvery blue, bright orange brown, and white, the latter being arranged just like the corresponding colour on the upper side. It will be observed that this butterfly does not belong to the _Vanessa_ genus; so, while we may look for _family_ resemblances, we shall observe a few features in which it differs from the preceding species. It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland and Ireland, and confined in England almost exclusively to the oak woods of the south, where its food plant--the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_)--abounds. Here it may be seen during July, gracefully sailing among the trees and across the open spaces. The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas. Its colour is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each side. There are very conspicuous branched spines on the third and two following segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth; and smaller spines on most of the others. All the spines are of a brownish colour, with pink tips. While it is yet very small it prepares its winter quarters by bending round the remains of a leaf on which it has been feeding, securing the edges by silken threads, and then binding it to the stem of the plant. Soon after, the petiole becomes detached from the stem, and the little caterpillar then rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it remains perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun calls it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till about the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and having brilliant silvery spots and streaks. Family--APATURIDÆ _The Purple Emperor_ (_Apatura Iris_) This grand insect is the only British member of its family, and richly deserves its popular title. The male, which is figured on Plate V (fig. 1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is reflected at certain angles only from the upper surface of his large and powerful wings. His flight is lofty and vigorous, and among the topmost branches of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts of would-be capturers. Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a very quarrelsome creature, and will not hesitate to fiercely attack a brother Emperor who dares approach the branch he has selected for his throne. Many attempts have been made to capture this prized creature by means of a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or thirty feet in length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome implement against so powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few fall a prey to such a snare. But it so happens that this imperial personage has a very depraved appetite, the indulgence in which has often brought him to ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets so bounteously supplied by the blossoms that are so attractive to other lepidopterous insects, he delights in sipping the waters of the filthiest puddles, and imbibing the odoriferous moisture of dung and the decomposing carcases of animals. So deeply seated is this depravity of taste that the Emperor may be netted with ease while indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is even to be taken at times with the fingers. The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods with viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat; and many a splendid specimen has been easily captured while enjoying the luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a seething mass of pig's dung. The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the beautiful purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very different, too, in her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high branches of trees, giving her attention to the graver duties of an imperial mother, and is consequently but seldom seem. She lays her eggs in July on the sallow (_Salix Caprea_) or the poplar (_Populus_), and in less than a fortnight the young caterpillars are hatched. They feed on till the leaves are falling, and then fix themselves by their claspers to a silken carpet which they construct on a twig. Here they remain, exposed to all the wintry blasts and frosts, till the new leaves are out in the spring, when they again commence feeding, and continue to do so till they are full grown--in May or June. The under side of this species is shown in fig. 76, in which will also be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have given rise to its specific name (_Iris_). The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 5) is a very peculiar creature. Its body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each side, and it has a pair of horns attached to its head. [Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE.] The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 10) may be found in June, suspended to the under side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour, and still exhibits the oblique stripes which we observed in the caterpillar. This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but is more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland and southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured localities, we may mention Colchester, Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire, Ipswich, Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshire, Epping, Lyndhurst, and the Isle of Wight. CHAPTER XIV _THE BROWNS AND HEATHS_ Family--SATYRIDÆ This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of collectively as the 'Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing tints are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in comparison with the beautiful butterflies we have been previously observing; but to this statement we must allow one marked exception, for the family includes the beautiful Marbled White, which stands out prominently among its fellows for brilliancy and boldness of colour. The caterpillars of the 'Satyrs' have no spines, but their bodies are covered with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a soft velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off considerably, and terminates in two points. The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding species, and though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes found quite free among leaves and grasses on the ground. The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand. Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly developed legs. _The Marbled White_ (_Melanargia Galatea_) Our first member of this family is the exception to which we have already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the 'Browns.' Its colours above are cream and black, arranged as shown in Plate V, fig. 2. The under side (fig. 77) is marked with white, black, and greenish grey, with a row of eye-like spots parallel with the hind margin of the hind wings. This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to be found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief haunts are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of the midland counties of England, where it is usually restricted to certain small districts. In some places it is really a common insect, and among these may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover, Folkestone, Margate, Gravesend, New Forest, parts of Gloucestershire, Cambridgeshire, and Devonshire, also in the Isle of Wight and South Wales. [Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE.] The perfect insect is out in July, during which month the eggs are deposited on various grasses, or indiscriminately on leaves and stems in grassy spots. The caterpillar feeds on grasses; and, being still small at the end of the autumn, hybernates during the winter among the stems of grass. It feeds again in April, and is fully grown by the end of May. Its colour is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down the back, and lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black. The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly darker shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any attachment, during the month of June. _The Small Ringlet_ (_Erebia Epiphron_) On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those who have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any practical acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost exclusively confined to the lake district in England, to a few mountainous localities in Scotland, and to one or two similar localities in Ireland. Its strong partiality for elevated situations has earned for it the popular name of Mountain Ringlet. The colour of the upper surface (Plate V, fig. 3) is a dark brown, with a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the hind margin of each wing, and broken by the wing rays. Each division of these bands has often a black central spot, but frequently these are entirely absent. The colouring of the under side is very similar but less defined, and the rusty spots of the hind wings are very small. The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which are green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various grasses. They hybernate during the winter, and change to the chrysalis state in the following May or June. _The Northern Brown_ (_Erebia Æthiops_) The colour of this species (Plate V, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown, with rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something like those of the last. The markings, however, are very variable. There are usually four black spots on the band of the fore wings, but the first two of these are always united, and centred with white. The third is often very small or entirely wanting. The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the upper, but the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad bands of a darker colour. As its popular name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It is common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In England it is confined to the mountainous districts of the north. The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which time the eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing herbage in grassy spots. The caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black stripe down the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter than the ground colour, one on each side. At about the end of June it turns to a chrysalis of a brownish colour. The food plants of this species include a number of common grasses. _The Speckled Wood or Wood Argus_ (_Pararge Egeria_) Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be seen on the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is particularly noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy clouds. While the sun's rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the landscape, numbers of these light-lovers are to be observed flitting about; but when the dense shadow of a passing cloud creeps over the ground they rapidly disappear from view, having settled down to rest on leaves and stems. Then, as soon as the shadow passes away, the air is again enlivened with their sports and flittings. The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It delights in the cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it slowly flies up and down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed of strangers that intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into the full blaze of the sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it continues its solitary flight, and may even be seen on the wing while a soft rain is bathing the dripping foliage. The upper surface of this pretty butterfly is shown on Plate V, fig. 5, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both sides are prettily marked with various shades of brown and buff, and adorned with white-centred dark eye-spots which have earned for it the name of Argus. [Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE.] It first appears on the wing in April, and may be seen from this month continuously to the end of August. The food plants probably consist of many species of grasses, the cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and couch grass (_Agropyron repens_) being among the number, and the eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood of these during the summer months. The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the middle of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It hybernates during the winter, and is full grown in March, when it changes to a dull green or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked with black, and has a few white dots on the back. It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April to August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less than three broods during this time, following each other in rapid succession. It is common throughout England and Ireland, and is known in parts of Scotland. _The Wall Butterfly_ (_Pararge Megæra_) Belonging to the same genus is another very familiar butterfly--the Wall--which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit of frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the first, if not _the_ first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is generally the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have seen it actively flying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the morning, and found it still flitting from one spot to another along the western side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search of a convenient shelter for the fast approaching night. This pretty 'Brown' must be familiar to the reader, and the coloured drawing on Plate V (fig. 6) will at once serve for purposes of identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It may be mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is smaller than the female, and is further distinguished by a broad dark oblique band passing across each fore wing. The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing in May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce the latter may be found on the cock's foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and other grasses in June, while those of the former are hybernators; and the chrysalides of the two broods may be found in April and July respectively. The colour of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker stripe down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side, and another similar stripe about midway between these two. The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent parts of its surface, which are almost white. This species is very common in almost every locality in Britain. _The Grayling_ (_Satyrus Semele_) The Grayling is the largest of our 'Browns,' and, although a powerful flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is shown in fig. 7, Plate V, is really a beautiful creature, the light markings of which stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown ground colour; but the male is comparatively dingy, there being much less contrast between the ground and the markings. He is also smaller than his mate. The under side of both sexes is similar (fig. 79), the pattern of the fore wings being much like that of the other side, but considerably lighter, and the hind wings are beautifully marbled with various greys and browns. [Illustration: FIG. 79.--THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE.] This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but it is very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some parts. On some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and south-west coasts it is so plentiful that the butterflies are started into the air at almost every step, for it seldom flies except when disturbed. It is a common insect in Ireland, and also in parts of Scotland. The caterpillar is a hybernator, and may be found feeding on grasses in the autumn and the spring. It changes to the chrysalis in June, and the perfect insect is on the wing from June to the beginning of September. The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and greenish drab beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour, passes down the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side. It changes to a dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the ground, or, according to some observers, a little beneath the surface. _The Meadow Brown_ (_Epinephele Janira_) Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be the dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colour of a freshly emerged specimen is really very rich. The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of a lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and a white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same wings. The female (Plate V, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-spot on her fore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an irregular patch of light orange brown occupies a large area of each of the same wings. She is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in every way a more attractive insect. The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to September, and may be seen on grass land and waste grounds where other butterflies are seldom found. The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a number of minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side. It feeds on various grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and is full grown in May. The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and has several black markings. _The Large Heath_ (_Epinephele Tithonus_) This butterfly is sometimes called the 'Small Meadow Brown,' and is certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and habits. The fore wings of the male (Plate V, fig. 9) are light orange brown, bordered with dark brown, and having a broad patch of the same across the middle; and near the costal angle is a round black spot with two white dots. The hind wings are dark brown with a patch of light orange brown near the centre, and a small eye-spot near the anal angle. The female is exactly similar, except that she does not possess the broad bar on the fore wings. [Illustration: FIG. 80.--THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE.] The under side is shown in fig. 80, and is coloured with various shades of brown. This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during July in most English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a few localities in the south of Ireland. It frequents meadows, heaths, downs, and lanes, like _Janira_, but is not nearly so abundant as that species. The young caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very small when it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses. It resumes feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is very variable--pale green, olive green, or dull brown, with five longitudinal stripes at about equal distances from each other. These consist of a dark one down the middle of the back, a pale line along each side, and another pale line midway between these. The chrysalis may be found at the end of June, attached by the tail to blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almost white, but adorned with numerous black lines and patches. _The Ringlet_ (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_) This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat prettily adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very deep sepia brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like spots near the margins. The under side (Plate V, fig. 10) is of a lighter umber brown, with corresponding eye-spots generally very conspicuous. These spots are black, with white centres, and generally surrounded by light rings. They are subject, however, to considerable variation. Those on the upper surface are sometimes quite absent in the male, but are nearly always readily perceptible in the female. On the under side, too, they are occasionally quite absent, while in other varieties they are minute white-centred dots, without any surrounding light ring. Our coloured drawing represents the most usual form. [Illustration: FIG. 81.--THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE.] The favourite haunts of the Ringlet are the borders of woods, and the sheltered sides of flowery hedgerows. It is not so widely distributed as some of the common 'Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it occurs, sometimes appearing in such numbers that several may be taken with a single stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of Scotland, and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters are the southern and south-midland counties of England. The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the beginning of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about the middle of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by means of their anal hooks. The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is marked with five longitudinal stripes much like those of the Large Heath. The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped with a darker shade of the same colour. _The Marsh Ringlet_ (_Cænonympha Typhon_) The upper surface of this butterfly is shown in the first figure of Plate VI, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut; but it must be remembered that the species is a very variable one, so much so that it is almost impossible to give anything like a short and, at the same time, a satisfactory description. The female may usually be distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore wings; and the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less indistinct when present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The markings of the under side are even more variable, the transverse bars and the eye spots being often particularly conspicuous, and at other times hardly discernible. [Illustration: FIG. 82.--THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE.] This is generally spoken of as a northerner, its chief localities being in the mountainous parts of Scotland and the elevated districts of the north of England, but in Ireland it extends to the southern ranges. Its haunts are elevated moors and marshy heaths, where its food plant--the beak-rush (_Rhyncospora alba_)--abounds, and it is on the wing from the end of June to August or September. The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes--one dark one, bordered with yellow, down the middle of the back, and two pale yellow ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is full grown about the end of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost claspers to a silken carpet, and changes to a green chrysalis with pale brown wing cases. _The Small Heath_ (_Cænonympha Pamphilus_) The last member of the family _Satyridæ_ is the well-known Small Heath, that may be seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths, meadows and moors, from May to September. The upper surface of this butterfly (Plate VI, fig. 2) is a tawny yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint near the tip of each fore wing. The under side is much like that of the last species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings. The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and June on the various grasses on which the caterpillar feeds. The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or early August, and go through their changes during the latter month; but the later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full fed till the following May. The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker stripe down the back, two others along the sides, and two more between the latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are bordered with a whitish colour. The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the wing cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white. CHAPTER XV _THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES_ Family--LYCÆNIDÆ This is a large family, including as it does no less than nineteen of the British species. These are all of small size, and are characterised by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much above the ground, and are consequently very easily caught. The caterpillars of this family have all short and rather thick bodies, shaped very much like that of the wood louse--flattened beneath and very convex above. The chrysalides are generally attached by the 'tail,' and further secured by a silken cord round the body, as we have already observed in the case of the _Pieridæ_. The perfect insects differ from the preceding species in that all six legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking. There are only three genera in this large family: 1. _Thecla_--The Hairstreaks, with 'tailed' wings. 2. _Polyommatus_--The 'Coppers.' 3. _Lycæna_--The 'Blues,' with wings either blue or brown. _The Brown Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Betulæ_) The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus _Thecla_ are all pretty insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under surface. _Betulæ_ is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep brown colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the hind wings, and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore wings. The under side (Plate VI, fig. 3) is orange brown, much lighter in the male than in the female. On the fore wings are two white lines, the inner one of which is indistinct; and on the hind wings are two others, the outer one being longer and more distinct than the inner. This butterfly is by no means an abundant insect, though it is widely distributed, and in some places plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods, and we may mention among its favoured localities Epping Forest, Monk's Wood in Cambridgeshire, the wooded parts of South Devon and Dorset, New Forest, Colchester, and Peterborough. [Illustration: FIG. 83.--THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE.] The perfect insect is on the wing from July to October, and the eggs are deposited in the autumn on the twigs of its food plant--the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). These do not hatch till the following spring. Toward the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed. The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two small oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment. The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour. _The Black Hairstreak, or White-letter Hairstreak_ (_Thecla W-album_) The first of the above two popular names has been applied to this species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper side, which colour is often a near approach to black. The second is due to the W-shaped bend of the white streak of the hind wings. The ground colour of the under side (Plate VI, fig. 4) is greyish brown, with a bright orange band, spotted with black near the hind margin of the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK.] _W-album_ is a somewhat rare insect, but is occasionally seen in plenty in a few localities, Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping, Colchester and Suffolk being among its chief resorts. It is out on the wing in July, and should be looked for in wooded country where the common elm (_Ulmus campestris_) and the wych elm (_U. montana_), its food plants, exist. The eggs are laid on the twigs of these trees late in the summer, and the young caterpillars do not appear till the following spring. The chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about the end of June. The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are tinged with yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each side of each segment. _The Dark Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Pruni_) The upper side of this butterfly is very much like that of _W-album_, but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring of the under side (Plate VI, fig. 5) is also very similar, except that the white lines of the wings are thinner and less distinct than in the last species, and do not exhibit the W-shaped bend. The orange band of this surface is bordered on each side with a row of black spots, each of which is touched with a bluish white or a metallic blue. This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in either Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem to be in Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire. It frequents wooded country, and flies during June and July. The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and are not hatched till the following spring. The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots, may be found in May. _The Purple Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Quercus_) This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks, though comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble Purple Emperor. Its haunts are the same oak woods, and its upper surface, though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits the same imperial purple reflections when viewed at certain angles. The purple of the male extends over the whole of the wings, but that of the female is confined to a V-shaped patch at the base of the fore wings. In the latter case, however, the purple is much richer than in the male sex. The under side (Plate VI, fig. 6) is coloured with a delicate grey ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a couple of orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings. This species is very widely distributed, being common in oak woods in most parts of England, and also in many parts of Scotland and Ireland. It flies around the branches of the trees, and often disappoints the collector by keeping far beyond the reach of his net. [Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE.] Those in search of this pretty insect should ramble in oak woods, preferably in the south of England, during July and August. The eggs may be found glued to the twigs throughout the winter, and the larvæ may be beaten from the branches of the oak in June. The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with a row of V-shaped marks down the back. The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be found either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the earth at the foot of the tree on which the caterpillar fed. _The Green Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Rubi_) Next to _Quercus_, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It frequents woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and is also found in parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar among British butterflies as being the only one that exhibits a bright green colour. It also differs from the other Hairstreaks in two important particulars, for the hind wings, though angled at the hind margin, are not 'tailed,' and the characteristic hairstreak which gives the popular name to the genus is here represented only by a series of white dots across the wings, or, in some cases, by one or two dots on the hind wings only. [Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK.] The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections when viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in fig. 7 of Plate VI. The chief food plants of this species are the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), the birch (_Betula alba_), and the broom (_Cytisus scoparius_). The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eggs are deposited during the latter month on the above plants. The caterpillars are full fed in July, and change to the chrysalis state towards the end of the summer. The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe and several white oblique lines along the sides, also a yellowish stripe down the back. The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown colour. _The Large Copper_ (_Polyommatus Dispar_) Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of these--the Large Copper--was once a common insect at Whittlesea in Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire, but is now feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for many years. The last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire. However, it _may_ turn up again; and even if it does not, it would be a pity to allow the memory of so fine an insect to die out; so we find room to figure it (Plate VI, fig. 8), and append a few remarks. There is a very great difference between the male and the female. The former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings have a black margin and a black streak near the middle. The female is larger; and the coppery colour is much redder. The black border of the fore wings is wider, and there are also several large black spots on these wings. The hind wings are almost entirely covered with black, with the exception of a broad coppery band near the hind margin. The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water dock (_Rumex Hydrolapathum_), on which the eggs were laid late in the summer. It is probable that the caterpillar was a hybernator, seeking its winter shelter while still very young; and it was full fed in June. Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on the back; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord round the body. _The Small Copper_ (_Polyommatus Phlæas_) The only other British member of the genus _Polyommatus_--the Small Copper--is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may be found in nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to September, more particularly in April, June, _and_ August, for it is apparently triple brooded. This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on Plate VI (fig. 9), and, being so very familiar, needs no description. The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock--the broad-leaved dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_), the fiddle dock (_R. pulcher_), the sorrel (_R. acetosa_), and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_); also on the ragwort (_Senecio Jacobæa_). It is full fed about three weeks after hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of a pale brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant. The caterpillar itself is green, with a reddish line on the back and on each side; and it glides over the surface of the leaves something after the manner of a slug, without exhibiting any very apparent motion of its short legs and claspers. _The Tailed Blue_ (_Lycæna Bætica_) We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of beautiful little butterflies, known commonly as the 'Blues;' but one of them exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the group, although it resembles the others in structure and habits. Our first example is the Tailed Blue, known also as the Pea-pod Argus. The upper side of this insect (Plate VI, fig. 10) is of a dull smoke colour, exhibiting purple-blue reflections, which are, in the female, confined to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings, but in the male are less noticeable, and extend over the whole surface. The hind margin of the hind wings has a row of spots, more or less distinct, and much more prominent in the female than in the male. The under side is beautifully marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of brilliant metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] This butterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where the caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants; but only a few stragglers have been taken in England, so that its reputation as a true Britisher is very uncertain. It is highly probable that the two or three specimens caught on our south coast were blown over from the Continent, and that the insect has never bred on this side of the Channel. _The Silver-studded Blue_ (_Lycæna Ægon_) The upper surface of the male (Plate VI, fig. 11) of this species is purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings. The female (fig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown colour, often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange spots near the hind margin of the hind wings. The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is marked with a number of black spots surrounded by light rings. Along the hind margin of the hind wings is a row of orange spots, each bordered with black on the inner side, and with a silvery blue on the outer. [Illustration: FIG. 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] This insect appears in July, and is common in many dry, sandy, or chalky spots in various parts of England, and also in a few localities in Scotland and Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and in certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are undoubtedly the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern counties. The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), and is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or grey, with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and pale oblique lines near the former. About the end of June it changes to a dull green chrysalis, with projecting wing cases. _The Brown Argus_ (_Lycæna Astrarche_) Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of blue. The upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of Plate VI, is coloured with a warm brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots near the hind margin. The fore wings have also a central black spot. The under surface, drawn on the same plate (fig. 14), is bluish grey, with a border of orange spots on each hind margin as on the other side. There are also numerous black spots in light rings, the arrangement of which will be seen in the figure. Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their colouring and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for distinct species; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes so similar in character that they are looked upon as identical. A butterfly that closely resembles the normal Brown Argus in many points, and named _Artaxerxes_, has often been described as a distinct species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomologists as a constant variety of the present species. It differs from the normal type in having a _white_ instead of a _black_ spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange spots is often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of black spots in white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace of a black centre. The ordinary Brown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly abundant on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of Wight, but _Artaxerxes_ is to be found only in Scotland and the north of England; and it is interesting to note that, between these northern and southern districts, intermediate varieties are to be met with. Again, _Astrarche_ is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on the wing in May and August; while _Artaxerxes_ is single brooded, flying at midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion that the two are distinct species; but it must be remembered that several insects that are single brooded in one country are double brooded in a warmer climate. The caterpillar of _Astrarche_ feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a brownish line on the back; and is full fed in April and July. _The Common Blue_ (_Lycæna Icarus_) Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is almost sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life, yet it is important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter to confound it with other species of the same genus. The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of the male (Plate VI, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue; and that of the female (Plate VI, fig. 16) a dark brown, powdered with blue at the bases of the wings, and having _generally_ a border of orange spots, more or less defined, on the hind margins of all wings. [Illustration: FIG. 89.--THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy brown; warm in the female, but paler in the male. The hind wings, and sometimes all four, are bordered with orange spots; and this species may be distinguished from _Astrarche_ by the presence of two black spots, in white rings, near the base of the fore wings. There will be no need to name localities for this insect, as it is abundant everywhere, frequenting meadows, heaths, and all waste places. It is double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to September, the first brood enduring from May to July, and the second from July to the end of the warm weather. The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and a row of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and the rest-harrow (_Ononis spinosa_). The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged with brown on the under surface. _The Clifden Blue_ (_Lycæna Bellargus_) Our coloured representations of this beautiful blue (Plate VI, figs. 17 and 18) show that here also there is a great difference between the male and female. The former is a most lovely and brilliant sky blue, bordered by a fine black line; and the latter is a dull dark brown, with a more or less distinct border of orange spots, and the bases of the wings are powdered with scales of a tint corresponding with those of the male. In both sexes the fringe is very distinctly barred with dark brown. [Illustration: FIG. 90.--THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes--greyish brown, with a border of reddish spots, and a number of black spots in white rings, the arrangement of which is here represented. The butterfly frequents chalky downs, chiefly in the south of England, and seems to be unknown in Scotland and Ireland. The Isle of Wight, and the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, are its favourite localities; and even in these it is generally very local, sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent, when the surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally suitable to its requirements, does not harbour a single specimen. It is on the wing in May and June, and again in August. The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover (_Trifolium repens_), horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and various other leguminous plants. _The Chalk-Hill Blue_ (_Lycæna Corydon_) The male of this species (Plate VII, fig. 1) is readily to be distinguished from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy blue, but the female (fig. 2 of Plate VII) so closely resembles that of _Bellargus_ that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to discriminate between them. The following, however, are a few points worthy of observation: The upper side of the female _Corydon_ has the bases of the wings more or less sprinkled with the pale silky blue that characterises the male; and the black bars of the fringe are _usually_ broader in _Corydon_ than in _Bellargus_. The black-centred spots of the under side are also usually more conspicuous in the former species than in the latter. [Illustration: FIG. 91.--THE CHALK HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] The difficulty of identification is increased by the fact that both these butterflies frequent similar localities, and are often on the wing at the same time; but although _Corydon_ is certainly a frequenter of chalky districts, yet it is often found plentifully in districts far removed from the chalk, notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping Forest. The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green, with two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and lady's fingers (_Anthyllis vulneraria_). _The Holly Blue_ (_Lycæna Argiolus_) While all the other Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks in the full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit among the branches of trees, often many feet from the ground. The larva feeds on the flowers of the holly (_Ilex Aquifolium_) in the spring, and on those of the ivy (_Hedera Helix_) late in the summer; also on the alder buckthorn (_Rhamnus Frangula_); and it is in localities where these grow that we may find this lovely Blue sporting among the branches, or resting on a leaf with its wings folded together, thus making itself conspicuous among the dark foliage by exposing the pale silvery blue of its under surface. The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on Plate VII (figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac blue will be seen to have a border of black, wider in the latter than in the former. [Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] The under surface is spotted with black, as shown in fig. 92, and has no border of orange spots. This is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing first in April and May, and then again in August. It is not at all uncommon in the south of England, and extends northward as far as the Lake District, but is not found in Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland. The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is light green, with a line of dark green down the back. _The Mazarine Blue_ (_Lycæna Semiargus_) The male (Plate VII, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow dark-brown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark brown. The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or drab, with a row of black spots in white rings parallel with the hind margin of each wing, and no reddish or orange spots. This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several localities some years since, but has not been seen for a long time; and it is probable that its reckless slaughter by those who catch all the pretty butterflies they can secure either for ornament or for gain has caused its name to be permanently removed from our list of natives. [Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] It was formerly abundant in Dorset, Hereford, Glamorganshire, and near Shirley, and was on the wing in June and July, but it disappeared from our view before a full account of its life history had been prepared. _The Small Blue_ (_Lycæna Minima_) We now come to the smallest of all British butterflies--a little insect that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its wings are expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown colour, the bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of the male. The under side is pale drab, tinged with greenish blue at the bases of the wings, and marked with black spots in light rings as shown in the accompanying figure. The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of Plate VII. [Illustration: FIG. 94.--THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] This butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and during the latter month the eggs are deposited on the flowers of the lady's fingers (_Anthyllis vulneraria_). The caterpillars are hatched in about a week, and commence feeding on the calyx of the buds, and soon burrow into them till they are quite concealed. The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe on the back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side. This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful in most chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of Scotland and Ireland. _The Large Blue_ (_Lycæna Arion_) The last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, with the exception of _Semiargus_, the rarest. It is a very local insect, appearing in small numbers, during June and July, in parts of South Devon, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, and a few other counties. [Illustration: FIG. 95.--THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.] The colour of the upper side is a dark and rich blue, with a broad dark border on the hind margins, and a group of black spots near the centre of the fore wings. The under side (fig. 95) is of a pearly grey, without any red spots, but having a double border of black spots, and also an irregular row of black spots in white rings across the middle of each wing. The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_), on which plant the eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads. CHAPTER XVI _THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS_ Family--ERYCINIDÆ _The Duke of Burgundy_ (_Nemeobius Lucina_) The family _Erycinidæ_ has only one British representative, commonly known as the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, but although this butterfly certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appearance (see figs. 9 and 10 of Plate VII), its habits and life history present many points of difference from these. The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the fringe is white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny spots with black centres border the hind margins. The under side has two rows of white spots, one near the base, and the other across the centre of each wing. The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female has six. The butterfly is out in May and June, and frequents the paths and open spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it has been taken in some of the northern counties. The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the true Fritillaries, but more closely resembles those of the Blues, being somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown, with tufts of hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the back. It feeds on the primrose (_Primula acaulis_) and the cowslip (_P. veris_), and may be found during June, July and August. When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem by means of its anal claspers and a silken cord round its body, and changes to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state it spends the winter, and emerges early in the following summer. Family--HESPERIIDÆ--THE SKIPPERS This family contains eight small species, none of which are remarkable for brilliancy of color. They are, nevertheless, very interesting creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structure and habit that render them singular among the butterflies, and seem to show a sort of cousin relationship with the moths. They have thick bodies that remind us somewhat of the _Noctuæ_. Their heads are broad, so that the antennæ, which are slightly hooked at the tips, are rather wide apart at the bases. When at rest, they neither press their wings together over their back like the other butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after the manner of the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate position in the scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half elevated position. Their flight, too, is not graceful like that of most other butterflies, nor even so steady as that of the little flitting blues, but brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths disturbed from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping rather than flying from flower to flower. All the three pairs of legs of these butterflies are fully developed for walking. The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper from the middle toward both extremities. Like the larvæ of many moths, they hide themselves in leaves which they have rolled and secured with silken threads; and when about to change to the chrysalis state, they also spin silken cocoons for their further protection. _The Grizzled Skipper_ (_Syrichthus Malvæ_) The ground color of this species is a very dark brown, relieved by a number of square white spots arranged as shown in fig. 11 of Plate VII. The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two colours, arranged alternately. The pattern of the under side is similar, but the dark brown of the upper surface is replaced by a lighter olive tint. The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of woods, particularly in damp places. It is common all over England, and is found also in the south of Scotland. The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal stripe of the same color, and two white lines on each side. It feeds on the raspberry (_Rubus idæus_), the bramble (_R. fruticosus_), and the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), and is full fed about the end of June. The chrysalis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elongated, and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection extending backwards from the 'tail.' _The Dingy Skipper_ (_Nisoniades Tages_) Colour--a dingy brown, indistinctly barred and spotted with a darker tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the fringe of the hind margins. Under side--a paler brown, with rows of small white spots. This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found in a few localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry banks, and is particularly partial to the chalky districts of the south-eastern counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second brood appears in lesser numbers in August. The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each side, and a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and may be found in June, and again in September. The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 12) is shaped something like that of the last species, and is coloured green on the front segments, and a rose red on the abdomen. The perfect insect is represented in fig. 12 of Plate VII. _The Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Thaumas_) In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention has been made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings, this matter having been left to the reader's own observations of our illustrations. We will, however, call attention to the somewhat square-cut form of the wings of _Thaumas_ and the following species. The above-named butterfly (Plate VII, fig. 13) is a lively-looking little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange colour, bordered with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The male, which is the sex figured, is distinguished from the female by an oblique black streak across the middle of the front wings. The under side is orange, with a decidedly greenish tinge. The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the meadow soft-grass (_Holcus lanatus_). The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed in the following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after spinning a light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The colour of the caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white stripes--two on the back, and two on each side. _The New Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Lineola_) A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known _Thaumas_ (or _Linea_), but which turned out to be a species not previously known in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing features of the new butterfly were made known, several entomologists discovered that they had already secured the new prize, but that, being ignorant of its characteristics, they had placed it in their series over the label _Thaumas_. Since the above date, this new insect (Plate VII, fig. 18), which is named _Lineola_, has been taken in considerable numbers at Leigh, Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk, as well as in the Fens of Huntingdonshire; and it is highly probable that it may turn up in various other localities where it has not yet been observed. It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little later than _Thaumas_, but the two kindred species are often found flying together. The chief points by which we distinguish _Lineola_ from the last species are these: The general appearance of the wings is a bit dingier than in _Thaumas_; the inner portion of the hind wings is of a bright tawny colour in _Thaumas_ but not in _Lineola_; the tips of the antennæ are yellow beneath in _Thaumas_, but black in _Lineola_; and the black streak across the fore wings of the latter species is short and generally broken. The eggs of _Lineola_ are laid at the end of July or beginning of August on various grasses, chiefly the various species of _Triticum_, but do not hatch till the following April. The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of July, and then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which the perfect insect emerges in two or three weeks. _The Lulworth Skipper_ (_Hesperia Actæon_) Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding, it may be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull greenish brown that almost covers the wings. The male, which is shown in fig. 14 of Plate VII, has a black streak across the fore wings, and the female possesses a semicircular row of tawny spots near the tip of the same wings, and also a tawny streak near the centre. This is a very local species, having been found only in a few localities. At Lulworth Cove and 'Burning Cliff' in Dorset it has been met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough ground near the cliffs at Sidmouth and Torquay; and it has also been reported as appearing at Stratford-on-Avon, Shenstone near Lichfield, and the neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham. One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making a special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day should be chosen toward the end of July or early in August. _The Large Skipper_ (_Hesperia Sylvanus_) During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on grassy banks in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain localities of Scotland and Ireland. The wings are all of a bright orange-brown colour, with a narrow black border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter colour usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception of about half a dozen squarish spots; and the same colour, together with the dark brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the fore wings, often forming several squarish and triangular patches, most distinct near the tips. The male (Plate VII, fig. 15) may be readily distinguished from the female by the presence of a thick dark brown streak across the fore wings. The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a greenish tinge; and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots. The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back. Its upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on the under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on several kinds of grasses, some of its favourites being the meadow soft grass (_Holcus lanatus_), the cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_), and couch grass (_Agropyron repens_). _The Silver-spotted Skipper_ (_Hesperia Comma_) This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except that the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler and much more distinct; and here, too, the male (Plate VII, fig. 16) is to be distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing the front wings obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge, more particularly on the hind wings; and this side is conspicuously marked with a number of _white_ square spots with sharp outlines, arranged as shown in fig. 96. [Illustration: FIG. 96.--THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE.] Although common in some localities, this butterfly is not widely distributed. It is confined to some of the southern and midland counties of England, and is particularly partial to the chalk districts of the south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex it is moderately common. It is on the wing during July and August. The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which are the bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) and the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_). _The Chequered Skipper_ (_Carterocephalus Palæmon_) This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but it sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts. Kettering, Oundle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's Wood in Huntingdonshire are places where it has been taken freely. It appears in June. The wings are chequered with very dark brown and orange. The fore wings are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and beside these there are about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on the fore wing and three on the hind wing. The arrangement of these markings may be seen in fig. 17 of Plate VII. The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain (_Plantago major_). PART IV COMMON BRITISH MOTHS CHAPTER XVII _SPHINGES_ We have already observed the chief features by which we are able to distinguish between butterflies and moths (page 56), so we shall devote the present division to a description of the characteristics and life histories of some of the latter insects. The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could be found for a brief description of every species, but with moths the case is very different. There are about two thousand known British species of this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year adds some newly discovered insects to this long list; we shall therefore have to content ourselves with making a selection of these for individual mention. In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist with a fairly representative list--one that will enable him to become more or less intimately acquainted with all the principal divisions of the _Heterocera_; and his attention will be drawn especially to many which may be described as 'common' or 'generally distributed,' so that during his first few seasons at collecting he may be enabled to identify and study a fair proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of the rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking characteristic. We shall commence with the tribe of _Sphinges_ or _Hawk Moths_. This group consists of three families--the _Sphingidæ_, including the largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the _Sesiidæ_ or 'Clearwings,' and the _Zygænidæ_, including the 'Foresters' and the 'Burnets'--numbering in all about forty species. Family--SPHINGIDÆ This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvæ to the celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very thick bodies, generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are rather narrow in proportion to the length, but are exceedingly powerful, and the flight is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid. The antennæ terminate in a small and thin hook. Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of their flight is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to follow them with the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure the insects in the net; consequently, the best way to study them is to search out the larvæ on their food plants, and rear them till they attain their perfect form. The larvæ of the _Sphingidæ_ are large and smooth, and most of them have a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but one. They all undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of the ground. _The Death's-Head Hawk_ (_Acherontia Atropos_) Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head Hawk Moth--an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular title has been applied on account of the peculiar markings of the thorax, which are said to resemble a human skull; and this feature has certainly some connection with the superstitious beliefs of ignorant country folk concerning this moth. But this characteristic is probably not the only one that has caused the creature to be regarded with superstitious alarm. Both its superior dimensions and nocturnal habits serve to intensify the unfounded fear; but, what is particularly striking and unique about it is its power of uttering a squeaking sound, which it does when disturbed. Even the earlier stages of the insect possess this strange power. The caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when irritated, and the chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before the emergence of the perfect form. The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown, beautifully mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small but conspicuous yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are yellow, with a black band and margin; and the body is yellow, with six broad black bands, and six large blue spots down the middle. [Illustration: FIG. 97.--THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH.] The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in some parts, but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is on the wing during August and September. It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may with a little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them. These larvæ feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (_Atropa Belladonna_), and the woody nightshade (_Solanum Dulcamara_); and they are well known to potato growers in some parts of the country. The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with numerous small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each side. The horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but recurved again at the tip. It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the daytime. In August it is fully grown, and then retires into the ground to undergo its transformations. [Illustration: FIG. 98.--THE LARVA OF ATROPOS.] _The Privet Hawk_ (_Sphinx Ligustri_) This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half inches from tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX in its natural colours, so that it need not be described. The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common, is not frequently seen at large. The larvæ, however, are to be met with in abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large towns we may see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet hedge, their beautiful green tint closely resembling that of the surrounding leaves. After a little experience they may be readily discerned by a careful observer, but there are certain signs by which their presence may be proved before they have been actually seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are completely stripped of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf stalks being almost or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are the large black masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above. When found, these larvæ should always be removed on a piece of the twig to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by their claspers that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove them from their hold without injury. These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of the other 'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the sides. These are each composed of two colours, white and lilac, and form a pretty contrast with the bright green of the rest of the body. The horn is smooth and curved, and is black with the exception of part of the under side, which is yellow. They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month till the following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under privet and lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva. _The Spurge Hawk_ (_Deilephila Euphorbiæ_) This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been seen in this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found plentifully at Appledore and Braunton Burrows, in North Devon, feeding on the sea spurge (_Euphorbia Paralias_). The perfect insect is shown on Plate IX (fig. 2). [Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIÆ.] The caterpillar is black, with a large number of small yellowish white dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on each side. There is also a red line on each side, and another down the middle of the back. The horn is rough and red with a black tip. It feeds during August and September. _The Small Elephant Hawk_ (_Chærocampa Porcellus_) This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths. It is widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England and in the south of Scotland. It flies in June. The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red hind margins, and a broad border of the same tint on the costal margin. The hind wings have also a rosy-red hind margin, and are smoky black along the costæ, and yellow in the anal angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red, tinged with olive on the foremost and hindmost segments. The popular name of this and the following species has been applied because of the power which the caterpillar has of extending and retracting its front segments, a peculiarity which has given the idea of a semblance to the elephant's proboscis. The colour of the caterpillar is light-brown or green, mottled with dark-brown, dark-green, or black. It has a conspicuous eye-like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth segments, and has no horn. [Illustration: FIG. 100.--THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH.] This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species of bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_, and _G. palustre_), willow herb (_Epilobium hirsutum_), or the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_). _The Large Elephant_ (_Chærocampa Elpenor_) This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in form and markings; but is, as its name implies, larger. The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may be distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn, tipped with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown, mottled and spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth and sixth segments are black, and each contains a brown spot surrounded by a white line. Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (_Epilobium hirsutum_), three species of bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_ and _G. palustre_), the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_), and the enchanter's nightshade (_Circæa lutetiana_). It will also feed on the vine and the apple in confinement. _The Eyed Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_) Our next genus (_Smerinthus_) contains three well-known moths, all of which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or indented. The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX and named after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near the anal angle of each hind wing. The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white dots, and marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each of which is bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are pinkish, surrounded by violet rings; and the horn is blue. The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar may be found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow (_Salix alba_), sallow (_S. cinerea_ and _S. Caprea_), poplar (_Populus alba_ and _P. nigra_), aspen (_P. tremula_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). As with many other _Sphinges_, the larvæ are much more commonly seen than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be met with resting on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of their food plants. _The Poplar Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Populi_) [Illustration: FIG. 101.--THE POPLAR HAWK.] This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may be easily found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during May, June, and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily taken with a net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite trees or among the flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be beaten from the boughs of poplars and sallows during August and September, and during the latter month may often be seen creeping down and around the trunks of these trees, searching for a suitable spot in which to undergo its changes. The pupa may be dug out of the soil at the foot of the same trees during the autumn, winter, and spring months. The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with darker tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The hind wings are similarly coloured except at the base, where there is a large patch of brick-red. The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles are white, edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper, and reddish on the under side. Its chief food plants are the poplar, the Lombardy poplar (_Populus pyramidalis_), aspen (P_. tremula_), and sallow (_Salix Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_). _The Lime Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Tiliæ_) This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its rich olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a continuous central bar. It flies in May and June. The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very like the larva of _Populi_, but may be distinguished from that species by the orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above, and yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or violet scale with an edging of orange. The food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and the hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), from which the larvæ may be beaten in August and September, and from under these the pupæ may be dug out during the winter months. _The Humming-Bird Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_) The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting British species. Their antennæ are thickened toward the end, but terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather short and broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad tuft of hair; and the perfect insects fly during the daytime, delighting in the hottest sunshine. The larvæ feed principally on low-growing plants, and undergo their metamorphoses on the ground among the foliage. On Plate IX (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is the Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly rapid humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming sound. This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to be well known to all observers of nature. Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to a honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are almost sure to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and interesting ways of this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly that you first view it as an apparently motionless insect, suspended in the air, and thrusting its long proboscis into the tube of an attractive flower. Its wings vibrate so rapidly that they are quite invisible, and give rise to the soft hum already mentioned. Then it darts from one flower to another, making a similar brief stay before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise your hand as if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where. But it is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame flower as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a horizontal direction, or a sudden downward stroke, _may_ secure it; but if you miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom, and give you no opportunity of making a second attempt. This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the year--May to September, and will often greet you as you roam over flowery banks in search of butterflies. The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), hedge bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), and the goose grass (_G. Aparine_), and may be searched for in August and September. It is rough, green or brownish, and dotted with white. Along each side are two light lines. The horn is thin and short, rough, and points upwards. _The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Fuciformis_) The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from their resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike, but may be distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark border of the wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered respectively. The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore wings are transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot and a broad reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are black and tinged with green. The hind wings are similarly coloured, but have no central spot. The body is olive-brown, with a broad reddish belt, and behind are tufts of hair, which are spread out when the insect flies, just after the manner of the tail feathers of a bird. The moth flies in May. [Illustration: FIG. 102.--THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK.] The larva resembles that of _Stellatarum_, but exhibits a violet tint above the legs. Its horn, too, is curved, and of a reddish or brownish colour. It feeds on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), ragged robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_), evening campion (_L. vespertina_), red campion (_L. diurna_), lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), and the field scabious (_Scabiosa arvensis_), during the month of July. Family SESIIDÆ--THE CLEARWINGS This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that differ very much from other moths in many important and interesting particulars. Their antennæ, like those of the _Sphingidæ_, are thickest beyond the middle, and those of the males are slightly _ciliated_ or hairy. Their bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of hair. The hind wings in all cases are transparent, margined and veined with black or brown; and the fore wings also, in most cases, have transparent bases. These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen gracefully hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more like gnats, bees, and wasps, than moths. The larvæ of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their time within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in the material that forms both their food and their home. Within these they also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves to the free air and light till they reach their perfect stage. _The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar_ (_Trochilium Apiformis_) We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings, the first of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded hornet, and whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars--features which will account for the above name. [Illustration: FIG. 103.--THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR.] The head of this species is yellow, its thorax brown with a large yellow patch on each side, its abdomen yellow with two brown belts, and its legs reddish orange. The front wings are transparent, with brown costæ, and all the wings are margined with brown. The caterpillar, when full fed, makes a cocoon with silk and the chips of wood that it has bitten off; and in this undergoes its metamorphoses. It is fully grown in April, and the moth flies from the end of May to the end of July. There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds on the stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species just described by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax, both of which are blackish. _The Currant Clearwing_ (_Sesia Tipuliformis_) This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too well known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of _Ribes rubrum_ (red currant) and _R. nigrum_ (black currant), especially those that present a withered or half-withered appearance, and you will almost certainly meet with signs of the presence of this intruder. Little wriggling larvæ occupy the pithless stems throughout the winter and spring. These are full grown in April, and in June the pretty little moth emerges through a hole in the side of a shoot, leaving the empty pupa case within its former home. [Illustration: FIG. 104.--THE CURRANT CLEARWING.] The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black transverse bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three pale yellow belts, and black tufts of hair at the tip. Family--ZYGÆNIDÆ The remaining family of the _Sphinges_--the _Zygænidæ_--includes seven British species, three of which are known popularly as the Foresters and the others as the Burnets. Their antennæ are thickest beyond the middle, but do not terminate in a hook. Their wings are narrow and completely covered with scales. These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater part of their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When they do fly, their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings glisten in the sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them the appearance of bees rather than of moths. On account of this natural sluggishness, they are exceedingly local, for they never move far from the spots where their food plants abound, and where they had previously spent the earlier stages of their existence. Thus we often come across a very limited piece of ground actually alive with them, and outside which not a single specimen is to be seen. The larvæ, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump cylindrical bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three members of this family. _The Forester_ (_Ino Statices_) The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a beautiful glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent, but of a dull smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a brilliant metallic green colour. The tips of the antennæ are blunt, and the male may be distinguished from his mate by these organs being slightly fringed or ciliated. [Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE FORESTER.] The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish, with a row of black spots down the back, and a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the common sorrel (_Rumex acetosa_) and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_), and when fully grown it spins a cocoon on the stem of its food plant, and there changes to a chrysalis. The larva may be found during May and early June. The chrysalis state lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing during June and July. _The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygæna Trifolii_) On Plate IX (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of this Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing are very close together, and often touch. The same remark also applies to the two spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at the list of British Moths (Appendix I) will show that we have also a _Narrow_-bordered Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar to the species now under consideration, but may be identified by the narrower purplish margin on the hind wings, and also by the shape of the antennæ, which are not thickened so much near the end as they are in _Trifolii_. The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a row of black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), hop trefoil (_Trifolium procumbens_), and the horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) in May. Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found in a silken cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect insect flies during June and July. _The Six-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygæna Filipendulæ_) So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the blazing sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a bright midsummer day hundreds may often be started from their grassy beds from one little patch of ground. [Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET.] [Illustration: FIG. 107.--THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULÆ.] The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last species, but there are two crimson spots instead of one near the tips of the fore pair. The larvæ may be seen in vast numbers during May and June, feeding on clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_); and in the latter month thousands of the chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on grass stems, may be seen on downs and sunny banks in almost every part of the country. The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two rows of black spots that adorn each segment of the body. CHAPTER XVIII _BOMBYCES_ This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few moths whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value. Many of the British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate compactness, but none of them yield a quantity and quality of silk to justify any attempt to utilise it in the arts. There are more than a hundred British species in this group, and these represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a great variety in their general appearance and habits. Family--NYCTEOLIDÆ _The Green Silver-lined_ (_Hylophila prasinana_) This family, under the name of _Chloephoridæ_, is included by some authors among the _Tortrices_ (page 298), which they somewhat resemble in habits. It contains only four species, of which we will take one example--the Green Silver-lined. [Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE GREEN SILVER-LINED.] The fore wings of this insect are pale green, with three oblique silvery white lines, the middle one of which is far more distinct than the other two. The hind wings are silvery white in the female, and yellow in the male. It flies in May, and is common in the wooded districts of the south-eastern counties. The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow, and has a reddish transverse band on the second segment. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), birch (_Betula alba_), hazel (_Corylus_ _Avellana_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_), and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), from which trees it may be beaten in July and August. Family--NOLIDÆ _The Short-cloaked Moth_ (_Nola cucullatella_) We select this common moth as a representative of the small family _Nolidæ_, which contains only five British species. These are all small insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be found at rest on the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars are hairy, and undergo their metamorphoses within silken cocoons. [Illustration: FIG. 109.--THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH.] The fore wings of _Cucullatella_ are pearly grey, with a dark patch at the base, a triangular spot on the middle of the costal margin, and wavy lines beyond this, parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are grey, and devoid of any markings. The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter patches down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair. It feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), and also on plum trees in our gardens during the month of May. The moth is on the wing during June and July. Family--LITHOSIIDÆ _The Muslin Moth_ (_Nudaria mundana_) The family _Lithosiidæ_ contains several small moths, distinguished from the other _Bombyces_ by the narrowness of their fore wings. When the insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped closely round the body. They fly at dusk on summer evenings, but may be obtained during the daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If an open net be held under the boughs during this operation, the moths will generally feign death and allow themselves to fall into it when they are disturbed. [Illustration: FIG. 110.--THE MUSLIN MOTH.] Most of the larvæ of this family feed on the lichens that cover walls and the bark of trees, and they conceal themselves so artfully among this peculiar vegetation that it is no easy matter to search them out; probably many still remain unknown to entomologists. Our first example--the Muslin Moth--has light brownish-grey and semi transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker markings arranged as shown in the illustration. It is a common moth, and may be met with in July and August. The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey colour, with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous little tufts of light hair. _The Common Footman_ (_Lithosia lurideola_) The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a bright yellow costal stripe which dwindles to a point just before it reaches the tip. The hind wings are very pale yellow. [Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE COMMON FOOTMAN.] The larva is black, with a reddish line on each side just above the feet. It may be found during May and June among the lichens of oaks, blackthorns, and firs, especially in the woods of the south of England. The perfect insect flies during July and August. Family--EUCHELIIDÆ _The Cinnabar_ (_Euchelia Jacobææ_) The family _Eucheliidæ_ contains only four British species, two of which must receive a share of our attention. The first of these is the Cinnabar Moth, which is common in all localities where its food plants--the groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and the ragwort (_S. Jacobæa_)--abound. [Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF JACOBÆÆ.] Its colours are so striking that a glance at its representation (fig. 1 of Plate X) will render a written description quite unnecessary. The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its colour is bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and its body is thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or August) it descends to the ground, and there changes to a smooth and shining reddish-brown chrysalis. The moth appears in June or early in July. _The Scarlet Tiger_ (_Callimorpha Dominula_) This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths. Its fore wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre, and boldly marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots are arranged generally like those in the illustration, but are subject to great variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black patches, chiefly distributed near the hind margin. The thorax is black, with two white streaks; and the abdomen crimson, with a black line down the back. [Illustration: FIG. 113.--THE SCARLET TIGER.] This moth is a common one. It may be taken in June and July. I have seen it flying somewhat freely while the sun was still shining brightly. The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is covered with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes a short black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down the back, and two others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue (_Cynoglossum officinale_) and many other low-growing plants, hybernates through the winter, and is fully grown in May. Like the other members of this family, it spins a light silken cocoon, in which the hairs from its body are interwoven. Family--CHELONIIDÆ _The Wood Tiger_ (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_) The _Cheloniidæ_ are popularly known as the Tigers--a title suggested by the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent species. They differ from the Scarlet Tiger and the other members of the _Eucheliidæ_ in that the males have ciliated or fringed antennæ. The larvæ, too, are more densely covered with hair. The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, somewhat variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that our illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be found commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods during May and June. The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with little hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost and hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the middle of the body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for a week or two on the leaves of violets (_Viola canina_ and _V. odorata_), heartsease (_V. tricolor_), plantain (_Plantago_), or groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_), and then hybernates till the following March. It is fully grown in May, and then spins a light cocoon, with which its hairs are interwoven, among the leaves of its food plant. _The Tiger_ (_Arctia caia_) This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and markings, but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of the illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream colour almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four of the wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This insect is probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere. The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind of universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing plant, with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (_Lamium album_ and _L. purpureum_). It feeds also on the lime tree (_Tilia vulgaris_), and is commonly met with on apple trees and on the various plants of our flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its appearance in the autumn, and hybernates after feeding for two or three weeks only. It is full grown in June, when it spins a silken cocoon, and changes to a shiny black chrysalis. The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over with long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and the others brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the Woolly Bear. _The Cream-spot Tiger_ (_Arctia villica_) There is yet another Tiger--the Cream-spot--too beautiful and too common to be excluded from our list. It is represented on Plate X (fig. 4); and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked that mistaken identity is impossible. It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the wing, and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making any attempt to escape. The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding on chickweed (_Stellaria media_) but sometimes on various other low-growing weeds, including the dock and the dandelion. Its colour is black, with red head and legs, and its body is covered with long brown hairs. It commences to feed in the autumn, hybernates throughout the winter, and is full grown in May, towards the end of which month it changes to a black chrysalis within a light silken web. The perfect insect appears in June. _The Buff Ermine_ (_Spilosoma lubricipeda_) The _Cheloniidæ_ also include three moths that are popularly known as the Ermines, two of which--the Buff and the White--are exceedingly common, and are among the constant visitors to our gardens during June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE BUFF ERMINE.] The Buff Ermine has all four wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and spotted with black as here represented. The caterpillar is whitish, with a white line down the middle of the back, and its body is covered with long light brown hairs. It feeds on the dock (_Rumex_) and many other low-growing plants during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, lying within a loose cocoon on the surface of the ground. [Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE WHITE ERMINE.] _The White Ermine_ (_Spilosoma Menthastri_) In this species the wings are of a pale cream colour, and the dots of the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than in the last. Its habits and life history closely correspond with those of _Lubricipeda_, and its larva may be found feeding on the same plants. This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the presence of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long brown hairs. Family--HEPIALIDÆ The five species which compose this family are known as the Swifts, a title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight. Their wings are narrow, and the antennæ very short. In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs, that live under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of plants. The chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from the segments. _The Ghost Swift_ (_Hepialus Humuli_) One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which may be seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England during the month of June. The wings of the male are white, with a silky gloss, and a very narrow brown margin. The fore wings of the female are yellow, marked with irregular reddish lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke colour. [Illustration: FIG. 116.--THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE.] The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny plate on the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the winter on the roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion, burdock, white dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop. _The Common Swift_ (_Hepialus lupulinus_) The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the middle of the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings are smoke coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is much less distinctly marked, and presents a rather dingy appearance. [Illustration: FIG. 117.--THE COMMON SWIFT.] The larva is dingy white, with brown horny plates on the second, third and fourth segments. It feeds on the roots of dead nettles (_Lamium album_ and _L. purpureum_), black horehound (_Ballota nigra_), and various other herbaceous plants, throughout the winter months, and is full grown in April. This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be seen on the wing in May and June. Family--COSSIDÆ The members of this family have longer antennæ than the _Hepialidæ_, and the females are provided with extended ovipositors which enable them to place their eggs in the deep crevices of the bark of trees. The larvæ are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a plate on the second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or the interior of the stems of reeds. The pupæ have spiny projections on each segment. _The Goat Moth_ (_Cossus ligniperda_) There are only three British species of this family, the largest of which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic odour of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the goat. The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with white, and marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind wings are somewhat similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings are less distinct. Its average breadth from tip to tip is over three inches, and it sometimes reaches nearly four inches. The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish brown on the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is intensely black. It feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar, oak, elm, and other trees. The infected trees are often so riddled with the burrows of these larvæ that they are completely destroyed, and the presence of the intruders is frequently indicated by a heap of small chips of wood lying on the ground near the roots. The odour of the larvæ, too, is so powerful, that there is generally no difficulty in ascertaining their whereabouts by it alone. [Illustration: FIG. 118.--THE GOAT MOTH.] It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these creatures, for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the remains of old palings and posts, that lie on the ground in damp places. [Illustration: Fig. 119.--THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL SIZE).] When fully grown they construct a strong cocoon of chips of wood, bound together by silk, and within this they change to the chrysalis. The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found resting on the bark of willows and poplars during the daytime. _The Leopard Moth_ (_Zeuzera pyrina_) The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and marked with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to remind one of the skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and the antennæ of the male are doubly fringed for about half their length from the base. [Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE LEOPARD MOTH.] The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees--elm, apple, pear, ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several others. It is yellowish, with black shiny spots, and a black plate on the second segment. [Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN).] The moth appears in July, and is widely distributed. It is attracted by bright lights, but the best way to obtain it is to search the trunks and branches of trees that are known to harbour the larvæ early in the morning, and so obtain newly emerged specimens. Family--LIPARIDÆ Passing over the two small species which are the only British representatives of the family _Cochliopodidæ_, we come to the interesting _Liparidæ_, the remarkable feature of which is that most of the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and even the chrysalides are hairy. The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally display very pale tints; and the antennæ of the males are pectinated or feathered. _The Brown Tail_ (_Porthesia chrysorrh[oe]a_) The family contains two moths--the Brown Tail and the Yellow Tail--that are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have white wings, and their bodies also are white with the exception of the tuft of coloured hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the names to the species. Their larvæ may both be found feeding on the same trees (whitethorn), and both change to a brown hairy chrysalis within a loose cocoon among the leaves. The larva of _Chrysorrh[oe]a_ is black, with four rows of little wart-like projections on each side, from which proceed little tufts of hairs. These hairs are reddish with the exception of one row on each side, which is white. The tenth and eleventh segments have each a scarlet tubercle, and there are also other small spots of the same colour on some of the front segments. [Illustration: FIG. 122.--THE BROWN TAIL.] The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree mentioned above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in August. _The Gipsy_ (_Ocneria dispar_) The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker markings, including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The hind wings are brown, darker near the margin. The female is dingy yellowish white, with darker markings arranged as in the male. The male is much inferior in size, and its antennæ are very strongly pectinated. [Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE GIPSY--MALE.] The larva is brownish black, finely dotted with yellowish grey. There is a grey stripe down the middle of the back, and six tubercles on each segment give rise to tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and various fruit trees. The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in August. _The Black Arches_ (_Psilura Monacha_) The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with zigzag black lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings are smoky grey. The hinder segments of the abdomen are banded with black and rose-pink. The male is much smaller than the female, and has the antennæ strongly pectinated. [Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE.] The caterpillar is hairy, and of a greyish-white colour. A brown stripe runs down the back. On the top of the second segment are two blue tubercles; and there is also a tubercle, of a reddish colour, on each of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments. It feeds on the oak, birch, fir, and the apple; and is full grown in June or July. The moth flies during July and August. _The Vapourer Moth_ (_Orgyia antiqua_) During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August and September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost everywhere, flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright rays of the midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth, which may be known at once by its bright chestnut colour, with darker transverse markings, and a white crescent-shaped spot in the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems somewhat partial to civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our metropolis, even in the very densely populated parts; and the larva is one of the commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and squares. [Illustration: FIG. 125.--THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE.] [Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE FEMALE VAPOURER.] The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints are dark brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two long tufts of hair directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a similar tuft directed backward. On each of the segments five to eight inclusive is a brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on almost every tree usually to be found in parks and gardens. When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on a wall or fence, and changes to a hairy chrysalis. [Illustration: FIG. 127.--LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.] The female of this species is wingless, and never moves away from the cocoon out of which she has crawled, but lays her eggs on the outside of the silken web, and there remains to die. The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the winter months. Family--BOMBYCIDÆ This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large size, in which the predominating colours are greys and browns. Their hind wings are generally paler than the front pair, and less distinctly marked; and the antennæ of the males are pectinated. The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvæ of the last family. The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not hairy. We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family. _The Oak Eggar_ (_Bombyx Quercus_) The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The female is much larger, and of a pale tawny colour. The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring, which it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there is a series of white spots down the middle of the back and along each side. It feeds on whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), heather (_Calluna_, _Erica_), poplar (_Populus nigra_), and various other plants and trees. As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown in the following May, and the moth appears in July; but in Scotland the caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September, hybernates in the chrysalis state, and emerges in the following June. The same is true of the Cornish Eggars; but along the coast of South Devon both varieties are to be met with. The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have seen large numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west throughout all hours of the day. _The Drinker_ (_Odonestis potatoria_) The popular name of this species is applied on account of a peculiar feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies on its food plant. The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge; that of the female is yellow. The front wing has an oblique dark bar passing from the apex to the middle of the inner margin; also two white spots--one in the middle of the wing, and the other between it and the costal margin. [Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE DRINKER--MALE.] The caterpillar is dark bluish grey above, and has a line of orange spots on each side. Along the spiracles are oblique orange streaks, and a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds on the annual meadow-grass (_Poa annua_), and several other grasses. It is a hybernator, commencing its caterpillar state in the autumn, and reaching its full dimensions about the end of the following May. The moth flies during July and August. _The Lappet_ (_Lasiocampa quercifolia_) Our last example of the _Bombycidæ_ is the Lappet (Plate X, fig. 6), a large moth, the female often measuring considerably over three inches from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish brown, and exhibit a beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged insect. Scalloped black lines pass transversely across each wing, and a small black dot lies near the centre of the fore wings. The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and third segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the twelfth there is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct, runs along each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_), and the white willow (_Salix alba_). The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June. Family--ENDROMIDÆ _The Kentish Glory_ (_Endromis versicolor_) The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of its family. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7); the female is larger and similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright. This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the birch woods of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the bright sunshine, but the females must be searched for on the bark and branches of the trees. The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (_Betula alba_), and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious at first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of each segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and there is a conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment. When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves beneath the tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the chrysalis state. Family--SATURNIIDÆ _The Emperor Moth_ (_Saturnia pavonia_) Here is another family with but one British member; but in this, as in the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect. The male _Pavonia_ is shown on Plate X (fig. 8), and will need no written description as an aid to its identification. The female is larger, and similarly marked, but the ground colour of the wings is pale grey. This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked for in the neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of May. The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among which may be mentioned the willow (_Salix alba_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), elder (_Sambucus nigra_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), heaths (_Erica tetralix_ and _E. cinerea_), and the meadow-sweet (_Spiræa ulmaria_). Its colour is a lovely green; and each segment has several pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black hairs. The spiracles are orange. In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the small end (fig. 28). It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some of the larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist is likely to meet with larvæ more frequently than the perfect insect. These moths, however, are mostly very hardy and easily reared; and a beginner cannot do better than endeavour to obtain either ova or larvæ, in order that he may be able to watch the different species through their various stages. Family--DREPANULIDÆ We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ in many important particulars from those we have just been considering. They are of such slender build that a beginner may easily mistake them for Geometers. Their wings, though small, are broad, and well proportioned to their bodies. In five cases out of the six the front wings are more or less hooked at the tips, and on this account the moths in question are called the Hook Tips. The larvæ are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections on their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the last pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen walking appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by their claspers only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward, and all the front segments being also elevated. When about to change, they descend to the ground, and spin their cocoons among dead leaves. Two only of this family can receive an individual notice. _The Oak Hook Tip_ (_Drepana binaria_) This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is fairly plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England. Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse lines. There are two black spots between the lines of the fore wings. The antennæ of the male are pectinated; those of the female simple. The latter sex is further distinguished by the paler colour of the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE OAK HOOK TIP.] The larva is brown, with a broad stripe, edged with yellow, down the back. There are two projections on the back of the fourth segment. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and birch (_Betula alba_). This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in June and August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned trees in June and July, and again in September. _The Chinese Character_ (_Cilix glaucata_) The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark blotch from the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion of this blotch is marked with silvery spots which are said to resemble Chinese characters. The hind margin is shaded with a dark grey border, inside which is a row of dark spots. The hind wings are clouded with grey. [Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE CHINESE CHARACTER.] This moth is widely distributed, and seems to be common throughout England. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in August. The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles on each of the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). Family--DICRANURIDÆ The five British species that represent this family are such interesting insects that we should like to have given a detailed description of all of them, but our limited space will allow of no more than an outline of the general characteristics of the group and a selection of two for individual mention. They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are white and shades of grey. The antennæ are pectinated in the males, and, with the exception of the Lobster Moth (_Fagi_), in the females also. The larvæ, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers, and stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They have two 'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of them (the Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely resemble it in habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described; but the larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon among the leaves of trees. They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state. _The Poplar Kitten_ (_Dicranura bifida_) Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on the wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (_Bicuspis_ and _Furcula_) so closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of distinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present species, is almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin being almost straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In _Furcula_, the outer margin of the band is generally sharply bent inward just below the costa. In _Bicuspis_ the grey band varies considerably in shape, but both this and the dark blotch near the tip of the wing are more sharply defined than in the other two species. [Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE POPLAR KITTEN.] The caterpillar is green, dotted with brown, and has a brown stripe on the back. This stripe is broken on the third segment, and widens out on the eighth and thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (_Populus nigra_) and Aspen (_P. tremula_). When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs a very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body mingled with little pieces of the bark that it removes for the purpose. Thus made, the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding bark that detection is very difficult. I have frequently found these cocoons on the inner surface of loose bark. This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in June and July. The larva feeds during August and September. _The Puss_ (_Dicranura vinula_) No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May and June, and is common everywhere. [Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE PUSS MOTH.] The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with a hump on the fourth segment, and a patch of brown from the fourth segment to the tail. This patch is very wide on the eighth segment, but tapers to a point on the thirteenth. The two horns are rather long and rough, and from each of them a very slender pink filament is protruded when the caterpillar is irritated. It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of _Bifida_, though of course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally three or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows, and poplars, and may be found during July and August. Family--NOTODONTIDÆ _The Coxcomb Prominent_ (_Lophopteryx camelina_) The family _Notodontidæ_ contains several moths of somewhat varied appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,' distinguished by a conspicuous projection on the inner margin of the fore wings. [Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE COXCOMB PROMINENT.] Our example of this group is the Coxcomb Prominent. Its fore wings are brown, with darker markings arranged as shown in the illustration; and the hind margins are scalloped. The hind wings are much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle. The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side. The spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the twelfth segment. It feeds during August, September, and October, on various trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and alder. The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common and widely distributed. Family--PYGÆRIDÆ _The Buff Tip_ (_Phalera bucephala_) The first of our two examples of this small family is the common and destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on Plate X, fig. 9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description. During June and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees almost everywhere, with its wings folded closely round its body, and its antennæ tucked under the wings, looking just like a piece of stick, or a projection of the bark on which it sits. [Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA.] The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be seen in dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty or thirty huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger they retain their gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip the leaves from large branches. They are of a dull yellow colour, hairy, and have seven broken black lines, one along the middle of the back, and three on each side. The head and legs are black. When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow into the soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following June. The chief food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and hazel (_Corylus Avellana_). _The Chocolate Tip_ (_Pygæra curtula_) This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be met with more or less in most of the English counties in the month of May. Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown. The hind wings are pale yellowish grey. [Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE CHOCOLATE TIP.] The young caterpillars feed in companies between leaves which they have spun together, but when nearly full grown they cease to be gregarious. They are also very different in appearance at different ages. When fully fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey colour, spotted with black, with a double row of orange-coloured warts on each side. There is also a little black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments. The food plants of this species are sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S. cinerea_), poplar (_Populus nigra_), and aspen (_P. tremula_). Family--CYMATOPHORIDÆ This, the last family of the _Bombyces_, contains seven species of moderate size, the larvæ of which are either quite smooth or have small warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into three genera, from two of which we shall select a representative. _The Peach Blossom_ (_Thyatira Batis_) The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account of the resemblance of the pink patches of its olive-brown fore wings to the petals of the peach flower. It is a moderately common moth, widely distributed in England and Ireland, and flies during June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PEACH BLOSSOM.] The caterpillar is marbled with reddish grey and brown, and has a hump on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each of the segments six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_) during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the dead leaves at the root of its food plant. _The Yellow-horned_ (_Asphalia flavicornis_) This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the wing in March, when it may be attracted by means of sugar placed on the bark of the birch (_Betula alba_). [Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE YELLOW-HORNED.] The wings are grey, with a decidedly greenish tinge, crossed by three dark lines near the base, and two others, which are zigzag, just outside the centre. Between these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale spot. The hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin. The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish, with both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and seldom ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in July or August. CHAPTER XIX _THE NOCTUÆ_ We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day; that some come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down again to rest before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that others prefer the darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths we are next to consider includes the greater number (about three hundred) of our truly nocturnal species, hence the name that heads this chapter. They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So closely, in fact, do certain of them resemble each other, that the greatest care has to be exercised in the identification of species--a task that is rendered still more difficult by the variations that we observe in the tints and markings of certain species. These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore wings are somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest, these are brought close to the body, and the hind pair are folded up beneath them. Family--BRYOPHILIDÆ _The Marbled Beauty_ (_Bryophila Perla_) Our first family--the _Bryophilidæ_--contains only four British species. These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvæ feed in early morning on the lichens that cover stones and old walls, and conceal themselves by day in holes and chinks and under stones. The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may be described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every English county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland. [Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE MARBLED BEAUTY.] Its wings are very pale grey, marked with a darker bluish grey, as shown in the engraving. These markings are variable, but the bases of the fore wings have always a dark blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or white, extending the whole width of the wing. The moth may be found from the beginning of July to the middle of September. The larva feeds from February to April. It is black above, with a broad orange-bordered stripe down the back; and its body is covered with small warts, each of which bears a single hair. Family--BOMBYCOIDÆ In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which are exceedingly common. They are much larger than the _Bryophilidæ_, and of a much stouter build. The larvæ are covered with little hair-bearing warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they may be mistaken for the caterpillars of the _Bombyces_. _The Grey Dagger_ (_Acronycta Psi_) This is the commonest of all the _Bombycoidæ_. It may be found at rest on tree trunks and palings during the daytime throughout the summer. Its fore wings are pale grey, with four conspicuous black marks, one of which--that in the anal angle--resembles the Greek letter _psi_ ([psi]) placed sideways. [Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE GREY DAGGER.] The larva is black or very dark grey, with a pale yellow line down the back, and a black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments, that on the fifth being much larger than the other. It feeds in the autumn on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), fruit trees, and various other trees, shrubs, and herbs. The moth called the Dark Dagger (_Tridens_) is hardly to be distinguished from _Psi_. It is not really any darker, and its markings are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different. _The Poplar Grey_ (_Acronycta megacephala_) This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern and midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE POPLAR GREY.] Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little inside the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot with a dark centre. This spot is represented in a large number of the _Noctuæ_, and is known as the _orbicular_. It will be observed that in the present species it is very distinct. The caterpillar is dark grey, with a line of black dots down the back; and it has a number of little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the eleventh segment is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on various species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of the bark. _The Figure of Eight_ (_Diloba cæruleocephala_) The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the wing, but nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish spots that resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish grey, with darker wing rays, and a dark spot near the centre. [Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.] This moth is common in all parts, and flies during September. The caterpillar emerges from the egg in spring, and is fully grown in May or June. It is of a very pale colour--yellowish or greenish--with a broad and broken yellow stripe down the back, and a bluish or greenish stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name) with two black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_) and various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially the hawthorn) the little clusters of eggs may be seen during the winter. Family--LEUCANIIDÆ In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with, generally, no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or streaks. Their larvæ feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to the chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or under the surface of the ground. Several of these insects are very common, and most of them abound in fens and marshes. _The Brown-line Bright-eye_ (_Leucania conigera_) The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a transverse line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it about one-fourth the length of the wing. Another dark brown line, describing a sharp bend, passes across the wing near the base. The 'bright eye' is a light spot just outside the centre of the wing, nearer the costa than the inner margin. This is another of those marks that occur very constantly in the wings of the _Noctuæ_. It lies beyond the _orbicular_ spot, and is usually somewhat kidney-shaped, and is consequently named the _reniform_. [Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE.] The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish, with a pale dorsal line edged with black. On each side of this is a broad black line, below which is a yellow line edged with black, then a whitish stripe, next a yellow line edged with black on the upper side, and lastly a broad brownish line, just above the spiracles, edged with black on both sides. It feeds on couch grass (_Agropyron repens_) and various other grasses, and is fully grown in May. The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout the United Kingdom. _The Smoky Wainscot_ (_Leucania impura_) This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in general appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of these we shall take two examples. The first is the Smoky Wainscot, so called from the dark smoky tint of the hind wings. Its fore wings are wainscot brown, with lighter rays; and they each have three black dots arranged in the form of a triangle, one in the centre, and the other two between this and the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE SMOKY WAINSCOT.] The caterpillar is yellowish, with a fine white line down the back. The spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges (_Carex_) from March to May. The moth is on the wing from June to August. _The Common Wainscot_ (_Leucania pallens_) This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit the same three dots, but it may be distinguished by the pale colour of the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 144.--THE COMMON WAINSCOT.] The larva feeds on various grasses in March and April. It is of a pinkish grey colour, with two rows of black dots on each side of the dorsal line. There are also three stripes along the side, two of which are brownish and the other grey. The moth is common everywhere from June to August. _The Bullrush_ (_Nonagria arundinis_) Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is common in all parts where its food plant abounds. It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore wings are yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of black spots. The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 145.--THE BULLRUSH.] The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining brownish plate on the second segment. The spiracles are black. It feeds inside the stems of the reed-mace (_Typha latifolia_), and changes to a chrysalis within the gallery it has excavated, after making a hole through which it can escape when it attains the perfect form. The caterpillar may be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August, and the moth in September. Family--APAMEIDÆ This large family contains no less than forty-four British species, many of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only about half a dozen can be regarded as rare. Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions are dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground colours are dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply defined. They may be searched for on palings and the bark of trees by day, at which time they repose with their wings sloping like the sides of the roof of a house. Some are easily attracted by lights, and others partake freely of the entomologist's 'sugar.' The larvæ have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing plants, keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close to the ground. _The Frosted Orange_ (_Gortyna Ochracea_) We commence with one of the brightest members of the family, the Frosted Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous, with distinct brown markings, the chief of which are two broad transverse bands. The orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct. The hind wings are dingy yellow. This moth flies from July to September, and is easily attracted by a light at night. It is common everywhere. [Illustration: FIG. 146.--THE FROSTED ORANGE.] The larva is yellow, dotted with black, with a brownish plate on the second segment. It feeds inside the stems of a number of plants, including the marsh thistle (_Cnicus palustris_), musk thistle (_Carduus nutans_), burdock (_Arctium minus_), mullein (_Verbascum thapsus_), foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), and elder (_Sambucus nigra_). When about to change to the chrysalis it eats _nearly_ to the surface of the stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis to cover the hole through which it is to escape when it becomes a moth. The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in July. _The Flame_ (_Axylia putris_) This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than _Ochracea_. It is common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and waste grounds at dusk during June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 147.--THE FLAME.] The fore wings are pale pinkish brown, with dark brown along the costa, and two patches of the same colour on the hind margin. There is also a double line of small brown dots parallel with the hind margin. The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each segment. There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth and sixth segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and various other low herbs. _The Light Arches_ (_Xylophasia lithoxylea_) The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a light brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the same colour along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots parallel with the same margin. The hind wings are pale ochreous: they are brownish along the hind margin, and have a light fringe. [Illustration: FIG. 148.--THE LIGHT ARCHES.] The moth is very common in waste places, and flies in June and July. The caterpillar is of a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a black head. It feeds on the roots of grasses in May. _The Flounced Rustic_ (_Luperina testacea_) The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown markings. These latter are variable, but the most conspicuous is a series of dark crescent-shaped spots almost parallel with the hind margin, and immediately outside these is a series of paler crescents. [Illustration: FIG. 149.--THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC.] The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour, with a brown head, and a brownish plate on the second segment. It feeds on the stems of grasses. The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in August and September. _The Cabbage Moth_ (_Mamestra Brassicæ_) Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to meet with _Brassicæ_ in abundance. They swarm round the insect hunter's sugar in such numbers as to become a positive nuisance. They are also attracted by light. During the day they may be seen at rest on palings. The caterpillar is even better known, and with reason, for it is fearfully destructive to our vegetables and even our flower beds. It burrows into the hearts of cabbages, filling the galleries it makes with its excrement, often leaving no very visible outward signs of its presence within. But its ravages are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats with more or less relish almost every vegetable and flowering plant of our gardens, and is equally partial to the various herbs of the field. [Illustration: FIG. 150.--THE CABBAGE MOTH.] The fore wings of the moth are dingy brownish grey, marbled in a very confused manner by darker markings. The _reniform_ spot is very distinct, the orbicular less so. A light zigzag line runs parallel with the hind margin. It flies in June and July. The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which are white. _The Dot_ (_Mamestra Persicariæ_) The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled fore wings is always sufficient for the identification of this species. This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month lays its eggs on the elder (_Sambucus nigra_), and the various low plants that supply the larva with food. [Illustration: FIG. 151.--THE DOT.] The larva is greenish or greyish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, with a light line down the back. The twelfth segment is humped, and there are dark V-shaped marks on the back of segments five to twelve inclusive. It is full grown in September, and burrows into the ground to undergo its change to the chrysalis, in which state it remains throughout the winter. _The Rustic Shoulder-knot_ (_Apamea basilinea_) The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light brown markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of the base, from which feature the specific name (_Basilinea_) is derived. The hind wings are of a similar colour, but shading into a dark smoke colour at the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE RUSTIC SHOULDER KNOT.] The caterpillars feed at first on the grains of wheat, on the ears of which the moth deposits the eggs in June. At harvest time they remain hidden among the husks, and are often threshed out in large numbers by the blows of the flail. The cold weather soon overtakes them, and they then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter. On the approach of spring they come out again, and feed by night on various low plants, hiding themselves among the roots by day. In March they are full grown, and change to brown chrysalides beneath the surface of the ground. The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most destructive of our _Noctuæ_. _The Marbled Minor_ (_Miana strigilis_) The next three genera (_Miana_, _Phothedes_, and _Celæna_) include seven small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of them is the Marbled Minor, which is to be found in abundance everywhere during June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 153.--THE MARBLED MINOR.] This species is very variable, but the fore wings are usually dark brown, marbled with a lighter colour--white or grey. There is generally an irregular white or pale grey band crossing the wings parallel with the hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch across the middle of the wing. The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to a chrysalis under the ground in May. Family--CARADRINIDÆ There are only ten British species in this family, two of which are rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy. The transverse lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuæ are generally well marked. The larvæ have short stiff bristles, and feed on low plants; they undergo their changes in an earthen cocoon under the ground. _The Mottled Rustic_ (_Caradrina Morpheus_) We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic--a common moth that may be procured from June to August. Its fore wings are brownish grey, with darker lines and spots; the hind wings are almost white, but darker at the tip. [Illustration: FIG. 154.--THE MOTTLED RUSTIC.] The caterpillar is brownish grey, with a row of triangular spots on each side of the back. It is very sluggish, spending the greater part of its existence among the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout the winter, except during severe weather, and is full grown in April. The food plants include teasels (_Dipsacus pilosus_ and _D. sylvestris_), hedge bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_), orpine (_Sedum Telephium_), sallows (_Salix_), and various other plants. The chrysalis may be dug out in May. Family--NOCTUIDÆ A glance at our list of British _Noctuæ_ (Appendix I) will show that this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera. It includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens and are to be met with during almost every summer evening ramble. Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that comprise the genus _Triphæna_ are characterised by the bright colouring of the hind wings. The fore wings are narrow and more or less glossy, and overlap to a greater or less extent when the insects are at rest; and the hind wings are folded and completely hidden beneath them. The larvæ are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very dingy colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their ravages to the roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the ground or under the surface. The pupæ are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually inclosed in earthen cocoons. We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three genera. _The Turnip Moth_ (_Agrotis Segetum_) This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable and flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to become quite a nuisance to cultivators. The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded with a darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes with a brown hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 155.--THE TURNIP MOTH.] In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally very close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge they commence feeding on the lower parts of the stems, or burrowing deeply into the larger succulent roots. When the larvæ have completed their work of destruction in this way, they change to brown chrysalides in the ground. Some undergo this change in October, and shortly after give rise to a second brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar state throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with hybernating larvæ, continue to feed almost throughout the winter months, and change to the chrysalis in the following May. The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or greenish colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line on each side of this, black spots between these lines, and black spiracles. _The Heart and Dart_ (_Agrotis Exclamationis_) The destructive work of _Segetum_ is assisted by similar operations of the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously on the roots of several of our cultivated vegetables, though the present species does not entirely confine its ravages to the farmer's crops, but attacks the roots of many low-growing herbs. The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with a reddish tinge. The darker markings include a large and very distinct reniform spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous longitudinal blackish streak near the base of the wing known as the _claviform_. Beyond the reniform a curved and zigzag dark line crosses the wing. The hind wings of the male are very pale, those of the female darker, with a whitish fringe. [Illustration: FIG. 156.--THE HEART AND DART.] The moth flies from June to August, and is common everywhere. The caterpillar feeds in the autumn, and reaches its full size in October; but it is said to feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is dingy brown or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are black, and there are black dots on the sides. _The Garden Dart_ (_Agrotis nigricans_) This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so unattractive that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it must not be omitted from our selection on that score, for our main object here is to give the beginner an acquaintance with those species that are most likely to be captured in the earlier part of his career, and this moth is certainly one of those that may be described as 'abundant everywhere.' [Illustration: FIG. 157.--THE GARDEN DART.] Its fore wings are dull dark brown, often tinged with red, and clouded with black. The reniform spot is pale, the orbicular spot less distinct, and between the two there is generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is also a short dark streak near the base of the wing, and a black spot before the orbicular. The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the hind margin. The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on the back, and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also dotted with black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_) and various low plants in May and June. The moth flies from June to August. _The Flame Shoulder_ (_Noctua plecta_) As our example of the next genus we take the Flame Shoulder, a rather small moth, easily identified by the broad yellowish-white streak along the costa of the reddish-brown fore wings. The orbicular and reniform spots are margined with white, and a thin white streak runs from the base of the wing to the former. The hind wings are white. This moth flies in July, and is common throughout Great Britain. [Illustration: FIG. 158.--THE FLAME SHOULDER.] The caterpillar is reddish brown, with a slender line of white dots on the back, and a similar line on each side. The body is smooth and velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark brown. It feeds on the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), sweet woodruff (_Asperula odorata_), and many other low plants; and is full fed early in July. _The Lesser Broad Border_ (_Triphæna ianthina_) We now come to the third and last genus (_Triphæna_) of this extensive family, a genus which includes six interesting moths, with bright orange or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take three examples. [Illustration: FIG. 159.--THE LESSER BROAD BORDER.] The first of them--the Lesser Broad Border--has fore wings of a rich reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind wings are bright orange, with a broad marginal band of black. It is a common moth, particularly in the south-western counties, and flies during July and August. The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish or greenish grey, with a light line down the back, and two black spots on each side of segments nine to twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout the winter by night on dead nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), primrose (_Primula acaulis_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and various low plants; and may sometimes be seen in flower gardens. It is full grown in April. _The Lesser Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphæna Comes_) This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The fore wings are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black margin of the hind wings is proportionately narrower. [Illustration: FIG. 160.--THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING.] It is more abundant than _Ianthina_; in fact it is to be found everywhere in plenty during the month of July. The caterpillar is yellowish brown. On the back of each of the eleventh and twelfth segments are two conspicuous dark marks. The spiracles are white, and below them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), chickweed (_Stellaria media_), thrift (_Armeria maritima_), and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and attacks sallows (_Salix Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_) as soon as the buds appear in the spring. It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the earth. _The Large Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphæna Pronuba_) This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be found everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It is represented on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable, sometimes a cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich and warm brown. On the costal margin, not far from the tip, there is always a small black spot, which will serve to distinguish it from _Comes_. The caterpillar (fig. 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots of almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer weather of the autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full grown early in the summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the ground. Its colour is dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row of dark spots on each side. Family--AMPHIPYRIDÆ _The Gothic_ (_Mania typica_) The above family contains only four British species, two of which we shall briefly consider. [Illustration: FIG. 161.--THE GOTHIC.] The first of these is the Gothic--a very common moth that may be seen everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown with darker marblings, and there are numerous lighter markings which may be easily made out by reference to the accompanying woodcut. The caterpillar is smooth and velvety, of a dull brown or greenish colour, with darker dorsal and side stripes. The latter are crossed obliquely by a series of whitish lines. It feeds on fruit and other trees in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and feeds again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows into the soil to undergo its changes. _The Old Lady_ (_Mania Maura_) This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance that the reason for placing the two in the same genus is not apparent till the earlier stages and life history have been studied. All its wings are very deep brown; the front pair has a darker band containing the orbicular and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across the middle. [Illustration: FIG. 162.--THE OLD LADY.] It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses and sheds. It flies in July and August. The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and lighter markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and hybernates during the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low plants, and changes to a chrysalis in May under the ground. Family--ORTHOSIIDÆ This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of rather small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions, either in early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former season by the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom. Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure to be taken by a young collector during his first season. The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the tip, and the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males may be distinguished from the females by their antennæ, which are always more or less ciliated. The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and the pupæ are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk. _The Common Quaker_ (_Tæniocampa stabilis_) Several of the species of the family are known popularly as Quakers, the commonest of which--_Stabilis_--is abundant in all parts. Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or reddish tinge. The orbicular and reniform spots are outlined with a paler colour, and there is a pale transverse line parallel with the hind margin, outside which is a row of indistinct black spots. The hind wings are greyish brown. [Illustration: FIG. 163.--THE COMMON QUAKER.] The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a yellowish line on the back and on each side; and a yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth segment transversely. It feeds during June and July on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and changes to a chrysalis in August on the surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout the winter, and the moth emerges in March or April. _The Chestnut_ (_Cerastis Vaccinii_) Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of even the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance, we come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at large in October and November, and sometimes even in December, and again appears, after a rather short period of hybernation, in February and March. [Illustration: FIG. 164.--THE CHESTNUT.] The fore wings are reddish brown, with darker wavy lines. The orbicular and reniform spots have pale outlines, and the lower half of the latter is very dark grey. The hind wings are smoky grey, with generally a pale band beyond the middle. The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines. The spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It feeds during June and July on the elm (_Ulmus campestris_), oak (_Quercus Robur_), and sallow (_Salix caprea_), and various low plants. _The Pink-barred Sallow_ (_Xanthia Flavago_) This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species, but has been taken more or less in all parts of England. Its fore wings are orange yellow, with purplish markings arranged as represented in fig. 165. The hind wings are yellowish white. [Illustration: FIG. 165.--THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW.] The caterpillar is brown, with a lateral stripe formed by numerous red, yellow and white dots. It feeds on sallow (_Salix caprea_) and various low plants. It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September. Family--COSMIIDÆ _The Dun-bar_ (_Calymnia trapezina_) Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere during July and August. Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across the middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with dark grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin. The hind wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base. [Illustration: FIG. 166.--THE DUN-BAR.] The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus_), and birch (_Betula alba_), and may be found in abundance during May and June. It is green, with dark spots, and white lines on the back and sides. Although it partakes of the leaves of the above-named trees, yet its chief food seems to be other caterpillars, for it devours these with a savage greediness that is simply astonishing. It will chase an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the neck with a fatal grip, and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to be the larva of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_). Family--HADENIDÆ Nearly fifty British _Noctuæ_ are included in the family _Hadenidæ_. They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in the brightness of their colours, some being very dingy, and others gaily tinted. Their antennæ are rather long; and when at rest the wings slope from the back like the sides of a roof. The larvæ are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes a hump on the twelfth segment. The pupæ are brown and shiny, and are inclosed in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of the soil. _The Broad-barred White_ (_Hecatera serena_) Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there being a bright contrast between the white ground and the grey markings of the wings. It is common in the south of England, and seems to be plentiful in and around London. [Illustration: FIG. 167.--THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE.] The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish colour, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the back; and there are two distinct dots on the back of each segment. It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles (_Sonchus oleraceus_ and _S. arvensis_), sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_), and hawkweeds (_Hieracia_). The moth flies in June and July. _The Marvel-du-jour_ (_Agriopis Aprilina_) The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth--quite an exception among the _Noctuæ_ in this respect, and it is withal both common and widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it is represented on Plate XI (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for any other species. The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal line is broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light lozenge-shaped spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is full grown in the latter month. It then burrows into the earth at the foot of the tree, and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon previous to changing to a chrysalis. From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in plenty by breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect insect may be found toward the end of September and throughout October. _The Small Angle Shades_ (_Euplexia lucipara_) This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of Plate XI. It is very common throughout the country, and may be seen in June and July. The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually tapers from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a white stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each side of the back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the middle line, thus forming a series of V-shaped marks pointing towards the tail. It feeds on the common bracken fern (_Pteris aquilina_), foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), and the male fern (_Lastræa Filix-mas_), in August and September. _The Angle Shades_ (_Phlogophora Meticulosa_) [Illustration: FIG. 168.--THE ANGLE SHADES.] This moth is so common and so widely distributed that it is almost sure to be taken by the young collector during his first season. Its wings are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous, often tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark brown as shown in the illustration. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in September and October. The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered with white spots. It feeds on groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and many other low plants, the first brood throughout the winter from November to April, and the second in July and August. _The Grey Arches_ (_Aplecta nebulosa_) The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather dark smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are also subject to considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform spots are large, and paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag or scalloped lines, more or less distinct, cross the wings transversely. [Illustration: FIG. 169.--THE GREY ARCHES.] The larva is brown, with a lighter line down the back. On each of the segments five to eleven is a dark lozenge-shaped spot, bisected by the dorsal line; and on the second segment is a shining plate and a triangular mark. It feeds on the dock (_Rumex_), and various other low plants during the autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of the sallow (_Salix Caprea_), birch (_Betula alba_), and whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into the ground to undergo its metamorphoses. The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly every part of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by searching fences and tree trunks about midsummer. _The Shears_ (_Hadena dentina_) The Shears is another very common moth of the same family. The ground colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally a lighter or darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it has a very decided brownish tinge. Across the centre of the wing is a darker band, wider on the costal side, containing the orbicular and reniform spots, as well as a light patch beneath them, and bordered on each side by a pale zigzag line. There is another similar line near to and parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are smoky grey or smoky brown, darker towards the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 170.--THE SHEARS.] The caterpillar is greyish, and has a series of triangular black spots along each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion (_Taraxacum officinale_), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis. The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is on the wing in June and July. _The Bright-line Brown-eye_ (_Hadena oleracea_) Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar may be found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in August and September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned over by the pupa digger. [Illustration: FIG. 171.--THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE.] The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The orbicular spot is usually very indistinct, being of almost exactly the same tint as the ground colour, and surrounded by a very fine whitish line. The reniform is generally more conspicuous, a portion of it being of a light ochreous colour. Near the hind margin, and parallel with it, is a white line, bent sharply into the form of a W, just on the anal side of the middle. The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke colour towards the margin. The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black and white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the spiracles. It feeds on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_), dock (_Rumex_), and many other low plants; and, according to some observers, on the elm (_Ulmus campestris_). Family--XYLINIDÆ The next family--_Xylinidæ_--contains twenty British species, several of which are local, but two or three are abundant and widely distributed. The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the _Noctuæ_ are nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines take their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded rather closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very gentle slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout, particularly in the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful appearance. The larvæ are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and feed principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally inclosed in cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided with spines or bristles on the under side. We shall select two members of this family. _The Early Grey_ (_Xylocampa Areola_) One of the first of the _Noctuæ_ to greet us in the spring is the Early Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and, if the season is mild, in March. [Illustration: FIG. 172.--THE EARLY GREY.] Its fore wings are light grey, often tinged with rose pink, and marked with dark grey. The orbicular and reniform spots are very distinct, and surrounded by a pale line; they are both united at their lower edges. Along the hind margin is a series of dark spots. The hind wings are pale yellowish grey, with a darker central spot, a central transverse darker line, and a darker line along the hind margin. The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter, and passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It feeds on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_) in July and August, being full grown towards the end of the latter month. _The Shark_ (_Cucullia umbratica_) The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on palings in June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles that of oak and other light-wood fences that detection is not so easy as with most other moths. [Illustration: FIG. 173.--THE SHARK.] The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark lines, the principal of which is a line from the middle of the base to about the centre of the wing. The wing rays are also darker than the ground colour. The hind wings are greyish white or brownish grey. The caterpillar is very dark brown, with orange spots on the back and along the spiracles. It feeds on sow-thistles (_Sonchus oleraceus_, _S. palustris_, and _S. arvensis_) and sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_) at night from July to September, and hides during the daytime among the leaves that lie close against the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into a ring or feign death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about most vigorously as if to repel its foe. Family--GONOPTERIDÆ _The Herald Moth_ (_Gonoptera Libatrix_) The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the angular margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains only one British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth that is common everywhere in August and September. It hybernates in the perfect state, and the hybernated specimens may be seen in the spring time, from March up to the end of May or the beginning of June. Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked with brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three parts of nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are tinged with orange; and there is a small white spot in the base close to the thorax, also another near the centre of the wing. The hind wings are brownish grey. The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on the side, and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow (_Salix caprea_); and when full grown, about the end of June, it spins a white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree, and changes to a very dark chrysalis. Family--PLUSIIDÆ The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the tufts of hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax. The abdomen also is crested, and the fore wings of several species have smooth patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre. Most of the larvæ may be described as semi-loopers, for their claspers number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs are considerably humped, somewhat after the fashion of the _Geometræ_. Some of them further imitate the _Geometræ_ in their position of rest, holding on by their claspers only, with body straightened out at an angle with the leaf or twig on which they support themselves. Unlike the majority of the _Noctuæ_, they do not descend to the ground when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the food plants. _The Burnished Brass_ (_Plusia Chrysitis_) One of the commonest of the _Plusiidæ_ is the Burnished Brass, so called on account of the large patches of bright golden green on the fore wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully curved, and bordered with brown. A brown blotch fills the base of the wing, and the remaining area is of a beautiful metallic greenish yellow, broken by two large brown blotches, one on the costal and the other on the inner margin, which closely approach each other and sometimes meet. [Illustration: FIG. 174.--THE BURNISHED BRASS.] This moth is very common everywhere, and is one of the frequent visitors to our flower gardens from June to August. The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers from this point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal stripes on the back, but each segment is adorned with four or six oblique white marks. Just above the spiracles is a white stripe. It feeds on the dead nettle (_Lamium album_), stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and burdock (_Arctium minus_), and is full grown in June. _The Silver_ Y (_Plusia Gamma_) Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may be found in abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore wings are of a shiny grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich dark brown; and just below the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery spot, in form something like the Greek letter [gamma] placed obliquely. The base of the hind wings is grey; along the margin is a broad and dark smoky brown band, and the fringe is very light grey, barred with the dark tint of the band. This moth is commonly driven out of its hiding places among low plants as we walk in waste places, and when thus disturbed it takes a short and rapid flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among the herbage that it is difficult to locate it correctly. [Illustration: FIG. 175.--THE SILVER Y.] The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers gradually from this point towards the head. Its body is green, with several thin longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow stripe along the spiracles. It may be found from June to October, feeding on many kinds of low plants. Family--EUCLIDIIDÆ _The Mother Shipton_ (_Euclidia Mi_) Passing over a few small and less important families, we come to the _Euclidiidæ_, which contains only two British moths. One of these is the Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in June. The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate XI, fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are also very dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous tint. The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has only three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_) and other plants. Family--CATOCALIDÆ This family contains only four British species, but these few are very striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the _Noctuæ_ generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under wings. When at rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the other pair, and then their general appearance is dull, though if closely examined it will be observed that these outer wings are really beautifully marbled with shades of grey. The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed as they rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and rolling into a ring like so many other larvæ of _Noctuæ_, they apply themselves the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to remove them. Another peculiarity of these larvæ is the possession of fleshy projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed on the leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the trunk, and there remain protected by their imitative colouring, detection being rendered even more difficult by the close application of their flattened under surface to the bark. Before changing to the chrysalis state, they spin a light cocoon among the leaves or on the bark. _The Clifden Nonpareil_ (_Catocala Fraxini_) This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British _Noctuæ_. The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with black and greyish blue. The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect, for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of _Fraxini_ command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives--give an exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their nationalities. _The Red Underwing_ (_Catocala Nupta_) The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance, the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the popular names to the species. The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows. [Illustration: FIG. 176.--THE RED UNDERWING.] The caterpillar is similar in form to that of _Fraxini_, and when at rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow (_Salix fragilis_), sallow (_S. alba_), poplar (_Populus_), and plum (_Prunus_), and is full grown in June. _The Dark Crimson Underwing_ (_Catocala Sponsa_) This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is rather broad and sharply bent--an important feature, since it is the most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light Crimson Underwing (_C. Promissa_). The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of _Fraxini_ and _Nupta_, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun together with silk. The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious sugaring. There yet remain a few small families of the _Noctuæ_, but we must leave them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the other great division of the larger moths--the _Geometræ_. CHAPTER XX _GEOMETRÆ_ We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvæ of the present division that suggested the name _Geometræ_--a term that signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these caterpillars--peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various families of this important division for a more detailed description. The _Geometræ_ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after the manner of the _Noctuæ_. Family--UROPTERYGIDÆ _The Swallow Tail_ (_Uropteryx sambucaria_) Our first family--_Uropterygidæ_--has only one British representative, and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII (fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous 'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary. The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (_Sambucus nigra_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), and forget-me-not (_Myosotis arvensis_). It may be found feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black. Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner. Family--ENNOMIDÆ This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the _Geometræ_. Their wings are more or less angulated; and the antennæ are generally pectinated in the males. The larvæ are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may be, are seldom used in walking. _The Brimstone Moth_ (_Rumia luteolata_) As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is particularly plentiful during the month of June. The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII (fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice. It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and the apple (_Pyrus Malus_), and may be found on these trees throughout the summer. Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout the season. _The Light Emerald_ (_Metrocampa margaritaria_) All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant. [Illustration: FIG. 177.--THE LIGHT EMERALD.] The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation, on several of our forest trees, including the oak (_Quercus Robur_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), birch (_Betula alba_), and beech (_Fagus sylvatica_). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of claspers. _The Scalloped Oak_ (_Crocallis elinguaria_) This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennæ of the male are strongly pectinated; those of the female are simple. The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_), and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground. It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a piece of twig. _The August Thorn_ (_Eugonia quercinaria_) Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The antennæ of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are simple. [Illustration: FIG. 178.--THE AUGUST THORN.] The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily attracted by lights in the evening. The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees during the month of June. Family--AMPHIDASYDÆ The seven British species of the family _Amphidasydæ_ are generally to be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy hair that covers their thoraces. The antennæ of the males are pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the latter sex is wingless. The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil. _The Brindled Beauty_ (_Biston hirtaria_) Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact, so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennæ and larger body. The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and various fruit trees, and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil. _The Peppered Moth_ (_Amphidasys betularia_) Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and tree trunks during the day. [Illustration: FIG. 179.--THE PEPPERED MOTH.] The colour of the caterpillar is very variable--drab, grey, green, or brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head, and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its change to the chrysalis. Family--BOARMIIDÆ In the next family--_Boarmiidæ_--there are about twenty British members, most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them bear a resemblance to species of the family _Ennomidæ_, their wings are not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths. The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupæ are to be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the soil. _The Waved Umber_ (_Hemerophila abruptaria_) The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other _Geometræ_, it rests on fences and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August, and often frequents our gardens at dusk. The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably also on the dog rose (_Rosa canina_). When full grown it spins a silken cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its metamorphoses. _The Willow Beauty_ (_Boarmia gemmaria_) Our second example of the _Boarmiidæ_ is the Willow Beauty, the male of which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than the male, and has simple antennæ. The moth is abundant throughout England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE WILLOW BEAUTY.] The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds on the oak (_Quercus Robur_), Birch (_Betula alba_), ivy (_Hedera Helix_), and other trees, and may be found in September and October. Family--GEOMETRIDÆ The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennæ. There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvæ, but some have the head deeply notched. _The Large Emerald_ (_Geometra papilionaria_) This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. [Illustration: FIG. 181.--THE LARGE EMERALD.] The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England. The caterpillar feeds on birch (_Betula alba_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_) and hazel (_Corylus avellana_) in the autumn, and hybernates while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves. _The Common Emerald_ (_Hemithea strigata_) One of the commonest of the Emeralds is _Strigata_, which may be found in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is white, dotted with dull reddish brown. [Illustration: FIG. 182.--THE COMMON EMERALD.] The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), and may be found in June. Family--EPHYRIDÆ _The Maiden's Blush_ (_Zonosoma punctaria_) The family _Ephyridæ_ contains only six British species, chiefly remarkable for the fact that their pupæ generally resemble those of butterflies. We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in May and August. The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), from which it may be obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides. Family--ACIDALIIDÆ The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly marked. The antennæ are simple in the females, and generally only slightly ciliated in the males. The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed principally on low plants. The pupæ are to be found in loose cocoons among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil. We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family. _The Lace Border_ (_Acidalia ornata_) The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to August. [Illustration: FIG. 183.--THE LACE BORDER.] The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_) and marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_). _The Riband Wave_ (_A. aversata_) All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey. The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot. [Illustration: FIG. 184.--THE RIBAND WAVE.] The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts. The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low plants, including the meadow sweet (_Spiræa ulmaria_), water avens (_Geum rivale_), common avens (_G. urbanum_), and knot-grass (_Polygonum aviculare_), during April and May. _The Blood-vein_ (_Timandra amataria_) Our last example of the _Acidaliidæ_ is the Blood-vein, which is common in most parts of England in June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 185.--THE BLOOD-VEIN.] Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip of the fore wing. The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds in the autumn on dock (_Rumex_), sorrel (_R. acetosa_), and knot-grass (_Polygonum aviculare_). Family--CABERIDÆ Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day, with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on which they rest. The larvæ, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the chrysalis state in light silken cocoons. _The Common Wave_ (_Cabera exanthemata_) The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave, the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male may be distinguished by its ciliated antennæ. [Illustration: FIG. 186.--THE COMMON WAVE.] The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or June. This species is very abundant in most parts. _The Clouded Silver_ (_Bapta temerata_) The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white, and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark spot. [Illustration: FIG. 187.--THE CLOUDED SILVER.] This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It flies in May and June. The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds in the autumn on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) and the wild cherry (_P. Avium_), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a light silken cocoon. Family--MACARIIDÆ _The_ V _Moth_ (_Halia Vauaria_) The family _Macariidæ_ contains only five British species, four of which have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent. [Illustration: FIG. 188.--THE V MOTH.] Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut. This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer. The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web between the leaves. Family--FIDONIIDÆ We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths, downs, and open fields; but one--the Bordered White--is met with only in fir woods. The wings are not angulated, and the antennæ of the males are pectinated. The larvæ are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate beneath the surface of the soil. _The Common Heath_ (_Ematurga atomaria_) Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are disturbed at almost every footstep. The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is generally smaller than the male. [Illustration: FIG. 189.--THE COMMON HEATH.] The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on trefoils (_Lotus corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_) and various other plants that grow on heaths. _The Bordered White_ (_Bupalus piniaria_) The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the centre. [Illustration: FIG. 190.--THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE.] The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and is generally to be secured by beating the branches. The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the Scotch fir (_Pinus sylvestris_). Family--ZERENIDÆ _The Currant Moth_ (_Abraxas grossulariata_) The family _Zerenidæ_ contains only four British moths, and of these we select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or less blotched with black. [Illustration: FIG. 191.--THE CURRANT MOTH.] From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement. The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). About the end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34). Family--HYBERNIIDÆ Passing over the family _Ligiidæ_, which contains only one British moth, the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family, _Hyberniidæ_. Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them, and may be seen from January to March. The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they look more like spiders than moths. The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the ground. _The Spring Usher_ (_Hybernia leucophæaria_) Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees, or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has only the slightest rudiments of wings. [Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE SPRING USHER.] The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (_Quercus Robur_) and sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), concealing itself among the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains here throughout the summer and part of the following winter. The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale green with white markings. _The Mottled Umber_ (_Hybernia defoliaria_) This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour, evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless. The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles are white. It feeds during spring on oak (_Quercus Robur_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and other trees. When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over, or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the ground about the middle of June. _The March Moth_ (_Anisopteryx æscularia_) This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen. [Illustration: FIG. 193.--THE MARCH MOTH.] The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees named for the last species, also on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_) and elm (_Ulmus campestris_). Family--LARENTIIDÆ This is by far the most extensive family of the _Geometræ_, containing as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of the whole group. The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost throughout the year--from early spring to the middle of the winter. Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps; and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds. We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual description. _The November Moth_ (_Oporabia dilutata_) Our first example is the November moth--a rather dingy and very variable species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler, with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 194.--THE NOVEMBER MOTH.] The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak, whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June. _The Twin-spot Carpet_ (_Larentia didymata_) The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct. [Illustration: FIG. 195.--THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET.] The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone (_Anemone nemorosa_), chervil (_Chærophyllum temulum_), and other plants. _The Grass Rivulet_ (_Emmelesia albulata_) We represent the genus _Emmelesia_ by the Grass Rivulet--a pretty little moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not abundant. [Illustration: FIG. 196.--THE GRASS RIVULET.] Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line near the hind margin. The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), protecting itself from its enemies by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis under the same cover. _The Netted Pug_ (_Eupithecia venosata_) We now come to the enormous genus _Eupithecia_, containing about fifty small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their earlier stages. [Illustration: FIG. 197.--THE NETTED PUG.] The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented. The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions (_Silene Cucubalis_, _S. maritima_, _S. acaulis_, and _Lychnis diurna_) and catchfly (_Silene gallica_ and _S. nutans_). _The Narrow-winged Pug_ (_Eupithecia nanata_) Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common in some localities. [Illustration: FIG. 198.--THE NARROW-WINGED PUG.] Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white. The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) and heath (_Erica cinerea_ and _E. Tetralix_). _The Brindled Pug_ (_Eupithecia abbreviata_) Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species, appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts, and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree trunks. [Illustration: FIG. 199.--THE BRINDLED PUG.] Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender angulated stripe. The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June. _The Small Seraphim_ (_Lobophora sexalisata_) This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind wings when at rest. [Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE SMALL SERAPHIM.] The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described as common. The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow (_S. caprea_) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter. _The Blue-bordered Carpet_ (_Melanthia bicolorata_) This same family (_Larentiidæ_) is remarkable for its large number of pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are exceedingly common in our woods and gardens. [Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET.] Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base, and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars, separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore wings. The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) and blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_); and when full grown it changes to a brown chrysalis within a light silken web. The moth flies in July and August. _The Beautiful Carpet_ (_Melanthia albicillata_) The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as _Bicolorata_. Its wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings. [Illustration: FIG. 202.--THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET.] The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), raspberry (_R. Idæus_), and wild strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_). It may be found in June and July. The moth flies in June. _The Common Carpet_ (_Melanippe sociata_) The genus _Melanippe_ contains twelve species, some of which are extremely common. One of these moths--the Common Carpet--is represented in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our illustration better than from a written description. It is a double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the end of July. [Illustration: FIG. 203.--THE COMMON CARPET.] The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon on the ground. _The Silver Ground Carpet_ (_Melanippe montanata_) In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar, containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings. [Illustration: FIG. 204.--THE SILVER GROUND CARPET.] This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on the wing throughout the summer. The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright red spot. It feeds on the primrose (_Primula acaulis_) in the autumn, hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of April. _The Garden Carpet_ (_Melanippe fluctuata_) Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet--a moth that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the commonest of all the _Geometræ_ that frequent our gardens. [Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE GARDEN CARPET.] The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less distinct, cross the wing. This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but is most abundant in June and July. The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green, brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (_Tropæolum majus_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), and various other cruciferous plants; and may be found from April to August. _The Yellow Shell_ (_Camptogramma bilineata_) Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at almost every stroke while beating low bushes. All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings. [Illustration: FIG. 206.--THE YELLOW SHELL.] The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May. The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two white stripes on each side. _The Small Ph[oe]nix_ (_Cidaria silaceata_) Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the small Ph[oe]nix as the last example of this very extensive family. [Illustration: FIG. 207.--THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX.] The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour, and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing towards the hind margin. This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is double brooded, appearing in May and August. The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web. Family--EUBOLIIDÆ This is the last family of the _Geometræ_ we shall notice, and contains ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance obliquely inward. They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their hiding places during the day. The larvæ are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants. We shall briefly examine two species. _The Small Mallow_ (_Eubolia limitata_) This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low plants. [Illustration: FIG. 208.--THE SMALL MALLOW.] Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are crossed by two or three fine wavy lines. Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and June. _The Treble Bar_ (_Anaitis plagiata_) Our last example of the _Geometræ_ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species, particularly so in the neighbourhood of London. The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's wort (_Hypericum perforatum_). This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and remaining with us throughout the month following in each case. CHAPTER XXI _THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA_ The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the _Macro-lepidoptera_; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of small British moths that represent what is known as the _Micro-lepidoptera_. It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the 'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their path. Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in outline, with both these divisions of the _Lepidoptera_ in a work of the present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the collector may at least know _something_ of the insects he captures, even though he may not be able at once to fix on their names. The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet, may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the names and other details he may require. The _Micro-lepidoptera_ are divided into five main groups--_Pyralides_, _Pterophori_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and _Tineæ_, each of which is divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the 'Macros.' _Pyralides_ The _Pyralides_ may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.' Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local, though they may be extremely abundant where they occur. The larvæ have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally gregarious in their habits. This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as follows: 1. _Pyralididæ_, including about forty species. 2. _Botydæ_, about thirty species. 3. _Steniiadæ_, containing only five species. 4. _Hydrocampidæ_, four species. 5. _Acentropodidæ_, containing only one. _The Tabby_ (_Aglossa pinguinalis_) The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables. [Illustration: FIG. 209.--THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH.] Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term 'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is correct. The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a light silken cocoon in some secluded corner. The moth emerges in July. _The Meal Moth_ (_Pyralis farinalis_) The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances. [Illustration: FIG. 210.--THE MEAL MOTH.] The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to and continuous with those of the front pair. This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities, sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in the evening. The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon. _The Small Magpie_ (_Eurrhypara urticata_) The family _Botydæ_ contains the moths that are popularly known as the 'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its species--the Small Magpie--is shown in the accompanying illustration. Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may be seen in the figure. [Illustration: FIG. 211.--THE SMALL MAGPIE.] It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste places where the stinging nettle grows. The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), always remaining concealed between leaves which it has spun together with silken threads. _The Mother-of-Pearl_ (_Botys ruralis_) This is another very common species of the family _Botydæ_, abundant almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August. Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all the markings are of a dull dark grey. [Illustration: FIG. 212.--THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL.] The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_) during May. _The Garden Pebble_ (_Pionea forficalis_) The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country. The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted line parallel with the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 213.--THE GARDEN PEBBLE.] The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants. The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn. _The Beautiful China Mark_ (_Hydrocampa stagnata_) Our last example of the _Pyralides_--the Beautiful China Mark--belongs to the family _Hydrocampidæ_. This small family is remarkable for the fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water, feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other aquatic plants. These curious larvæ live either in cases which they construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvæ of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held in solution in the water. [Illustration: FIG. 214.--THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK.] The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during June and July. _The Pterophori_ The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that has gained for them the popular name of _Plume Moths_. Their fore wings are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally divided into three distinct feathery plumes. The larvæ are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but some of them feed in the autumn. The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly smooth. Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter, often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months. The _Pterophori_ include only about forty British species, all of which, with two exceptions, belong to the family _Pterophoridæ_. The two exceptions represent as many families--one the _Chrysocorididæ_, and the other the _Alucitidæ_. _Platyptilia gonodactyla_ This is one of the commonest of the _Pterophoridæ_, generally appearing in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark. [Illustration: FIG. 215.--GONODACTYLA.] Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the middle of the inner margin. The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March and April. _Leioptilus osteodactylus_ This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is more local than the last. [Illustration: FIG. 216.--OSTEODACTYLUS.] Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct plumes like those of _Gonodactyla_. This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July. _Aciptilia pentadactyla_ The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings are pure white, and consist of three plumes. [Illustration: FIG. 217.--PENTADACTYLA.] This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during June and July. The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May. _Alucita hexadactyla_ Our last example of the _Pterophori_ is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only British representative of the family _Alucitidæ_. This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots, flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October, and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses. [Illustration: FIG. 218.--HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED.] The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_). It is not hairy, like most of the larvæ of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis in a silken cocoon. _Crambi_ The third group of the 'Micros' is the _Crambi_, and contains about eighty species, arranged in four families. Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly distinguishable from the stems on which they repose. The larvæ have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits. Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the honeycomb. The four families are: 1. _Chilidæ_--five species. 2. _Crambidæ_--about thirty species. 3. _Phycidæ_--over forty species. 4. _Galleridæ_--five species. _Chilo Phragmitellus_ This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the family _Chilidæ_. Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the hind margin. The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed (_Phragmites_) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring, when it resumes its feeding. [Illustration: FIG. 219.--PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF.] This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy places where reeds abound. _Crambus hamellus_ The family _Crambidæ_ is represented by the above-named species, which has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth, but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage. [Illustration: FIG. 220.--HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED.] Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale greyish brown with a yellowish margin. _Crambus tristellus_ The same family contains the species _Tristellus_, which, unlike the preceding insect, is abundant everywhere. [Illustration: FIG. 221.--TRISTELLUS.] Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable. A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing, and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long. The moth flies from July to September. _Crambus hortuellus_ This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June and July. Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining surface, and the fringe is light. [Illustration: FIG. 222.--HORTUELLUS.] The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss in April and May. _Galleria mellonella_ Our last example of the _Crambi_ is a moth that the young entomologist is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted to introduce it on that account. [Illustration: FIG. 223.--MELLONELLA.] It belongs to the family _Galleridæ_, the larvæ of which feed on the wax combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front segments--the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding. The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings are greyish brown. It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June. _The Tortrices_ This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar habit of a number of the larvæ of twisting or rolling up leaves for their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits. The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that, when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much the shape of a bell. The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that insects of the same species are often very different from each other. So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances. There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even give a representative of each family, but the following outline will serve to show the extensiveness of the group. Family 1. _Tortricidæ_, about sixty species. " 2. _Penthinidæ_, " twenty " " 3. _Spilonotidæ_, " twelve " " 4. _Sericoridæ_, " twenty-seven species. " 5. _Sciaphilidæ_, " twenty-four " " 6. _Grapholithidæ_, about one hundred and fifty species. " 7. _Pyraloididæ_, four species. " 8. _Conchylidæ_, about fifty species. " 9. _Apheliidæ_, three species. We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of the group. _Tortrix xylosteana_ This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be met with in abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs to the family _Tortricidæ_. Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark oblique streak, edged with yellow, runs from the inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in the centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow on the costa, and expands as it approaches the inner margin. Beyond this are another dark patch on the costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind margin. [Illustration: FIG. 224.--XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED.] The larva is greenish brown, marked with white spots which have black centres; and it feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), and other plants, in the month of May. _Tortrix viridana_ In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be seen flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings are one uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow along the costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a single twig without being seen unless closely examined. The hind wings are of a pale smoky tint, and rather glossy. The larva is green, with black spots, and feeds in May and June on the oak and other trees, often almost completely devouring the foliage. [Illustration: FIG. 225.--VIRIDANA.] _Peronea cristana_ This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in many of the woods of the south. It is remarkable for the large number of varieties that have been observed, many of which have been regarded as distinct species. [Illustration: FIG. 226.--CRISTANA--ENLARGED.] Its fore wings are of some shade of brown or grey, with a light streak of variable colour along the inner margin, and a tuft of raised white scales in the middle of the wing. It flies during August and September. _Ptycholoma lecheana_ Our last example of the family _Tortricidæ_ is _Lecheana_, a moth that is common in most parts in June and July. [Illustration: FIG. 227.--LECHEANA.] Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the base. There are no very distinct markings, but there is generally a darker patch in the middle of the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side. The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks and elms, in the month of May. _Penthina pruniana_ [Illustration: FIG. 228.--PRUNIANA.] The next family--_Penthinidæ_--contains the common species _Pruniana_, which may be readily known by its boldly marked wings. The basal portion of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the whole, is very dark brown. The remaining third is almost white, and clouded with grey. The hind wings are smoky brown with a paler fringe. The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in May, and the moth flies in June and July. _Antithesia salicella_ This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is fairly plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It belongs to the same family as _Pruniana_. [Illustration: FIG. 229.--SALICELLA.] The fore wings are whitish at the base and along the inner margin, but the light tint is dotted and clouded with shades of brown. The remainder of the wings is marbled with dark brown of different depths, relieved near the hind margin with a little blue. The hind wings, as is usual with the _Tortrices_, are dull smoky brown. The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds during May in rolled leaves of willows. The moth flies in August and September. _Sciaphila octomaculana_ Our single example of the family _Sciaphilidæ_ is the species _Octomaculana_, which, though not very abundant, is widely distributed, and moderately common in parts. Its fore wings are white, dusted with grey, and each is marked with four dark grey patches which have given rise to its specific name--a word which signifies 'eight-spotted.' The hind wings are grey. [Illustration: FIG. 230.--OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED.] The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the moth flies from August to October. _Ephippiphora cirsiana_ This insect represents the family _Grapholithidæ_. It is a common moth, and is widely distributed. Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on the middle of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the anal angle, is a pale grey patch containing three or four black dots. The tips of the wings are reddish brown. The moth flies in June and July; and the larva, which feeds on thistles, may be found in the stems from October to the following May. [Illustration: FIG. 231.--CIRSIANA--ENLARGED.] _Carpocapsa pomonella_ The same extensive family contains a few moths that are very destructive to our fruits, the larvæ burrowing into and living entirely within their substance. One of these--_Pomonella_--is popularly known as the Codlin, as its larva is so often found in the interior of small apples of the same name. [Illustration: FIG. 232.--POMONELLA.] The fore wings of this insect are grey, with a number of dark transverse lines. The spot in the anal angle is edged with a coppery tint, and inclosed by a curved black line. This moth is common in all parts, flying during June and July; and the larva may be looked for in apples and pears in August and September. _Xanthosetia zoegana_ Our last example of the _Tortrices_ is _Zoegana_, which belongs to the family _Conchylidæ_. Its fore wings are yellow, with a reddish streak along the costa near the base, and a small reddish spot opposite this near the inner margin. The tip of the wings is dark reddish brown, in the middle of which is a large yellow spot. [Illustration: FIG. 233.--ZOEGANA--ENLARGED.] This moth is widely distributed, and in some parts common. It flies from May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious (_Scabiosa columbaria_). _The Tineæ_ We have noticed that the _Tortrices_ form a very extensive group of moths, but they are far outnumbered by the _Tineæ_, for of these there are over seven hundred known British species. Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the _Tineæ_ form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but little difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other Micros. The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the length of the fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies, too, are long and slender. The larvæ are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual number of sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen. Again, the larvæ of several genera have only fourteen legs, and some are absolutely legless. With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable, for while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled leaves. Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they always remain under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free to ramble in search for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the group includes the so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvæ devour our garments, furs, and the upholstering of our furniture. We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may become better acquainted with the general characters of the group. _Diurnea fagella_ This moth represents the small family _Epigraphiidæ_, containing only six species, all of which appear in the winter or early spring. The present species is very common in most parts, and may be seen at rest on the barks of trees in March and April. [Illustration: FIG. 234.--FAGELLA.] The fore wings are usually pale grey or yellowish grey, and dotted with brown; but there is a great variety both in the depth of the ground colour and the distinctness of the markings. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the insect. The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October, always protected between leaves that it has spun together. _Adela cuprella_ The family _Adelidæ_ contains ten species, all remarkable for the great length of their antennæ. The one selected for illustration is a beautiful little moth with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a glossy surface. [Illustration: FIG. 235.--CUPRELLA.] This moth does not seem to be widely distributed, but is fairly plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest are good localities for it. It is on the wing in April and May. _Hyponomeuta Padellus_ The family _Hyponomeutidæ_ contains about twenty insects, some of which are very common and exceedingly destructive to our trees. In May and June hawthorn and fruit trees may be seen swarming with the gregarious larvæ of some of them, and almost entirely stripped of their leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 236.--PADELLUS.] The species here figured has grey or white fore wings with three rows of black dots. The hind wings are darker grey without dots. The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect insect flies in July and August. _Depressaria nervosa_ The next family--_Gelechiidæ_--is represented by the species Nervosa, which is common in many localities. [Illustration: FIG. 237.--NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE.] Its fore wings are reddish brown, and are marked by a number of short longitudinal streaks of a darker colour. The hind wings are light grey. The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings, and having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the hemlock water dropwort (_[OE]nanthe crocata_) during June and July. The moth flies in August and September. _Harpella Geoffrella_ The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented in the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty insect. The basal portion of its fore wings is yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks, the outer one of which is bent towards the inner margin near the middle of the wing. The remaining portion of the wings is brown, with two yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and one on the inner margin. On the middle of the costa is a short dark streak. [Illustration: FIG. 238.--GEOFFRELLA.] This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very abundant in some parts. _Coleophora ibipennella_ The family _Coleophoridæ_ contains about seventy small moths, characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long fringes, and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint of the antennæ. [Illustration: FIG. 239.--IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED.] The larvæ live in little cases which they construct, and feed on various leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their cases, and change to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer. One of these moths--_Ibipennella_--is shown in fig. 239. Its fore wings are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the tips. The 'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The hind wings are dark grey. The larva feeds on the birch (_Betula alba_), and may be seen walking on the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging after it, the pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding save its head and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth flies in July. _Tischeria complanella_ This species represents the rather extensive family _Elachistidæ_, the members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of them are adorned with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally so small that a lens is necessary to show up the splendour of their clothing. Most of the larvæ are leaf miners, and are easily reared. All that is necessary is to pluck a few twigs, the leaves of which, when held up to the light, reveal the tiny larvæ in their burrows, and place them in a vessel of water. They do not feed long, and it is probable that most of the larvæ so treated will be ready to change before the leaves have become dry. The present species has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey cloudings at the hind margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and flies during the month of June. [Illustration: FIG. 240.--COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED.] The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a yellowish colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and its presence is indicated by light blotches on the foliage. _Nepticula aurella_ The family _Nepticulidæ_--the last of the _Tineæ_--contains a number of little moths, including the smallest of the _Lepidoptera_. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with various tints of a splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed only by the use of a magnifying lens, and they are so small that very great care and patience is required to set them properly. They may be recognised by their short and thick antennæ, rather large head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind wings. The larvæ have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very imperfectly developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are sometimes so abundant that several may be found in a single leaf. [Illustration: FIG. 241.--AURELLA--ENLARGED.] The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden brown, with deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow beyond the middle. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The larva excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves of the bramble. APPENDICES APPENDIX I I have previously called the reader's attention to our classified list of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the objects for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and popular names of all the British Butterflies, _Sphinges_, _Bombyces_, _Noctuæ_, and _Geometræ_, arranged in their various families and genera; and in cases where two specific names are commonly applied to the same insect, both are given. Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation which the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for the proper arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet. The order adopted is that of South's 'Synonymic List of British Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar lists, printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from dealers in naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply very neat labels for cabinets or store boxes. _COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA_ =RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).= PAPILIONIDÆ. =Papilio.= _Machaon_--Swallow Tail PIERIDÆ. =Aporia.= _Cratægi_--Black-veined White =Pieris.= _Brassicæ_--Large White _Rapæ_--Small White _Napi_--Green-veined White _Daplidice_--Bath White =Euchloë.= _Cardamines_--Orange Tip =Leucophasia.= _Sinapis_--Wood White =Colias.= _Hyale_--Pale Clouded Yellow _Edusa_--Clouded Yellow =Gonopteryx.= _Rhamni_--Brimstone NYMPHALIDÆ. =Argynnis.= _Selene_--Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary _Euphrosyne_--Pearl-bordered Fritillary _Latona_--Queen of Spain _Aglaia_--Dark Green Fritillary _Adippe_--High Brown Fritillary _Paphia_--Silver-washed Fritillary =Melitæa.= _Aurinia_ (_Artemis_)--Greasy Fritillary _Cinxia_--Glanville Fritillary _Athalia_--Heath Fritillary =Vanessa.= _C-Album_--Comma _Polychloros_--Large Tortoiseshell _Urticæ_--Small Tortoiseshell _Io_--Peacock _Antiopa_--Camberwell Beauty _Atalanta_--Red Admiral _Cardui_--Painted Lady =Limenitis.= _Sibylla_--White Admiral APATURIDÆ. =Apatura.= _Iris_--Purple Emperor SATYRIDÆ. =Melanargia.= _Galatea_--Marbled White =Erebia.= _Epiphron_ (_Cassiope_)--Small Ringlet _Æthiops_ (_Blandina_)--Northern Brown (Scotch Argus) =Pararge.= _Egeria_--Speckled Wood _Megæra_--Wall =Satyrus.= _Semele_--Grayling =Epinephele.= _Ianira_--Meadow Brown _Tithonus_--Large Heath (Small Meadow Brown) _Hyperanthes_--Ringlet =Cænonympha.= _Typhon_ (_Davus_)--Marsh Ringlet _Pamphilus_--Small Heath LYCÆNIDÆ. =Thecla.= _Betulæ_--Brown Hairstreak _W-Album_--White-letter Hairstreak _Pruni_--Dark Hairstreak _Quercus_--Purple Hairstreak _Rubi_--Green Hairstreak =Polyommatus.= _Dispar_--Large Copper _Phl[oe]as_--Small Copper =Lycæna.= _Bætica_--Tailed Blue _Ægon_--Silver-studded Blue _Astrarche_ (_Agestis_)--Brown Argus _Icarus_ (_Alexis_)--Common Blue _Bellargus_ (_Adonis_)--Clifden Blue _Corydon_--Chalk-hill Blue _Argiolus_--Azure or Holly Blue _Semiargus_ (_Acis_)--Mazarine Blue _Minima_ (_Alsus_)--Small Blue _Arion_--Large Blue ERYCINIDÆ. =Nemeobius.= _Lucina_--Duke of Burgundy HESPERIIDÆ. =Syrichthus.= _Malvæ_ (_Alveolus_)--Grizzled Skipper =Nisoniades.= _Tages_--Dingy Skipper =Hesperia.= _Thaumas_ (_Linea_)--Small Skipper _Lineola_--New Small Skipper _Actæon_--Lulworth Skipper _Sylvanus_--Large Skipper _Comma_--Silver-spotted Skipper =Carterocephalus.= _Palæmon_ (_Paniscus_)--Chequered Skipper HETEROCERA (MOTHS). =SPHINGES.= SPHINGIDÆ. =Acherontia.= _Atropos_--Death's Head Hawk Moth =Sphinx.= _Convolvuli_--Convolvulus Hawk _Ligustri_--Privet Hawk _Pinastri_--Pine Hawk =Deilephila.= _Euphorbiæ_--Spurge Hawk _Galii_--Bedstraw Hawk _Livornica_--Striped Hawk =Chærocampa.= _Celerio_--Silver-striped Hawk _Porcellus_--Small Elephant _Elpenor_--Large Elephant =Smerinthus.= _Ocellatus_--Eyed Hawk _Populi_--Poplar Hawk _Tiliæ_--Lime Hawk =Macroglossa.= _Stellatarum_--Humming-bird Hawk _Fuciformis_--Broad-bordered Bee Hawk _Bombyliformis_--Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk SESIIDÆ. =Trochilium.= _Apiformis_--Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar _Crabroniformis_ (_Bembeciformis_)--Hornet Clearwing of Osier =Sciopteron.= _Tabaniformis_ (_Vespiforme_)--Dusky Clearwing =Sesia.= _Scoliiformis_--Welsh Clearwing _Sphegiformis_--White-barred Clearwing _Andreniformis_--Orange-tailed Clearwing _Tipuliformis_--Currant Clearwing _Asiliformis_ (_Cynipiformis_)--Yellow-legged Clearwing _Myopiformis_--Red-belted Clearwing _Culiciformis_--Large Red-belted Clearwing _Formiciformis_--Red-tipped Clearwing _Ichneumoniformis_--Six-belted Clearwing _Musciformis_ (_Philanthiformis_)--Thrift Clearwing _Chrysidiformis_--Fiery Clearwing ZYGÆNIDÆ. =Ino.= _Globulariæ_--Scarce Forester _Statices_--Forester _Geryon_--Cistus Forester =Zygæna.= _Pilosellæ_ (_Minos_)--Transparent Burnet _Exulans_--Scotch Burnet _Meliloti_--New Forest Burnet _Trifolii_--Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet _Loniceræ_--Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet _Filipendulæ_--Six-spotted Burnet =BOMBYCES.= NYCTEOLIDÆ. =Sarothripus.= _Undulanus_--Tortrix Moth =Earias.= _Chlorana_--Cream-bordered Green =Hylophila.= _Prasinana_--Green Silver-lined _Bicolorana_ (_Quercana_)--Large Green Silver-lined NOLIDÆ. =Nola.= _Cucullatella_--Short-cloaked _Strigula_--Small Black Arches _Confusalis_ (_Cristulalis_)--Least Black Arches _Albulalis_--Kent Arches _Centonalis_--Scarce Black Arches LITHOSIIDÆ. =Nudaria.= _Senex_--Round-winged Muslin _Mundana_--Muslin Moth =Setina.= _Irrorella_--Dew Moth =Calligenia.= _Miniata_--Rosy Footman (Red Arches) =Lithosia.= _Mesomella_--Four-dotted Footman _Muscerda_--Dotted Footman _Sororcula_ (_Aureola_)--Orange Footman _Lutarella_ (_Pygmæola_)--Pigmy Footman _Griseola_ (_Stramineola_)--Pale Footman _Deplana_ (_Helveola_)--Buff Footman _Lurideola_ (_Complanula_)--Common Footman _Complana_--Scarce Footman _Sericea_ (_Molybdeola_)--Leaden Footman _Caniola_--Hoary Footman =Gnophria.= _Quadra_--Four-spotted Footman _Rubricollis_--Red-necked Footman =Emydia.= _Cribrum_--Speckled Footman EUCHELIIDÆ. =Deiopeia.= _Pulchella_--Crimson Speckled =Euchelia.= _Jacobææ_--Cinnabar =Callimorpha.= _Dominula_--Scarlet Tiger _Hera_--Jersey Tiger CHELONIIDÆ. =Nemeophila.= _Russula_--Clouded Buff _Plantaginis_--Wood Tiger =Arctia.= _Caia_--Tiger _Villica_--Cream-spot Tiger =Spilosoma.= _Fuliginosa_--Ruby Tiger _Mendica_--Muslin _Lubricipeda_--Buff Ermine _Menthastri_--White Ermine _Urticæ_--Water Ermine HEPIALIDÆ. =Hepialus.= _Humuli_--Ghost Swift _Sylvanus_--Wood Swift _Velleda_--Northern Swift _Lupulinus_--Common Swift _Hectus_--Gold Swift COSSIDÆ. =Cossus.= _Ligniperda_--Goat =Zeuzera.= _Pyrina_ (_Æsculi_)--Leopard =Macrogaster.= _Castaneæ_ (_Arundinis_)--Reed Moth COCHLIOPODIDÆ. =Heterogenea.= _Limacodes_ (_Testudo_)--Festoon Moth _Asella_ (_Asellus_)--Triangle Moth LIPARIDÆ. =Porthesia= (=Liparis=). _Chrysorrh[oe]a_--Brown Tail _Similis_ (_Auriflua_)--Yellow Tail (Gold Tail) =Leucoma.= _Salicis_--Satin Moth =Lælia.= _C[oe]nosa_--Reed Tussock =Ocneria.= _Dispar_--Gipsy =Psilura.= _Monacha_--Black Arches =Dasychira.= _Fascelina_--Dark Tussock _Pudibunda_--Pale Tussock =Orgyia.= _Gonostigma_--Scarce Vapourer _Antiqua_--Vapourer BOMBYCIDÆ. =Trichiura.= _Cratægi_--Pale Oak Eggar =P[oe]cilocampa.= _Populi_--December Moth =Eriogaster.= _Lanestris_--Small Eggar =Bombyx.= _Neustria_--Lackey _Castrensis_--Ground Lackey _Rubi_--Fox _Quercus_--Oak Eggar _Trifolii_--Grass Eggar =Odonestis.= _Potatoria_--Drinker =Lasiocampa.= _Quercifolia_--Lappet _Ilicifolia_--Small Lappet ENDROMIDÆ. =Endromis.= _Versicolor_--Kentish Glory SATURNIIDÆ. =Saturnia.= _Pavonia_ (_Carpini_)--Emperor DREPANULIDÆ. =Drepana.= _Lacertinaria_ (_Lacertula_)--Scalloped Hook Tip _Harpagula_ (_Sicula_)--Scarce Hook Tip _Falcataria_ (_Falcula_)--Pebble Hook Tip _Binaria_ (_Hamula_)--Oak Hook Tip _Cultraria_ (_Unguicula_)--Barred Hook Tip =Cilix.= _Glaucata_ (_Spinula_)--Chinese Character DICRANURIDÆ. =Dicranura.= _Bicuspis_--Alder Kitten _Furcula_--Sallow Kitten _Bifida_--Poplar Kitten _Vinula_--Puss =Stauropus.= _Fagi_--Lobster NOTODONTIDÆ. =Glyphisia.= _Crenata_--Dusky Marbled Brown =Ptilophora.= _Plumigera_--Plumed Prominent =Pterostoma.= _Palpina_--Pale Prominent =Lophopteryx.= _Camelina_--Coxcomb Prominent _Cuculla_ (_Cucullina_)--Maple Prominent _Carmelita_--Scarce Prominent =Notodonta.= _Bicolor_--White Prominent _Dictæa_--Swallow Prominent _Dictæoides_--Lesser Swallow Prominent _Dromedarius_--Iron Prominent _Trilophus_--Three-humped Prominent _Ziczac_--Pebble Prominent _Trepida_--Great Prominent _Trimacula_ (_Dodonea_)--Marbled Brown _Chaonia_--Lunar Marbled Brown PYGÆRIDÆ. =Phalera.= _Bucephala_--Buff Tip =Pygæra= (=Clostera=). _Curtula_--Chocolate Tip _Anachoreta_--Scarce Chocolate Tip _Pigra_ (_Reclusa_)--Small Chocolate Tip CYMATOPHORIDÆ. =Thyatira.= _Derasa_--Buff Arches _Batis_--Peach Blossom =Cymatophora.= _Octogesima_ (_Ocularis_)--Figure of Eighty _Or_--Poplar Lutestring _Duplaris_--Lesser Satin _Fluctuosa_--Satin Carpet =Asphalia.= _Diluta_--Lesser Lutestring _Flavicornis_--Yellow-horned _Ridens_--Frosted Green =NOCTUÆ.= BRYOPHILIDÆ. =Bryophila.= _Algæ_--Tree Lichen Beauty _Muralis_ (_Glandifera_)--Marbled (Mottled) Green _Par_--Scarce Marbled Green _Perla_--Marbled Beauty BOMBYCOIDÆ. =Moma= (=Diphthera=). _Orion_--Scarce Marvel-du-jour =Demas.= _Coryli_--Nut-tree Tussock =Acronycta.= _Tridens_--Dark Dagger _Psi_--Grey Dagger _Leporina_--Miller _Aceris_--Sycamore _Megacephala_--Poplar Grey _Strigosa_--Grisette _Alni_--Alder _Ligustri_--Coronet _Rumicis_--Knot-grass _Auricoma_--Scarce Dagger _Menyanthidis_--Light Knot-grass _Euphorbiæ_ (_Myricæ_)--Sweet Gale =Diloba.= _Cæruleocephala_--Figure of Eight =Arsilonche.= _Albovenosa_ (_Venosa_)--Powdered Wainscot LEUCANIIDÆ. =Synia.= _Musculosa_--Brighton Wainscot =Leucania.= _Conigera_--Brown-line Bright-eye _Vitellina_--Delicate _Turca_--Double Line _Lithargyria_--Clay _Albipuncta_--White-point _Extranea_--American Wainscot _Obsoleta_--Obscure Wainscot _Putrescens_--Devonshire Wainscot _Littoralis_--Shore Wainscot _Impudens_ (_Pudorina_)--Striped Wainscot _Comma_--Shoulder-striped Wainscot _Straminea_--Southern Wainscot _Impura_--Smoky Wainscot _Pallens_--Common Wainscot =Calamia.= _Phragmitidis_--Fen Wainscot =Meliana.= _Flammea_--Flame Wainscot =Senta.= _Maritima_--Silky Wainscot =C[oe]nobia.= _Rufa_--Small Rufous =Tapinostola.= _Fulva_--Small Wainscot _Hellmanni_--Mere Wainscot _Extrema_ (_Concolor_)--Concolorous Wainscot _Bondii_--Bond's Wainscot _Elymi_--Lyme Wainscot =Nonagria.= _Cannæ_--Reed Wainscot _Sparganii_--Iris Wainscot _Arundinis_ (_Typhæ_)--Bullrush _Geminipuncta_--Twin-spotted Wainscot _Neurica_--Nerved Wainscot _Brevilinea_--Fenn's Nonagria _Lutosa_--Large Wainscot APAMEIDÆ. =Gortyna.= _Ochracea_ (_Flavago_)--Frosted Orange =Hydr[oe]cia.= _Nictitans_--Golden Ear _Petasitis_--Butter-bur _Micacea_--Rosy Rustic =Axylia.= Putris--Flame =Xylophasia.= _Rurea_--Clouded-border Brindle _Lithoxylea_--Light Arches _Sublustris_--Reddish Light Arches _Monoglypha_ (_Polyodon_)--Dark Arches _Hepatica_--Clouded Brindle _Scolopacina_--Slender Clouded Brindle =Dipterygia.= _Scabriuscula_ (_Pinastri_)--Bird's Wing =Cloantha.= _Polyodon_ (_Perspicillaris_)--Purple Cloud =Aporophyla.= _Australis_--Feathered Brindle =Laphygma.= _Exigua_--Small Mottled Willow =Neuria.= _Reticulata_ (_Saponariæ_)--Bordered Gothic =Neuronia.= _Popularis_--Feathered Gothic =Heliophobus.= _Hispidus_--Beautiful Gothic =Charæas.= _Graminis_--Antler =Pachetra.= _Leucophæa_--Feathered Ear =Cerigo.= _Matura_ (_Cytherea_)--Straw Underwing =Luperina.= _Testacea_--Flounced Rustic _Dumerili_--Dumeril's Luperina _Cespitis_--Hedge Rustic =Mamestra.= _Abjecta_--Crescent Striped _Sordida_ (_Anceps_)--Large Nutmeg _Albicolon_--White Colon _Furva_--Confused _Brassicæ_--Cabbage _Persicariæ_--Dot =Apamea.= _Basilinea_--Rustic Shoulder Knot _Connexa_--Union Rustic _Gemina_--Dusky Brocade _Unanimis_--Small Clouded Brindle _Ophiogramma_--Double Lobed _Leucostigma_ (_Fibrosa_)--Crescent _Didyma_ (_Oculea_)--Common Rustic =Miana.= _Strigilis_--Marbled Minor _Fasciuncula_--Middle-barred Minor _Literosa_--Rosy Minor _Bicoloria_ (_Furuncula_)--Cloaked Minor _Arcuosa_--Dotted Buff =Phothedes.= _Captiuncula_--Least Minor =Celæna.= _Haworthii_--Haworth's Minor CARADRINIDÆ =Grammesia.= _Trigrammica_ (_Trilinea_)--Treble Lines =Stilbia.= _Anomala_--Anomalous =Caradrina.= _Morpheus_--Mottled Rustic _Alsines_--Uncertain _Taraxaci_ (_Blanda_)--Rustic _Ambigua_--Ambiguous _Quadripunctata_ (_Cubicularis_)--Pale Mottled Willow =Acosmetia.= _Caliginosa_--Reddish Buff =Hydrilla.= _Palustris_--Marsh Moth =Rusina.= _Tenebrosa_--Brown Rustic NOCTUIDÆ. =Agrotis.= _Vestigialis_ (_Valligera_)--Archer's Dart _Puta_--Shuttle-shaped Dart _Suffusa_--Dark Sword Grass _Saucia_--Pearly Underwing _Segetum_--Common Dart (Turnip Moth) _Lunigera_--Crescent Dart _Exclamationis_--Heart and Dart _Corticea_--Heart and Club _Cinerea_--Light Feathered Rustic _Ripæ_--Sand Dart _Cursoria_--Coast Dart _Nigricans_--Garden Dart _Tritici_--White-line Dart _Aquilina_--Streaked Dart _Obelisca_--Square-spot Dart _Agathina_--Heath Rustic _Strigula_ (_Porphyrea_)--True Lover's Knot _Præcox_--Portland _Obscura_ (_Ravida_)--Stout Dart _Simulans_ (_Pyrophila_)--Dotted Rustic _Lucernea_--Northern Rustic _Ashworthii_--Ashworth's Rustic =Noctua.= _Glareosa_--Autumn Rustic _Depuncta_--Plain Clay _Augur_--Double Dot _Plecta_--Flame Shoulder _Flammatra_--Black Collar _C-Nigrum_--Setaceous Hebrew Character _Ditrapezium_--Triple-spotted Clay _Triangulum_--Double-spotted Square-spot _Stigmatica_ (_Rhomboidea_)--Square-spotted Clay _Brunnea_--Purple Clay _Festiva_ (_Conflua_)--Ingrailed Clay _Dahlii_--Barred Chestnut _Subrosea_--Rosy Marsh _Rubi_--Small Square-spot _Umbrosa_--Six-striped Rustic _Baia_--Dotted Clay _Sobrina_--Cousin German _Castanea_ (_Neglecta_)--Grey Rustic _Xanthographa_--Square-spot Rustic =Triphæna.= _Ianthina_--Lesser Broad Border _Fimbria_--Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing _Interjecta_--Least Yellow Underwing _Orbona_ (_Subsequa_)--Lunar Yellow Underwing _Comes_ (_Orbona_)--Lesser Yellow Underwing _Pronuba_--Large Yellow Underwing AMPHIPYRIDÆ. =Amphipyra.= _Pyramidea_--Copper Underwing _Tragopogonis_--Mouse =Mania.= _Typica_--Gothic _Maura_--Old Lady ORTHOSIIDÆ. =Panolis.= _Piniperda_--Pine Beauty =Pachnobia.= _Leucographa_--White-marked _Rubricosa_--Red Chestnut _Hyperborea_ (_Carnica_)--Mountain Rustic =Tæniocampa.= _Gothica_--Hebrew Character _Incerta_ (_Instabilis_)--Clouded Drab _Opima_--Northern Drab _Populeti_--Lead-coloured Drab _Stabilis_--Common Quaker _Gracilis_--Powdered Quaker _Miniosa_--Blossom Underwing _Munda_--Twin-spotted Quaker _Pulverulenta_ (_Cruda_)--Small Quaker =Orthosia.= _Suspecta_--Suspected _Upsilon_--Dismal _Lota_--Red-lined Quaker _Macilenta_--Yellow-lined Quaker =Anchocelis.= _Rufina_--Flounced Chestnut _Pistacina_--Beaded Chestnut _Lunosa_--Lunar Underwing _Litura_--Brown-spot Pinion =Cerastis= (=Glæa=). _Vaccinii_--Chestnut _Spadicea_--Dark Chestnut _Erythrocephala_--Red-headed =Scopelosoma.= _Satellitia_--Satellite =Dasycampa.= _Rubiginea_--Dotted Chestnut =Oporina.= _Croceago_--Orange Upperwing =Xanthia.= _Citrago_--Orange Sallow _Fulvago_ (_Cerago_)--Sallow _Flavago_ (_Silago_)--Pink-barred Sallow _Aurago_--Barred Sallow _Gilvago_--Dusky Lemon Sallow _Circellaris_ (_Ferruginea_)--Brick =Cirrh[oe]dia.= _Xerampelina_--Centre-barred Sallow COSMIIDÆ. =Tethea.= _Subtusa_--Olive _Retusa_--Double Kidney =Cosmia= (=Euperia=). _Paleacea_ (_Fulvago_)--Angle-striped Sallow =Dicycla.= _Oo_--Heart Moth =Calymnia.= _Trapezina_--Dun-bar _Pyralina_--Lunar-spotted Pinion _Diffinis_--White-spotted Pinion _Affinis_--Lesser-spotted Pinion HADENIDÆ. =Eremobia.= _Ochroleuca_--Dusky Sallow =Dianth[oe]cia.= _Luteago_ (_Barretti_)--Barrett's Marbled Coronet _Cæsia_--Grey Marbled Coronet _Nana_ (_Conspersa_)--Marbled Coronet _Albimacula_--White Spot _Compta_--The Shears _Capsincola_--Lychnis _Cucubali_--Campion _Carpophaga_--Tawny Shears _Capsophila_--Pod-lover _Irregularis_ (_Echii_)--Viper's Bugloss =Hecatera.= _Chrysozona_ (_Dysodea_)--Small Ranunculus _Serena_--Broad-barred White =Polia.= _Chi_--Grey Chi _Flavicincta_--Large Ranunculus _Xanthomista_ (_Nigrocincta_)--Black-banded =Dasypolia.= _Templi_--Brindled Ochre =Epunda.= _Lichenea_--Feathered Ranunculus _Lutulenta_--Deep-brown Dart _Nigra_--Black Rustic =Cleoceris.= _Viminalis_--Minor Shoulder-knot =Valeria.= _Oleagina_--Green-brindled Dot =Miselia.= _Oxyacanthæ_--Green-brindled Crescent _Bimaculosa_--Crescent =Agriopis.= _Aprilina_--Marvel-du-jour =Euplexia.= _Lucipara_--Small Angle-shades =Phlogophora.= _Meticulosa_--Angle-shades =Trigonophora.= _Flammea_ (_Empyrea_)--Flame Brocade =Aplecta.= _Prasina_ (_Herbida_)--Green Arches _Occulta_--Great Brocade _Nebulosa_--Grey Arches _Tincta_--Silvery Arches _Advena_--Pale Shining Brown =Crymodes.= _Exulis_ (_Assimilis_)--Northern Arches =Hadena.= _Porphyrea_ (_Satura_)--Beautiful Brocade _Adusta_--Dark Brocade _Protea_--Brindled Green _Glauca_--Glaucous Shears _Dentina_--Grey Shears _Trifolii_ (_Chenopodii_)--Nutmeg _Atriplicis_--Orache _Dissimilis_ (_Suasa_)--Dog's Tooth _Oleracea_--Bright-line Brown-eye _Pisi_--Broom _Thalassina_--Pale-shouldered Brocade _Contigua_--Beautiful Brocade _Genistæ_--Light Brocade _Rectilinea_--Saxon XYLINIDÆ. =Xylocampa.= _Areola_ (_Lithoriza_)--Early Grey =Xylomiges.= _Conspicillaris_--Silver Cloud =Calocampa.= _Vetusta_--Red Sword Grass _Exoleta_--Sword Grass _Solidaginis_--Golden-rod Brindled =Xylina.= _Ornithopus_ (_Rhizolitha_)--Grey Shoulder Knot _Semibrunnea_--Tawny Pinion _Socia_ (_Petrificata_)--Pale Pinion _Furcifera_ (_Conformis_)--Conformist _Lambda_--Nonconformist =Asteroscopus.= _Nubeculosa_--Rannoch Sprawler _Sphinx_ (_Cassinea_)--Sprawler =Cucullia.= _Verbasci_--Mullein Shark _Scrophulariæ_--Betony Shark _Lychnitis_--Lychnis Shark _Asteris_--Starwort Shark _Gnaphalii_--Cudweed Shark _Absinthii_--Wormwood Shark _Chamomillæ_--Chamomile Shark _Umbratica_--Shark GONOPTERIDÆ. =Gonoptera.= _Libatrix_--Herald PLUSIIDÆ. =Habrostola.= _Tripartita_ (_Urticæ_)--Light Spectacle _Triplasia_--Dark Spectacle =Plusia.= _Chryson_ (_Orichalcea_)--Scarce Burnished Brass _Chrysitis_--Burnished Brass _Bractea_--Gold Spangled _Festucæ_--Gold Spot _Iota_--Plain Golden Y _Pulchrina_--Beautiful Golden Y _Gamma_--Silver Y _Interrogationis_--Scarce Silver Y HELIOTHIDÆ. =Anarta.= _Melanopa_--Broad-bordered White Underwing _Cordigera_--Small Dark Yellow Underwing _Myrtilli_--Beautiful Yellow Underwing =Heliaca= (=Heliodes=). _Tenebrata_ (_Arbuti_)--Small Yellow Underwing =Heliothis.= _Dipsacea_--Marbled Clover _Scutosa_--Rare Marbled Clover _Peltigera_--Bordered Straw _Armigera_--Scarce Bordered Straw =Chariclea.= _Umbra_ (_Marginata_)--Bordered Sallow ACONTIIDÆ. =Agrophila.= _Trabealis_ (_Sulphuralis_)--Spotted Sulphur =Acontia.= _Luctuosa_--Four-spotted ERASTRIIDÆ. =Erastria.= _Fasciana_ (_Fuscula_)--Marbled White Spot _Venustula_--Rosy Marbled =Bankia.= _Argentula_--Silver-barred =Hydrelia.= _Uncula_ (_Unca_)--Silver Hook ANTHOPHILIDÆ. =Thalpochares= (=Micra=). _Ostrina_--Purple Marbled _Parva_--Small Marbled _Paula_--Scarce Marbled POAPHILIDÆ. =Phytometra.= _Viridaria_ (_Ænea_)--Small Purple-barred EUCLIDIIDÆ. =Euclidia.= _Mi_--Mother Shipton _Glyphica_--Burnet Noctua OPHIUSIDÆ. =Ophiodes.= _Lunaris_--Lunar Double Stripe CATEPHIIDÆ. =Catephia.= _Alchymista_--Alchymist CATOCALIDÆ. =Catocala.= _Fraxini_--Clifden Nonpareil _Nupta_--Red Underwing _Promissa_--Light Crimson Underwing _Sponsa_--Dark Crimson Underwing AVENTIIDÆ. =Aventia.= _Flexula_--Scallop Barred TOXOCAMPIDÆ. =Toxocampa.= _Pastinum_--Black Neck _Craccæ_--New Black Neck BOLETOBIIDÆ. =Boletobia.= _Fuliginaria_--Waved Black HERMINIIDÆ. =Rivula.= _Sericealis_--Straw Dot =Zanclognatha.= _Grisealis_--Lesser Fan-foot _Tarsipennalis_--Fan-foot _Emortualis_--Olive Crescent =Herminia.= _Cribralis_--Dotted Fan-foot _Derivalis_--Clay Fan-foot =Pechypogon.= _Barbalis_--Common Fan-foot HYPENIDÆ. =Madopa.= _Salicalis_--Lesser Belle =Bomolocha.= _Fontis_ (_Crassalis_)--Beautiful Snout =Hypena.= _Rostralis_--Lesser Snout _Proboscidalis_--Snout =Hypenodes.= _Albistrigalis_--White-streak _Costæstrigalis_--Ribbed-streak =Tholomiges= (=Schrankia=). _Turfosalis_--Tiny Snout BREPHIDES. =Brephos.= _Parthenias_--Orange Underwing _Notha_--Light Orange Underwing =GEOMETRÆ.= UROPTERYGIDÆ. =Uropteryx.= _Sambucaria_ (_Sambucata_)--Swallow Tail ENNOMIDÆ. =Epione.= _Parallelaria_ (_Vespertaria_)--Dark-bordered Beauty _Apiciaria_--Bordered Beauty _Advenaria_--Little Thorn =Rumia.= _Luteolata_ (_Cratægata_)--Brimstone =Venilia.= _Macularia_--Speckled Yellow =Angerona.= _Prunaria_--Orange Moth =Metrocampa.= _Margaritaria_--Light Emerald =Ellopia.= _Prosapiaria_ (_Fasciaria_)--Barred Red =Eurymene.= _Dolobraria_--Scorched Wing =Pericallia.= _Syringaria_--Lilac Beauty =Selenia.= _Bilunaria_ (_Illunaria_)--Early Thorn _Lunaria_--Lunar Thorn _Tetralunaria_ (_Illustraria_)--Purple Thorn =Odontopera.= _Bidentata_--Scalloped Hazel =Crocallis.= _Elinguaria_--Scalloped Oak =Eugonia.= _Autumnaria_ (_Alniaria_)--Large Thorn _Alniaria_ (_Tiliaria_)--Canary-shouldered Thorn _Fuscantaria_--Dusky Thorn _Erosaria_--September Thorn _Quercinaria_ (_Angularia_)--August Thorn =Himera.= _Pennaria_--Feathered Thorn AMPHIDASYDÆ. =Phigalia.= _Pedaria_ (_Pilosaria_)--Pale Brindled Beauty =Nyssia.= _Zonaria_--Belted Beauty _Hispidaria_--Small Brindled Beauty _Lapponaria_--Rare Brindled Beauty =Biston.= _Hirtaria_--Brindled Beauty =Amphidasys.= _Strataria_ (_Prodromaria_)--Oak Beauty _Betularia_--Peppered Moth BOARMIIDÆ. =Hemerophila.= _Abruptaria_--Waved Umber =Cleora.= _Angularia_ (_Viduaria_)--Speckled Beauty _Glabraria_--Dotted Carpet _Lichenaria_--Brussels Lace =Boarmia.= _Repandata_--Mottled Beauty _Gemmaria_ (_Rhomboidaria_)--Willow Beauty _Abietaria_--Satin Carpet _Cinctaria_--Ringed Carpet _Roboraria_--Great Oak Beauty _Consortaria_--Pale Oak Beauty =Tephrosia.= _Consonaria_--Square Spot _Crepuscularia_--Small Engrailed _Biundularia_--Engrailed _Luridata_ (_Extersaria_)--Brindled White-spot _Punctularia_--Grey Birch =Gnophos.= _Obscuraria_--Annulet =Dasydia.= _Obfuscaria_--Scotch Annulet =Psodos.= _Coracina_ (_Trepidaria_)--Black Mountain Moth GEOMETRIDÆ. =Pseudoterpna.= _Pruinata_ (_Cytisaria_)--Grass Emerald =Geometra.= _Papilionaria_--Large Emerald _Vernaria_--Small Emerald =Phorodesma.= _Pustulata_ (_Bajularia_)--Blotched Emerald _Smaragdaria_--Essex Emerald =Nemoria.= _Viridata_--Small Grass Emerald =Iodis.= _Lactearia_--Little Emerald =Hemithea.= _Strigata_ (_Thymiaria_)--Common Emerald EPHYRIDÆ. =Zonosoma.= _Porata_--False Mocha _Punctaria_--Maiden's Blush _Linearia_ (_Trilinearia_)--Clay Triple-lines _Annulata_ (_Omicronaria_)--Mocha _Orbicularia_--Dingy Mocha _Pendularia_--Birch Mocha ACIDALIIDÆ. =Hyria.= _Muricata_ (_Auroraria_)--Golden-bordered Purple =Asthena.= _Luteata_--Small Yellow Wave _Candidata_--Small White Wave _Sylvata_--Waved Carpet _Blomeri_ (_Pulchraria_)--Blomer's Rivulet =Eupisteria.= _Obliterata_ (_Heparata_)--Dingy Shell =Venusia.= _Cambrica_ (_Cambricaria_)--Welsh Wave =Acidalia.= _Perochraria_--Ochraceous Wave _Ochrata_--Bright Wave _Rubiginata_ (_Rubricata_)--Tawny Wave _Dimidiata_ (_Scutulata_)--Single-dotted Wave _Bisetata_--Small Fan-footed Wave _Trigeminata_--Treble Brown-spot _Contiguaria_--Greening's Wave _Rusticata_--Least Carpet _Holosericata_--Silky Wave _Dilutaria_ (_Interjectaria_)--Dark Cream Wave _Virgularia_ (_Incanaria_)--Small Dusty Wave _Circellata_--Circellate _Ornata_--Lace Border _Marginepunctata_ (_Promutata_)--Mullein Wave _Straminata_--Dotted-bordered Cream Wave _Subsericeata_--Satin Wave _Immutata_--Lesser Cream Wave _Strigaria_--Streaked Wave _Remutaria_--Cream Wave _Fumata_--Smoky Wave _Strigilaria_ (_Prataria_)--Sub-angled Wave _Imitaria_--Small Blood-vein _Emutaria_--Rosy Wave _Aversata_--Riband Wave _Inornata_--Plain Wave _Degeneraria_--Portland Riband Wave _Emarginata_--Small Scallop =Timandra.= _Amataria_--Blood-vein CABERIDÆ. =Cabera.= _Pusaria_--Common White Wave _Rotundaria_--Round-winged Wave _Exanthemata_--Common Wave =Bapta.= _Temerata_--Clouded Silver _Bimaculata_ (_Taminata_)--White-pinion Spotted =Aleucis.= _Pictaria_--Sloe Carpet MACARIIDÆ. =Macaria.= _Alternata_--Sharp-angled Peacock _Notata_--Peacock _Liturata_--Tawny-barred Angle =Halia.= _Vauaria_ (_Wavaria_)--V Moth _Brunneata_ (_Pinetaria_)--Rannoch Geometer FIDONIIDÆ. =Strenia.= _Clathrata_--Latticed Heath =Panagra.= _Petraria_--Brown Silver-line =Numeria.= _Pulveraria_--Barred Umber =Scodiona.= _Belgiaria_--Grey Scalloped Bar =Selidosema.= _Ericetaria_ (_Plumaria_)--Bordered Grey =Fidonia.= _Carbonaria_--Netted Mountain _Limbaria_ (_Conspicuata_)--Frosted Yellow =Ematurga.= _Atomaria_--Common Heath =Bupalus.= _Piniaria_--Bordered White =Minoa.= _Murinata_ (_Euphorbiata_)--Drab Geometer =Scoria.= _Lineata_ (_Dealbata_)--Black-veined =Aplasta.= _Ononaria_--Rest-harrow =Sterrha.= _Sacraria_--Vestal =Lythria.= _Purpuraria_--Purple-barred Yellow =Aspilates.= _Strigillaria_--Grass Wave _Ochrearia_ (_Citraria_)--Yellow Belle _Gilvaria_--Straw Belle ZERENIDÆ. =Abraxas.= _Grossulariata_--Currant Moth (Magpie) _Sylvata_ (_Ulmata_)--Clouded Magpie =Ligdia.= _Adustata_--Scorched Carpet =Lomaspilis.= _Marginata_--Clouded Border LIGIIDÆ. =Pachycnemia.= _Hippocastanaria_--Horse Chestnut HYBERNIIDÆ. =Hybernia.= _Rupicapraria_--Early Moth _Leucophæaria_--Spring Usher _Aurantiaria_--Scarce Umber _Marginaria_ (_Progemmaria_)--Dotted Border _Defoliaria_--Mottled Umber =Anisopteryx.= _Æscularia_--March Moth LARENTIIDÆ. =Cheimatobia.= _Brumata_--Winter Moth _Boreata_--Northern Winter Moth =Oporabia.= _Dilutata_--November Moth _Filigrammaria_--Autumnal Moth _Autumnaria_ =Larentia.= _Didymata_--Twin-spot Carpet _Multistrigaria_--Mottled Grey _Cæsiata_--Grey Mountain Carpet _Flavicinctata_ (_Ruficinctata_)--Yellow-ringed Carpet _Salicata_--Striped Twin-spot Carpet _Olivata_--Beech-green Carpet _Viridaria_ (_Pectinitaria_)--Green Carpet =Emmelesia.= _Affinitata_--Rivulet _Alchemillata_--Small Rivulet _Albulata_--Grass Rivulet _Decolorata_--Sandy Carpet _Tæniata_--Barred Carpet _Unifasciata_--Haworth's Carpet _Minorata_ (_Ericetata_)--Heath Rivulet _Adæquata_ (_Blandiata_)--Pretty Pinion =Eupithecia.= _Venosata_--Netted Pug _Consignata_--Pinion-spotted Pug _Linariata_--Toadflax Pug _Pulchellata_--Foxglove Pug _Oblongata_ (_Centaureata_)--Lime-speck _Succenturiata_--Bordered Lime-speck _Subfulvata_--Tawny-speckled Pug _Scabiosata_ (_Subumbrata_)--Shaded Pug _Pernotata_--Guenée's Pug _Plumbeolata_--Lead-coloured Pug _Isogrammaria_--Haworth's Pug _Pygmæata_--Marsh Pug _Helveticaria_--Edinburgh Pug _Egenaria_--Pauper Pug _Satyrata_--Satyr Pug _Castigata_--Grey Pug _Jasioneata_--Jasione Pug _Trisignaria_--Triple-spotted Pug _Virgaureata_--Golden-rod Pug _Fraxinata_--Ash-tree Pug _Extensaria_--Scarce Pug _Pimpinellata_--Pimpinel Pug _Valerianata_--Valerian Pug _Pusillata_--Dwarf Pug _Irriguata_--Marbled Pug _Campanulata_--Campanula Pug _Innotata_--Long-winged Pug _Indigata_--Ochreous Pug _Constrictata_--Wild Thyme Pug _Nanata_--Narrow-winged Pug _Subnotata_--Plain Pug _Vulgata_--Common Pug _Albipunctata_--White-spotted Pug _Expallidata_--Bleached Pug _Absinthiata_--Wormwood Pug _Minutata_--Ling Pug _Assimilata_--Currant Pug _Tenuiata_--Slender Pug _Subciliata_--Maple Pug _Lariciata_--Larch Pug _Abbreviata_--Brindled Pug _Dodoneata_--Oak-tree Pug _Exiguata_--Mottled Pug _Ultimaria_--Tamarisk Pug _Sobrinata_--Juniper Pug _Togata_--Cloaked Pug _Pumilata_--Double-striped Pug _Coronata_--V Pug _Rectangulata_--Green Pug _Debiliata_--Bilberry Pug =Collix.= _Sparsata_--Dentated Pug =Lobophora.= _Sexalisata_ (_Sexalata_)--Small Seraphim _Halterata_ (_Hexapterata_)--Seraphim _Viretata_--Yellow-barred Brindle _Carpinata_ (_Lobulata_)--Early Tooth-striped _Polycommata_--Barred Tooth-striped =Thera.= _Juniperata_--Juniper Carpet _Simulata_--Chestnut-coloured Carpet _Variata_ (_Obeliscata_)--Shaded Broad-bar _Firmata_--Pine Carpet =Hypsipetes.= _Ruberata_--Ruddy High-flier _Trifasciata_ (_Impluviata_)--May High-flier _Sordidata_ (_Elutata_)--July High-flier =Melanthia.= _Bicolorata_ (_Rubiginata_)--Blue-bordered Carpet _Ocellata_--Purple Bar _Albicillata_--Beautiful Carpet =Melanippe.= _Hastata_--Argent and Sable _Tristata_--Small Argent and Sable _Procellata_--Chalk Carpet _Unangulata_--Sharp-angled Carpet _Rivata_--Wood Carpet _Sociata_ (_Subtristata_)--Common Carpet _Montanata_--Silver-ground Carpet _Galiata_--Galium Carpet _Fluctuata_--Garden Carpet =Anticlea.= _Cucullata_ (_Sinuata_)--Royal Mantle _Rubidata_--Flame _Badiata_--Shoulder Stripe _Nigrofasciaria_ (_Derivata_)--Streamer _Berberata_--Barberry Carpet =Coremia.= _Munitata_--Red Carpet _Designata_ (_Propugnata_)--Flame Carpet _Ferrugata_--Red Twin-spot Carpet _Unidentaria_--Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet _Quadrifasciaria_--Large Twin-spot Carpet =Camptogramma.= _Bilineata_--Yellow Shell _Fluviata_--Gem =Phibalapteryx.= _Tersata_--Fern _Lapidata_--Slender-striped Rufous _Vittata_ (_Lignata_)--Oblique Carpet _Polygrammata_ (_Conjunctaria_)--Many-lined _Vitalbata_--Small Waved Umber =Triphosa.= _Dubitata_--Tissue =Eucosmia.= _Certata_--Scarce Tissue _Undulata_--Scalloped Shell =Scotosia.= _Vetulata_--Brown Scallop _Rhamnata_--Dark Umber =Cidaria.= _Siterata_ (_Psittacata_)--Red-green Carpet _Miata_--Autumn Green Carpet _Picata_--Short-cloak Carpet _Corylata_--Broken-barred Carpet _Sagittata_--Marsh Carpet _Truncata_ (_Russata_)--Common Marbled Carpet _Immanata_--Dark Marbled Carpet _Suffumata_--Water Carpet _Reticulata_--Netted Carpet _Silaceata_--Small Ph[oe]nix _Prunata_ (_Ribesiaria_)--Ph[oe]nix _Testata_--Chevron _Populata_--Northern Spinach _Fulvata_--Barred Yellow _Dotata_ (_Pyraliata_)--Barred Straw _Associata_ (_Dotata_)--Spinach =Pelurga.= _Comitata_--Dark Spinach EUBOLIIDÆ. =Eubolia.= _Cervinata_ (_Cervinaria_)--Mallow _Limitata_ (_Mensuraria_)--Small Mallow _Plumbaria_ (_Palumbaria_)--Belle _Bipunctaria_--Chalk Carpet =Mesotype.= _Virgata_ (_Lineolata_)--Oblique-striped =Carsia.= _Paludata_ (_Imbutata_)--Manchester Treble Bar =Anaitis.= _Plagiata_--Treble Bar =Lithostege.= _Griseata_--Pale Grey Carpet =Chesias.= _Spartiata_--Streak _Rufata_ (_Obliquaria_)--Broom Tip SIONIDÆ. =Tanagra.= _Atrata_ (_Chærophyllata_)--Chimney Sweep APPENDIX II _THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR_ The success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist depends greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various butterflies and moths generally appear, and of the localities which they are known to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the past enable him to calculate on the probabilities of the future, and he chooses both time and locality according to his requirements. As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the chances of meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to fill a long-standing blank in his cabinet; and we hear him discussing the probabilities as to whether this species is yet 'out,' or whether the larvæ of that species are feeding. How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist! He rambles promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest idea as to what he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only four or five species when an experienced collector, without covering a larger area of ground, would take scores in the same time. In order to afford some little help to the beginner, I have thought it advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide him in his work. The space at our command would not allow this to be carried out in detail, but the general instructions will undoubtedly assist most of my readers until the practical experience gained by a few years' work has enabled them to run on their own legs. Of course, in making reference to the monthly lists of insects on the wing, allowance must be made for the forwardness or backwardness of the seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list _may_ appear in March in an exceptionally warm season, but may not emerge till the early part of May if the spring has been unusually severe. It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a certain genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the name of that genus or family is entered on the list instead of the names of the individual species; but the latter can easily be obtained by reference to Appendix I. JANUARY There is not much field work to be done during this month. If the weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the wing; but a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone Butterfly (_Rhamni_) and some of the hybernating Vanessas from their winter quarters. Hybernating moths may also be met with, on the wing if the weather is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks during the frosts. These include several _Noctuæ_--_Auricoma_, _Lithargyria_, _Suffusa_, _Vaccinii_, _Spadicea_, _Erythrocephala_, _Satellitia_, _Rubiginea_, _Croceago_, _Vetusta_, _Exoleta_, _Ornithopus_, _Furcifera_, _Semibrunnea_, _Socia_, and _Libatrix_; and also a few _Geometræ_--_Zonaria_, _Fluviata_, _Dubitata_, _Siterata_, and _Miata_. In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may examine tree trunks and fences for the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_), and late specimens of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_); and towards the end of the month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of the Pale Brindled Beauty (_Pedaria_) and the Spring Usher (_Leucophæaria_). A few of the _Tineæ_ may also be seen. The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the year, as the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks and fences on which they rest. Pupa digging may be carried on throughout the month if the weather is sufficiently mild, but it is of no use attempting this during a frost. Hybernating larvæ may also be searched out of their winter quarters if the collector does not mind giving them the attention they require; but, as a rule, it is better to wait till they themselves start out to feed in the spring, at which time all their food plants are showing leaf. FEBRUARY Our remarks under 'January' concerning pupa digging and other work apply equally well to this month. The same hybernating butterflies and moths may be looked for; and, in addition to _Pedaria_, _Leucophæaria_, and _Rupicapraria_, which now appear more plentifully, the following species will probably be seen: Small Eggar (_Lanestris_) Small Brindled Beauty (_Hispidaria_) Oak Beauty (_Strataria_) Dotted Border (_Marginaria_) March Moth (_Æscularia_) About half a dozen species of the _Tineæ_ will also have made their appearance before the end of the month. MARCH Many of the hybernating larvæ will come out during March if the weather is mild, and commence to feed; and the young caterpillars will begin to appear from the eggs of the early moths already named. This is consequently a good time to commence the search for larvæ if you intend to go in for rearing. During the daytime some may be beaten from the boughs of trees and shrubs; and those which feed on low plants, being generally nocturnal in their habits, should be searched for in the evening, after dark, with the aid of a lantern. The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than before, and, if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year, a few freshly emerged species may be seen. These may possibly include: Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) As regards moths, several fresh species may be expected to appear, while those named as appearing in February are still to be found. The new-comers may include: =Bombyces.= Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_) Yellow-horned (_Flavicornis_) =Noctuæ.= Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_) White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_) Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_) All species of the genus _Tæniocampa_ Early Grey (_Areola_) Green-brindled Dot (_Oleagina_) Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_) Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_) =Geometræ.= Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_) Engrailed (_Biundularia_) Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_) Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and sallow blossom may be searched in the evening, but it is probable that only a few species will be taken by these means. A few more species of the _Tineæ_ appear in March, and four or five of the _Tortrices_ are out before the end of the month. APRIL This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will be necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order early. The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined and repaired if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages &c. put in perfect trim for the new season's work. Larvæ are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating, sweeping, and searching will enable you to stock your cages liberally. Sugaring may be continued throughout the month, and the sallow blossom may be searched as long as it proves attractive. Moths may also be attracted by light at night. The following butterflies are generally out during April, in addition to the hybernated species already named: Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Orange Tip (_Cardamines_) Wood White (_Sinapis_) Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Euphrosyne_) Speckled Wood (_Egeria_) Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_) Dingy Skipper (_Tages_) The following is a list of the principal moths for April: =Bombyces.= Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_) Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_) Yellow Horned (_Flavicornis_) Frosted Green (_Ridens_) =Noctuæ.= Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_) White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_) Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_) All species of the genus _Tæniocampa_ Early Grey (_Areola_) Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_) Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_) Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_) =Geometræ.= Brimstone (_Luteolata_) Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_) Belted Beauty (_Zonaria_) Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_) Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_) Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_) Engrailed (_Biundularia_) Sloe Carpet (_Pictaria_) Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_) Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_) Satyr Pug (_Satyrata_) Marbled Pug (_Irriguata_) Campanula Pug (_Campanulata_) Brindled Pug (_Abbreviata_) Oak-tree Pug (_Dodoneata_) Double-striped Pug (_Pumilata_) Early Tooth-striped (_Carpinata_) Shoulder Stripe (_Badiata_) Many-lined (_Polygrammata_) Tissue (_Dubitata_) In addition to the above, a few species of the _Tortrices_, several of the _Tineæ_, and one or two of the Plume Moths (_Pterophori_) are out during April. MAY Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during May, yet a number of pupæ may be found among grass and leaves under trees, and also attached to the leaves and stems of low plants. These pupæ include those of several of the butterflies, among which may be mentioned _Machaon_, _Selene_, _Euphrosyne_, _Aurinia_, _Megæra_, _Ianira_, _Rubi_, _Astrarche_, _Icarus_, _Bellargus_, _Corydon_, _Lucina_, and _Sylvanus_. Larvæ may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs of oaks and other trees, and also by examining low plants. The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the following are also out: Swallow Tail (_Machaon_) Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Bath White (_Daplidice_) Orange Tip (_Cardamines_) Wood White (_Sinapis_) Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_) Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_) Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_) Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_) Speckled Wood (_Egeria_) Wall (_Megæra_) Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_) Small Heath (_Pamphilus_) Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Brown Argus (_Astrarche_) Common Blue (_Icarus_) Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_) Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_) Chequered Skipper (_Palæmon_) There is a great increase in the number of moths this month, and much good work may be done by means of light traps and by the examination of fences. Many moths are driven from their resting places early in the morning by the direct rays of the rising sun, and then seek out a spot where they are better sheltered, and where they are consequently less easily found. Hence the advantage of searching fences early in the morning. The May list includes: =Sphinges.= Small Elephant (_Porcellus_) All species of the genera _Smerinthus_ and _Macroglossa_ Some of the Clearwings (_Apiformis_, _Sphegiformis_, and _Culiciformis_) Cream-bordered Green (_Chlorana_) Green Silver-lined (_Prasinana_) =Bombyces.= Wood Tiger (_Plantaginis_) Muslin Moth (_Mendica_) Common Swift (_Lupulinus_) Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_) Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_) Emperor (_Pavonia_) All species of family _Drepanulidæ_ Alder Kitten (_Bicuspis_) Puss (_Vinula_) Several of the 'Prominents' (_Cuculla_, _Carmelita_, _Dictæa_, _Dictæoides_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_, _Trepida_, _Chaonia_, _Trimacula_) Chocolate Tip (_Curtula_) Small Chocolate Tip (_Pigra_) =Noctuæ.= Knot Grass (_Rumicis_) Sweet Gale (_Myricæ_) White Colon (_Albicolon_) Cabbage (_Brassicæ_) Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_) Marsh Moth (_Palustris_) Light Brocade (_Genistæ_) Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_) Betony Shark (_Scrophulariæ_) Starwort Shark (_Asteris_) Camomile Shark (_Chamomillæ_) Small Dark Yellow Underwing (_Cordigera_) Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_) Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_) Lunar Double Stripe (_Lunaris_) =Geometræ.= Brimstone (_Luteolata_) Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_) Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_) Scalloped Hazel (_Bidentata_) Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_) Peppered (_Betularia_) Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_) Ringed Carpet (_Cinctaria_) Square Spot (_Consonaria_) Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_) Engrailed (_Biundularia_) Grey Birch (_Punctularia_) Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_) All species of family _Ephyridæ_ Cream Wave (_Remutaria_) White Wave (_Pusaria_) Round-winged Wave (_Rotundaria_) Common Wave (_Exanthemata_) Clouded Silver (_Temerata_) White-pinion Spotted (_Bimaculata_) Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_) Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_) Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_) Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_) Common Heath (_Atomaria_) Bordered White (_Piniaria_) Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_) Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_) Clouded Border (_Marginata_) Horse Chestnut (_Hippocastanaria_) Pretty Pinion (_Adæquata_) Pugs (_Venosata_, _Consignata_, _Pulchellata_, _Plumbeolata_, _Satyrata_, _Castigata_, _Pusillata_, _Irriguata_, _Indigata_, _Nanata_, _Vulgata_, _Assimilata_, _Exiguata_, _Coronata_) Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_) Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_) May High-flier (_Trifasciata_) Common Carpet (_Sociata_) Silver-ground Carpet (_Montanata_) Streamer (_Nigrofasciaria_) Barberry Carpet (_Berberata_) Flame Carpet (_Designata_) Twin-spot Carpets (_Ferrugata_ and _Unidentaria_) Scarce Tissue (_Certata_) Water Carpet (_Suffumata_) Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_) Oblique-striped (_Virgata_) Broom Tip (_Rufata_) A number of the Micros are also out this month. About twenty species of the _Pyralides_, one or two of the _Pterophori_, a few _Crambi_, about fifty of the _Tortrices_, and no less than two hundred of the _Tineæ_. The collector will do well to search fences and tree trunks for these moths, whenever he has the opportunity; and also to use the net freely in wooded country, waste places, and along hedgerows, _before_ and at dusk. JUNE There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this month. The early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have quite left us; but new species are taking their place. The _Sphinges_ now reach their maximum, as do also the _Bombyces_; and the other groups are almost if not quite up to their highest total. The _Noctuæ_ and _Geometræ_ each amount to over a hundred species. No less than a hundred and fifty British _Tortrices_ are on the wing; the _Tineæ_ make a near approach to three hundred, and the _Pyralides_ of the month are not far short of numbering a hundred species. It will thus be seen that the net and pill boxes, as well as the setting boards, are in constant demand. Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the examination of fences and the bark of trees; and on bright days, as soon as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work may be carried on till dusk. Micros and _Geometræ_ are out early in the evening, when they should be taken with the net. Later on the _Noctuæ_ may be seen playing round their favourite flowers. Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June, and decoy females of the _Bombyces_ group may be called to your aid. Larvæ are also abundant during June, and those of most of the butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants. The following is the list of imagines for the month: =Butterflies.= Swallow Tail (_Machaon_) Black-veined White (_Cratægi_) Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_) Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_) Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_) Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_) Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_) Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_) Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_) White Admiral (_Sibylla_) Small Ringlet (_Epiphron_) Meadow Brown (_Ianira_) Ringlet (_Hyperanthus_) Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_) Small Heath (_Pamphilus_) Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Common Blue (_Icarus_) Small Blue (_Minima_) Duke of Burgundy (_Lucina_) Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_) Dingy Skipper (_Tages_) Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_) Chequered Skipper (_Palæmon_) =Sphinges.= Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_) Spurge Hawk (_Euphorbiæ_) Small Elephant (_Porcellus_) Large Elephant (_Elpenor_) Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_) Poplar Hawk (_Populi_) Lime Hawk (_Tiliæ_) Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_) All the Clearwings (Sesiidæ) The Burnets (Fam. _Zygænidæ_) =Bombyces.= Family _Nolidæ_ Dew Moth (_Irrorella_) Cinnabar (_Jacobææ_) Scarlet Tiger (_Dominula_) Family _Cheloniidæ_ Family _Hepialidæ_ Family _Cossidæ_ Family _Cochliopodidæ_ Dark Tussock (_Fascelina_) Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_) Scarce Vapourer (_Gonostigma_) Fox (_Rubi_) Lappet (_Quercifolia_) Family _Drepanulidæ_ Family _Dicranuridæ_ Pale Prominent (_Palpina_) Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_) Swallow Prominent (_Dictæa_) Lesser Swallow Prominent (_Dictæoides_) Iron Prominent (_Dromedarius_) Pebble Prominent (_Ziczac_) Great Prominent (_Trepida_) Marbled Brown (_Trimacula_) Buff Tip (_Bucephala_) Peach Blossom (_Batis_) Genus _Cymatophora_ =Noctuæ.= Scarce Marvel-du-jour (_Orion_) Genus _Acronycta_ Powdered Wainscot (_Albovenosa_) Most of the species of genus _Leucania_ Flame Wainscot (_Flammea_) Silky Wainscot (_Maritima_) Small Rufous (_Rufa_) Mere Wainscot (_Hellmanni_) Concolorous (_Extrema_) Flame (_Putris_) Genus _Xylophasia_ Bird's Wing (_Scabriuscula_) Small Mottled Willow (_Exigua_) Bordered Gothic (_Reticulata_) Feathered Ear (_Leucophæa_) Large Nutmeg (_Sordida_) White Colon (_Albicolon_) Cabbage (_Brassicæ_) Dot (_Persicariæ_) Rustic Shoulder Knot (_Basilinea_) Union Rustic (_Connexa_) Dusky Brocade (_Gemina_) Double Lobed (_Ophiogramma_) Genus _Miana_ Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_) Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_) Rustic (_Taraxaci_) Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_) Reddish Buff (_Caliginosa_) Marsh Moth (_Palustris_) Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_) Turnip (_Segetum_) Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_) Light-feathered Rustic (_Cinerea_) Sand Dart (_Ripæ_) Garden Dart (_Nigricans_) Lover's Knot (_Strigula_) Double Dot (_Augur_) Flame Shoulder (_Plecta_) Double-spotted Square-spot (_Triangulum_) Ingrailed Clay (_Festiva_) Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing (_Fimbria_) Large Yellow Underwing (_Pronuba_) Gothic (_Typica_) Heart Moth (_Oo_) Genus _Dianth[oe]cia_ Broad-barred White (_Serena_) Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_) Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_) Green Arches (_Prasina_) Grey Arches (_Nebulosa_) Silvery Arches (_Tincta_) Pale Shining Brown (_Advena_) Northern Arches (_Exulis_) Genus Hadena (nearly all) Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_) Starwort Shark (_Asteris_) Cudweed Shark (_Gnaphalii_) Camomile Shark (_Chamomillæ_) Shark (_Umbratica_) Genus _Habrostola_ Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_) Plain Golden Y (_Iota_) Beautiful Golden Y (_Pulchrina_) Silver Y (_Gamma_) Scarce Silver Y (_Interrogationis_) Genus _Anarta_ Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_) Bordered Straw (_Peltigera_) Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_) Spotted Sulphur (_Trabealis_) Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_) Family _Erastriidæ_ Purple Marbled (_Ostrina_) Small Marbled (_Parva_) Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_) Mother Shipton (_Mi_) Burnet Noctua (_Glyphica_) Black Neck (_Pastinum_) Family _Herminiidæ_ Family _Hypenidæ_ =Geometræ.= Little Thorn (_Advenaria_) Brimstone (_Luteolata_) Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_) Orange (_Prunaria_) Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_) Scorched Wing (_Dolobraria_) Lunar Thorn (_Lunaria_) Peppered (_Betularia_) Speckled Beauty (_Angularia_) Genus _Boarmia_ Square Spot (_Consonaria_) Brindled White-spot (_Luridata_) Grey Birch (_Punctularia_) Blotched Emerald (_Pustulata_) Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_) Common Emerald (_Strigata_) Nearly all the family _Acidaliidæ_ Genus _Bapta_ Peacock (_Notata_) Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_) Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_) Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_) Grey Scalloped Bar (_Belgiaria_) Frosted Yellow (_Limbaria_) Bordered White (_Piniaria_) Drab Geometer (_Murinata_) Black-veined (_Lineata_) Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_) Clouded Magpie (_Sylvata_) Scorched Carpet (_Adustata_) Clouded Border (_Marginata_) Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_) Grey Mountain Carpet (_Cæsiata_) Striped Twin-spot Carpet (_Salicata_) Green Carpet (_Viridaria_) Genus _Emmelesia_ Most of the Pugs (_Eupithecia_) Small Seraphim (_Sexalisata_) Seraphim (_Halterata_) Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_) Shaded Broad-bar (_Variata_) Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_) Purple Bar (_Ocellata_) Beautiful Carpet (_Albicillata_) Genus _Melanippe_ Royal Mantle (_Cucullata_) Flame (_Rubidata_) Genus _Coremia_ Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_) Fern (_Tersata_) Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_) Small Waved Umber (_Vitalbata_) Scalloped Shell (_Undulata_) Brown Scallop (_Vetulata_) Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_) Broken-barred Carpet (_Corylata_) Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_) Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_) Small Mallow (_Limitata_) Belle (_Plumbaria_) Oblique-striped (_Virgata_) Treble Bar (_Plagiata_) Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_) Chimney Sweep (_Atrata_) JULY The number of species on the wing in July is even greater than in June. Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods of double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects. _Sphinges_ are beginning to fall off, and so are the _Bombyces_, but the _Noctuæ_ and _Geometræ_ are slightly on the increase. As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be expected, all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total number on the wing with the exception of the _Tineæ_. Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths may be attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well examined. Pupæ may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is particularly desirous of obtaining the pupæ of insects known to be now passing through that stage, he will probably do better by looking after imagines. Larvæ, however, may well receive a little attention, providing the setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and night, even if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply you with as many species as you can accommodate in your glasses and cages. The butterflies of the month are: Swallow Tail (_Machaon_) Black-veined White (_Cratægi_) Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Wood White (_Sinapis_) Brimstone (_Rhamni_) Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_) High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_) Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_) Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_) Comma (_C-Album_) Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_) Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_) Peacock (_Io_) Painted Lady (_Cardui_) White Admiral (_Sibylla_) Purple Emperor (_Iris_) Marbled White (_Galatea_) Northern Brown (_Æthiops_) Speckled Wood (_Egeria_) Grayling (_Semele_) Meadow Brown (_Ianira_) Large Heath (_Tithonus_) Ringlet (_Hyperanthes_) Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_) Small Heath (_Pamphilus_) Brown Hairstreak (_Betulæ_) White-letter Hairstreak (_W-Album_) Dark Hairstreak (_Pruni_) Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_) Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Silver-studded Blue (_Ægon_) Common Blue (_Icarus_) Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_) Small Blue (_Minima_) Large Blue (_Arion_) Small Skipper (_Thaumas_) New Small Skipper (_Lineola_) The moths of July include the following species: =Sphinges.= Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_) Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_) Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_) Poplar Hawk (_Populi_) Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_) Hornet Clearwing of Poplar (_Apiformis_) Hornet Clearwing of Osier (_Crabroniformis_) Welsh Clearwing (_Scoliiformis_) Red-belted Clearwing (_Myopiformis_) Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_) Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_) Genus _Ino_ Burnets (_Trifolii_, _Loniceræ_ and _Filipendulæ_) =Bombyces.= Tortrix (_Undulanus_) Large Green Silver-lined (_Bicolorana_) Short-cloaked (_Cucullatella_) Most of the family _Lithosiidæ_ Tiger (_Caia_) Ruby Tiger (_Fuliginosa_) Buff Ermine (_Lubricipeda_) White Ermine (_Menthastri_) Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_) Northern Swift (_Velleda_) Goat Moth (_Ligniperda_) Leopard (_Pyrina_) Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_) Yellow Tail (_Similis_) Satin (_Salicis_) Reed Tussock (_C[oe]nosa_) Black Arches (_Monacha_) Vapourer (_Antiqua_) Lackey (_Neustria_) Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_) Oak Eggar (_Quercus_) Drinker (_Potatoria_) Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_) Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_) Lobster (_Fagi_) Pale Prominent (_Palpina_) Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_) Buff Tip (_Bucephala_) Buff Arches (_Derasa_) Peach Blossom (_Batis_) Figure of Eighty (_Octogesima_) Poplar Lutestring (_Or_) Lesser Satin (_Duplaris_) =Noctuæ.= Marbled Green (_Muralis_) Marbled Beauty (_Perla_) Grey Dagger (_Psi_) Miller (_Leporina_) Poplar Grey (_Megacephala_) Grisette (_Strigosa_) Coronet (_Ligustri_) Knot Grass (_Rumicis_) Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_) Light Knot Grass (_Menyanthidis_) Brown Line Bright Eye (_Conigera_) Double Line (_Turca_) Clay (_Lithargyria_) Wainscots (_Littoralis_, _Impudens_, _Comma_, _Impura_, _Pallens_, _Phragmitidis_, _Maritima_, _Rufa_, _Bondii_, _Neurica_) Ear Moth (_Nictitans_) Flame (_Putris_) Genus _Xylophasia_ Antler (_Graminis_) Straw Underwing (_Matura_) Most of Genus _Mamestra_ Genus _Miana_ Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_) Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_) Genus _Caradrina_ Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_) Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_) Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_) Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_) Heart and Club (_Corticea_) Sand Dart (_Ripæ_) Coast Dart (_Cursoria_) Garden Dart (_Nigricans_) Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_) True Lover's Knot (_Strigula_) Stout Dart (_Obscura_) Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_) Northern Rustic (_Lucernea_) Ashworth's Rustic (_Ashworthii_) Most of Genus _Noctua_ Genus _Triphæna_ Copper Underwing (_Pyramidea_) Mouse (_Tragopogonis_) Old Lady (_Maura_) Suspected (_Suspecta_) Dismal (_Upsilon_) Olive (_Subtusa_) Genus _Calymnia_ Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_) Marbled Coronet (_Nana_) Genus _Hecatera_ Minor Shoulder Knot (_Viminalis_) Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_) Genus _Aplecta_ Dark Brocade (_Adusta_) Shears (_Dentina_) Nutmeg (_Trifolii_) Pale-shouldered Brocade (_Thalassina_) Silver Cloud (_Conspicillaris_) Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_) Wormwood Shark (_Absinthii_) Family _Plusiidæ_ Beautiful Yellow Underwing (_Myrtilli_) Marbled Clover (_Dipsacea_) Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_) Rosy Marbled (_Venustula_) Marbled White-spot (_Fasciana_) Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_) Red Underwing (_Nupta_) Light Crimson Underwing (_Promissa_) Dark Crimson Underwing(_Sponsa_) New Black-neck (_Craccæ_) Family _Herminiidæ_ Family _Hypenidæ_ =Geometræ.= Swallow-tail (_Sambucaria_) Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_) Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_) Orange (_Prunaria_) Light Emerald (_Margaritaria_) Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_) Lilac Beauty (_Syringaria_) Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_) Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_) Genus _Cleora_ Genus _Boarmia_ Annulet (_Obscuraria_) Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_) Black Mountain Moth (_Coracina_) Family _Geometridæ_ Golden-bordered Purple (_Muricata_) Waved Carpet (_Sylvata_) Dingy Shell (_Obliterata_) Welsh Wave (_Cambrica_) Most of the _Acidaliæ_ Blood Vein (_Amataria_) Family _Macariidæ_ Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_) Bordered Grey (_Ericetaria_) Common Heath (_Atomaria_) Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_) Vestal (_Sacraria_) Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_) Family _Zerenidæ_ Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_) Grey Mountain Carpet (_Cæsiata_) Yellow-ringed Carpet (_Flavicinctata_) Beech-green Carpet (_Olivata_) Green Carpet (_Viridaria_) Genus _Emmelesia_ Pugs (_Linariata_, _Oblongata_, _Succenturiata_, _Pernotata_, _Isogrammaria_, _Virgaureata_, _Innotata_, _Subnotata_, _Absinthiata_, _Tenuiata_, _Subciliata_, _Rectangulata_) Chestnut-coloured Carpet (_Simulata_) Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_) Pine Carpet (_Firmata_) July High-flier (_Sordidata_) Genus _Melanthia_ Genus _Melanippe_ Flame (_Rubidata_) Red Carpet (_Munitata_) Large Twin-spot Carpet (_Quadrifasciaria_) Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_) Fern (_Tersata_) Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_) Many-lined (_Polygrammata_) Dark Umber (_Rhamnata_) Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_) Marsh Carpet (_Sagittata_) Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_) Dark Marbled Carpet (_Immanata_) Netted Carpet (_Reticulata_) Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_) Chevron (_Testata_) Northern Spinach (_Populata_) Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_) Barred Straw (_Dotata_) Spinach (_Associata_) Dark Spinach (_Comitata_) Small Mallow (_Limitata_) Belle (_Plumbaria_) Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_) Oblique-striped (_Virgata_) Manchester Treble Bar (_Paludata_) Treble Bar (_Plagiata_) Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_) Chimney Sweep (Atrata) AUGUST Although there is a very appreciable falling off in the number of species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty of work for the lepidopterist. Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole or part of this month, and several fresh species commence their flight. August, too, may be looked upon as _the_ month for second broods, and an opportunity now arises for searching for some of the species that were missed at the time of their early appearance in May. Clover and lucerne fields should be well worked. A few _Sphinges_ and a number of the _Bombyces_ are still on the wing. The _Noctuæ_ are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly a hundred species (including the rarer ones) at large. These last may be taken at sugar in considerable numbers, and it is interesting to note that two of the Vanessas (_Atalanta_ and _Cardui_) may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the daytime. _Geometræ_ and Micros fall off very considerably this month, but these, as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from tree trunks and palings. Light traps may also be used with much success during August. Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvæ that feed within them; and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the lovers of sweets. Ivy blossom should be well worked at night; and clover and lucerne fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night, especially just after rain. Larvæ are to be obtained in abundance by beating and searching, the latter process being conducted by night as well as by day. The following is the list of imagines for August: =Butterflies.= Swallow Tail (_Machaon_) Large White (_Brassicæ_) Small White (_Rapæ_) Green-veined White (_Napi_) Bath White (_Daplidice_) Wood White (_Sinapis_) Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_) Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_) Brimstone (_Rhamni_) Queen of Spain (_Latona_) Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_) High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_) Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_) Genus _Vanessa_ White Admiral (_Sibylla_) Purple Emperor (_Iris_) Marbled White (_Galatea_) Northern Brown (_Æthiops_) Speckled Wood (_Egeria_) Wall (_Megæra_) Grayling (_Semele_) Meadow Brown (_Ianira_) Large Heath (_Tithonus_) Small Heath (_Pamphilus_) Brown Hairstreak (_Betulæ_) Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Tailed Blue (_Bætica_) Silver-studded Blue (_Ægon_) Brown Argus (_Astrarche_) Common Blue (_Icarus_) Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_) Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_) Dingy Skipper (_Tages_) New Small Skipper (_Lineola_) Lulworth Skipper (_Actæon_) Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_) Silver-spotted Skipper (_Comma_) =Sphinges.= Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_) Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_) Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_) Striped Hawk (_Livornica_) Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_) Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_) Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_) =Bombyces.= Round-winged Muslin (_Senex_) Muslin (_Mundana_) Footmen (_Muscerda_, _Lutarella_, _Griseola_) Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_) Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_) Yellow Tail (_Similis_) Satin (_Salicis_) Gipsy (_Dispar_) Black Arches (_Monacha_) Vapourer (_Antiqua_) Lackey (_Neustria_) Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_) Oak Eggar (_Quercus_) Grass Eggar (_Trifolii_) Drinker (_Potatoria_) Hook Tips (_Lacertinaria_, _Falcataria_, _Binaria_, _Cultraria_) Chinese Character (_Glaucata_) Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_) Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_) Prominents (_Camelina_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_) Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_) =Noctuæ.= Marbled Green (_Muralis_) Marbled Beauty (_Perla_) Grey Dagger (_Psi_) Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_) Wainscots (_Musculosa_, _Albipuncta_, _Impura_, _Pallens_, _Fulva_, _Cannæ_, _Arundinis_, _Geminipuncta_, _Neurica_, _Lutosa_) Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_) Genus _Hydr[oe]cia_ Slender Clouded Brindle (_Scolopacina_) Feathered Brindle (_Australis_) Feathered Gothic (_Popularis_) Antler (_Graminis_) Straw Underwing (_Matura_) Genus _Luperina_ Confused (_Furva_) Small Clouded Brindle (_Unanimis_) Crescent (_Leucostigma_) Common Rustic (_Didyma_) Anomalous (_Anomala_) Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_) Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_) Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_) Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_) Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_) Crescent Dart (_Lunigera_) Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_) Coast Dart (_Cursoria_) Garden Dart (_Nigricans_) White-line Dart (_Tritici_) Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_) Square-spot Dart (_Obelisca_) Heath Rustic (_Agathina_) Portland (_Præcox_) Stout Dart (_Obscura_) Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_) Plain Clay (_Depuncta_) Setaceous Hebrew Character (_C-Nigrum_) Barred Chestnut (_Dahlii_) Small Square-spot (_Rubi_) Six-striped Rustic (_Umbrosa_) Grey Rustic (_Castanea_) Square-spot Rustic (_Xanthographa_) Genus _Triphæna_ Mouse (_Tragopogonis_) Old Lady (_Maura_) Mountain Rustic (_Hyperborea_) Suspected (_Suspecta_) Olive (_Subtusa_) Double Kidney (_Retusa_) Angle-striped Sallow (_Paleacea_) Genus _Calymnia_ Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_) Grey Chi (_Chi_) Large Ranunculus (_Flavicincta_) Feathered Ranunculus (_Lichenea_) Crescent (_Bimaculosa_) Great Brocade (_Occulta_) Beautiful Brocade (_Porphyrea_) Golden-rod Brindled (_Solidaginis_) Herald (_Libatrix_) Scarce Burnished Brass (_Chryson_) Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_) Gold Spot (_Festucæ_) Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_) Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_) Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_) Red Underwing (_Nupta_) Dark Crimson Underwing (_Sponsa_) =Geometræ.= Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_) Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_) Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_) Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_) Canary-shouldered Thorn (_Alniaria_) Dusky Thorn (_Fuscantaria_) September Thorn (_Erosaria_) August Thorn (_Quercinaria_) Dotted Carpet (_Glabraria_) Annulet (_Obscuraria_) Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_) Family _Ephyridæ_ Small Dusty Wave (_Virgularia_) Mullein Wave (_Marginepunctata_) Small Blood Vein (_Imitaria_) Common White Wave (_Pusaria_) Vestal (_Sacraria_) Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_) Straw Belle (_Gilvaria_) Currant (_Grossulariata_) _Autumnaria_ Haworth's Carpet (_Unifasciata_) Bordered Lime Speck (_Succenturiata_) Pugs (_Virgaureata_, _Campanulata_, _Indigata_, _Constrictata_, _Expallidata_, _Sobrinata_, _Variata_) July High Flier (_Sordidata_) Carpets (_Bicolorata_, _Montanata_, _Fluctuata_, _Berberata_) Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_) Gem (_Fluviata_) Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_) Many-lined (_Polygrammata_) Tissue (_Dubitata_) Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_) Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_) Chevron (_Testata_) Northern Spinach (_Populata_) Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_) Barred Straw (_Dotata_) Small Mallow (_Limitata_) Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_) Treble Bar (_Plagiata_) Broom Tip (_Rufata_) SEPTEMBER The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet there is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths. Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh specimens of some species may be taken. Clover and lucerne fields and the flowery borders of corn fields remain very attractive. Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar still attracts numbers of the _Noctuæ_; and ivy blossom should be examined at night whenever an opportunity offers itself. September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the species that pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will undergo the change to the chrysalis state shortly after they have been housed, thus giving but little trouble to the entomologist. The day feeders may be beaten or swept from their food plants, but, of course, the nocturnal species are best discovered by searching at night. Some have already 'gone down' for the winter, and, consequently, pupa hunting may be started. However, as there is yet much to be done with imagines and larvæ, it may, perhaps, be better to leave the pupæ alone till about the end of the month, especially as many of the larvæ have not yet had time to complete their transformation. The list of imagines for September includes: =Butterflies.= Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_) Brimstone (_Rhamni_) Queen of Spain (_Latona_) Comma (_C-Album_) Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_) Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_) Peacock (_Io_) Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_) Red Admiral (_Atalanta_) Painted Lady (_Cardui_) Speckled Wood (_Egeria_) Wall (_Megæra_) Grayling (_Semele_) Large Heath (_Tithonus_) Small Heath (_Pamphilus_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) Common Blue (_Icarus_) Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_) Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_) Holly Blue (_Argiolus_) =Sphinges.= Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_) Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_) Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_) =Bombyces.= Tortrix (_Undulanus_) Crimson Speckled (_Pulchella_) Vapourer (_Antiqua_) Pale Oak Eggar (_Cratægi_) Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_) =Noctuæ.= Figure of Eight (_Cæruleocephala_) Small Wainscot (_Fulva_) Bullrush (_Arundinis_) Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_) Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_) Rosy Rustic (_Micacea_) Feathered Brindle (_Australis_) Beautiful Gothic (_Hispidus_) Antler (_Graminis_) Flounced Rustic (_Testacea_) Hedge Rustic (_Cespitis_) Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_) Anomalous (_Anomala_) Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_) Dark Sword Grass (_Suffusa_) Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_) Turnip (_Segetum_) Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_) Autumn Rustic (_Glareosa_) Mouse (_Tragopogonis_) Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_) Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_) Genus _Anchocelis_ Genus _Xanthia_ Centre-barred Sallow (_Xerampelina_) Double Kidney (_Retusa_) Genus _Polia_ Black Rustic (_Nigra_) Green-brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthæ_) Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_) Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_) Flame Brocade (_Flammea_) Brindled Green (_Protea_) Genus _Calocampa_ Genus _Xylina_ Herald (_Libatrix_) Gold Spot (_Festucæ_) Silver Y (_Gamma_) Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_) Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_) Buttoned Snout (_Rostralis_) =Geometræ.= Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_) Brimstone (_Luteolata_) Genus _Eugonia_ November (_Dilutata_) Autumnal (_Filigrammaria_) Juniper Pug (_Sobrinata_) Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_) Slender-striped Rufous (_Lapidata_) Tissue (_Dubitata_) Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_, _Immanata_) Chevron (_Testata_) Mallow (_Cervinata_) Streak (_Spartiata_) OCTOBER As there is very little winged life this month, and the larvæ have nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be given to pupæ. The earlier this work is started after the insects have completed their change the better. If left late, many pupæ will have been destroyed by floods, moles, &c., and a prolonged series of frosty days may render digging unproductive if not impossible. Again, it must be remembered that some larvæ are not yet down, and by digging at the roots of the trees on which they are feeding, you are preparing an acceptable bed for the late species, for the pupæ of which you may call again in about a month. Larvæ may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but this work should be done as early in the month as possible, since but few are feeding after the first week or so. Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late species and the hybernators being on the wing, and these only on mild days. _Noctuæ_ are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few may be found at rest. _Geometræ_ and Micros may be taken from palings and tree trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk. The imagines of October may include the following butterflies: Brimstone (_Rhamni_) Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_) Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_) Comma (_C-Album_) Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_) Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_) Peacock (_Io_) Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_) Red Admiral (_Atalanta_) Painted Lady (_Cardui_) Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_) And a few late 'Blues.' The principal moths of the month are: =Sphinges.= Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_) =Bombyces.= Plumed Prominent (_Plumigera_) =Noctuæ.= Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_) Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_) Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_) Beaded Chestnut (_Pistacina_) Brown-spot Pinion (_Litura_) Chestnut (_Vaccinii_) Dark Chestnut (_Spadicea_) Red-headed Chestnut (_Erythrocephala_) Satellite (_Satellitia_) Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_) Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_) Brick (_Circellaris_) Brindled Ochre (_Templi_) Green Brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthæ_) Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_) Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_) Flame Brocade (_Flammea_) Red Sword-grass (_Vetusta_) Sword-grass (_Exolita_) Genus _Xylina_ Sprawler (_Sphinx_) Silver Y (_Gamma_) =Geometræ.= Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_) Vestal (_Sacraria_) Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_) Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_) Winter (_Brumata_) Northern Winter (_Boreata_) November (_Dilutata_) Juniper Carpet (_Juniperata_) Gem (_Fluviata_) Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_) Mallow (_Cervinata_) Streak (_Spartiata_) NOVEMBER No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of the hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing unless the weather is mild and bright for the season. Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, but a few species are to be found only at this season, and these should be looked for on fences and tree trunks. A few _Noctuæ_ may be taken at sugar, and the _Geometræ_ attracted by lights. The only larvæ now existing are hybernators, and many of these may be met with during your pupa-digging operations; but they are best left alone till the spring, as a rule. The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly pupa hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whenever the weather is favourable, following the instructions given in Chapter VII. It will be remembered, also, that many of the _Lepidoptera_ pass the winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova when time permits. The November list, besides some of the hybernating species previously mentioned, include: =Bombyces.= December (_Populi_) =Noctuæ.= Genus _Cerastis_ Satellite (_Satellitia_) Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_) Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_) Brindled Ochre (_Exempli_) =Geometræ.= Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_) Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_) Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_) Winter (_Brumata_) Northern Winter (_Boreata_) DECEMBER Outdoor work is now at a minimum. The weather is too severe, as a rule, to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success or comfort, but favourable opportunities should be seized for this employment as well as for ova collecting. Now and again we may meet with _P. Populi_ at rest by day, or fluttering round a light at night. _Brumata_ and _Defoliaria_ may also be seen, and the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_) may appear on the wing before the new year; but nothing is likely to be met with beyond these save the hybernators, already named in other lists, and some of the _Tineæ_. It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary months of winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your specimens where necessary, and see that all are properly labelled; remove all greasy specimens, and deal with them as recommended on page 127; also renew the supply of camphor or naphthaline in your drawers and store boxes. Time may also be found for the construction of apparatus that is likely to be required next season, and for repairing any that has been damaged during the work of the last. COLOURED PLATES PLATE I (_Frontispiece_) 1. SWALLOW-TAIL (_Papilio Machaon_). 2. BLACK-VEINED WHITE (_Aporia Cratægi_). 3. LARGE WHITE (_Pieris Brassicæ_). Female. 4. SMALL WHITE (_Pieris Rapæ_). Male. 5. GREEN-VEINED WHITE (_Pieris Napi_). Under side. 6. BATH WHITE (_Pieris Daplidice_). Female. 7. ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). Male. 8. ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). Male. Under side. PLATE II 1. WOOD WHITE (_Leucophasia Sinapis_). 2. PALE CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Hyale_). 3. CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Edusa_). Male. 4. BRIMSTONE (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_). Male. 5. SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Selene_). 6. PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_). 7. QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Latona_). 8. DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Aglaia_). PLATE III 1. HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Adippe_). Under side. 2. SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_). 3. GREASY FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Aurinia_). 4. GLANVILLE FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Cinxia_). 5. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Athalia_). 6. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Athalia_). Under side. 7. COMMA (_Vanessa C-Album_). 8. LARGE TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Polychloros_). 9. SMALL TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Urticæ_). PLATE IV 1. PEACOCK (_Vanessa Io_). 2. CAMBERWELL BEAUTY (_Vanessa Antiopa_). 3. RED ADMIRAL (_Vanessa Atalanta_). 4. PAINTED LADY (_Vanessa Cardui_). 5. WHITE ADMIRAL (_Limenitis Sibylla_). PLATE V 1. PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). Male. 2. MARBLED WHITE (_Melanargia Galatea_). 3. SMALL RINGLET (_Erebia Epiphron_). 4. NORTHERN BROWN (_Erebia Æthiops_). 5. WOOD ARGUS (_Pararge Egeria_). 6. WALL BUTTERFLY (_Pararge Megæra_). 7. GRAYLING (_Satyrus Semele_). Female. 8. MEADOW BROWN (_Epinephele Ianira_). Female. 9. LARGE HEATH (_Epinephele Tithonus_). Male. 10. RINGLET (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_). PLATE VI 1. MARSH RINGLET (_Cænonympha Typhon_). 2. SMALL HEATH (_Cænonympha Pamphilus_). 3. BROWN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Betulæ_). Under side. 4. WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla W-album_). Under side. 5. DARK HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Pruni_). Under side. 6. PURPLE HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Quercus_). Under side. 7. GREEN HAIRSTREAK(_Thecla Rubi_). Under side. 8. LARGE COPPER (_Polyommatus Dispar_). Male. 9. SMALL COPPER (_Polyommatus Phlæas_). 10. TAILED BLUE (_Lycæna Bætica_). 11. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycæna Ægon_). Male. 12. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycæna Ægon_). Female. 13. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycæna Astrarche_). 14. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycæna Astrarche_). Under side. 15. COMMON BLUE (_Lycæna Icarus_). Male. 16. COMMON BLUE (_Lycæna Icarus_). Female. 17. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycæna Bellargus_). Male. 18. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycæna Bellargus_). Female. PLATE VII 1. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycæna Corydon_). Male. 2. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycæna Corydon_). Female. 3. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycæna Argiolus_). Male. 4. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycæna Argiolus_). Female. 5. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycæna Semiargus_). Male. 6. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycæna Semiargus_). Female. 7. SMALL BLUE (_Lycæna Minima_). 8. LARGE BLUE (_Lycæna Arion_). 9. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). 10. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). Under side. 11. GRIZZLED SKIPPER (_Syrichthus Malvæ_). 12. DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_). 13. SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Thaumas_). 14. LULWORTH SKIPPER (_Hesperia Actæon_). Male. 15. LARGE SKIPPER (_Hesperia Sylvanus_). Male. 16. SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER (_Hesperia Comma_). 17. CHEQUERED SKIPPER (_Carterocephalus Palæmon_). 18. NEW SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Lineola_). PLATE VIII 1. LARVA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_). 2. LARVA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). 3. LARVA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_). 4. LARVA OF PEACOCK BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Io_). 5. LARVA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). 6. LARVA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). 7. PUPA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_). 8. PUPA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). 9. PUPA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_). 10. PUPA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). 11. PUPA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). 12. PUPA OF DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_). PLATE IX 1. PRIVET HAWK MOTH (_Sphinx Ligustri_). 2. SPURGE HAWK (_Deilephila Euphorbiæ_). 3. LARGE ELEPHANT HAWK (_Ch[oe]rocampa Elpenor_). 4. EYED HAWK (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_). 5. LIME HAWK (_Smerinthus Tiliæ_). 6. HUMMING-BIRD HAWK (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_). 7. BROAD-BORDERED FIVE-SPOTTED BURNET (_Zygæna Trifolii_). PLATE X 1. CINNABAR MOTH (_Euchelia Jacobææ_). 2. WOOD TIGER (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_). 3. TIGER (_Arctia Caia_). 4. CREAM-SPOT TIGER (_Arctia Villica_). 5. OAK EGGAR (_Bombyx Quercus_). Male. 6. LAPPET (_Lasiocampa Quercifolia_). 7. KENTISH GLORY (_Endromis Versicolor_). Male. 8. EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia Pavonia_). Male. 9. BUFF TIP (_Phalera Bucephala_). PLATE XI 1. LARGE YELLOW UNDERWING (_Triphæna Pronuba_). 2. MARVEL-DU-JOUR (_Agriopis Aprilina_). 3. SMALL ANGLE SHADES (_Euplexia Lucipara_). 4. MOTHER SHIPTON (_Euclidia Mi_). 5. CLIFDEN NONPAREIL (_Catocala Fraxini_). 6. DARK CRIMSON UNDERWING (_Catocala Sponsa_). PLATE XII 1. HERALD (_Gonoptera Libatrix_). 2. SWALLOW-TAIL MOTH (_Uropteryx Sambucaria_). 3. BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Rumia Luteolata_). 4. SCALLOPED OAK (_Crocallis Elinguaria_). 5. BRINDLED BEAUTY (_Biston Hirtaria_). 6. WAVED UMBER (_Hemerophila Abruptaria_). 7. MAIDEN'S BLUSH (_Zonosoma Punctaria_). 8. MOTTLED UMBER (_Hybernia Defoliaria_). 9. TREBLE BAR (_Anaitis Plagiata_). [Illustration: Plate II. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate III. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate IV. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate V. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate VI. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate VII. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate VIII. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate IX. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate X. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate XI. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] [Illustration: Plate XII. _Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._] INDEX Abbreviata, 284 Abraxas, 279 Abruptaria, 273 Acherontia, 204 Acidalia, 275 Acidaliidæ, 275 Aciptilia, 295 Acronycta, 240 Actæon, 199 Adela, 304 Adippe, 159 Admiral, Red, 168 Admiral, White, 170 Ægon, 189 Æscularia, 281 Æthiops, 175 Aglaia, 158 Aglossa, 291 Agriopis, 258 Agrotis, 250 Albulata, 283 Alucita, 295 Amataria, 276 Amphidasydæ, 271 Amphidasys, 272 Amphipyridæ, 254 Anaitis, 289 Angle Shades, 258 Anisopteryx, 281 Antennæ, 5 Antiopa, 167 Antiqua, 228 Antithesia, 301 Apamea, 247 Apameidæ, 244 Apatura, 171 Apiformis, 213 Aplecta, 259 Aporia, 141 Aprilina, 258 Arctia, 221 Areola, 261 Argiolus, 193 Argus, Brown, 189 Argus, Wood, 175 Argynnis, 154 Arion, 194 Arrangement of specimens, 136 Arundinis, 243 Asphalia, 238 Astrarche, 189 Atalanta, 168 Athalia, 163 Atomaria, 278 Atropos, 204 August Thorn, 271 Aurella, 306 Aurinia, 161 Aversata, 276 Axylia, 245 Bætica, 188 Bapta, 277 Basilinea, 247 Bath White, 146 Batis, 237 Beating for moths, 83 Beautiful Carpet, 286 Beautiful China Mark, 293 Bellargus, 191 Betulæ, 183 Betularia, 272 Bicolorata, 285 Bifida, 234 Bilineata, 287 Binaria, 232 Biston, 271 Black Arches, 227 Black Hairstreak, 184 Black-veined White, 141 Blood Vein, 276 Blue-bordered Carpet, 285 Blue Chalk Hill, 192 ---- Clifden, 191 ---- Common, 190 ---- Holly, 193 ---- Large, 194 ---- Mazarine, 193 ---- Silver-studded, 189 ---- Small, 194 ---- Tailed, 188 Boarmia, 273 Boarmiidæ, 272 Bombyces, 217 Bombycidæ, 229 Bombycoidæ, 240 Bombyx, 229 Bordered White, 279 Botys, 293 Brassicæ (_Pieris_), 142 Brassicæ (_Mamestra_), 246 Bright-line Brown-eye, 260 Brimstone Butterfly, 152 Brimstone Moth, 269 Brindled Beauty, 271 Brindled Pug, 284 Broad-barred White, 257 ---- bordered Bee Hawk, 211 ---- ---- Five spotted Burnet, 215 Brown Argus, 189 ---- Hairstreak, 183 ---- line Bright-eye, 242 ---- Meadow, 178 ---- Northern, 175 ---- Tail, 226 Bryophila, 239 Bryophilidæ, 239 Bucephala, 236 Buff Ermine, 222 ---- Tip, 236 Bullrush, 243 Bupalus, 279 Burnets, 215 Burnished Brass, 263 Butterflies--British, 139 ---- antennæ of, 5 ---- body, 3 ---- catching, 64 ---- eye, 3 ---- legs, 8, 10 ---- proboscis, 6 ---- wings, 2, 8 Cabbage Moth, 246 Cabera, 277 Caberidæ, 276 Cabinets, 134 Caia, 221 Callimorpha, 220 C-Album, 164 Calymnia, 256 Camberwell Beauty, 167 Camelina, 235 Camptogramma, 287 Caradrina, 249 Caradrinidæ, 248 Cardamines, 148 Cardui, 169 Carpocapsa, 302 Carterocephalus, 201 Catching Butterflies, 64 ---- moths, 82, 85 Caterpillar state, 22 Catocala, 265 Catocalidæ, 265 Cerastis, 256 Chalk-hill Blue, 192 Cheloniidæ, 220 Chequered Skipper, 201 Chestnut, 256 Chilo, 296 Chinese Character, 233 Chloroform bottle, 72 Chocolate Tip, 237 Ch[oe]rocampa, 207 Chrysalis state, 44 Chrysitis, 263 Chrysorrh[oe]a, 226 Cidaria, 288 Cilix, 233 Cinnabar, 219 Cinxia, 162 Cirsiana, 301 Classification of Lepidoptera, 55 Clearwings, 212 Clifden Blue, 191 Clifden Nonpareil, 265 Clouded Silver, 277 Clouded Yellow, 151 C[oe]nonympha, 181 Coleophora, 305 Colias, 149 Collecting box, 73 Collecting larvæ, 101 ---- ova, 99 ---- pupæ, 108 Comes, 253 Comma, 164, 200 Common Blue, 190 ---- Carpet, 286 Common Emerald, 274 ---- Footman, 219 ---- Heath, 278 ---- Quaker, 255 ---- Swift, 223 ---- Wainscot, 243 ---- Wave, 277 Complanella, 306 Conigera, 242 Copper--Large, 187 ---- Small, 188 Corydon, 192 Cosmiidæ, 256 Cossidæ, 224 Cossus, 224 Coxcomb Prominent, 235 Crambi, 296 Crambus, 297 Cratægi, 141 Cream-spot Tiger, 221 Cristana, 300 Crocallis, 270 Cucullatella, 218 Cucullia, 261 Cuprella, 304 Currant Clearwing, 213 Currant Moth, 279 Curtula, 237 Cyanide bottle, 68 Cymatophoridæ, 237 Daplidice, 146 Dark Crimson Underwing, 266 Dark Dagger, 241 Dark Green Fritillary, 158 Dark Hairstreak, 185 Death's-head Hawk, 204 Decoys, 96 Defoliaria, 281 Deilephila, 207 Dentina, 259 Depressaria, 304 Dicranura, 234 Dicranuridæ, 233 Didymata, 283 Diloba, 241 Dilutata, 282 Dingy Skipper, 198 Dispar, 187, 227 Diurnea, 303 Dominula, 220 Dot, 247 Drepana, 232 Drepanulidæ, 232 Drinker, 230 Duke of Burgundy, 196 Dun-bar, 256 Early Grey, 261 Edusa, 151 Egeria, 175 Eggs, 16 Elephant Hawk, 207 Elinguaria, 270 Elpenor, 208 Ematurga, 278 Emmelesia, 283 Emperor Moth, 231 Emperor, Purple, 171 Endromidæ, 231 Endromis, 231 Ennomidæ, 269 Entomological pins, 76 Ephippiphora, 301 Ephyridæ, 275 Epinephele, 178 Epiphron, 174 Erebia, 174 Erycinidæ, 196 Eubolia, 289 Euboliidæ, 288 Euchelia, 219 Eucheliidæ, 219 Euchloë, 148 Euclidia, 264 Euclidiidæ, 264 Eugonia, 271 Euphorbiæ, 207 Euphrosyne, 156 Eupithecia, 283 Euplexia, 258 Eurrhypara, 292 Exanthemata, 277 Exclamationis, 250 Eyed Hawk, 208 Fagella, 303 Farinalis, 292 Fidoniidæ, 278 Figure of Eight, 241 Filipendulæ, 215 Flame, 245 Flame Shoulder, 252 Flavago, 256 Flavicornis, 238 Flounced Rustic, 246 Fluctuata, 287 Forester, 214 Forficalis, 293 Fraxini, 265 Fritillaries, 154 Fritillary, Dark Green, 158 ---- Glanville, 162 ---- Greasy, 161 ---- Heath, 163 ---- High Brown, 159 ---- Pearl-bordered, 156 ---- Queen of Spain, 156 ---- Silver-washed, 159 ---- Small Pearl-bordered, 154 Galatea, 173 Galleria, 298 Gamma, 264 Garden Carpet, 287 Garden Dart, 251 Garden Pebble, 293 Gemmaria, 273 Geoffrella, 305 Geometra, 274 Geometræ, 268 Geometridæ, 274 Ghost Swift, 223 Gipsy, 227 Glaucata, 233 Goat Moth, 224 Gonodactyla, 294 Gonoptera, 264 Gonopteridæ, 262 Gonopteryx, 152 Gortyna, 244 Gothic, 254 Grass Rivulet, 283 Grayling, 177 Grease, 127 Greasy Fritillary, 161 Green Hairstreak, 186 Green-chequered White, 146 Green Silver-lined, 217 Grizzled Skipper, 197 Grey Arches, 259 Grey Dagger, 240 Grossulariata, 279 Hadena, 259 Hadenidæ, 257 Hairstreak, Black, 184 ---- Brown, 183 ---- Dark, 185 ---- Green, 186 ---- Purple, 185 ---- White-letter, 184 Halia, 278 Hamellus, 297 Harpella, 305 Hawk Moths, 204 Heart and Dart, 250 Heath, Large, 179 ---- Moth, 278 Heath, Small, 181 ---- Fritillary, 163 Hecatera, 257 Helice, 151 Hemerophila, 273 Hemithea, 274 Hepialidæ, 223 Hepialus, 223 Herald Moth, 262 Hesperia, 198 Hesperiidæ, 197 Hexadactyla, 295 High Brown Fritillary, 159 Hirtaria, 271 Holly Blue, 193 Hornet Clearwing of Osier, 213 Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, 213 Hortuellus, 297 Humming-bird Hawk, 210 Humuli, 223 Hyale, 149 Hybernia, 280 Hyberniidæ, 280 Hydrocampa, 293 Hylophila, 217 Hyperanthus, 180 Hyponomeuta, 304 Ianira, 178 Ianthina, 252 Ibipennella, 305 Icarus, 190 Ichneumon flies, 25 Impura, 243 Ino, 214 Io, 167 Iris, 171 Jacobææ, 219 Kentish Glory, 231 Killing bottle, 68 Killing box, 70 Labial palpi, 6 Lace Border, 275 Lappet, 230 Larentia, 283 Larentiidæ, 282 Large Blue, 194 Large Copper, 187 Large Elephant, 208 Large Emerald, 274 Large Heath, 179 Large Skipper, 200 Large Tortoiseshell, 165 Large White, 142 Large Yellow Underwing, 253 Larvæ, 22 Larvæ Beating, 107 Larvæ, blowpipe for, 131 Larva boxes, 101 Larva cage, 115 Larvæ collecting, 101 Larvæ, glass for, 114 Larvæ rearing, 113 Lasiocampa, 230 Latona, 156 Laurel box, 70 Leaf Miners, 33, 303 Leaf Rollers, 33, 303 Lecheana, 300 Legs of Lepidoptera, 8, 10 Leioptilus, 295 Leopard Moth, 225 Lepidoptera--antennæ, 5 ---- body, 3 ---- classification of, 55 ---- eggs of, 16 ---- general characteristics, 1 ---- legs of, 8, 10 ---- metamorphoses, 14 ---- proboscis, 6 ---- wings, 2, 8 Lesser Broad Border, 252 Lesser Yellow Underwing, 253 Leucania, 242 Leucaniidæ, 242 Leucophasia, 149 Leucophæaria, 280 Libatrix, 262 Light Arches, 245 Light Emerald, 270 Light Traps, 87 Ligniperda, 224 Ligustri, 206 Lime Hawk, 210 Limenitis, 170 Limitata, 289 Lineola, 199 Liparidæ, 226 Lithosia, 218 Lithosiidæ, 219 Lithoxylea, 245 Lobophora, 285 Lobster Moth, 28 Lophopteryx, 235 Lubricipeda, 222 Lucina, 196 Lucipara, 258 Lulworth Skipper, 199 Luperina, 246 Lupulinus, 223 Luteolata, 269 Lycæna, 183, 188 Lycænidæ, 183 Macariidæ, 278 Machaon, 139 Macroglossa, 210 Maiden's Blush, 275 Malvæ, 197 Mamestra, 246 Mania, 254 Marbled Beauty, 239 Marbled Minor, 248 Margaritaria, 270 Marsh Moth, 281 Marsh Ringlet, 181 Marvel-du-jour, 258 Maura, 254 Mazarine Blue, 193 Meadow Brown, 178 Meal Moth, 292 Megacephala, 241 Megæra, 177 Melanargia, 173 Melanthia, 285 Melitæa, 161 Mellonella, 298 Menthastri, 222 Meticulosa, 258 Metrocampa, 270 Mi, 264 Miana, 248 Micro-lepidoptera, 290 Minima, 194 Monacha, 227 Montanata, 286 Morpheus, 249 Mother-of-pearl, 293 Mother Shipton, 264 Moths, 203 ---- antennæ of, 5 ---- catching, 82 ---- traps, 87 Mottled Rustic, 249 Mottled Umber, 281 Mundana, 218 Muslin Moth, 218 Nanata, 284 Napi, 145 Narrow-winged Pug, 284 Nebulosa, 259 Nemeobius, 196 Nemeophila, 220 Nepticula, 306 Nervosa, 304 Nets, 65, 87, 91 Netted Pug, 283 New Small Skipper, 199 Nigricans, 251 Nisoniades, 198 Noctua, 252 Noctuæ, 239 Noctuidæ, 249 Nola, 218 Nolidæ, 218 Nonagria, 243 Northern Brown, 175 Notodontidæ, 235 November Moth, 282 Nudaria, 218 Nupta, 266 Nycteolidæ, 217 Nymphalidæ, 154 Oak Eggar, 229 Oak Hook Tip, 232 Ocellatus, 208 Ochracea, 244 Ocneria, 227 Octomaculana, 301 Odonestis, 230 Old Lady, 254 Oleracea, 260 Oporabia, 282 Orange Tip, 148 Orgyia, 228 Ornata, 275 Orthosiidæ, 255 Osteodactylus, 295 Ova collecting, 99 Ova preserving, 130 Padellus, 304 Painted Lady, 169 Palæmon, 201 Pale Clouded Yellow, 149 Pallens, 243 Palpi, 6 Pamphilus, 181 Paphia, 159 Papilio, 139 Papilionaria, 274 Papilionidæ, 139 Pararge, 175 Pavonia, 231 Peach Blossom, 237 Peacock, 167 Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 156 Pentadactyla, 295 Penthina, 300 Peppered Moth, 272 Perla, 239 Peronea, 300 Persicariæ, 247 Phalera, 236 Phlæas, 188 Phlogophora, 258 Phragmitellus, 296 Pieridæ, 141 Pinguinalis, 291 Piniaria, 279 Pink-barred Sallow, 256 Pins, 76 Pionea, 293 Plagiata, 289 Plantaginis, 220 Platyptilia, 294 Plecta, 252 Plusia, 263 Plusiidæ, 263 Polychloros, 165 Polyommatus, 187 Poplar Grey, 241 Poplar Hawk, 209 Poplar Kitten, 234 Populi, 209 Porcellus, 207 Porthesia, 226 Potatoria, 230 Prasinana, 217 Preserving larvæ, 131 ---- ova, 130 ---- pupæ, 133 Privet Hawk, 206 Proboscis, 6 Pronuba, 253 Pruni, 185 Pruniana, 300 Psi, 240 Psilura, 227 Pterophori, 294 Ptycholoma, 300 Punctaria, 275 Pupa state, 44 Pupæ collecting, 108 ---- digging, 111 ---- management of, 118 ---- preserving, 133 Purple Emperor, 171 Purple Hairstreak, 185 Puss Moth, 235 Putris, 245 Pygæra, 237 Pygæridæ, 236 Pyralides, 291 Pyralis, 292 Pyrina, 225 Queen of Spain, 156 Quercifolia, 230 Quercinaria, 271 Quercus (_Bombyx_), 229 Quercus (_Thecla_), 185 Rapæ, 144 Rearing larvæ, 113 Red Admiral, 168 Red Underwing, 266 Relaxing, 125 Rhamni, 152 Riband Wave, 276 Ringlet, 180 ---- Marsh, 181 ---- Small, 174 Rubi, 186 Rumia, 269 Ruralis, 293 Rustic Shoulder-knot, 247 Salicella, 301 Sambucaria, 268 Saturnia, 231 Saturniidæ, 231 Satyridæ, 173 Satyrus, 177 Scalloped Oak, 270 Scarlet Tiger, 220 Sciaphila, 301 Segetum, 250 Selene, 154 Semele, 177 Semiargus, 193 Serena, 257 Sesia, 213 Sesiidæ, 212 Setting boards, 122 Shark, 261 Shears, 259 Short-cloaked, 218 Sibylla, 170 Silaceata, 288 Silver-ground Carpet, 286 Silver-spotted Skipper, 200 Silver-studded Blue, 189 Silver-washed Fritillary, 159 Silver Y, 264 Sinapis, 149 Six-spot Burnet, 215 Skippers, 196 Skipper, Chequered, 201 ---- Dingy, 198 ---- Grizzled, 197 ---- Lulworth, 199 ---- New Small, 199 ---- Silver-spotted, 200 ---- Small, 198 Sleeving, 116 Small Angle Shades, 258 ---- Blue, 194 ---- Copper, 188 ---- Elephant, 207 ---- Heath, 181 ---- Magpie, 292 ---- Mallow, 289 ---- Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 154 ---- Ph[oe]nix, 288 ---- Ringlet, 174 ---- Seraphim, 285 ---- Skipper, 198 ---- Tortoiseshell, 166 ---- White, 144 Smerinthus, 208 Smoky Wainscot, 243 Sociata, 286 Speckled Wood, 175 Sphinges, 203 Sphingidæ, 204 Sphinx, 206 Spilosoma, 222 Sponsa, 266 Spring Usher, 280 Spurge Hawk, 207 Stabilis, 255 Stagnata, 293 Statices, 214 Stellatarum, 210 Store boxes, 135 Strigata, 274 Strigilis, 248 Stuffing insects, 126 Sugaring, 92 Sugaring net, 94 Sugar traps, 96 Swallow-tail Butterfly, 139 Swallow-tail Moth, 268 Swifts, 223 Sylvanus, 200 Syrichthus, 197 Tabby, 291 Tæniocampa, 255 Tages, 198 Tailed Blue, 188 Temerata, 277 Testacea, 246 Thaumas, 198 Thecla, 183 Thyatira, 237 Tiger, Common, 221 ---- Cream-spot, 221 ---- Scarlet, 220 ---- Wood, 220 Tiliæ, 210 Timandra, 276 Tineæ, 303 Tipuliformis, 213 Tithonus, 179 Tortoiseshell, Large, 165 Tortoiseshell, Small, 166 Tortrices, 298 Treble Bar, 289 Trifolii, 215 Triphæna, 252 Tristellus, 297 Trochilium, 213 Turnip Moth, 250 Twin-spot Carpet, 283 Typhon, 181 Typica, 254 Umbratica, 261 Uropterygidæ, 268 Uropteryx, 268 Urticæ, 166 Urticata, 292 Vaccinii, 256 Vanessa, 164 Vapourer Moth, 228 Vauaria, 278 Venosata, 283 Versicolor, 231 Villica, 221 Vinula, 235 Viridana, 299 V moth, 278 W album, 184 Wainscots, 243 Wall Butterfly, 177 Waved Umber, 273 White Admiral, 170 ---- Bath, 146 ---- Black-veined, 141 ---- Ermine, 222 ---- Green-chequered, 146 ---- Green-veined, 145 ---- Large, 142 White-letter Hairstreak, 184 ---- Marbled, 173 ---- Small, 144 ---- Wood, 149 Willow Beauty, 273 Wings, 2, 8 Wood Argus, 175 Wood Tiger, 220 Wood White, 149 Xanthia, 256 Xanthosetia, 302 Xylinidæ, 261 Xylocampa, 261 Xylophasia, 245 Xylosteana, 299 Yellow-horned, 238 Yellow Shell, 287 Zerenidæ, 279 Zeuzera, 225 Zoegana, 302 Zonosoma, 275 Zygæna, 215 Zygænidæ, 214 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE LONDON * * * * * Transcriber's note: Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation inconsistencies. Other inconsistent usages have been retained except where obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows: Page 97 'dicover' changed to 'discover' (... not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' ...) Page 188 'Polyommatas' changed to 'Polyommatus' (_The Small Copper_ (_Polyommatas Phlæas_)) Page 219 'Jacobæa' changed to 'Jacobææ' (FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF JACOBÆÆ.) Page 263 'rested' changed to 'crested' (The abdomen also is crested) Page 334 'Rannock' changed to 'Rannoch' (Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_)) Page 354 'Ibipenella' change to 'Ibipennella' (Ibipennella, 305) Page 354 missing page reference added (Ichneumon flies, 25) Page 355 'Leucophearia' changed to 'Leucophæaria' (Leucophæaria, 280) Page 356 'Octomacularia' changed to 'Octomaculana' (Octomaculana, 301) Page 358 'Tryphæna' changed to 'Triphæna' and moved to its alphabetical position in the index (Triphæna, 252) Page 358 'Umbricata' changed to 'Umbratica' (Umbratica, 261)